Blood and Immune system

Acquired Immunity
Immunity
Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity
Defensive mechanisms include :

1) Innate immunity (Natural or Non specific)

2) Acquired immunity (Adaptive or Specific)

Cell-mediated immunity Humoral immunity

 Active Immunity
I. Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immunity
 Involves production of antibodies against foreign
antigens.
 Antibodies are produced by a subset of lymphocytes
called B cells.
 B cells that are stimulated will actively secrete antibodies
and are called plasma cells.
 Antibodies are found in extracellular fluids (blood
plasma, lymph, mucus, etc.) and the surface of B cells.
 Defense against bacteria, bacterial toxins, and viruses
that circulate freely in body fluids, before they enter cells.
 Also cause certain reactions against transplanted tissue.
II. Cell Mediated Immunity
Involves specialized set of lymphocytes called T
cells that recognize foreign antigens on the surface
of cells, organisms, or tissues:
•Helper T cells
•Cytotoxic T cells
•Memory T Cells
•T Suppressor (Ts) Cells
T cells regulate proliferation and activity of other
cells of the immune system: B cells, macrophages,
neutrophils, etc.
Defense against:
•Bacteria and viruses that are inside host cells
and are inaccessible to antibodies.
•Fungi, protozoa, and helminths
•Cancer cells
•Transplanted tissue
 Antigens
Most are proteins or large polysaccharides from a
foreign organism.
 Microbes: Capsules, cell walls, toxins, viral
capsids, flagella, etc.
 Nonmicrobes: Pollen, egg white , red blood cell
surface molecules, serum proteins, and surface
molecules from transplanted tissue.
Lipids and nucleic acids are only antigenic when
combined with proteins or polysaccharides.
Molecular weight of 10,000 or higher.
 Hapten: Small foreign molecule that is not antigenic. Must
be coupled to a carrier molecule to be antigenic. Once
antibodies are formed they will recognize hapten.
Antibodies

 Y-shaped protein
molecule.
 Made up of variable and
constant regions.
 Made up of Heavy and
Light chains.
 Produced by B-
Lymphocytes
 Function: Recognize
antigens, bind to and
deactivate them.
 Note: Variable region
recognizes the anitgens.
Deactivation of a bacterium by an antibody.
How an antibody operates/works?
 Immunoglobulin Classes
I. IgG
Structure: Monomer
Percentage serum antibodies: 80%
Location: Blood, lymph, intestine
Half-life in serum: 23 days
Complement Fixation: Yes
Placental Transfer: Yes
Known Functions: Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes
toxins and viruses, protects fetus and newborn.
 Immunoglobulin Classes
II. IgM
Structure: Pentamer
Percentage serum antibodies: 5-10%
Location: Blood, lymph, B cell surface (monomer)
Half-life in serum: 5 days
Complement Fixation: Yes
Placental Transfer: No
Known Functions: First antibodies produced during an
infection. Effective against microbes and agglutinating
antigens.
 Immunoglobulin Classes
III. IgA
Structure: Dimer
Percentage serum antibodies: 10-15%
Location: Secretions (tears, saliva, intestine, milk),
blood and lymph.
Half-life in serum: 6 days
Complement Fixation: No
Placental Transfer: No
Known Functions: Localized protection of mucosal
surfaces. Provides immunity to infant digestive tract.
 Immunoglobulin Classes
IV. IgD
Structure: Monomer
Percentage serum antibodies: 0.2%
Location: B-cell surface, blood, and lymph
Half-life in serum: 3 days
Complement Fixation: No
Placental Transfer: No
Known Functions: In serum function is unknown. On
B cell surface, initiate immune response.
 Immunoglobulin Classes
V. IgE
Structure: Monomer
Percentage serum antibodies: 0.002%
Location: Bound to mast cells and basophils
throughout body. Blood.
Half-life in serum: 2 days
Complement Fixation: No
Placental Transfer: No
Known Functions: Allergic reactions. Possibly lysis of
worms.
How Do B Cells Produce Antibodies?
 B cells develop from stem cells in the bone marrow of
adults (liver of fetuses).
 After maturation B cells migrate to lymphoid organs
(lymph node or spleen).
 Clonal Selection: When a B cell encounters an
antigen it recognizes, it is stimulated and divides into
many clones called plasma cells, which actively
secrete antibodies.
 Each B cell produces antibodies that will recognize
only one antigenic determinant.
Clonal Selection of B Cells is Caused by Antigenic Stimulation
 Apoptosis
 Programmed cell death (“Falling away”).
 Human body makes 100 million lymphocytes every
day. If an equivalent number doesn’t die, will develop
leukemia.
 B cells that do not encounter stimulating antigen will
self-destruct and send signals to phagocytes to
dispose of their remains.
 Many virus infected cells will undergo apoptosis, to
help prevent spread of the infection.
Clonal Selection
 Clonal Selection: B cells (and T cells) that encounter
stimulating antigen will proliferate into a large group
of cells.
 Why don’t we produce antibodies against our own
antigens? We have developed tolerance to them.
 Clonal Deletion: B and T cells that react against self
antigens appear to be destroyed during fetal
development. Process is poorly understood.
Consequences of Antibody Binding
 Immunological Memory
Antibody Titer: The amount of antibody in the serum.
Pattern of Antibody Levels During Infection
Primary Response:
 After initial exposure to antigen, no antibodies are
found in serum for several days.
 A gradual increase in titer, first of IgM and then of
IgG is observed.
 Most B cells become plasma cells, but some B cells
become long living memory cells.
 Gradual decline of antibodies follows.
 Immunological Memory (Continued)
Secondary Response:
 Subsequent exposure to the same antigen displays a
faster and more intense antibody response.
 Increased antibody response is due to the existence of
memory cells, which rapidly produce plasma cells
upon antigen stimulation.
Primary .vs. Secondary Immune Response
T lymphocytes
Overview of the immune response
 The purpose of the immune response is to inactivate or
destroy pathogens, abnormal cells & foreign molecules (such
as toxins)
 In order for the response to occur, lymphocytes must be
“activated” by the process of antigen recognition
 T cells are usually activated first, & then B cells. T cells mainly
rely on activation by phagocytic cells collectively known as
“antigen presenting cells (APC’s)” (ie. Macrophages, dendritic
cells)
 Once activated, T cells both attack the invader, & stimulate
the activation of B cells
 Activated B cells mature into “plasma cells” which produce
specific antibodies designed to destroy the particular antigen.
Cell Mediated (a.k.a. Cellular) Immunity
 In order for T cells to respond, they must first be activated by
exposure to an antigen, which is bound to membrane receptors of
phagocytic antigen presenting cells (APC’s) (“antigen recognition”)
 These membrane receptors on cells are called “MHC proteins”
(major histocompatibility complex proteins), & are genetically
determined (i.e. differ among individuals)
 Antigens bound to MHC proteins “tell” the T lymphocyte what the
specific foreign invader is (i.e. a specific bacteria) so that the
lymphocytes can mount a cellular defense
The Pathway of Specific Immune Response

Step 1
Pathogens eaten by Macrophage

Step 2
Displays portion of Pathogen
on surface

Step 3

Pathogens

Helper-T cell recognizes

Pathogen
Activates Cytotoxic Activates B- Cell

T- Cell

Memory B-Cell
Memory T-Cell

Antibodies
Kills Infected Cells
 Activation of helper T cell

Self protein
Cell-mediated
displaying Cytotoxic
T cell Interleukin-2 immunity
an antigen T cell (attack on
receptor stimulates
cell division infected cells)

Interleukin-2
activates
APC Helper other T cells
T cell and B cells

Humoral
immunity
B cell (secretion of
antibodies by
Interleukin-1 plasma cells)
activates
helper T cell
 Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and destroy
them

1 Cytotoxic T cell binds 2 Perforin makes holes 3 Infected cell is destroyed

to infected cell in infected cell’s membrane

Hole
forming
Foreign
antigen
INFECTED CELL

Cytotoxic
Perforin T cell
molecule
Immune Response Explained
1. Antigen infects cells.
2. Macrophage ingests antigen and displays portion on its surface.
3. Helper T- Cell recognizes antigen on the surface of the macrophage
and becomes active.
4. Active Helper T-Cell activates Cytotoxic T-Cells and B-Cells.
5. Cytotoxic T-Cells divide into Active Cytotoxic T-cells and Memory T
– Cells.
6. Active Cytotoxic T-Cells kill infected cells.
7. At the same time, B-Cells divide into Plasma Cells and Memory B-
Cells.
8. Plasma cells produce antibodies that deactivate pathogen.
9. Memory T and Memory B cells remain in the body to speed up the
response if the same antigen reappears.
10. Supressor T-Cells stop the immune response when all antigens have
been destroyed.
Immune Response Summary

Displays copy of antigen

on surface of cell
Antigen

Macrophage

Helper T - Cell Antibody Immunity

Cellular Immunity

Active Cytotoxic T-Cell Active B - Cell

Kills Infected Cells Memory T- Cell Plasma Cell Memory B-Cell

Antibodies

Deactivates Antigens
Autoimmune Disease
 Autoimmune diseases are diseases where the immune
system begins to attack itself.
 Ex:
 Rheumatoid Arthritis – crippling disease of the joints.
 Lupus – disease of blood and organs.
 Multiple Sclerosis – disease of nervous system
 Myasthenia Gravis

 Cause(s): unknown
 Cures/Treatments: No known cures. Usually treated with
drugs.
HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus
Attacks helper T cells
Without production of IL-2, there is no
second signal, and humoral and cell
mediated immunity are shut off.
See increase in rare diseases:
TB, Kaposi sarcoma, etc.
Allergy
- An exaggerated response by the immune system to an allergen.
Allergies
Allergen: a normally harmless substance that causes an allergic
reaction.
ex: dust, pollen, mould, food, insect stings

Types of Allergic reactions

There are two types of allergic reactions.
a. Immediate – occurs within seconds and normally lasts for about 30
mins.
b. Delayed – takes longer to react and can last for a much longer time.
 During an allergic reaction antibodies cause histamines to be
released from certain cells.
What happens during an allergic reaction?
Histamines cause:
a. Swelling of tissues
b. Release of fluids (runny noses and eyes)
c. muscle spasms (some cases)

Anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock:

This is the sudden and severe allergic reaction to a substance that
can cause death.

Treatments for Allergies

1. Avoidance of material – especially food.
2. Epinephrine –
3. Antihistamines
Immediate Type Hypersensitivity
 Exposure to certain antigens (allergens) results in the
formation of IgE antibodies
 IgE antibodies bind to mast cells by the Fc end.
 When the antigen is encountered again, binding with
the antibody causes mast cell to release histamine
granules.
Delayed Hypersensitivity
A type of cell mediated immunity.
T cell – requires usual two signals
Second time antigen is encountered, T cell
produces several cytokines that attract and
activate macrophages, resulting in an
inflammatory reaction.
Further reading:
 Review of Medical Physiology. By W.F. Ganong, Lange
Medical Book. Prentice-Hall International.

 Textbook of Medical Physiology, Indu Khurana,

Elsevier