Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 9 Lecture No: 28

Topic Name: Fundamental of Electric Drives
Objectives:
● Students will be able to explain the basics of electric drives.
● Students will be able to describe components of drives.
● Students will be able to describe the types of load and ratings of motors
used in drives.

Lecture Content:

Introduction to Electric Drives

An electric drive is an integrated system that includes an electric motor, an

energy-transmitting mechanism (like a shaft), and control equipment that
regulates the operation of the motor. This system, often referred to as an
electrical drive, is fundamental in converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy to drive various types of loads in industrial, commercial, and residential
applications.

Basically, control equipment consists of various contractors, relays, switches,

potentiometers and number of electronic devices like diodes, transistors and
thyristors. By using a control equipment, the efficiency of an electric motor,
over a wide range of speed can be improved.

Elements of an electric drive

Functionality and Benefits of Electric Drives:

Speed Control

Electric drives offer precise speed control, which is essential for processes
requiring variable speeds or accurate positioning. This is achieved through
feedback mechanisms and control algorithms, allowing for speed adjustments
within a tight tolerance of up to 1%.

Torque Control

Drives can regulate the motor’s torque output, which is crucial in applications
where load torque varies, such as in conveyor belts or cranes. This control
ensures smooth operation and reduces mechanical stress on the system.

Energy Efficiency

By adjusting the operating parameters of the motor based on the load demand,
drives enhance energy efficiency, leading to significant energy savings,
especially in applications with variable loads.

High Starting Torque

Electric motors, particularly when controlled by advanced drives, can provide

high starting torque, allowing them to start under heavy load conditions. This
makes them suitable for applications like lifts, hoists, and heavy machinery.

Protection and Safety

Drives are equipped with various protection features, including overload

protection, overcurrent protection, and thermal protection. These features help
safeguard the motor and drive components from damage, ensuring reliable and
safe operation.
Maintenance and Ease of Use

Electric drives are designed for ease of maintenance, with user-friendly

interfaces and diagnostic tools that help in monitoring performance and
troubleshooting issues. Their modular design often allows for quick
replacement of faulty components, minimizing downtime.

Applications of Electric Drives

Industrial Automation: Electric drives are widely used in industrial machinery,

such as conveyors, pumps, fans, and machine tools, where precise control of
speed and torque is essential for process efficiency.

Transportation

They are used in electric vehicles, trains, and even aircraft, where they provide
the necessary propulsion and control.

Residential and Commercial

Applications include HVAC systems, elevators, and appliances like washing

machines and fans, where efficient and reliable operation is required.

Robotics and Automation

Drives enable precise control of robotic arms and other automated systems,
crucial for modern manufacturing and assembly processes.

Components of electrical drives

System employed for motion control are called drives and may employ with any
of the prime movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines,
hydraulic motors and electric motors for supplying mechanical energy. For
motion, control drives employed with electric motors are known as electrical
drives.

The main components of a modern electrical drive are:

• Motors
• Power processor
• Control unit
• Electrical source

Load is usually mechanically designed to accomplish a given task for example

fans, pumps, robots, washing machines, machine tools, trains, drills, etc.

The load requirement can be specified in terms of speed and torque demand. A
motor having speed torque characteristic and capabilities compatible to the
load requirements is chosen.

1. Motors

They act as energy converters by converting electrical power into mechanical

energy. In braking mode, the power flow reverses, allowing energy to be fed
back to the source instead of being dissipated as heat, depending on the type of
power converters used. There are several types of motors used in electric drives
& choice of type depends on applications, cost, environmental factors and the
type of sources available. Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC
motors:

(i) DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)

(ii) AC motors

(iii) Induction motors - squirrel cage, wound rotor

(iv) Synchronous motors - wound field, permanent magnet.

(v) Brushless DC motors - require power electronic converters.

(vi) Stepper motors - require power electronic converters

(vii) Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motors

require power electronic converters.

2. Power processor or power modulator

Since, the electrical sources are normally uncontrollable, it is therefore

necessary to be able to control the flow of power to the motor; this is
achieved by using power processor or power modulator. With controllable
sources, the motor can be reversed, brake or can be operated with variable
speed. Modern electric drives normally used power electronic converters to
shape the desired voltage or current supplied to the motor. Power electronic
converters have several advantages over classical methods of power
conversion, such as:

(i)More efficient - since ideally no losses occur in power electronic

converters.

(ii)Flexible - voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling and

switching functions of the power converter.
 (iii)Compact - smaller, compact and higher ratings solid-state power
electronic devices are continuously being developed.

Power modulators are divided into three groups:

(i) Converters (ii) Variable impedance (iii) Switching circuits

(i) Converter

It is used to convert and possibly regulate (i.e. using closed-loop control) the
available sources to suit the load i.e. motors. These converters are efficient
because the switches operate in either cut-off or saturation modes. Several
conversions are possible using converters. They are as follows:

• AC to DC Converter: This converter is used to get DC supply of fixed

voltage from the ac supply of fixed voltage.
• AC voltage controller or AC regulator: These are employed to get
variable ac voltage of the same frequency from a source of fixed ac
voltage.
• Choppers or DC-DC converters: They are used to get variable voltage dc
from a fixed voltage dc and are designed using semi-conductor devices
such as power transistor, IGBTs, GTOs, MOSFET etc. Output voltage can
be varied steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of the device, by low
power signals from a control unit.
• Inverter: They are employed to get a variable frequency ac supply from a
DC supply.
• CycloConverter: The cycloconverter converts fixed AC voltage and
frequency to variable AC voltage and variable frequency.

(ii) Variable impedances: Variable resistors are commonly used for the
control of low cost dc and ac drives and are needed for dynamic braking of
drives. Variable resistors may have two or more steps and can be controlled
manually or automatically with the help of contactors.
• Stepless variation of resistance can be obtained using a semiconductor
switch in parallel with a fixed resistance; variation of duty ratio of the
switch gives a stepless variation in effective value of the resistance.
• In high power applications, liquid rheostats, known as slip regulators,
are employed to get stepless variation of resistance.
• Inductors usually in two steps (full and zero) are employed for limiting
the starting current of ac motors. Old drives may also employ saturable
reactors for the control of induction motors.

(iii) Switching circuits: Switching operation is required to achieve one of

the following:

(a) For changing motor connections to change its quadrant of operation.

(b) For changing motor circuit parameters in discrete steps for automatic
starting and braking control.

(c) For operating motor and drives according to a predetermined

sequence.

(d) To provide inter-locking to prevent mal-operation.

(e) To disconnect motor under abnormal or faulty condition occur.

• The switching operations are carried out by high power electromagnetic

relay known as contactors.

3. Control unit

The complexity of the control unit depends on the desired performance of

the drive and the type of motors used. A controller can be as simple as few
op-amps and/or a few digital ICs, or it can be as complex as the
combinations of several Digital Signal Processors (DSPs).The types of the
main controllers are discussed below.
 (i) Analog: They are noisy and inflexible. But analog circuit ideally has
infinite bandwidth.

(ii)Digital: They are Immune to noise & configurable. The bandwidth is

obviously smaller than the analog controller and it depends on sampling
frequency.

(iii) DSP or microprocessor: They have flexible lower bandwidth compared

to above. DSPs perform faster operation than microprocessors
(multiplication in single cycle). With DSP or microprocessor, complex
estimations and observers can be easily implemented.

4. Electrical source

Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical

motors. For high efficiency operation, the power obtained from the
electrical sources need to be regulated using power electronic converters.

Power sources can be of AC or DC in nature and normally are

uncontrollable i.e., their magnitudes or frequencies are fixed or depend
on the sources of energy such as solar or wind. AC source can be either
three-phase or single-phase; 3-phase sources are normally for high
power applications.

Selection Factors for Different Applications

Electric motors are typically reliable and require minimal maintenance

when chosen correctly. Therefore, selecting the appropriate motor for a
specific application is crucial to ensure optimal performance and
longevity. Below are the key factors to consider before making a final
decision on motor selection:

1. Nature of Electric Supply

The type of supply determines whether the motor will be powered by AC
(alternating current), pure DC (direct current), or rectified AC. This
decision will influence the type of motor (e.g., AC motor, DC motor) best
suited for the application.

2. Nature of the Drive

Individual or Group Drive assess whether the motor will be driving a

single machine or multiple machines. This will affect the required motor
capacity and control mechanisms.

3. Nature of the Load

Starting torque requirements help us consider whether the load requires

light or heavy starting torque. High starting torque is necessary for
applications such as conveyors and cranes.

Load torque vs. speed determines if the load torque increases with speed
(e.g., fans, pumps) or remains constant. Motors need to match the load
characteristics to ensure efficient operation.

Load inertia evaluates if the load has significant inertia, which may
require a longer starting time. High inertia loads, like large flywheels,
demand motors with high starting torque and good acceleration
capabilities.

4. Electrical Characteristics of the Motor

Starting characteristics assess how the motor behaves at startup,

including the initial surge current and torque.

Running characteristics help us understand the motor's performance

during normal operation, including speed, efficiency, and torque
stability.
Speed control helps us determine if the application requires adjustable
speed. Motors with good speed control (e.g., variable frequency drives for
AC motors) are essential for processes needing precise speed
adjustments.

Braking characteristics are used to evaluate the braking requirements of

the application. Some applications may need motors with regenerative or
dynamic braking capabilities for safety and efficiency.

5. Size and Rating of the Motor

Operating cycle determines whether the motor will run continuously,

intermittently, or on a variable load cycle. Motors rated for continuous
operation might differ from those designed for short bursts of heavy
work.

Overload capacity and Pullout torque checks if the motor can handle
occasional overloads and if the pullout torque is sufficient to avoid
stalling under maximum load conditions.

6. Mechanical Considerations

Type of Enclosure

An appropriate enclosure type (e.g., open, totally enclosed fan-cooled,

explosion-proof) is chosen based on the operating environment to protect
the motor from dust, moisture, or hazardous conditions.

Type of Bearings

Bearings that match the load and operational requirements for durability
and smooth operation are selected.

Drive Transmission
The transmission method (e.g., direct drive, belt, or gear drive) which
affects efficiency and maintenance needs is decided accordingly.

Noise Levels

Some environments may require quieter motors, necessitating special

designs or enclosures. So noise levels help consider the acceptable noise
levels for the application.

7. Cost Considerations

Capital Cost

It evaluates the initial cost of the motor, including purchase, installation,

and any necessary control equipment.

Operating Cost

It considers ongoing costs such as energy consumption, maintenance,

and potential downtime. Motors with higher efficiency may have a higher
upfront cost but result in lower operational expenses over time.

Types of Electric Drives

Electric drives are essential components in various industrial

applications, offering different configurations to suit specific operational
needs. They are generally categorized into three main types: group drives,
individual drives, and multimotor drives. Each type has unique
advantages and drawbacks that make them suitable for different
scenarios.

1. Group drive
 A group drive involves using a single electric motor to drive multiple
machines through a common shaft. This setup, also known as a shaft
drive, utilizes pulleys and belts to distribute power to various machines,
which may require different speeds.

Group drives have their own advantages and disadvantages. Let us have
look on it.

Advantages of Group Drive

i. Initial Cost

The initial setup cost is lower compared to individual drives, as one

motor serves multiple machines.

ii. Sequence of Operation

Group drives simplify operations by allowing all connected machines to

start and stop simultaneously.

iii. Space Requirement

Less space is required since fewer motors are needed.

iv. Low Maintenance Cost

With fewer motors, maintenance requirements and associated costs are

reduced.

Disadvantages of Group Drive

i. Power Factor

Group drives typically operate at a lower power factor, which can affect
overall efficiency.
 ii. Efficiency

If not all machines operate simultaneously, the main motor runs under
partial load, reducing efficiency.

iii. Reliability

The failure of the main motor leads to a complete shutdown, affecting all
connected machines.

iv. Flexibility

This system lacks flexibility, as machines cannot be operated

independently, which is a limitation in applications requiring variable
speeds or independent controls.

v. Speed Variability

Group drives do not maintain constant speed, which can be a drawback

in applications needing precise speed control.

vi. Machine Suitability

This type is not ideal for driving heavy machinery like cranes, lifts, or
hoists.

2. Individual Drive

In this type of electric drive, a single electric motor is used to drive one
individual machine. However, it costs more than group drive but each operator
has complete control on machine, which enables him either to increase the
speed of motor or to stop it while not in operation. In addition, the machines
can be located at convenient places. If there is a fault in one motor, this will
not affect the production of the industry appreciably.
Advantages of individual drive

i. Control

Operators have complete control over each machine, enabling speed

adjustments or stopping as needed without affecting other machines.

ii. Power Factor and Efficiency

Each motor operates at a better power factor and efficiency because it is

designed for its specific load.

iii. Reliability

A failure in one motor does not halt the entire production process,
enhancing system reliability.

iv. Flexibility

Machines can be positioned and operated wherever convenient, making

this drive suitable for applications requiring precise speed control.

v. Heavy Machine Suitability

Individual drives are ideal for heavy machinery like cranes, lifts, and
hoists, providing the required torque and control.

3. Multi motor drive

If in a system, a separate motor is provided for driving the separate

mechanism, the system is called multi motor drive. Such a drive finds its
applications in travelling cranes, rolling mills, complicated machine tools etc.
Such a system facilitates automatic control for each operation, increasing the
overall productivity and ensures optimum running conditions of the various
mechanisms. Multi motor drives, where multiple motors are used in a single
application or machine, offer several advantages that can be pivotal in various
industrial settings. Here are some key benefits of using multi motor drives:

i. Redundancy and Reliability

Multi motor drives increase the reliability of a system. If one motor fails,
others can continue to operate, thereby reducing downtime and
preventing complete system shutdowns. This redundancy is crucial in
critical applications where continuous operation is essential.

ii. Flexibility and Control

Using multiple motors allows for more precise control over machine
functions. Each motor can be controlled independently, which enhances
the ability to fine-tune processes and improve the quality of the output.
This is particularly beneficial in complex machinery used in
manufacturing, packaging, and printing industries.

iii. Load Sharing

Multi motor drives distribute the load among several motors, which can
reduce the stress on individual motors, thereby extending their life and
reducing maintenance requirements. This load sharing also allows for
the use of smaller motors, which can be more cost-effective and energy-
efficient.

iv. Increased Efficiency

By optimizing the load on each motor, multi motor drives can operate
more efficiently. Each motor can run at its optimal speed and torque,
maximizing efficiency and minimizing energy consumption.

v. Improved Dynamics
 Multi motor systems can improve the dynamic response of a machine.
For example, in a conveyor system or a large milling machine, having
multiple motors can help achieve more uniform speed and torque
distribution along the process line, leading to smoother operation.

vi. Cost-Effective Maintenance and Replacement

With multi motor drives, maintenance can be more manageable and less
costly. Motors can be serviced or replaced individually without shutting
down the entire system, which helps in reducing operational
interruptions and maintenance costs.

vii. Specialized Motor Use

Different motors can be specialized for various functions within the same
system, allowing each motor to operate under conditions that best suit
its design characteristics. This specialization can lead to better
performance and longevity of the motors.

Selection of Electric Drives

The selection of electric drive means the selection of drive motor. There are
various factors, which influence the selection of motor to drive the load.

1. The limits of speed range

The range over which the speed control is necessary for the load,
similarly how hard is it to control the speed and the speed regulation
also affects the choice of the motor.

2. The efficiency

The motor efficiency varies as load varies so the efficiency consideration

under variable speed operation affects the choice of the motor.
3. The braking

The braking requirements from the load point of view, easy and effective
braking are the requirements of a good drive.

4. Starting requirements

The starting torque is necessary for the load; the corresponding starting
current drawn by the motor also affects the selection of drive.

5. Power factor

It is well known that running of motors with low power factor values is
not at all economical. & the power factor varies with the load conditions
in some motors. Hence, the type of the load and the running power factor
of the motor are the essential considerations while selecting a drive.

6. Load factor

There are variety of types of load conditions possible like continuous,

intermittent, impact etc. Such load variation factor and duty cycle of the
motor influences the selection of drive.

7. Availability of supply

The motors available are AC or DC but the availability of supply decides

the type of motor to be selected for the drive.

8. Effects of supply variations

There is a possibility of frequency supply variations. The motor selected

must be able to withstand such supply variations.

9. Economical aspects
 The size and rating of motor decides its initial cost while the various
losses, temperature rise decides it’s running cost. These economic
aspects must be considered while selecting a drive.

10. Reliability of operation

It is important to study the conditions of stable operation of an electric

drive. This includes the investigation of reliability of operation of an
electric drive.

11. Environmental effects

It is possible that the atmosphere where an electric drive is to be used may

contain some chemical gases, fumes, humidity etc. Such a contaminated
atmosphere or a humid atmosphere also affects the choice of motor for a
drive.

Study of all these factors leads to the proper selection of an electric motor to
a drive and a proper drive system for the load to be driven. Not only the
selection but it may be possible to modify the system performance and make
it more economical and efficient, which already exists.

Types of Load Torque

Load torque is a critical factor in the operation and performance of drive

systems. Load torque is essential for the Motor Sizing and Selection, Energy
Efficiency, & Control and Stability. The torque which has the potential to
drive under all conditions is called load torque. It always opposes the
motion and its sign changes on the reversal of motion. There are two types
of loads; those, which provide active torques, and those, which provide
passive torques.

Active torque
Active torques arise from gravitational forces, as seen in hoists, lifts, and
railway locomotives on slopes, or from elastic deformations, such as during
the compression or release of springs. These torques are linked to changes
in potential energy. For instance, during the upward movement of a load or
compression of a spring, the potential energy increases and the torque
opposes this action. Conversely, during the downward movement or spring
release, the potential energy decreases and the torque facilitates the action,
maintaining its direction even if the drive's direction reverses.

Passive torque

Passive torques arise due to friction or due to shear and deformation in

inelastic bodies (lathes, pumps, fans etc.). They always oppose the motion,
retarding the rotation of the driven machine. Moreover, with change in
direction of motion, the sense of torque also changes. For example, when a
weight is raised upward, the friction torque adds to the useful torque but
when lowered down it subtracts from the latter.

Components of Load Torque

They are Friction torque, Windage torque & torque required to do the useful
mechanical work.

Friction torque occurs at the motor shaft and various parts of the load, with
its equivalent values referred to the motor shaft. It varies with speed, as
shown in Figure (a), where it's much higher at standstill than just above
zero speed. This high initial friction is known as stiction or static friction. To
initiate movement, motor torque must surpass this stiction. Friction torque
comprises of three components, including viscous friction, which varies
linearly with speed given by 𝑇𝑣 = 𝐵𝜔𝑚 .

Another component 𝑇𝑐 , which is independent of speed is known as

Coulomb friction. Third component 𝑇𝑠 accounts for additional torque
 present at stand still. Since 𝑇𝑠 is present only at standstill it is not taken
into account in the dynamic analysis.

When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion which is
known as windage torque 𝑇𝑤 . Windage torque is proportional to speed squared,
is given by 𝑇𝑤 = 𝐶𝜔𝑚
2
.

Nature of torque required to do the useful mechanical work torque depends on

particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed. It may be
some function of speed. It may depend on the position or path followed by load.
It may be time invariant or time variant. It is given by𝑇𝐿 .

Nature and Classification of Load Torque

The load torque's nature varies with the application. In a low-speed hoist, the
torque is constant and independent of speed, as windage torque is negligible at
low speeds. The net torque primarily results from gravity, which remains
constant regardless of speed. Load torque can be classified into torque varying
with speed and with time.

1. Variation with speed

 Load torque, depending upon the speed can be classified as discussed
below.

(i) Constant load torque

Constant load torque refers to a situation where the torque required by the
load remains unchanged regardless of the speed of the motor. This type of load
is characterized by its independence from the operating speed, meaning the
torque demand does not fluctuate as the motor accelerates or decelerates. At
low speeds, windage or air resistance is usually negligible, meaning the total
torque remains virtually constant as it is primarily determined by other factors.

One common example of constant load torque is found in low-speed hoists. In

these systems, the primary force that the motor needs to overcome is due to
gravity, which remains consistent and does not vary with the speed of the
hoist. Consequently, the torque needed to lift or lower a load is constant and
independent of how fast the hoist is moving.

Another example of constant load torque can be observed in paper mill drives.
In these applications, the torque required is largely due to the resistance
provided by the material being processed, which remains steady regardless of
the speed of the machinery. At low speeds, factors such as windage (air
resistance) are minimal, and thus do not significantly affect the net torque.

(ii) Load torque v/s speed

In many mechanical systems, the relationship between load torque and speed
can be characterized by a linear increase in torque as the speed rises. This
scenario is commonly encountered in applications where fluid friction plays a
significant role, such as in systems using lubricants or in various fluid-driven
machinery.

In this type of load, the torque required by the system increases directly in
proportion to the speed of the motor or mechanism. This linear relationship
implies that as the speed doubles, the torque demand also doubles. The
primary cause of this linear increase in torque with speed is fluid friction. In
systems where components are lubricated or operate within a fluid medium,
the resistance due to fluid viscosity increases as speed increases. This can
occur in machines such as pumps, fans, and compressors, where the
resistance to motion grows with speed due to the characteristics of the fluid or
lubricant.

In centrifugal pumps, as the impeller speed increases, the torque required to

move the fluid also increase proportionally due to fluid dynamics.

In fans and blowers, the torque increases with speed as the blades encounter
more resistance from the air, requiring more power to maintain or increase
speed.

These devices, which work within fluids, experience increased resistance with
higher rotational speeds, leading to a linear increase in required torque.
(iii) Load torque v/s speed2

In certain mechanical systems, the relationship between load torque and speed
is characterized by a quadratic increase, meaning that the torque required
rises proportionally to the square of the speed. This behaviour is prevalent in
applications involving air and fluid friction, where resistance grows
significantly with increased speed.

In this type of load, the torque required by the system increases as the square
of the speed. For example, if the speed doubles, the torque required increases
by a factor of four. This quadratic relationship is due to the nature of fluid
dynamics and aerodynamics where resistance increases sharply with speed.
The quadratic relationship between torque and speed implies that energy
consumption increases rapidly with speed. Therefore, efficient control
strategies are essential to optimize energy use and reduce operational costs.

In fans and blowers, as speed increases, the amount of air moved grows
significantly, causing a corresponding rise in torque demand due to the
increased air resistance.

In air compressors, the torque required to compress air increases with the
square of the speed because the faster the compressor runs, the more
resistance it faces from the air being compressed.

For centrifugal pumps, as the impeller speed increases, the resistance from the
fluid being pumped also increases, requiring more torque in proportion to the
square of the speed.

In aeroplanes, as the speed increases, the aerodynamic drag rises sharply,

necessitating more torque to maintain or increase speed. Similarly, in ship
propellers, the water resistance increases with the square of the speed,
requiring greater torque.
In high-speed hoists and traction systems, especially those operating in
environments where air resistance is significant, the torque required to
overcome this resistance
grows rapidly with
speed.

(iv)Load torque v/s 1/Speed

In certain applications, the relationship between load torque and speed is

inversely proportional, meaning that the load torque increases as the speed
decreases, and vice versa. This scenario is typical in processes involving the
deformation of materials, such as grinding, metal drawing, and other similar
operations. In these types of applications, the torque required increases as the
speed decreases. Essentially, as the machine slows down, the load demands
more torque to maintain the operation, which is often due to the increased
resistance encountered during material deformation processes. As torque
demands increase with decreasing speed, the energy required by the motor also
rises. Efficient motor selection and control strategies are necessary to manage
power consumption, especially in continuous or large-scale operations.

Motors used in these applications must be capable of delivering high torque at

lower speeds without overheating or experiencing excessive wear. This often
involves selecting motors with high torque ratings and robust design
specifications that can handle the increased stress.
In grinding, as the wheel or tool slows down, more torque is needed to maintain
the grinding pressure against the workpiece. The slower speed increases the
contact time, requiring the drive to exert more torque to overcome the
resistance of the material being ground.

In processes like metal drawing, where metal is pulled through dies to reduce
its cross-section, the load torque increases as the speed decreases. This is
because slower speeds mean more time for the material to resist deformation,
demanding higher torque to continue the drawing process.

Similar to metal drawing, extrusion processes where material is forced through

a die also exhibit this inverse relationship. As the extrusion speed decreases,
the resistance from the material being shaped increases, requiring additional
torque from the drive system.

2. Variation with time

The nature of load torque on an electric drive can vary significantly over time,
and understanding these variations is helps in selecting and designing the
appropriate drive system. Depending on how long and how consistently the
load is applied, load torques can be categorized into several types:

(i) Continuous and Constant Load

In this type, the load remains constant over a long period, providing a steady
and unchanging demand on the drive system. Centrifugal pumps operating
under consistent conditions, such as pumping water in a cooling system or
irrigation setup, where the torque remains constant throughout the operation.

(ii) Continuous but Variable Loads

The load is continuous but varies in magnitude over time, requiring the drive
system to adapt to these changes without interruption. Hoisting winches and
conveyors, where the load may fluctuate due to changes in the material being
moved or varying operating conditions.

(iii) Short Time Intermittent Loads

These loads are applied intermittently, with the drive experiencing periods of
operation followed by rest. The duty cycle involves short bursts of high torque
demand followed by idle or low-load periods. Excavators, cranes, and hoists,
which frequently start and stop as they perform their tasks, requiring the drive
system to handle high torque during operation but rest in between cycles.

(iv) Pulsating Loads

In pulsating loads, the torque varies periodically, causing fluctuations in the

demand on the drive system. This type of load is characterized by repeated,
cyclical variations in torque. Reciprocating pumps and textile looms, where the
load oscillates due to the repetitive motion of the machinery, leading to
alternating periods of high and low torque.

(v) Impact Loads

Impact loads involve sudden and extreme variations in torque, often resulting
in sharp peaks in demand that can stress the drive system. These loads are
typically associated with heavy industrial processes that involve significant
force and shock. Rolling mills, forging hammers, and shearing machines, where
the equipment experiences sudden, high torque demands during operations
such as metal shaping, cutting, or compressing.

To manage these impact loads, such machines are often equipped with
flywheels. Flywheels store rotational energy and help in load equalization by
smoothing out the energy demands on the drive, reducing the impact of sudden
load changes and protecting the drive system from extreme stresses.

Load equalization in Industrial Drives

In many industrial applications, such as rolling mills, planing machines,

electric hammers, presses, and reciprocating pumps, the load can fluctuate
dramatically within a short time frame, often within just a few seconds. These
rapid changes in load demand can pose significant challenges to the power
supply system.

Challenges of Fluctuating Loads

High Current Demand

During periods of peak load, the drive may draw a substantial amount of
current from the power supply. This can cause large voltage drops in the
distribution system, leading to instability and inefficiency.

Infrastructure Strain

To accommodate these peaks, cables and wires of larger cross-sectional areas

might be required, which increases the cost and complexity of the electrical
infrastructure.

Load Equalization
The process of mitigating these fluctuations to maintain a more consistent
power demand is known as load equalization. Load equalization smooths out
the variations in the load, ensuring that the power drawn from the supply
remains nearly constant, regardless of the operational load variations.

Principle of Load Equalization

During periods of light load, energy is stored, and during peak load intervals,
this stored energy is released to supplement the supply. This helps in
balancing the load and reducing the peak demand on the supply system.

The most common method of load equalization is through the use of a flywheel.
A flywheel is a mechanical device that stores rotational energy.

The flywheel accelerates and stores excess energy drawn from the supply. This
occurs when the demand from the machinery is low, allowing the flywheel to
build up kinetic energy. When the load demand increases, the flywheel
decelerates, releasing the stored energy to the machinery. This reduces the
amount of energy that needs to be drawn from the power supply during these
high-demand periods. The benefits of load equalization with flywheels are as
below.

i. Reduced Peak Demand: By providing additional energy during peak

load periods, flywheels help to reduce the peak current draw from the
supply, minimizing voltage drops and the need for oversized conductors.
ii. Stable Power Supply: The power drawn from the mains remains almost
constant, improving the stability and efficiency of the power distribution
system.
iii. Cost Efficiency: Lower peak demands reduce the strain on electrical
infrastructure, potentially lowering the costs associated with wiring,
transformers, and other power system components.
iv. Enhanced System Performance: The consistent power supply results in
smoother operation of the machinery, reducing mechanical stresses and
improving overall performance and lifespan.
v. Energy Efficiency: By efficiently managing the energy flow, load
equalization contributes to a more sustainable and cost-effective
operation, which is particularly important in energy-intensive industries.

Selection of Motor Power Rating

Heating and Cooling of a Motor under Different Loading Conditions

The selection of a motor's power rating is significantly influenced by the

heating and cooling dynamics it undergoes under various loading conditions.

Heating under Load

When a motor runs under load, it transforms some electrical energy into
mechanical energy, and the rest is usually released as heat. The motor's
efficiency dictates how much energy is lost as heat. Its power rating should be
sufficient to handle situations where the motor is working at full capacity and
producing the most heat.

Cooling Capacity

The motor's ability to dissipate heat is equally important. The cooling system,
like fan or liquid cooling, needs to be effective to stop the motor from
overheating and being damaged during constant use. The power rating chosen
should make sure the motor stays within safe heat levels during operation.

Thermal Overload

Continuous operation near or at the motor's maximum power rating can lead
to thermal overload if not properly cooled. This could cause motor failure due
to insulation damage, bearing failure, or other heat-related issues. Therefore,
the power rating should include a safety margin to handle occasional peaks in
load without overheating.

Duty Cycle Consideration

The duty cycle is a measure used to describe the operating pattern of a

machine or device over a period of time. The duty cycle, or the ratio of the time
the motor spends running to the total time, also affects the choice of power
rating. If a motor runs for 1 minute and rests for 3 minutes, the duty cycle
would be 25%, meaning the motor is operating 25% of the time and resting
75% of the time. Motors designed for intermittent duty can cool down during
off periods, so a higher power rating is possible compared to a motor that
operates continuously.

Ambient Temperature

The environmental conditions in which the motor operates also affects its
power rating. Higher surrounding temperatures make it harder for a motor to
cool down. This requires either a reduction in power usage or better cooling
techniques to ensure it keeps working reliably.

Heating and Cooling curves

As electric motors are widely used in industrial applications; during operation

of motor, various losses such as copper loss, iron loss and windage loss etc.
take place. Due to these losses, heat is produced inside the machine. This
increases the temperature of the motor. The temperature when reaches beyond
the ambient value, a part of heat produced starts flowing to the surrounding
medium. This outflow of heat is function of temperature rise of the motor above
the ambient value.
If we consider a homogeneous machine developing, heat internally at a uniform
rate and gives it to the surroundings proportional to temperature rise. It can be
proved that the temperature rise of a body obeys exponential law.

If we consider a homogeneous machine developing, heat internally at a uniform

rate and gives it to the surroundings proportional to temperature rise. Then we
see that the temperature rise of a body obeys exponential law.

𝑡
𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 )

𝜃= Rise in temperature above ambient temperature in °C

𝜃𝐹 = Final temperature rise with continuous load in °C

𝐺𝑆
The term is called heating time constsnt of the machine and is denoted by 𝜏.
𝐴ƛ

G = Mass of the machine in kg

S = Specific heat in watt-sec/ kg °C

t= is the time period

A = Area of cooling surface in 𝑚2

ƛ = Rate of heat dissipation in watts/sq. meter/°C rise in temperature.

Cooling curve

When the machine is switched off from the main supply or when the load on
the motor is reduced, the machine cools. In first case, it cools to the ambient
temperature while in other it cools to a temperature obtained by power losses
at reduced load.

When the machine is switched OFF, there is no heat generation and all the
heat stored in the machine is dissipated to surroundings. Thus cooling will
take place, if rate of heat generation is less than rate of heat dissipation. The
total heat generated and sensible heat given out will be equal to heat dissipated
during a given time interval

−𝑡
𝜃 = 𝜃𝐹′ + (𝜃0 −𝜃𝐹′ )𝑒 𝑡′
Heating and cooling curves

Standard ratings for motors

The rating of electric machine indicates its load capacity limited by the
considerations of temperature rise. According to I.S.I. specifications, three
kinds of ratings are generally specified as follows :

1. Continuous rating

Continuous rating refers to the maximum load that a motor can sustain
indefinitely without causing its temperature to exceed specified limits.
Additionally, the motor is capable of handling a 25% overload for a limited
time, typically not exceeding two hours, without breaching these temperature
constraints. For instance, if a motor has a continuous rating of 10 H.P., it can
consistently deliver 10 H.P. over an indefinite period and can handle 12.5 H.P.
for up to two hours under the same thermal conditions.

2. Continuous Maximum Rating

The continuous maximum rating defines the peak power output that the motor
can continuously deliver without overheating. This rating is especially crucial
for larger motors (typically above 2.5 H.P. per rpm), as it ensures that the
motor operates within safe temperature limits during prolonged, heavy-duty
operations. Unlike continuous rating, this does not account for any overload
capacity, emphasizing steady operation within set parameters.

3. Short time or intermittent rating

Short time or intermittent rating specifies the load that a motor can handle for
a short, predefined period (such as 1 hour, 30 minutes, or 15 minutes) without
exceeding the specified temperature rise. This rating is intended for scenarios
where the motor operates at a higher load than usual for brief intervals,
followed by a no-load or rest period that allows the motor to cool down and
return to its normal temperature. The short time rating helps prevent
overheating during high-demand operations by ensuring that the motor is
adequately rested and cooled between heavy load cycles.

Unlike the continuous maximum rating, which is meant for indefinite operation
under constant conditions, the short time rating is designed for scenarios
where the motor operates at a higher load than usual but only for a limited
duration—typically ranging from a few minutes to a few hours.

Short time rating indicates the maximum load of the motor for the specified
time followed by a no load period, during which the machine regains its original
temperature. Intermittent rating of a machine is defined as that load which is
applied during a certain fraction of time of a load cycle and the temperature
rise limit is not exceeded.

Motors with a short time or intermittent rating typically require cooling down
periods after operating at the short time rating load. These periods help to
dissipate excess heat accumulated during the high-load phase.
Determination of Motor Rating

Classes of motor duty

The nominal duty of a motor, often indicated on its nameplate, corresponds to

its service conditions and performance expectations. The motor's rating is
determined based on its duty class, which relates to how it manages load and
temperature variations over time. These duty classes are represented by load-
time and temperature-time curves, illustrating different load profiles:

The rating of motor to be selected from the viewpoint of temperature rise

depends on such classes of duty.

Such classes are represented by load-time curves and temperature-time

curves. These are basically based on types of load variations. The various
classes of duty are as follows:

1. Continuous duty: The motor operates at a constant load for a prolonged

period. The temperature stabilizes at a maximum level (denoted as 𝜃𝑚 ),
and the motor maintains its performance consistently. N indicates
duration of the operation taking place, while 𝜃𝑚 indicates maximum
temperature rise.
2. Continuous duty with variable load: The motor follows a sequence of
identical duty cycles, alternating between periods of load operation and
no-load operation. This variation can help manage thermal buildup, as
indicated by periods of rest (V).

3. Short time duty: The motor operates at a constant load for a limited
duration, followed by a rest period long enough to allow the motor to cool
down to its original temperature. This mode is useful when high
performance is needed only briefly.

4. Intermittent periodic duty: In this mode, the motor experiences a

repeating cycle of constant load operation followed by a rest period (R). It
is ideal for applications with cyclical loads.
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting: This class includes a period
of load operation at startup (S), followed by steady load operation, and
then a rest period. This cycle accommodates the additional strain of
starting the motor under load.

6. Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking: The motor

operates with a load that includes starting and braking periods (B),
followed by a rest phase. This cycle is typical in applications requiring
frequent stops and starts, like cranes or elevators.
From such curves, the temperature rise is decided and the rating of an
electric motor to be selected is decided.
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 9 Lecture No: 29

Topic Name: Electric Drives – Types and function
Objectives:
● Students will be able to explain the types of electric drives.
● Students will be able to describe function of electric drives.

Lecture Content:

Classification of Electric Drives

Electric drives can be classified based on various factors such as the type of
power source they use—AC or DC, the method of control—open loop or closed-
loop, and the application they are designed for, including industrial, domestic,
and automotive sectors.

The classification of Electric Drives is based on Power Source as AC Drives and

DC Drives, based on Control Method as Open loop and Closed-loop and based
on applications as Industrial, Domestic, and Automotive Drives.

AC Drives and DC drives

AC Drives

AC drives are devices powered by alternating current (AC) that are used to
control the speed, torque, and direction of AC motors. A common type of AC
drive is the Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), which regulates motor
performance by varying the frequency of the electrical supply. This capability
makes AC drives essential in a wide range of industrial applications, such as
controlling conveyor systems, pumps, fans, and HVAC systems. The versatility
and efficiency of AC drives make them a popular choice for industries seeking
to optimize motor performance.
One of the main advantages of AC drives is their high efficiency, which often
leads to significant energy savings in industrial settings. Additionally, AC drives
typically have a longer lifespan due to their reduced susceptibility to
mechanical wear and tear, which further enhances their appeal in long-term
applications. They are particularly well-suited for scenarios that require precise
speed control over a wide range, allowing for flexible and efficient operation.
However, AC drives can be more complex to implement, often requiring
advanced control systems and electronics, which can increase both the initial
cost and the complexity of installation compared to other types of drives.

DC drives

DC drives are systems designed to control the speed, torque, and direction of
DC motors using direct current (DC). They are known for their precise motor
control capabilities, making them ideal for applications that demand high
starting torque and smooth speed regulation, such as elevators, cranes, hoists,
and electric vehicles. DC drives offer excellent precision in speed control, which
is critical in environments where exact speed regulation is necessary. This
precise control, combined with the ability to deliver high starting torque, makes
DC drives a strong choice for applications involving heavy loads that need to be
moved from a standstill.

Despite their benefits, DC drives have some drawbacks. They require more
maintenance than AC drives because DC motors include brushes and
commutators, which are subject to wear and require regular upkeep.
Additionally, DC drives are generally less efficient than their AC counterparts,
leading to potentially higher energy consumption and operational costs. This
makes them less favorable in situations where energy efficiency is a primary
concern. Nonetheless, DC drives remain a valuable solution for specific
industrial and transportation applications where their unique performance
characteristics are needed.
In summary, AC drives are preferred for their efficiency, durability, and broad
range of speed control, making them ideal for applications that demand
variable speed and reliability. In contrast, DC drives are favored in scenarios
requiring high starting torque and precise speed control, despite their higher
maintenance needs and lower efficiency.

Each type of drive offers distinct advantages, making the choice between them
dependent on the specific requirements of the application.

Open loop and Closed-loop Control

Drives are classified into two main categories based on their control methods:
open loop and closed-loop systems. Each type of control system has its own set
of characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages, making them suitable for
different types of applications.

Open-loop Control

In an open-loop control system, the drive operates the motor without using any
feedback from the output. The system sends a control signal to the motor, and
it assumes that the motor performs as expected without monitoring the actual
output. Essentially, there is no mechanism to correct deviations or errors in
performance, as the system relies solely on the initial control commands. The
advantages of open-loop control system are:

i. Simplicity: Open-loop systems are straightforward and easier to design

and implement. They do not require complex sensors or feedback
mechanisms, making the setup and maintenance simpler.
ii. Cost-Effective: Due to their simpler design, open-loop systems are
generally less expensive to build and maintain. This makes them ideal for
applications where the cost is a significant factor.
They are suitable for scenarios where precise control is not crucial, such as in
basic operations like controlling fans, simple conveyor belts, or basic heating
systems.

The disadvantages of open-loop control system are:

i. Lack of Accuracy: The absence of feedback means that open-loop

systems cannot adjust for changes in load or external conditions. This
can lead to inaccuracies and performance deviations.
ii. Susceptibility to Errors: Open-loop systems can suffer from errors due to
factors like load changes, temperature variations, or wear and tear, as
there is no feedback mechanism to correct such issues.

These systems are not suitable for applications that require precise control or
stability under varying conditions.

Closed-loop Control

Closed-loop control systems, on the other hand, use feedback from the output
to adjust the control signal sent to the motor. These systems are equipped with
sensors that continuously monitor the actual performance of the motor, such
as speed, position, or torque. The feedback is then used to adjust the input
commands to ensure that the motor's performance aligns with the desired
output. The advantages of closed-loop control system are:

i. High Precision: Closed-loop systems provide precise control over motor

performance, making them ideal for applications where accuracy is
critical. They continuously adjust to maintain the desired output,
regardless of changes in load or external conditions.
ii. Reliability: The use of feedback allows these systems to detect and
correct errors in real-time, ensuring consistent and reliable operation.
Closed-loop control is commonly used in complex and demanding
environments such as robotics, CNC machines, elevators, and other precision
machinery where stable and accurate performance is essential.

The disadvantages of closed-loop control system are:

i. Complexity: Closed-loop systems are more complex to design and

implement due to the need for sensors, feedback loops, and advanced
control algorithms.
ii. Higher Costs: The additional components and complexity result in higher
initial costs and potentially increased maintenance requirements.
However, the benefits of improved accuracy and reliability often justify
the investment in these systems.
iii. Potential for Overcompensation: In some cases, overly aggressive
feedback adjustments can lead to instability if not properly tuned,
necessitating careful design and tuning of the control system.

Open-loop systems are simpler and cost-effective, suitable for applications

where precise control is not essential. However, their lack of feedback means
they can be prone to errors and inaccuracies under varying conditions.

Closed-loop systems offer precise and reliable control by using feedback to

continuously adjust the motor's performance. While they are more complex and
costly, their ability to maintain desired outputs in dynamic conditions makes
them indispensable in critical applications.

Industrial, Domestic, and Automotive Drives

Industrial Drives

Industrial drives are used extensively in manufacturing and processing plants

to control the operation of machinery and processes. They play a vital role in
managing motors that drive equipment such as conveyors, pumps, fans,
mixers, compressors, and more. Industrial drives ensure that machinery
operates efficiently, safely, and with the required precision, which is crucial for
maintaining productivity and quality in industrial environments. The
applications are:

AC Drives: Used in applications like conveyor belts where speed control is

important for handling materials efficiently.

DC Drives: Common in applications requiring high torque and precise control,

such as rolling mills and extruders.

In Conveyor Systems, AC drives regulate the speed of conveyors, optimizing the

flow of materials through production lines. In Pumps and Fans, drives adjust
motor speed to match demand, reducing energy consumption and wear on the
equipment.

Domestic Drives

Domestic drives are found in household appliances and consumer electronics,

controlling small motors that are part of everyday devices. They are essential
for enhancing the performance, efficiency, and convenience of home appliances
like washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, and fans. Domestic
drives often incorporate variable-speed technology to improve energy efficiency
and provide better user control over appliance operation. The applications are:

Variable-Speed Drives: Used in washing machines to adjust drum speed for

different washing cycles, improving washing efficiency and fabric care.

Motor Drives in HVAC Systems: Control fans and compressors in heating,

ventilation, and air conditioning systems, ensuring optimal temperature control
and energy savings.
In Refrigerators, drives control the compressor motor to maintain the desired
temperature while minimizing energy usage. In Washing Machines, variable-
speed drives allow for different spin speeds, improving the washing process and
reducing water and energy consumption.

Automotive Drives

Automotive drives are integral to modern vehicles, especially in electric vehicles

(EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). They control various motor functions,
including propulsion, steering, and braking, ensuring smooth and efficient
vehicle operation. Automotive drives are designed to provide high performance,
reliability, and efficiency, which are critical for enhancing the driving
experience and meeting environmental standards. The applications are:

Electric Vehicles (EVs): DC drives are commonly used in EVs to manage the
main propulsion motor, delivering precise control over speed and torque.

Hybrid Vehicles (HEVs): AC drives are used to control motors that supplement
the internal combustion engine, improving fuel efficiency and reducing
emissions.

DC Drives in EVs manage the propulsion system, providing smooth

acceleration and deceleration whereas AC Drives in HEVs assist with
regenerative braking and optimizing energy usage between electric and
combustion power sources.

There are four fundamental types of drives, each catering to specific

requirements and applications, which are DC Drives, AC Drives, Servo Drives
and Stepper Drives.

DC Drives
DC drives are among the oldest types of electric drives, traditionally used in
applications requiring precise speed control, such as cranes, hoists, and
elevators. They regulate the voltage across a DC motor to control its speed.
These are known for their excellent torque handling capacity. DC drives are
particularly valuable in applications where you need robust control from the
start, such as in lifting heavy loads with a crane where starting torque and
smooth acceleration are critical. They consist of a DC motor, a controller that
regulates the motor's speed and torque, and a power supply.

DC Motor Drives

Whenever there is a demand for a wide range of speed control in either

direction (reversible drives) with better regulation and simplified mode of
control, the best choice falls on DC drives, for example, rolling mill drives,
paper mill drives, etc. DC motors have the advantage of ease of operation at
different speeds. The operating characteristics can be varied. However, DC
motors are most expensive of all. The DC shunt motors with constant speed
characteristics are used in rolling mills, paper mills, etc. where precise speed
control is necessary. The Ward-Leonard method of speed control incorporating
continuous feedback permits smoother operation and greater accuracy.

The various types of DC Motor Drives are

 Thyristor-Fed Drives,
 Chopper-Fed Drives that are used mainly in medium and small sizes,
and
 Small Servo-Type Drives

Thyristor-Fed Drives

In DC drive systems, a separate thyristor or diode rectifier is typically used to

supply power to the field winding of the motor. The power requirement for the
field winding is significantly lower than that of the armature, which allows the
use of a single-phase supply for the field circuit. For smaller motors, typically
up to a few kilowatts, the armature converter can be supplied from either
single-phase or three-phase mains, depending on availability and application
needs. However, for larger motors, three-phase supplies are always preferred
due to their ability to deliver higher power more efficiently and with less ripple.

The typical configuration of DC drives includes a closed-loop speed control

system, as illustrated in Figure 1. This arrangement is common in most DC
drive applications, where it is essential to maintain precise control over the
motor's speed and torque. The closed-loop system typically incorporates two
main control loops: the inner loop for current (torque) control and the outer
loop for speed control. The inner loop ensures that the motor's current stays
within desired limits, directly affecting the torque output, while the outer loop
adjusts the speed based on the feedback from the motor.

Fig 1 Schematic diagram of speed-controlled DC motor drive

Control Circuits and Speed Regulation

Low-power control circuits play a critical role in DC drives by monitoring key

variables such as motor current and speed. These circuits are responsible for
generating the appropriate firing pulses to the thyristors or transistors in the
power converter, ensuring that the motor operates at a constant speed, even
when the load varies. This feedback mechanism allows the drive to dynamically
adjust the motor's performance, maintaining stable operation and protecting
the motor from overcurrent conditions.

The speed of the motor is typically controlled through a 'speed reference' signal,
which is often an analog voltage ranging from 0 to 10 V. This reference signal
can be generated by a manual speed-setting potentiometer or can originate
from another control source within the plant, such as a programmable logic
controller (PLC) or a process control system. The analog speed reference serves
as the target for the drive's control system, dictating the desired operating
speed of the motor.

Chopper-Fed D.C. Motor Drives

They are used mainly in medium and small sizes. If the source of supply is DC
(for example in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit system), a chopper-type
converter is usually employed. The principal difference between the thyristor-
controlled rectifier and the chopper is that in the former the motor current
always flows through the supply, whereas in the latter, the motor current only
flows from the supply terminals for part of each cycle.

Small Servo-Type Drives

In the context of motors and drives, the term 'servo' generally refers to systems
designed for closed-loop or feedback control, typically managing shaft torque,
speed, or position. Although there is no sharp dividing line between
servomotors and ordinary motors, the servo type will be intended for use in
applications, which require rapid acceleration and deceleration.

AC Drives
These drives are integral in industries where motor speed needs to be varied.
AC drives are more commonly used in modern applications due to their
efficiency and versatility. The most common types are Variable Frequency
Drives (VFDs) and Servo Drives. They are widely used in HVAC systems,
conveyor belts, and pumps, offering precise control over motor speed and
torque. By adjusting the frequency and voltage supplied to an AC motor, these
drives can efficiently manage the motor's speed and torque, leading to
significant energy savings and operational efficiency. Cost is Lower and
Maximum torque varies directly instead of square of voltage. The various types
of AC Drives are Synchronous Motor Drives & Induction Motor Drives

Synchronous Motor Drives

Synchronous motors are a type of AC motor that operates at a constant speed,

synchronized with the frequency of the AC power supply. Unlike induction
motors, synchronous motors maintain perfect synchronism between the
rotating magnetic field of the stator and the rotor, resulting in zero slip. This
precise speed control makes synchronous motors ideal for applications where a
constant speed is essential, regardless of load variations.

The advantages of Synchronous Motor Drives are:

Power Factor Improvement: Synchronous motors can operate as synchronous

condensers, providing reactive power compensation to improve the power factor
of the electrical system. This capability is particularly beneficial at low speeds,
where the power factor typically suffers.

High Efficiency: Synchronous motors generally have higher efficiency compared

to induction motors of the same size. This is due to their ability to eliminate
slip losses, making them more energy-efficient and cost-effective in continuous
operation.

The advantages of Synchronous Motor Drives are:

Starting Challenges: Synchronous motors face significant challenges during
startup, as they do not have inherent starting torque. This often necessitates
the use of additional starting methods, such as pony motors or variable
frequency drives (VFDs), to bring the motor up to synchronous speed.

Damper Winding Requirement: To aid in starting and to provide stability under

varying load conditions, synchronous motors require a damper winding. In
applications demanding high starting torque and high pull-in torque, a double
cage damper winding may be employed, adding to the complexity and cost of
the motor.

Torque Requirements: Synchronous motors typically need to produce a starting

torque of 150-200%, a pull-in (synchronizing) torque of 110%, and a pullout
torque of about 175-180%. These demanding torque requirements can
complicate motor design and operation.

Large Size: Synchronous motors are usually constructed in larger sizes, which
makes them suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications but less practical
for smaller-scale or variable-speed needs.

The common applications include motor-generator sets, air compressors, and

pumps. These motors are also widely used in constant-speed equipment where
maintaining a stable operating speed is critical.

Induction Motor (Cage) Drives

Cage induction motors, also known as squirrel cage motors, are one of the
most widely used motor types in industrial applications due to their robust
construction, simplicity, and reliability. These motors are characterized by their
rugged design and low initial cost per installation. The cage induction motor's
rotor consists of a series of conductive bars shorted at both ends by rings,
forming a cage-like structure that is both simple and durable.
The advantages of Cage Induction Motors are:

Ruggedness and Durability: Cage induction motors are known for their sturdy
construction and ability to withstand harsh industrial environments, making
them ideal for heavy-duty applications.

Low Initial Cost: They have the lowest initial cost among motor types, making
them an economical choice for many applications where basic speed and
torque control are sufficient.

Wide Range of Applications: These motors are used in a variety of applications,

including water pumps, compressors, fans, and line shafts. Their versatility
extends across many sizes, from small to very large, accommodating diverse
industrial needs.

The disadvantages of Cage Induction Motors are:

Poor Efficiency and Power Factor: Compared to synchronous motors, cage

induction motors generally have lower efficiency and a poorer power factor,
especially under light load conditions.

Limited Speed Control: Cage induction motors are best suited for applications
where speed control is not required, as their speed is determined by the supply
frequency and load. For applications requiring speed variation, other motor
types or additional control systems like VFDs are needed.

Higher Cost for Speed Control: If two-speed operation is required, pole-

changing induction motors can be used, but they typically cost 30-40% more
than standard cage induction motors.

The advent of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) inverters for speed control has
significantly enhanced the appeal of induction motors. By maintaining a
constant Volts/Hz ratio, PWM inverters allow precise speed control of induction
motors, making them a viable alternative to DC drives. This development holds
promise for the broader adoption of AC drives in applications traditionally
dominated by DC motors.

Synchronous and cage induction motors each have distinct advantages and are
suited to specific types of applications. Synchronous motors excel in providing
precise speed control and power factor improvement, making them ideal for
applications requiring constant speed and high efficiency. In contrast, cage
induction motors are favored for their ruggedness, low cost, and wide
applicability in environments where speed control is not critical. The ongoing
advancements in inverter technology continue to expand the capabilities and
use cases of induction motors, bridging the gap between traditional DC drives
and modern AC solutions.

Wound Rotor Induction Motor Drives

Wound rotor induction motor drives, also known as slip-ring induction motors,
offer various speed control methods that make them suitable for a wide range
of industrial applications. Unlike squirrel cage induction motors, wound rotor
motors have external connections to the rotor windings through slip rings,
allowing external resistance to be added to the rotor circuit. This feature
enables better control over the motor’s speed and torque characteristics.
However, it is important to note that the efficiency and power factor of these
motors tend to decrease as the speed is reduced, and they generally have a
higher cost compared to other induction motor types.

Despite these drawbacks, slip-ring induction motors are highly valued in

specific applications due to their unique capabilities. For instance, when
equipped with an automatic slip regulator and a flywheel, these motors can
handle intermittent duties with high torque requirements effectively. The
addition of a flywheel helps to smooth out the power fluctuations in
applications involving shock-loading conditions, making these motors ideal for
use in demanding environments.

The applications of Wound Rotor Induction Motors are:

Motor-Generator Sets: Wound rotor induction motors are commonly used in

motor-generator sets, especially those equipped with flywheels, which are
essential in applications with fluctuating load demands.

Mining and Heavy-Duty Applications: These motors are extensively used in

mine winder drives, line shafts, pumps, lifts, cranes, and haulage systems due
to their ability to deliver high starting torque and handle high inertia loads.

Industrial Machinery: Wound rotor motors find applications in industries such

as paper manufacturing, textile mills, and printing presses, where precise
speed control and high starting torque are crucial.

High Inertia Loads: Applications like reciprocating pumps, crushers, shearers,

lump breakers in coal mines, and ball mills in cement factories require motors
that can provide starting torque two to three times the full-load torque due to
the high inertia and friction at standstill. Wound rotor induction motors are
well suited for these conditions, providing the necessary torque for startup and
maintaining full-load torque during normal operation.

Wound rotor induction motor drives has many advantages and unique
features.

High Starting Torque: One of the key advantages of wound rotor induction
motors is their ability to provide high starting torque, which is essential in
applications with heavy loads or high inertia. By adjusting the external
resistance in the rotor circuit, the starting torque can be significantly
increased, making these motors ideal for heavy-duty applications.
Speed Control: The ability to adjust the speed by varying the resistance in the
rotor circuit offers a degree of flexibility not available in squirrel cage motors.
This makes wound rotor motors suitable for applications where speed variation
is required during operation.

Shock Load Handling: The incorporation of flywheels and automatic slip

regulators allows these motors to handle shock-loading conditions effectively,
maintaining stable operation even under fluctuating loads.

Wound rotor induction motor drives has some disadvantages.

Decreased Efficiency and Power Factor at Low Speeds: As the speed decreases,
the efficiency and power factor of wound rotor induction motors tend to
decline, which can result in higher energy consumption and operational costs.

Higher Cost: The initial cost of wound rotor induction motors is generally
higher compared to other types of induction motors due to their complex
construction and additional components like slip rings and external resistors.

Maintenance Requirements: The presence of slip rings and brushes requires

more maintenance compared to the simpler design of squirrel cage motors,
which can add to the overall cost of ownership.

Wound rotor induction motors are particularly suited for applications requiring
high starting torque, precise speed control, and the ability to handle heavy or
shock loads. Despite their higher cost and maintenance needs, their unique
capabilities make them indispensable in industries such as mining, heavy
machinery, and manufacturing. Their flexibility and performance under
demanding conditions justify their use in specific, high-load applications where
other motor types might fall short.

Servo Drives
These are designed for the highest degree of precision control. They consist of a
servo motor, a feedback system, and a controller. Servo drives control
servomotors, which are used when the exact position is crucial.

These drives are commonly found in applications requiring precise motion

control, such as robotics, CNC machinery, and automated production lines.

In a manufacturing robot, servo drives help achieve precise movements,

essential for tasks like assembly or welding, ensuring each component is
perfectly aligned and executed.

Stepper Drives

Stepper drives control stepper motors, which operate differently by moving in

discrete steps. This feature makes them perfect for applications where you
need precise control over position without feedback from the motor, i.e., open-
loop control, such as in a 3D printer and small CNC machines where each
movement must be precisely controlled to create detailed objects layer by layer,
as the load is relatively small

In summary, the type of drive selected typically depends on the specific needs
of the application—whether it is the need for speed, control, torque, or
precision.

Functions of Electric Drives

Electric drives are critical components in modern industrial, commercial, and

residential applications. They play a crucial role in controlling the performance
of electric motors, enabling precise manipulation of speed, torque, position,
and overall efficiency of motor-driven systems. By converting electrical energy
into mechanical energy in a controlled manner, electric drives optimize the
operation of various equipment, ensuring that they perform according to the
desired specifications.
1. Speed Control

One of the primary functions of electric drives is to control the speed of motors.
Speed control is essential in applications where different operational speeds are
required, such as in conveyor systems, fans, pumps, and various types of
machinery. Electric drives adjust the motor speed by varying the input voltage,
frequency, or current, allowing for smooth acceleration, deceleration, and
precise speed regulation according to the needs of the application.

2. Torque Control

Electric drives also provide torque control, which involves regulating the
motor’s torque output to match the requirements of the load. This function is
particularly important in applications like elevators, cranes, and rolling mills,
where maintaining a specific torque is crucial for safe and efficient operation.
Torque control helps in protecting mechanical components from excessive
stress and ensures smooth operation by avoiding jerks or sudden movements.

3. Position Control

Position control is another vital function of electric drives, especially in

applications that require precise positioning of a motor or machine component,
such as in robotics, CNC machines, and automated assembly lines. Electric
drives achieve position control by accurately moving the motor to a specific
position and holding it there. This is typically accomplished using feedback
mechanisms like encoders or resolvers, which provide real-time position data to
the drive system for precise adjustments.

4. Efficiency Enhancement

Electric drives contribute significantly to enhancing the efficiency of motor-

driven systems. By optimizing the power usage, adjusting operating conditions,
and reducing losses, electric drives ensure that motors operate at their most
efficient points. This not only reduces energy consumption and operational
costs but also extends the lifespan of the equipment. Efficiency enhancement is
especially critical in applications with high-energy demands, such as HVAC
systems, industrial processing, and large-scale manufacturing, where even
small improvements in efficiency can lead to substantial cost savings.

1. Speed control

Fig 2 Block Diagram of Closed loop speed control

Speed control function is not just about making a motor run faster or slower;
it's about optimizing machine performance across a range of operations. For
example, in conveyor systems, speed control is essential to match the flow of
materials or in fans and pumps to adjust the flow rate according to demand.

The most common arrangement, which is used with only minor variations from
small drives of say 0.5 kW up to the largest industrial drives of several
megawatts, is two-loop control.

This has an inner feedback loop to control the current (and hence torque) and
an outer loop to control speed.

When position control is required, a further outer position loop is added. A two-
loop scheme for a thyristor DC drive is discussed first, but the essential
features are the same in a chopper-fed drive.
Later the simpler arrangements used in low-cost small drives are discussed. A
standard DC drive system with speed and current control is shown in Figure 2.

The primary purpose of the control system is to provide speed control, so the
‘input’ to the system is the speed reference signal on the left, and the output is
the speed of the motor (as measured by the tachogenerator TG) on the right.

As with any closed-loop system, the overall performance is heavily dependent

on the quality of the feedback signal. In this case, feedback signal is the speed-
proportional voltage provided by the tachogenerator.

It is therefore important to ensure that the tachogenerator is of high quality (so

that its output voltage does not vary with ambient temperature, and is ripple-
free) and as a result, the cost of the tachogenerator often represents a
significant fraction of the total cost.

To get an idea of the operation of the system, we will consider what will happen
if, with the motor is running light at a set speed & the speed reference signal is
suddenly increased. Because the set (reference) speed is now greater than the
actual speed there will be a speed error signal, represented by the output of the
left hand summing junction in Figure 3.

A speed error indicates that acceleration is required, which in turn means extra
torque, i.e. more current. The speed error is amplified by the speed controller
(which is more accurately described as a speed-error amplifier) and the output
serves as the reference or input signal to the inner control system.

The inner feedback loop is a current-control loop, so when the current

reference increases, so does the motor armature current, thereby providing
extra torque and initiating acceleration. As the speed rises, the speed error
reduces, and the current and torque therefore reduce to obtain a smooth
approach to the target speed.
We will now look in more detail at the inner (current -control) loop, as its
correct operation is vital to ensure that the thyristors are protected against
excessive overcurrents.

Fig 3 Schematic diagram of analogue controlled-speed drive with current

and speed feedback control loops

Current control

The closed-loop current controller, or current loop, is at the heart of the drive
system and is indicated by the shaded region in Figure. The purpose of the
current loop is to make the actual motor current follow the current reference
signal (Iref ). This is done by comparing a feedback signal of actual motor
current with the current reference signal. Then, the difference or current error
is amplified and using this amplified current error signal, the firing angle is
controlled– and hence the output voltage – of the converter.

The current feedback signal is obtained either from a DC current transformer

(which gives an isolated analogue voltage output), or from AC current
transformer/rectifiers in the mains supply lines. The job of comparing the
reference (demand) and actual current signals and amplifying the error signal
is carried out by the current error amplifier.

By giving the current error amplifier a high gain, the actual motor current will
always correspond closely to the current reference signal, i.e. the current error
will be small, regardless of motor speed.

In other words, we can expect the actual motor current to follow the ‘current
reference’ signal at all times, the armature voltage being automatically adjusted
by the controller so that, regardless of the speed of the motor, the current has
the correct value.

Of course, no control system can be perfect, but it is usual for the current-
error amplifier to be of the proportional plus integral (PI) type, in which case
the actual and demanded currents will be exactly equal under steady-state
conditions. It is important to avoid having too much current in the converter,
and we have already talked about this. The current control loop helps to
prevent this from happening.

As long as the current control loop functions properly, the motor current can
never exceed the reference value. Hence by limiting the magnitude of the
current reference signal (by means of a clamping circuit), the motor current
can never exceed the specified value which is shown in Figure 4.

The characteristics of the speed controller are shown in the shaded panel, from
which we can see that for small errors in speed, the current reference increases
in proportion to the speed, thereby ensuring ‘linear system’ behavior with a
smooth approach to the target speed.

However, once the speed error exceeds a limit, the output of the speed-error
amplifier saturates and there is thus no further increase in the current
reference.
By arranging for this maximum current reference to correspond to the full
(rated) current of the system there is no possibility of the current in the motor
and converter exceeding its rated value, no matter how large the speed error
becomes.

Fig 4 Detail showing characteristic of speed error amplifier

This ‘electronic current limiting’ is the most important protective feature of any
drive. It means that, if for example the motor suddenly stalls because the load
seizes (so that the back e.m.f. falls dramatically), the armature voltage will
automatically reduce to a very low value, thereby limiting the current to its
maximum allowable level.

The first thing we should aim at when setting up a drive is a good current loop.
In this context, ‘good’ means that the steady-state motor current should
correspond exactly with the current reference, and the transient response to
step changes in the current reference should be fast and well damped.

The first of these requirements is satisfied by the integral term in the current-
error amplifier, while the second is obtained by judicious choice of the amplifier
proportional gain and time constant. As far as the user is concerned, the
‘current stability’ adjustment is provided to allow him to optimize the transient
response of the current loop. In simpler terms, the component typically known
as the "current error amplifier" is more commonly referred to as the "current
controller" or "current amplifier."

The term "current controller" is quite accurate and straightforward. However,

calling it a "current amplifier" can be confusing because it implies that the
motor's current itself is being amplified, which is not the case.

In current-control mode, the current is maintained at a set value, and the

motor's steady speed depends on the load. For instance, if the torque reference
is set at 50% and the motor is initially stationary, it will accelerate at a
constant half-rated current until the motor's torque matches the load torque.
Without any load, the motor accelerates quickly, with the voltage increasing to
maintain the specified current.

Eventually, the motor reaches a speed slightly above its normal full speed
where the converter's maximum output voltage limits further current increase,
stabilizing the motor's speed.

2. Torque Control

Closed loop torque control is a critical technology used predominantly in the

areas of automotive applications, specifically in battery-operated vehicles, rail
cars, and electric trains. This system allows for precise control of a vehicle's
torque output, enhancing both performance and energy efficiency.
For applications where a specified torque is needed regardless of the motor's
speed, such as in line tensioning, the outer (speed) loop can be bypassed.

Instead, a current reference signal is sent directly to the current controller

through the 'torque ref' terminal on the control board. Since torque is directly
proportional to current, the current controller effectively acts as a torque
controller.

Adjustments for accelerating torque might be needed through a transient

'inertia compensating' signal, typically managed via a potentiometer or a digital
preset.

Fig 5 Block Diagram of Closed loop torque control

Mechanism and Application

The mechanism of closed loop torque control involves a feedback system that
continuously adjusts the motor's torque to match the desired setpoint, which is
typically determined by the driver's input through the accelerator pedal. Let us
discuss the process in detail as shown in Figure 5.

Driver’s Input

The driver presses the accelerator, which sets a torque reference Tref. This is
the initial command that dictates how much torque the motor should generate.
The reference is set based on the driver's assessment of required speed and
power for current driving conditions.
Torque Reference Transmission

The torque reference acts as an input to the vehicle’s control system, initiating
a process where the actual motor torque needs to align with this reference.

Feedback Loop

A crucial component of closed loop systems is the feedback loop, which in this
case, involves speed feedback. This feedback is integrated into the control
system to ensure that the actual torque output closely matches the torque
reference. Speed sensors continuously monitor the speed of the vehicle and
send this data back to the control unit. This information helps in fine-tuning
the motor's output to ensure the desired torque is achieved without
overshooting or undershooting the target.

Adjustment by the Driver

Depending on real-time traffic conditions, road states, and speed limits, the
driver may adjust the pressure on the accelerator. Each adjustment alters the
torque reference, prompting the control system to recalibrate the motor has
output accordingly.

Speed control

Speed feedback is provided by a DC tachogenerator and the actual and

required speeds are fed into the speed-error amplifier (often known simply as
the speed amplifier or the speed controller). Any difference between the actual
and desired speed is amplified, and the output serves as the input to the
current loop. Hence, if for example the actual motor speed is less than the
desired speed, the speed amplifier will demand current in proportion to the
speed error, and the motor will therefore accelerate in an attempt to minimise
the speed error.
Speed control

The motor speed is maintained at the set value for all loads until the maximum
armature current is reached. If the load increases beyond this point, the speed
will decrease since the current loop cannot supply more armature current.
Conversely, if something tries to push the speed above the set value, the motor
current will automatically reverse, causing the motor to brake and send power
back to the mains.

3. Position control

As mentioned earlier many servomotors are used in closed-loop position control

applications, so it is appropriate to look briefly, at how this is achieved. In the
example shown in Figure 6, the angular position of the output shaft is intended
to follow the reference voltage (ref), but it should be clear that if the motor
drives a toothed belt linear outputs can also be obtained. The potentiometer
mounted on the output shaft provides a feedback voltage proportional to the
actual position of the output shaft.
 Fig 6 Closed-loop angular position control using DC motor and angle
feedback from a servo-type potentiometer

The voltage from this potentiometer must be a linear function of angle, and
must not vary with temperature; otherwise, the accuracy of the system will be
in doubt. The feedback voltage (representing the actual angle of the shaft) is
subtracted from the reference voltage (representing the desired position) and
the resulting position error signal is amplified and used to drive the motor so
as to rotate the output shaft in the desired direction.

When the output shaft reaches the target position, the position error becomes
zero, no voltage is applied to the motor, and the output shaft remains at rest.
Any attempt to physically move the output shaft from its target position
immediately creates a position error and a restoring torque is applied by the
motor.To appreciate the overall operation of a two-loop scheme we can consider
what we would do if we were controlling the motor manually.
For example, if we found by observing the tachogenerator that the speed was
below target, we would want to provide more current (and hence torque) in
order to produce acceleration, so we would raise the armature voltage.

We would have to do this gingerly however, being mindful of the danger of

creating an excessive current because of the delicate balance that exists
between the back e.m.f., E and applied voltage, V.

Position control is critical in applications that require precise movement, such

as robotics and CNC machinery. Electric drives help in controlling the position
of motors with high accuracy, ensuring that mechanical parts or tools move to
exact locations needed for detailed assembly, machining, or robotic picking and
placing. The closed loop position control scheme consists of a closed loop speed
control system with an inner current control loop inside an outer most position
loop. Current and speed loop restrict the current and speed within safe limits,
thus enhance the speed of response & reduce the effects of non-linearity’s in
the converter as well as motor and load (such as non-linear transfer
characteristic of converter, coulomb, friction, variation of parameter due to
temperature and friction) on the transient and steady state performance of the
position control system. Position controls are required in a number of drive
applications, example feed drive in machine tools, screw down mechanism in
rolling mills. The closed loop of position control is shown in Figure 7.

Fig 7 Closed-loop position control

4. Efficiency Enhancement

By optimizing the control of speed, torque, and position, electric drives improve
the overall efficiency of motor operations. They reduce energy consumption by
ensuring that motors only use the amount of power necessary for the specific
task. This not only saves energy but also decreases wear and tear on the
system, extending the equipment's lifespan
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 09 Lecture No: 30

Topic Name: Four Quadrant Operation
Objectives:
● Students will be able to explain the fundamental equation of torque.
● Students will be able to describe the four quadrant operation of electric
drive.
● Students will be able to explain the importance of four quadrant
operation of electric drive.

Lecture Content:

Fundamental Torque Equation

A motor generally drives a load (machines) through some transmission system.

While motor always rotate, the load may rotate or may undergo a translational
motion.

Load speed may be different from that of motor and if the load has many parts,
their speeds may be different and while some may rotate, other may go through
a translational motion.

But we represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational system as

shown.

Equivalent motor-load system

It is based on force torque analogy and used on various notations are :

J = Instantaneous moment of inertia of themotor-load system referred to the
motorshaft, kg-m 2

wm =Instantaneous value of angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.

T = Developed motor torque, N-m

TL = Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque referred to motor shaft, N-m.

It is based on force torque analogy and various notations used are as below:
J  Instantaneous moment of inertia of the motor-load system referred to the
2
motor shaft, kg-m
m  Instantaneous value of angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
T  Developed motor torque, N-m

Tl  Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque referred to motor shaft, N-m.

Motor load system of figure can be described by the following fundamental
torque equation. Load torque includes friction and windage torque of
motor.
d d m dJ
T  Tl  ( J m )  J  m ….(i)
dt dt dt

The equation (i) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders,

reel drives, industrial robots. For drives with constant inertia    0

dJ
 dt 

d m
Therefore, T  Tl  J ….(ii)
dt

The equation (ii) shows that torque developed by motor is counterbalanced by a

d m   d m 
load torque Tl and a dynamic torque J   . Torque component J   is
 dt   dt 

called the dynamic torque because it is present only during the

transient operation.
Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than
Tl . During acceleration, motor should supply not only the load torque but
 d
an additional torque component J  m  in order to overcome the drive
 dt 

inertia. In drives with large inertia such as electric trains, motor torque
must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order to get adequate
acceleration. In drives requiring fast transient response, motor torque
should be maintained at the highest value and motor load system should
be designed with a lowest possible inertia. Energy associated with
 d 
J m 
dynamic torque  dt  is stored in the form of kinetic energy given by

 J 2m   d 
  J m 
 2  . During deceleration dynamic torque  dt  has a negative sign.

Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T and maintains drive

motion by extracting energy from stored kinetic energy.

Motor load system of figure can be described by the following fundamental

torque equation. Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.

The equation (i) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders,
reel drives, industrial robots. For drives with constant inertia

So the speed of the system is not determined by the motor only, but is also
heavily dependent on the load characteristics.

Hence, the characteristics of the load cannot be ignored when designing an

effective electric drive system

Bidirectional Electric Drive Systems

Bidirectional electric drive systems are capable of operating in both forward

and reverse directions. This flexibility is essential for applications that require
reversible operation without the need to manually switch the mechanical setup.
Now consider the case of an electric motor driving a mechanical load in a
steady state operation.

A force exerted by either part of the drive system (load or motor) is opposed by
a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction from the other. If a
frictional force is present, it is a part of the load force; this is true for any drive
system even in standstill. In drive applications, classifying the action and
reaction forces is not always obvious. Either part of the drive system can
produce an action force depending on the nature of the operation.

Let us consider an example as shown. An elevator is moving passengers in both

directions (up and down). For simplicity, let us assume that the elevator does
not have a counterweight. In the upward and downward directions, the motor
sees the load force Fl , which is a function of the weight of the passengers plus
elevator cabin, cables, and so on. Since the weight and Fl are unidirectional,
the motor force Fm is also unidirectional. The speed of the motor in this
operation is bidirectional.
 Bidirectional speed

Let us see another example. The figure represents an electric bus driven uphill,
then downhill. To simplify the system, assume that the electric motor is
directly mounted on the front wheels of the bus.

Let us first study the system motion in the uphill direction. The force of the
load is divided into two components: one is perpendicular to the road, F,
producing the frictional force, and the other, Fl , is parallel to the road and
represents the load torque exerted on the motor.The direction of Fl depends on
the orientation of the road with respect to the gravitational force. Fl always
pulls the bus toward the base of the hill. If frictional forces are ignored, the
load torque seen by the motor is Fl multiplied by the radius of the wheel. This
load torque must be matched by a motor torque Fm in the opposite direction to
Fl.

Now let us assume that the bus is in the downhill direction. Because of the
gravitational force, Fl still pulls the bus toward the bottom of the hill. However,
as seen by the motor, the load force is reversed. The motor torque must then
change its direction to counterbalance the torques of the load. Note that the
motor speed is unidirectional in the uphill and downhill motions. Only the
torques of the system are reversed.

Four-quadrant operation of electric motors

The motor driving the load may operate in different regimes not only as a
motor, but for specific periods also as a generator and as a brake. In many
applications, the motor may be required to run in both directions as we saw.

Therefore, in sketching the speed-torque characteristics of either the load or

the motor, it is preferable to make use of all four quadrants of the speed-torque
plane for plotting, rather than to confine the characteristics to the first
quadrant alone.
Four Quadrant Operation refers to the ability of a drive system, particularly
motors, to operate in all four quadrants of the torque-speed plane.

This capability is critical for precise control of motor speed and direction under
varying operational conditions.

The four quadrants represent different combinations of direction (forward or

reverse) and mode (motoring or braking) that a motor can operate in:

Quadrant 1: Forward Motoring –Here, the Motor runs forward and drives the
load.

• Quadrant 2: Forward Braking – In this quadrant, Motor runs forward but

decelerates the load, typically using regenerative braking.
• Quadrant 3: Reverse Motoring – The Motor in 3rd quadrant runs in
reverse, driving the load backward.
• Quadrant 4: Reverse Braking – Here, in this quadrant, the Motor runs in
reverse and decelerates the load.
• If we see the Graphical Representation of Each Quadrant: then
• A two-axis graph is plotted where the horizontal axis represents speed and
the vertical axis represents torque. Each quadrant reflects a unique
combination of these variables:
• Positive speed and positive torque for Quadrant 1.
• Positive speed and negative torque for Quadrant 2.
• Negative speed and negative torque for Quadrant 3.
• Negative speed and positive torque for Quadrant 4.
• This graphical tool is essential for visualizing the operation of the drive and
understanding how changes in control parameters affect motor
performance.
Now let us see the conventions used for positive and negative values of speed,
motor torque and load torque which govern the power-flow analysis of electric
drive systems .

The speed is assumed to have a positive sign, if the direction of rotation is

counter-clockwise or is in such a way to cause an 'upward' or 'forward' motion
of the drive. In case of reversible drives the positive sign for speed may be
assigned arbitrarily either to counter-clockwise or clockwise direction of
rotation.

The motor torque is taken positive, when it causes an increase in speed in the
positive sense. The load torque is assigned a positive sign when it acts against
the motor torque. The four different modes of operation of an electric machine
is shown in Figure a.

Although the diagram indicates that the field polarity is maintained and the
armature current is reversed to obtain negative torque, the same effect is
obtained by reversing the field polarity and maintaining the armature current
direction.

Field reversal is necessary with some forms of rectifier control. Both DC and AC
rotating machines can operate across all the four quadrants, but DC machines
transition between quadrants more smoothly and perform reliably throughout
their entire operating range
 Fig. (a) Four quadrants operation of motor

The four-quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist consisting of a cage with

or without load, a rope wound onto a drum to hoist the cage and a balance
weight magnitude larger than that of the empty cage but smaller than that of
the loaded cage is shown in Fig. (b) .

The arrows here indicate the actual directions of motor (or electromagnetic)
torque, load torque and motion in the four quadrants.

Here the arrows correspond to the sign conventions we saw for speed, motor
torque and load torque.
 Fig. (b) Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

The load torque of the hoisting mechanism may be taken to be constant (i.e.
independent of speed).

Forces due to friction and windage are negligible in case of low speed hoists
and the torque is primarily due to the gravitational pull on the cage.

This torque being an active load torque does not change its sign even when the
direction of rotation of the driving motor is reversed.

Therefore, speed-torque curves of a hoist load can be represented by means of

vertical lines passing through two quadrants.
The speed-torque characteristic of a loaded hoist is shown in fig. (b) by means
of the vertical line passing the first and fourth quadrants.

Since, the counter-weight is assumed to be heavier than the empty cage, the
inherent tendency of the load viz the empty cage is to move in an opposite
direction to that of load presented by the loaded cage and hence the speed-
torque curve of the unloaded hoist is represented by the vertical line passing
through second and third quadrants.

Let us see the operation in all the four quadrants.

Quadrant-I: In the first quadrant, the load torque acts in a direction opposite
to that of rotation.

Hence, to drive the loaded hoist up, the developed torque in the motor M must
act in the same direction as the speed of rotation i.e. Tm should be of positive
sign.

Since, the speed is also positive being an upward motion, the power will also
have a positive sign, i.e. the drive is said to be in motoring mode.

Quadrant-I is arbitrarily and conventionally, thus, designated as 'forward

motoring quadrant'.

Since speed and torque are both taken as positive when motoring forwards,
upwards or counter-clockwise, the product of E and I is taken as positive under
these conditions.

It is convenient to assume that both E and I are positive under this condition,
i.e. we assume the flux to be positive, so that positive E corresponds to positive
speed and positive I to positive torque.

If in all circuits the direction of the current in the field winding is assumed the
same, the flux is automatically positive.
Then the Negative armature current indicates negative torque, i.e. the torque in
the reverse, downward or clockwise direction. Similarly, negative emf indicates
negative speed.

So to avoid difficulties, it is required to maintain these conventions consistently

in the circuit analysis. &

The signs will indicate the mode of operation.

The motor equation V=E+IR must, of course, be used consistently for all cases,
and no attempt should be made to prejudge the behavior by using the
"generator equation" V=E-IR at any time.

Quadrant-II: The hoisting up of the unloaded cage is represented in the second

quadrant.

Since the counter-weight is heavier than the empty cage, the speed at which
the hoist is moved upwards may attain a dangerously high value.

In order to avoid this, the motor torque must act in a direction opposite to that
of rotation i.e., the motor should switch-over to braking or generator regime.

Note that Tm will have a negative sign and speed still has a positive sign, being
forwards, upwards and counterclockwise.

Thus, power has negative sign, corresponding to the generating or braking

operation.

Quadrant-III: The third quadrant represents the downward motion of the

empty cage.

The downward journey of the cage is opposed by the torque due to the counter-
weight and friction at the transmitting parts.
Therefore, for moving the cage downwards, the motor torque must act in the
same direction as the motion of the cage. The electrical machine acts as a
motor as in the first quadrant, but in the reverse direction. Thus, quadrant-III
becomes 'reverse motoring'.

The motor torque has a negative sign as it causes an increase in speed in

the negative sense and the speed has a negative sign being a downward
motion. Power, thus, has a positive sign.

Quadrant-IV: The downward motion of the loaded cage is shown in the fourth
quadrant. The motion can take place under the action of load itself, without the
use of any motor. However, in order to limit the speed of the downward motion
of the hoist, the electrical machine must act as a brake.

The motor torque has a positive sign as it causes a decrease in speed in the
downward motion. The speed, of course, has a negative sign, being a downward
journey.

The power, thus, acquires a negative sign, corresponding to the reverse

braking operation of the motor.

Importance of Four Quadrant Operation.

Significance in Industrial Applications

They have Applications in many Key Industries: such as Transportation,

Robotics & Manufacturing.

1. Transportation: For transportation, Four quadrant operation is

important in vehicles for enabling both acceleration and
regenerative braking, which captures energy during deceleration
and feeds it back into the system.
 2. In Robotic systems: Four Quadrant operation provides the ability
for robotic arms and machines to move fluidly and precisely in any
direction, with the capability to accelerate, decelerate, and hold
positions under varying loads.
3. Manufacturing: Four Quadrant operation, Enhances automated
processes by allowing machinery to operate more dynamically. This
is done by adjusting speeds and directions quickly based on
production needs.

Four Quadrant operation has many Benefits for Control and Efficiency; we will
be focusing on three main areas: enhanced control, increased efficiency, and
operational flexibility.

Enhanced Control

Four quadrant operation offers unmatched precision in both speed and torque
control. This level of control is critical in industries where high accuracy is
essential. Imagine robotic surgery or high-precision cutting machines—here,
even a minor deviation can lead to significant issues. Four quadrant drives
ensure that machines operate exactly as intended, responding instantly and
accurately to command changes.

Increased Efficiency

Four quadrant drives significantly reduce energy waste. This is largely thanks
to regenerative braking, a feature that allows systems to recover energy during
braking instead of losing it as heat. This recovered energy can then be reused
within the system, leading to substantial cost savings and environmental
benefits. In industries with high power demands, such as transportation and
heavy manufacturing, the impact on both operational costs and sustainability
is profound.

Operational Flexibility
Four-quadrant operation allows machines to quickly adapt to changes in
processing tasks without needing to pause or stop. This adaptability is crucial
in modern production environments that demand versatility and continuous
operation. Whether adjusting to different material loads or switching between
production modes, the ability to maintain continuous and efficient production
without downtime is a game-changer.

In conclusion, the integration of four quadrant operation into drive systems

transforms how industries manage and optimize their machinery. It's not just
about improving individual tasks but enhancing the entire production
ecosystem."

Let us now discuss the technical backbone of four quadrant drives.

Understanding the components and their roles is important for grasping how
these drives manage complex tasks with high efficiency.

Converters: Converters are not just simple power converters; in a four-

quadrant setup, they are dynamic, capable of reversing the power flow. This
functionality is vital for enabling the motor to switch between motoring to
braking and forward to reverse operations smoothly. By manipulating the
direction and nature of the current, converters allow the drive to exploit the
motor’s full capabilities across all four quadrants.

Controllers: Controllers are the brains of the operation. Controllers use

sophisticated algorithms to direct the converters and motors, dictating speed,
direction, and torque based on real-time inputs and pre-set conditions.

Their ability to rapidly process inputs and adjust outputs allows for seamless
transitions between operating mode and this is very critical in applications that
demand high precision and adaptability.
Feedback Mechanisms:

These components are the sensory organs of the drive system. Whether it's
speed sensors, torque sensors, or position encoders, feedback mechanisms
provide the necessary data to the controller.

This continuous loop of feedback and adjustment is what makes modern drives
incredibly responsive and precise.

It’s the reason a vehicle can efficiently convert kinetic energy back to electrical
energy during braking, or why a robotic arm can adjust its motion instantly to
correct errors.

In essence, the synergy between converters, controllers, and feedback

mechanisms in four quadrant drives allows for unparalleled control and
efficiency. These systems do not just react; they anticipate and adapt, ensuring
optimal performance across a wide range of demanding applications.

Let us now see the advanced control strategies used in four quadrant
operations—specifically, vector control and direct torque control. Both
techniques play crucial roles in enhancing the performance and efficiency of
modern drive systems.

Vector Control:

This method allows us precise management of the motor’s magnetic fields,

which is crucial for applications requiring exact speed and torque adjustments,
such as in automated assembly lines or in vehicles.

The main advantage of vector control is its ability to maintain optimal

performance throughout the motor's entire operating range, thus maximizing
efficiency.
However, implementing vector control can be complex as it requires detailed
modeling of the motor and its responses to achieve the right settings for the
control algorithms.

Direct Torque Control:

This method is known for its quick response times, especially useful in
situations where load conditions change abruptly—think of elevator systems or
cranes where load can vary significantly in a short time.

DTC makes the control system simpler because it doesn't need pulse-width
modulation modulators, making it easier to set up than vector control.

However, it does have some challenges. The main problems are that it can
cause more torque fluctuations and the frequency of switching can vary, which
might disrupt the smooth running of the drive.
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 10 Lecture No: 31

Topic Name: AC Drive Control-1
Objectives:
● Students will be able to analyze the performance of induction motor drives
under different conditions.
● Students will be able to analyse different steady state speed control methods for
Induction motors.
● Students will be able to understand Structure and function of AC drives
(inverters, rectifiers, and controllers)

Lecture Content:

AC drive

An AC drive is a device used to control the speed of an electrical motor in order

to enhance process control, reduce energy usage and generate energy
efficiently, decrease mechanical stress on motor control applications.AC drive
is also called as variable frequency drive (VFD), variable speed drive (VSD), or
adjustable speed drive (ASD). AC drives used to control the speed and torque of
an AC motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the motor.

How AC Drives Work:

1. Rectifier: Converts incoming AC power to DC power.

2. DC Link/Bus: Smoothes and stabilizes the DC voltage.
3. Inverter: Converts the DC back into a variable-frequency AC signal,
adjusting the frequency and voltage to control motor speed.
4. Control Unit: Manages the drive’s output by controlling the inverter
based on inputs like desired speed, torque, or process parameters.

1
Types of AC Drives:

1. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Drives: Common in many applications

due to their simple design and efficiency.
2. Current Source Inverter (CSI) Drives: Used for high-power applications
but require a larger footprint.
3. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Drives: The most commonly used,
providing precise control and energy efficiency.

Advantages of AC Drives:

 Energy Savings: Adjusting motor speed to match load demands reduces

power consumption.
 Improved Process Control: Accurate control over motor speed and
torque enhances production quality.
 Soft Start and Stop: Reduces mechanical stress on motors and
equipment, extending their lifespan.
 Reduced Maintenance: Less mechanical wear and tear due to smoother
operations.

Applications:

 HVAC Systems: For controlling fans, pumps, and compressors.

 Conveyor Belts: Adjusting speed to match production requirements.
 Pumps: Controlling flow rates and pressure in industrial and municipal
systems.
 Fans: Managing airflow in ventilation and exhaust systems.

AC drives play a crucial role in enhancing energy efficiency and optimizing

motor performance in a variety of settings, from industrial plants to
commercial buildings.

2
Three-phase induction motors are very well suited to fulfill the demand of loads
requiring significantly a constant speed. Several industrial applications,
however, need adjustable speeds for their efficient operation.

The various methods of speed control through semiconductor devices are as

under

1. by adjusting the stator voltage

2. by adjusting the frequency of the source
3. by adjusting the resistance of the rotor circuit
4. by injecting slip frequency emfs to the rotor circuit

Control of an Induction Motor by Stator Voltage Variation

Stator voltage control is a method used to regulate the speed and performance
of an induction motor by adjusting the voltage applied to its stator windings.
This technique is commonly used in applications where precise speed control is
required. The stator voltage can be varied from zero to full value within the
triggering angle range. By reducing Stator Voltage, speed of a high-slip
induction motor can be reduced by an amount which is sufficient for the speed
control of some fan and pump drives. The speed-torque curves for this control
are shown in Fig.1.

While torque is proportional to voltage squared, current is proportional to

voltage .Therefore, as voltage is reduced to reduce speed, for the same current
motor develops lower torque. Consequently, method is suitable for applications
where torque demand reduces with speed, which points towards its suitability
for fan and pump drives. Variable voltage for speed control is obtained using ac
voltage controllers.

3
 Fig.1 Stator Voltage Control

Controlling an induction motor by stator voltage variation is one of the simplest

methods of speed control. This technique adjusts the voltage supplied to the
stator to vary the motor’s speed and torque.

Working Principle:

The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the

applied stator voltage:

T∝V2

Where:

T = Torque

V = Stator Voltage

When the stator voltage is reduced, the torque produced by the motor
decreases, which in turn reduces the speed for a given load. This method is
effective mainly for small speed reductions and light load conditions.

Advantages:

 Simple and Low-Cost: The method is inexpensive and does not require
complex circuitry or equipment.

4
  Compact Control: Typically implemented using thyristors or triacs,
which can be easily integrated into motor controllers.

Disadvantages:

 Limited Speed Range: Effective only over a small range of speed

reductions.
 Reduced Efficiency: Increased slip leads to higher losses.
 Poor Torque Characteristics: Significant torque reduction at lower
voltages makes this method unsuitable for high-torque applications.

Implementation:

Stator voltage control is often achieved using devices like:

 AC Voltage Controllers: Use semiconductor devices like thyristors to

adjust the supply voltage.
 Autotransformers: Adjust voltage through manual or automatic changes
in tap settings.

Stator Voltage Regulator

Voltage Adjustment: The regulator adjusts the voltage supplied to the motor’s
stator. This can be done using devices such as autotransformers, variable
transformers, or electronic controllers.

Torque Control: Reducing the stator voltage decreases the magnetic flux,
which reduces the torque produced by the motor. Increasing the voltage
increases the flux and, therefore, the torque.

Speed Control: The speed of the motor is related to the frequency of the supply
voltage and the flux. Lowering the stator voltage decreases the flux, which
typically leads to a reduction in speed. Conversely, increasing the voltage raises
the flux and can increase the speed.

5
Domestic fan motors, which are always single-phase, are controlled by a single-
phase triac voltage controller shown in Fig.2. Speed control is obtained by
varying firing angle of the triac. These controllers, commonly known as solid
state fan regulators, are now preferred over conventional variable resistance
regulators because of higher efficiency. Industrial fans and pumps are usually
driven by three-phase motors.

Fig.2 Stator voltage control by semiconductor voltage controller

Fig. 2 shows a commonly used thyristor voltage controller for speed control of
3-phase motors. Motor may be connected in star or delta. Speed control is
obtained by varying conduction period of thyristors. For low power ratings,
anti-paralleled thyristor pair in each phase can be replaced by a triac.

Types of Stator Voltage Regulators:

1. AC Voltage Controllers:

Use semiconductor devices such as triacs or thyristors to chop the

AC waveform, effectively reducing the RMS voltage supplied to the
motor. These controllers are phase-controlled devices where the
firing angle of the semiconductor device determines the amount of
voltage delivered.

6
 2. Autotransformers:

Provide stepped voltage control by adjusting the transformer taps.

This is an older, bulkier solution but is still used in some
applications.

3. Magnetic Amplifiers:

Use magnetic cores and windings to control the voltage. This is a

more specialized solution and is less common in modern systems.

Applications:

Stator voltage regulators are generally used in applications where:

 Speed control is needed over a limited range.

 Precise speed regulation is not critical.
 The load characteristics are light, such as in fans, blowers, and small
pumps.

Variable frequency control

Variable frequency control of an induction motor is a technique used to

manage the speed and torque of the motor by adjusting the frequency of the
electrical power supplied to it. This method is commonly implemented using a
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).

Working Principle:

The synchronous speed of an induction motor is given by:

120×f
Ns=
P

7
 Where:

 Ns = Synchronous speed (in RPM)

 f = Supply frequency (in Hz)
 P = Number of poles of the motor

By controlling the frequency f, the synchronous speed Ns can be adjusted,

thereby controlling the motor speed.

Types of Variable Frequency Control:

1. Scalar Control (V/f Control):

 Maintains a constant V/f ratio for smooth motor operation.

 Simple and commonly used in general-purpose applications
where precision control is not critical.

2. Vector Control (Field-Oriented Control):

 Provides more precise control of both speed and torque.

 Suitable for applications requiring high performance and
dynamic response, such as robotics and CNC machines.

3. Direct Torque Control (DTC):

 Offers high dynamic performance and quick torque response.

 Commonly used in applications requiring rapid changes in load.

Constant Volt/Hz (V/f) control

Constant Volt/Hz (V/f) control, also known as V/f control or Volts per Hertz
control, is a method used to regulate the speed and torque of an induction
motor by maintaining a constant ratio of voltage to frequency. This technique is

8
commonly implemented using a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to achieve
efficient motor performance across various operating conditions.

When either V saturates or reaches rated value at base speed, it cannot be

increased with frequency. Therefore, above base speed, frequency is changed
with V maintained constant. With V maintained constant, maximum torque
decreases with increase in frequency (or speed). Variation in terminal voltage
with frequency is therefore as shown in Fig.3.

Fig.3 V-f relation

How Constant Volt/Hz Control Works

Speed Control: The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the

frequency of the AC supply. By varying the frequency, the motor's speed can be
adjusted.

Flux Regulation: To maintain efficient motor operation and avoid overheating,

the motor’s magnetic flux should remain constant. The magnetic flux is
proportional to the voltage-to-frequency ratio. Maintaining a constant V/f ratio
ensures that the motor operates with stable flux, regardless of speed changes.

V is kept constant above the base speed. Below the base speed (V/f) ratio is
maintained constant, except at low frequencies where (V/f) ratio is increased to
keep maximum torque constant. Corresponding speed torque curves are shown
in Fig.4 both for motoring and braking operations.

9
The curves suggest that speed control and braking operation are available from
nearly zero speed to above synchronous speed. A given torque is obtained with
a lower current when the operation at any frequency is restricted between the
synchronous speed and the maximum torque point, both for motoring and
braking operations

Fig.4 Speed torque characteristics

Block diagram of Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive scheme

is shown in Fig.5. The motor is fed from a variable frequency variable voltage
source (VFVS). V* and f* are voltage and frequency commands for VFVS.

Fig.5 Variable Frequency Control

10
Flux control block produces a voltage command V* for VFVS in order to
maintain the relationship of Fig. between V* and f*. Reference frequency f* is
changed to control speed. A delay circuit is introduced between f* and fr, so
that even when f* is changed by a large amount, f* will change only slowly so
that motor speed can track changes in f*, thus restricting the motor operation
for each frequency between synchronous speed and the maximum torque
point. variable frequency variable voltage source can be a voltage source
inverter or a cycloconverter.

Constant and variable torque regions of variable frequency induction

motor

Since the voltage can be varied to maintain the constant flux, constant torque
operation is possible up to rated frequency. Beyond the rated frequency, the
voltage remains at its rated value and the machine operates in flux weakening
mode.

The motor gives constant output at all speeds and is called constant horse
power mode. These modes are shown in Fig.6.

Fig.6 Constant and variable torque regions of variable frequency induction motor

11
Advantages of Variable Frequency Control:

 Wide Speed Range: Allows precise control over a broad range of speeds,
from near-zero to the motor’s maximum rated speed.
 Energy Efficiency: Matches motor speed to load requirements,
significantly reducing energy consumption.
 Smooth Operation: Reduces mechanical stress on the motor and
connected equipment during start-up and changes in speed.
 Improved Process Control: Provides precise control of both speed and
torque, improving the overall quality of the process.

Applications:

 Pumps and Fans: Frequently used in HVAC systems and water treatment
plants.
 Conveyors: Speed control in manufacturing processes.
 Cranes and Hoists: Precise speed and torque control for lifting and
positioning.
 Machine Tools: High accuracy in speed and torque for milling, grinding,
and other machining operations.

Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) control

Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) control is a technique used to

manage the performance of induction motors by adjusting both the voltage
and frequency of the power supply. This approach is particularly effective in
applications where precise control over motor speed and torque is required.

Principle of Operation:

Voltage and Frequency Relationship: The speed of an induction motor is

primarily determined by the frequency of the supply voltage. However, to
maintain optimal performance and efficiency, the voltage must be adjusted

12
 proportionally to the frequency. This maintains the correct voltage-to-
frequency ratio, known as the Volts per Hertz (V/f) ratio.

Fig. 7 Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) control

They provide a variable voltage, variable frequency supply from constant

voltage, constant frequency mains, and are two stage conversion devices.

Applications

 HVAC Systems: For controlling fan and pump speeds to optimize

heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
 Industrial Pumps: Adjusting speed to match varying flow and
pressure requirements.
 Conveyor Systems: Controlling speed for material handling and
processing.
 Elevators and Escalators: Providing smooth operation and speed
control.

Control of Induction Motors by Voltage Source Inverters

Controlling induction motors using Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) is a widely

used technique in modern motor drives.Voltage Source Inverter Control of
Induction Motor allows a variable frequency supply to be obtained from a dc

13
supply. Fig. 8 shows a VSI employing transistors. Any other self-commutated
device can be used instead of a transistor.

Fig.8 Transistor inverter fed induction motor drive

Generally MOSFET is used in low voltage and low power inverters, IGET
(insulated gate bipolar transistor) and power transistors are used up to
medium power levels and GTO (gate turn off thyristor) and IGCT (insulated gate
commutated thyristor) are used for high power levels. Voltage Source Inverter
Control of Induction Motor can be operated as a stepped wave inverter or a
pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter. It involves using an inverter to convert
a DC input into a controlled AC output that can drive the motor.

Working Principle of VSI:

A Voltage Source Inverter operates by converting a fixed DC voltage into an AC

output of adjustable frequency and magnitude. This is done by switching
semiconductor devices (such as IGBTs, MOSFETs, or thyristors) in a specific
sequence to produce a three-phase AC output. The frequency of the output
determines the speed of the motor, while the voltage controls the torque. When
operated as a stepped wave inverter, transistors are switched in the sequence
of their numbers with a time difference of T/6 and each transistor is kept on

14
for the duration T/2, where T is the time period for one cycle. Resultant line
voltage waveform is shown in Fig.9.

Fig.9 Stepped wave inverter line voltage waveform

Harmonics are reduced, low frequency harmonics are eliminated, associated

losses are reduced and smooth motion is obtained at low speeds also when
inverter is operated as a pulse-width modulated inverter. Fig.10 shows output
voltage waveform for sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

Fig.10 PWM Inverter line voltage waveform

The variable frequency required for the speed control of three phase ac motors
is obtained from a three phase inverter. To avoid magnetic saturation and to
obtain constant flux conditions in the machine, the voltage fed to the motor
must also be varied. Therefore an inverter feeding a three phase motor must be
capable of providing a variable voltage, variable frequency supply. Square wave
voltage source inverter feeding a three phase induction motor. Since the voltage
is a controlled quantity; these are called voltage source inverters. When the
voltage control is done external to the inverter, the line side rectifier must be a

15
phase controlled one. By varying the firing angle the output voltage of the
rectifier, and hence the input voltage to the inverter, can be varied.

Fig.11 Square wave voltage source inverter feeding a three phase induction motor

These are called square wave or variable voltage inverters. If the voltage control
is available in the inverter itself, the input voltage of the inverter is constant
and a simple diode rectifier be sufficient on the line side.

Voltage source inverter is a kind of dc link converter, which is a two stage

conversion device. They provide a variable voltage, variable frequency supply
from constant voltage, constant frequency mains, and are two stage conversion
devices. A three phase supply is first rectified using a rectifier on the line side.
The rectified dc is inverted to ac of desired frequency by an inverter on the load
side, as shown in Fig.11. Three-phase ac is converted to constant dc by diode
rectifier. Voltage and frequency are both varied by PWM inverter. The circuitry
between the rectifier and the inverter consists of an inductor L and capacitor C
called as filter circuit. The inverter uses PWM for voltage control and hence is
called a PWM inverter or constant voltage inverter as shown in Fig 12(d).

The inductance in the dc link smoothens the current while the capacitor
maintains the voltage constant. The dc voltage to the inverter is normally
obtained by rectifying a 50 Hz supply using a bridge rectifier.

16
 Fig.12 Three-phase induction motor speed control through voltage source inverters.

Frequency of inverter operation is varied by varying T and the output voltage of

the inverter is varied by varying dc input voltage. When supply is dc, variable
dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a chopper between dc supply and
inverter as shown in Fig. 12(a). The rectifier and inverter are interconnected by
means of energy storing elements. These provide a kind of decoupling between
the rectifier and the inverter. Such converters are called dc link converters.
When supply is ac, variable dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a
controlled rectifier between ac supply and inverter as given in Fig.12(b). A large

17
electrolytic filter capacitor C is connected in dc link to make inverter operation
independent of rectifier or chopper and to filter out harmonics in dc link
voltage. The capacitance across the inverter maintains the constant voltage.Fig.
12(c) shows output voltage waveform for sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.
Since output voltage can now be controlled by pulse-width modulation, no
arrangement is required for the variation of input dc voltage; hence inverter
can be directly connected when the supply is dc.

Applications:

 HVAC Systems: For controlling fans, pumps, and compressors.

 Industrial Automation: Used in conveyors, assembly lines, and material
handling systems.
 CNC Machines and Robotics: Provides precise control of speed,
position, and torque.
 Electric Vehicles: Used in the traction control of motors for smooth
acceleration and braking.

Controlling induction motors with VSIs offers flexibility and efficiency in a

wide range of applications, from industrial machinery to consumer
products. The choice of control method depends on the specific
requirements of the application, including precision, performance, and cost.

Current Source Inverter (CSI) induction motor drive

A Current Source Inverter (CSI) induction motor drive is a type of power

conversion system used to control the speed and torque of an induction motor.
Unlike the more common Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) drive, which controls
the motor by adjusting the voltage, a CSI drive controls the motor by regulating
the current supplied to it. A thyristor Current Source Inverter Control of
Induction Motor (CSI) is shown in Fig.13. Diodes D1-D6 and capacitors C1-

18
C6 provide commutation of thyristors T1-T6, which are fired with a phase
difference of 60° in sequence of their numbers.

Fig.13 Thyristor Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor (CSI)

Working Principle:

In a CSI drive, the DC input is provided by a controlled current source,

typically achieved using a phase-controlled rectifier or a DC chopper. The
inverter converts this constant DC current into an AC current of variable
frequency, which is then supplied to the induction motor.

The key feature of a CSI is that it controls the motor by regulating the current,
unlike a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), which controls the voltage. The output
frequency of the CSI is adjusted to control the speed of the motor.

Fig.14 shows the nature of output current waveforms. Inverter behaves as a

current source due to the presence of large inductance Ld in dc link. The
constant dc link current is allowed to flow through the phases of the motor by
control of the inverter, and therefore the motor current is a quasi-square wave.

19
 Fig.14 output current waveforms

In a dc link converter, if the dc link current is controlled the inverter is called a

current source inverter. The variable dc link voltage is converted to a current
source by means of the inductance

Fig.15 Auto sequential commutated CS inverter feeding a three phase induction motor

For a given speed, torque is controlled by varying dc link current Id by changing

the value of Vd. when supply is dc, a chopper is interposed between the supply
and inverter. In fig. 16(a) uncontrolled dc voltage is regulated by chopper which
is then converted to current source by inductor Ld. As before Current Source
Inverter the control the torque and speed of three phase Induction Motor

20
 Fig.16 Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor

This drive can have regenerative braking capability and four-quadrant

operation if a two quadrant chopper providing current in one direction but
voltage in either direction is used.

In fig.16(b) phase controlled rectifier gives out controlled dc voltage. Inductor

Ld converts this voltage to constant current. Current Source Inverter regulates
the output frequency and thus the torque and speed of three phase Induction
Motor. The maximum value of dc output voltage of fully-controlled rectifier are
chosen so that the motor terminal voltage saturates at rated value.

When inverter frequency is reduced to make synchronous speed less than

motor speed, machine works as a generator. Power flows from machine to dc
link and dc link voltage Vd reverses. If fully-controlled converter of Fig. is made
to work as an inverter, the power supplied to dc link will be transferred to ac
supply and regenerative braking will take place, Thus, no additional equipment
is required for regenerative braking of CSI drive of Fig. Change of phase
sequence of Current Source Inverter Control of Induction Motor will provide
motoring and braking operations in the reverse direction

21
Applications

1. High Torque Applications: CSI drives are suitable for applications

requiring high starting torque, such as in heavy-duty motors and
industrial machinery.
2. Pumps and Fans: Used in systems where high torque is needed at low
speeds or in variable load conditions.
3. Elevators and Cranes: Applications that benefit from precise torque
control and high overload capability.

Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor

Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor allows variable frequency and

variable voltage supply to be obtained from a fixed voltage and frequency ac
supply. A variable frequency supply for feeding a three phase motor can be
obtained from a cycloconverter which operates on a 50 Hz supply and provides
a variable frequency supply at the output.

Working Principle:

A cycloconverter converts AC power from a fixed frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60

Hz) directly into a lower variable frequency AC power. This is achieved using an
array of thyristors or similar switching devices that control the output
waveform by selectively blocking or allowing portions of the input waveform.

Types of Cycloconverters:

1. Step-Down Cycloconverter: Converts a higher input frequency to a

lower output frequency (e.g., 50 Hz to 10 Hz). This is the most common
type used for speed control in induction motors.
2. Step-Up Cycloconverter: Converts a lower input frequency to a higher
output frequency, but this is less commonly used due to practical
challenges.

22
Cycloconverter Operation:

Cycloconverters typically consist of two converters:

 Positive Converter: Controls the positive half of the output waveform.

 Negative Converter: Controls the negative half of the output waveform.

By controlling the firing angles of the thyristors, the output frequency and
voltage are adjusted to control the speed and torque of the induction motor.
The output frequency can be varied from zero up to about one-third of the
input frequency.

A half-wave Cycloconverter Control of Induction Motor is shown in Fig. A

cycloconverter can be used to interconnect two three phase systems (Fig.). The
firing angle is so varied that the output voltage has a small distortion and is
nearly sinusoidal. Because of low harmonic content when operating at low
frequencies, smooth motion is obtained at low speeds.

Fig.17 Half-wave Cycloconverter fed Induction Motor

The phase control of line commutated cycloconverters provides a variable

voltage.The firing angle is varied over the period of the input voltage. The
output voltage is made up of segments of the input voltage. The voltage control
is possible in the inverter itself. The drive has regenerative braking capability.

23
Full four-quadrant operation is obtained by reversing the phase sequence of
motor terminal voltage. Since cycloconverter employs large number of
thyristors, it becomes economically acceptable only in large power drives.

The nature of Cycloconverter output voltage waveform is shown in fig. The drive
has regenerative braking capability. Full four-quadrant operation is obtained
by reversing the phase sequence of motor terminal voltage. Since
cycloconverter employs large number of thyristors, it becomes economically
acceptable only in large power drives

Fig.18 Phase Voltage waveform

Applications:

1. Low-Speed High-Torque Drives: Used in large industrial processes such

as metal rolling, cement mills, and mining equipment.
2. Ship Propulsion Systems: Cycloconverters are employed in large ships
where low-speed, high-torque operation is essential.
3. Grinding Mills: Used in industries where slow rotational speeds and
high torque are critical.

References:
 P. S. Bimbhra, "Power Electronics", Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.

 G. K. Dubey, “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives”, CRC Press, 2002

 Vedam Subrahmanyam, “Electric Drives”, TMH (I), Second Edition

24
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 10 Lecture No: 33

Topic Name:DC Drive Control- I
Objectives:
● Students will be able to analyze the performance of dc motor drives
under different conditions.
● Students will familiarize with the various control techniques employed
for controlling drives with dc motors.
● Students will be able to understand the various semiconductor controlled
drives employing various dc motors.

Lecture Content:

DC DRIVES

Among the electric motors, the dc motors are very versatile in that they provide
a smooth speed control over a wide range. They have been very widely used in
the industry as variable speed drives. The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to:
V−Iara
N=
kΦ
Hence the speed of dc motor can be varied by changing:

 The terminal voltage of the armature, V known as Armature Voltage

Control
 The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra known Armature
Resistance Control
 The flux per pole, Φ or Field Flux Control
Their speeds below base speed can be controlled by armature-voltage control.
Speeds above base speed are obtained by field-flux control. As speed control
methods for dc motors are simpler and less expensive than those for ac motors,
dc motors are preferred where wide- speed control range is required.The
introduction of thyristors and the development of power converters using
thyristors have made the speed control of electric motors easier and more
straightforward. The main disadvantage of these motors is the presence of a
mechanical commutator which limits the maximum power rating and the
speed.
DC drives are systems used to control the speed and torque of DC motors. They
are essential in various industrial and commercial applications where precise
control of motor performance is needed. DC drives typically consist of a power
converter that adjusts the voltage and current supplied to the motor and a
control system that manages these adjustments to achieve the desired motor
characteristics.

Types of DC Motor Drives

Non-regenerative DC Drive – This drive rotates only in one direction and

hence also called single quadrant drive. The non-regenerative DC motor drive
does not have any inherent braking capability. The motor is terminated only by
removing the supply. Such type of drive is used in a placed where high friction
load or strong natural brake requires.
Regenerative DC Drive – It is a four quadrant drive, and it controls the speed,
direction and torque of a motor. Under the braking condition, this drive
converts mechanical energy and load into electrical energy which is returned to
the power source.
The important applications of DC motor drives are
 rolling mills
 paper mills
 mine winders
  hoists, machine tools
 traction, printing presses
 textile mills
 crane

Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives

Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives are used to get variable dc voltage from an
ac source of fixed voltage. Phase-controlled converters provide an adjustable dc
output voltage from a fixed ac input voltage. DC choppers also provide dc
output voltage from a fixed dc input voltage. Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives
are also known as Static Ward-Leonard drives. There are several types of
converters which can be used for feeding dc motors.
The dc motors used in conjunction with power-electronic converters are dc
separately excited motors or dc series motors. Depending upon the type of ac
source or the method of voltage control, DC drives are classified as under:

1. Single-phase dc drives
2. Three-phase dc drives
3. Chopper drives.

These drives can be half wave or full wave drives. A full wave drive can be
supplied from a fully controlled or half controlled converter. A dual converter
can be obtained by a connection of two two-quadrant converters. One quadrant
operation is possible with the half controlled converter, as it contains diodes in
several positions. Fig.1 shows commonly used Controlled Rectifier Fed DC
Drives and quadrants in which they can operate on Va-Ia plane. As thyristors
are capable of conducting current only in one direction, all these rectifiers are
capable of providing current only in one direction.
 Fig.1 Single phase half controlled rectifier

Fig.2 Three phase half controlled rectifier

The fully controlled converter is capable of two quadrant operation Rectifiers of

Figs.3 provide control of dc voltage in either direction and therefore, allow
motor control in quadrants I and IV. They are known as Fully Controlled
Rectifiers. For low power applications (up to around 10 kW) single-phase
rectifier drives are employed. For high power applications, three-phase rectifier
drives are used.

Fig.3 Three phase fully controlled rectifier

Fig.4 Three phase fully controlled rectifier

Single Phase Dc Drives

In these drives phase controlled converters operating from a single phase are
used to drive the motor. These are used for low and medium power
applications. These have inherently poor speed regulation with open loop
control. This can be improved with closed loop operation.

Fig. 5 demonstrates the general circuit arrangement for the speed control of a
separately excited dc motor from a single-phase source. The firing angle control
of converter 1 regulates the armature voltage applied to dc motor armature.

Fig. 5 General circuit arrangement for single-phase dc drives

Thus, the variation of delay angle 1, of converter 1 gives speed control below
base speed. The variation of the firing angle 2 of converter 2 installed in the
field circuit gives speeds above base speed. At low values of 1, for converter 1,
armature current may become discontinuous.

The discontinuous armature current causes

(i) more losses in the armature and
(ii) poor speed regulation.
It is usual to insert an inductor L in series with the armature circuit to reduce
the ripple in the armature current and to make the armature current
continuous for low values of motor speeds.
Depending upon the type of power-electronic converter used in the armature
circuit, single-phase dc drives may be subdivided as under:
1. Single-phase half-wave converter drives
2. Single-phase semiconverter drives
3. Single-phase full-converter drives
4. Single-phase dual converter drives.

Single Phase Half wave drives:

The Single Phase Separately Excited DC Motor Drives is supplied from a single
phase half wave circuit (Fig.6) The conduction angle of the thyristor is very
small, resulting in a very low average current. The torque developed is very
small resulting in a loss of torque at the rated rms current. The rms to average
current ratio is also more. The motor current is always discontinuous.

Fig.6 separately excited dc motor drive fed from a single phase controlled converter

The ripple frequency is equal to supply frequency. The current and voltage
wave forms are shown in Fig.7. The freewheeling diode across the load
improves the performance. The speed regulation is very poor. The speed
oscillation is quite high. The application of this drive is limited to low powers.
Low cost and simplicity are the advantages of this drive. This can provide only
one quadrant operation. Regeneration is not possible
 Fig.7 Half wave drive and its voltage and current waveforms

Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier Control is shown in Fig.8. T1 receives

gate pulse from  to π and T2 from (π+ ) to 2π. Motor is shown by its
equivalent circuit.

Fig. 8 Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier

For Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier, average output voltage is

Vo is armature terminal voltage
Vo =(Vm/2π)(1+ cos ) 0< < π
Vm is maximum value of source voltage
 is firing angle
Motor terminal voltage and current waveforms for the dominant discontinuous
and continuous conduction mode are shown in Figs

Fig 9 Discontinuous conduction and continuous conduction modes waveforms

In discontinuous conduction mode, when T1 is fired at , motor gets connected
to the source through T1 and D1 and Va = Vs. The armature current flows and
D2 gets forward biased at π. As a result, armature current freewheels through
the path formed by D1 and D2, and the motor terminal voltage is zero.
Conduction of D2 reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Armature current drops to
0 at β and stays zero until T2 is fired at (π+ )

A cycle of motor terminal voltage consists of three intervals

Duty interval ( ≤ ωt ≤ π) when motor is connected to the source and va = vs
Freewheeling interval (π ≤ ωt ≤ β)
Zero current interval (β ≤ ωt ≤ π + ) when ia = 0 and va = E.

Speed-torque curves are shown in Fig.10. A Single Phase Half Controlled

Rectifier Control is cheaper and gives higher power factor compared to single-
phase fully-controlled rectifier. But then it only provides control in quadrant I.

Fig 10 Speed-torque Characteristics

Single-phase Semiconverter Drives

A separately-excited dc motor, fed through two single-phase semiconverters,

one for the armature circuit and the other for the field circuit, is shown in
Fig.11. Both converters 1 and 2 are connected to the same single-phase source.
This converter also offers one-quadrant drive and is used up to about 15 kW de
drives.

Fig 11 A single phase semiconverter drive

A single phase semiconverter is also called single phase half controlled bridge
converter.
For single phase semiconverter , average output voltage is
Vo=(Vm/π)(1+ cos 1) 0< 1< π
Vo is armature terminal voltage

The waveforms for currents and voltages are sketched in Fig.12 on the
assumption of ripple free armature current. For field circuit
Vf=(Vm/π)(1+ cos 2) 0< 2< π
Vf is field voltage
Load voltage waveform forVo is shown in the fig. 12.

Fig 12 The waveforms for currents and voltages

Single Phase Full wave drives: The Single Phase Separately Excited DC Motor
Drives is supplied by a full wave converter. A full wave drive using a fully
controlled converter is shown in Fig.13 Having thyristors in all positions, the
firing of the thyristors allows negative average voltages, making the power flow
from load to the supply. The motor can be braked effectively using regenerative
braking.

Fig. 13 Single Phase Full wave dc drive

Motor is shown by its equivalent circuit. When field control is required, field is
fed from a controlled rectifier, otherwise from an uncontrolled rectifier. The ac
input voltage is defined by
Vs= Vmsinωt

In a cycle of source voltage, thyristors T1 and T3 are given gate signals from  to
π, and thyristors T2 and T4 are given gate signals from (π + ) to 2π. When
armature current does not flow continuously, the motor is said to operate in
discontinuous conduction. When current flows continuously, the conduction is
said to be continuous. The drive under consideration mainly operates in
discontinuous conduction.

Fig. 14 Discontinuous conduction and continuous conduction modes waveforms

Discontinuous conduction has several modes of operation. The motor terminal
voltage and current waveforms for the dominant discontinuous conduction and
continuous conduction modes are shown in Fig. 14. In a Single Phase Fully
Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Motor terminal voltage va, the drive operates
in two intervals
Duty interval ( ≤ ωt ≤ β) when motor is connected to the source and Va = Vs.
Zero current interval (β ≤ ωt ≤ π + ) when ia = 0 and va = E.

Fig. 15 Discontinuous conduction modes waveforms

In discontinuous conduction mode of Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier

Control of DC Motor (Fig. 15), current starts flowing with the turn-on of
thyristors T1 and T3 at ωt = . Motor gets connected to the source and its
terminal voltage equals vs. The current, which flows against both, E and the
source voltage after ωt = π, falls to zero at β. Due to the absence of current
T1 and T3 turn-off. Motor terminal voltage is now equal to its induced voltage E.
When thyristors T2 and T4 are fired at (π + ), next cycle of the motor terminal
voltage va starts.

In continuous conduction mode of Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier

Control of DC Motor (Fig. 16), positive current flows through the motor, and
T2 and T4 are in conduction just before . Application of gate pulses turns on
forward biased thyristors T1 and T3 at . Conduction of T1 and T3 reverse biases
T2 and T4 and turns them off. A cycle of va is completed when T2 and T4 are
turned-on at (π + ) causing turn-off of T1 and T3.
 Fig. 16 Continuous conduction modes waveforms

For single phase full wave converter, average output voltage is

Vo =(2Vm/π)cos  0< < π
Vo is armature terminal voltage
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction is shown by
dotted line shown in Fig.14. For torques less than rated, a low power drive
mainly operates in discontinuous conduction. In continuous conduction, the
speed-torque characteristics are parallel straight lines, whose slope, depends
on the armature circuit resistance Ra. Effect of discontinuous conduction is to
make speed regulation poor.

Fig. 17 speed-torque characteristics

Its use is limited to about 15 kW. For regenerative braking of the motor, the
power must flow from motor to the ac source and this is feasible only if motor
counter emf is reversed because then eaia would be negative. Note that
direction of current cannot be reversed as SCRs are unidirectional devices.
 Fig. 18 Single-phase full converter drive

So, for regenerative breaking, the polarity of ea, must be reversed which is
possible by reversing the direction of motor field current by making delay angle
of full converter 2 more than 90°. In order that current in field winding can be
reversed, the field winding must be energised through single-phase full
converter.

Fig 19 waveforms for currents and voltages

The motor can be braked effectively using regenerative braking. This can be
made possible at constant current. As the load current flows both during
positive and negative half cycles, the average value of the current is more than
that in the half wave drive. The torque capability increases for a given armature
heating. The speed oscillation is less. The speed regulation improves because of
increased conduction of current in the load. The ripple amplitude is smaller in
this case. The speed oscillations are decreased.

An additional inductance in thearmature improves the performance. It reduces

the ripple content, reduces the possibility of discontinuous conduction,
improves speed regulation, etc. This inductance also affects the performance of
the drive on the line side. The harmonic content of the line current is more at
lower values of inductance because of possible discontinuous load current. As
the inductance increases the harmonic factor decreases. The peak value of
current decreases with additional inductance. This improves the commutating
capability.

Single-phase Dual Converter Drives

A single-phase dual converter, obtained by connecting two full-converters in

anti-parallel, is shown feeding a separately- excited dc motor in Fig.20. Its use
is limited to about 15 kW dc drives. It offers four-quadrant operation. For
working in first and fourth quadrants, converter 1 is in operation.

Fig. 20 Single-phase dual converter feeding a separately-excited de motor

For operation in second and third quadrants, converter 2 is energised. Four-
quadrant operation demands that field winding of the motor is energised from a
single-phase, or three-phase, full converter.
For converter 1 in operation, V1 =(2Vm/π) cos 1, for 0 ≤ 1 ≤ π
For converter 2 in operation, V1 =(2Vm/π) cos 2, for 0 ≤ 2 ≤ π

Fig. 21 four-quadrant diagram.

(i) Converter 1 with 1 < 90° operates the motor in forward motoring mode
in quadrant 1.
(ii) Converter 1 with 1> 90° and with field excitation reversed operates the
motor in forward regenerative braking mode in quadrant 4.
(iii) Converter 2 with 2 < 90° operates the motor in reverse motoring mode in
quadrant 3,
(iii) Converter 2 with 2 > 90° and with field excitation reversed operates the
motor in reverse regenerative braking mode in quadrant 2.

THREE-PHASE DC DRIVES

Large dc motor drives are always fed through three-phase converters for their
speed control. A three-phase controlled converter feeds power to the armature
circuit for obtaining speeds below base speed. Another three-phase controlled
converter is inserted in the field circuit for getting speeds above base speed.
The output frequency of three-phase converters is higher than those of single-
phase converters. Therefore, for reducing the armature current ripple, the
inductance required in a three-phase dc drive is of lower value than that in a
single-phase dc drive. As the armature current is mostly continuous, the motor
performance in 3-phase dc drives is superior to those in single-phase dc drives.

The three-phase dc drives, as in single-phase dc drives, may be subdivided as

under:
1. Three-phase half-wave converter drives
2. Three-phase semi converter drives
3. Three-phase full-converter drives
4. Three-phase dual-converter drives

A three-phase converter can be used to give three or six pulses in the output.
The output voltage has fewer ripples when the number of pulses increases.
Therefore three-phase converters produce an output voltage with reduced
harmonic content. This has an effect on the peak/average and rms/average
ratios which effectively decrease. The filtering requirements are therefore less in
the output circuit. The speed regulation of the drive improves and speed
oscillations of the motor are small.

Three-Phase Half Wave Drive

Single phase drives discussed in the previous section are employed for low and
medium powers. When the power of the drive is very large the three-phase
converter is preferred for supplying the load. This converter offers one-
quadrant operation Fig.18 and may be used up to about 40 kW motor ratings.
A three-phase half-wave drive is a type of power electronic circuit used to
control the operation of electrical motors by converting three-phase AC power
into a form of DC power. It is a simpler variant compared to the three-phase
full-wave drive and is used in various applications where straightforward and
cost-effective control of motor speed and torque is sufficient.
The drive performance can also be improved by connecting a freewheeling diode
across the supply. The connections are shown in Fig. This drive is preferred to
the above if no regeneration is required. The freewheeling diode effectively
improves the line power factor, besides providing the beneficial effects of
decreasing the ratios of peak/average and rms/average currents of the load by
providing a kind of smoothening of the load voltage.

Fig. 22 Three pulse converter with FWD feeding d.c. motor

The 3-phase half-wave converter is not normally used in industrial application

because the supply currents contain dc component in ac supply line. Fig.23
shows wave of output voltage and armature current.

Fig. 23 waveforms of output voltage and armature current

The armature heating is therefore less. The amount of inductance required in
the load for filtering the harmonics is less. The load current is less prone to
discontinuous conduction. For rectifier circuit under continuous conduction
Va=(3Vm/2π) (1+cos 1)
As voltage across motor is dependent on firing angle, thus speed control is
possible by varying 

Fig. 24 Three-Phase Half controlled rectifier

Two-quadrant operation can also be obtained from three-phase half-wave

converter drive in case motor field winding is energised from single-phase or
three-phase full converter.

Fig. 25 Three-phase half-wave converter drive

For three- phase semiconverter, the average value of field voltage, is given by
Vf=(3Vm/2π) (1+cos 2)

Three Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor:

A three-phase semi-converter feeding a separately excited DC motor is a type of
power electronic system used for controlling the speed and torque of DC
motors. This setup combines a three-phase semi-converter with a separately
excited DC motor to provide efficient and adjustable motor drive solutions.
Large-kW motors are fed from 3-phase supply through three Phase Converters.
In a three Phase Semi Converter, the ripple frequency of the motor terminal
voltage is higher than that in the single-phase converter, as a result the
filtering requirements for smoothing out the motor current are less and the
current is mostly continuous. Three phase semi converter could be half-wave,
semi-converter, full-converter and dual-converter.

Semi- and full-converters are most common in use. A dual-converter is

employed for reversible drives with a power rating up to several MW. The three
Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor will is shown in the
circuit diagram of Fig. 26.

Fig. 26 Three Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor

Figure shows the phase voltage waveforms applied to the converter. Convenient
references for the thyristor firing angles are ωt1, ωt2, ωt3 … spaced 120° apart.
The three thyristors fire in sequence with a time spacing of 120° as shown in
the fig.27. After Th1 fires, diodes D2 or D3 conducts depending upon which
voltage is more positive of VAB and VAC.
Fig. 27 Voltage waveform for Three Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor

For the value of  chosen, it may be seen from Fig. that diode D2 conducts up
to 90° beyond which D3 conducts till Th2 fires. Then D3 and D1 conduct till
Th3 fires followed by D1, D2 conducting in sequence. This process then repeats
resulting in the voltage waveform of va as shown in Fig. 28

Fig. 28 Voltage waveform for Three Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor

For this value of , the freewheeling diode is not called upon to conduct the
armature current. The armature current ia and line current iA are shown in
Fig.29 respectively. The fundamental iA1 of the line current lags by a small
angle Φ1 resulting in less than unity power factor.

Fig. 29 Current waveform for Three Phase Semi Converter feeding Separately Excited DC Motor
Operation
a. Rectification
 AC to DC Conversion: The semi-converter converts the three-phase AC
input into a DC output. The combination of thyristors and diodes allows
for a variable DC output by controlling the firing angle of the thyristors.
 Variable Output: By adjusting the firing angle, the average output
voltage of the semi-converter can be varied, which in turn adjusts the
voltage applied to the DC motor's armature.
b. Motor Control
 Speed Control: The speed of the separately excited DC motor is
controlled by varying the DC voltage supplied to the armature. Increasing
the voltage increases the speed, while decreasing it reduces the speed.
 Torque Control: The torque is proportional to the product of the
armature current and the field flux. By adjusting the armature voltage
and field current, the torque can be controlled.
Applications
 Industrial Drives: Used in applications requiring precise control of DC
motors, such as conveyor systems, elevators, and machine tools.
 Battery Chargers: Suitable for applications requiring regulated DC
output for charging batteries.
 Adjustable Speed Drives: For machinery and equipment that needs
variable speed operation.

References:
 P. S. Bimbhra, "Power Electronics", Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.

 G. K. Dubey, “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives”, CRC Press, 2002

 Vedam Subrahmanyam, “Electric Drives”, TMH (I), Second Edition

Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 10 Lecture No: 34

Topic Name: DC Drive Control-II

Objectives:
● Students will be able to Learn speed control of dc motor drives in an
energy efficient manner using power electronics.
● Students will be able to analyse different steady state speed control
methods for dc motors.
● Students will be able to describe the operation of dc motor drives to
satisfy four-quadrant operation to meet mechanical load requirements.

Lecture Content:

Three phase full wave converter

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier using
six thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the
six thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at a suitable time by
applying proper gate trigger signals. The three phase full converter is
extensively used in industrial power applications where two quadrant
operations are required. It is widely used in various industrial applications,
including power supplies for DC motors, battery chargers, and high-power
rectification systems.

Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Separately Excited

Motor
Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control (6 pulse) fed separately excited
dc motor drive is shown in Fig.1. Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their
numbers with a phase difference of 60° by gate pulses of 120°duration.
 Fig. 1 Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control fed separately excited dc motor drive

Each thyristor conducts for 120, and two thyristors conduct at a time—one
from upper group (odd numbered thyristors) and the other from lower group
(even numbered thyristors) applying respective line voltage to the motor.
Transfer of current from an outgoing to incoming thyristor can take place when
the respective line voltage is of such a polarity that not only if forward biases
the incoming thyristor, but also leads to the reverse biasing of the outgoing
when incoming turns-on. Thus, firing angle for a thyristor is measured from
the instant when the respective line voltage is zero and increasing.

For example, the transfer of current from thyristor T5 to thyristor T1 can occur
as long as the line voltage VAC is positive. Hence, for thyristor T1, firing angle α
is measured from the instant VAC = 0. Motor terminal voltage and current
waveforms for continuous conduction are shown in Fig. 2 for motoring and
braking operations, respectively. Devices under conduction are also shown in
the figure. The discontinuous conduction is neglected here because it occurs is
a narrow region of its operation.

Waveforms
 Input Waveform: The input to the converter is a three-phase AC
waveform, which consists of three sinusoidal voltages separated by 120
degrees.
  Output Waveform: The output is a pulsating DC voltage. The waveform
has a smoother ripple compared to a single-phase rectifier because the
three-phase input reduces the peak-to-peak ripple.

Fig. 2 Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control fed separately excited dc motor drive

For the motor terminal voltage cycle from α + π/3 to α + 2π/3

Va=(3Vm/π)(cos α )
It offers two-quadrant drive and is used up to about 1500 kW drives. When
discontinuous conduction is ignored, speed-torque curves of Fig.3 are
obtained. Consequently, drive operates in quadrants I and IV.

Fig. 3 Speed-torque curves of three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control fed separately
excited dc motor drive

The circuit diagram, consisting of one three-phase full converter in the

armature circuit and another 3-phase full converter in the field circuit, is as
shown in Fig. 4. For regenerative purposes, the polarity of counter emf is
reversed by reversing the field excitation by making the firing-angle delay of
converter 2 more than 90°.

Fig. 4 Three-phase full converter feeding DC Separately Excited Motor

For converter 1 in the armature circuit, the average output voltage, is given by
Vo =(3Vm/π)(cos α1) 0< α1< π
For converter 1 in the field circuit
Vf=(3Vm/π)(cos α2) 0< α2< π
Where Vm is maximum value of line voltage

Dual Converter fed DC Motor drive:

In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is generally

required and three phase dual converters are extensively used in applications
up to the 2MW level. A dual converter is defined as an electronic circuit with
two converters—one acts as a rectifier and the other as an inverter.

A Dual Converter Control of DC Separately Excited Motor shown Fig.5 consists

of two fully-controlled rectifiers connected in anti-parallel and connected to the
same DC load, allowing for four quadrant operations. For power ratings upto
around 10 kW, single-phase fully-controlled rectifiers can be used. For higher
ratings, three-phase fully controlled rectifiers are employed.
 Fig. 5 Dual Converter Control of DC Separately Excited Motor

Rectifier A, which provides positive motor current and voltage in either

direction, allows motor control in quadrants I and IV, Rectifier B provides
motor control in quadrants III and II, because it gives negative motor current
and voltage in either direction. For reversing the polarity of motor generated
emf for regeneration purposes, field circuit must be energized from single-
phase or three-phase full converter.

When converter 1, or 2, is in operation, average output voltage is

Vo= VL =(3Vml/π) cosα for 0 ≤ α, ≤ π .
There are two different modes of operation of a three phase dual converter
system.
 Simultaneous control or Circulating current mode of operation
 Non-simultaneous or Circulating current free (non-circulating) mode of
operation

Simultaneous control or circulating current mode of operation

(a) In simultaneous control both the rectifiers are controlled together. In

order to avoid dc circulating current between rectifiers, they are operated
to produce same de voltage across the motor terminals. Although, control
 of firing angle according to relation αa + αb =180, prevents dc circulating
current, ac current does circulate due to difference between
instantaneous output voltages of the two rectifiers. Inductors L1 and L2
are used only with simultaneous control.

Inductors L1 and L2 are added to reduce ac circulating current. Because of

the flow of ac circulating current, simultaneous control is also known as
circulating current control. In a three-phase dual converter, inductors are
chosen to allow a circulating current of 30% of full load current. This
completely eliminates discontinuous conduction, and therefore, gives good
speed regulation in the complete range of the drive.

Non-simultaneous or Circulating current free mode of operation

In non-simultaneous or non-circulating current control method, one

rectifier is controlled at a time. Consequently, no circulating current flows
and inductors L1 and L2 are not required. This eliminates losses associated
with circulating current and weight and volume associated with inductors.
But then discontinuous conduction occurs at light loads and control is
rather complex
Advantages
1. Bidirectional Control:
o Enables smooth transition between forward and reverse operation,
providing greater flexibility in applications requiring bidirectional
motion.
2. Regenerative Braking:
o Allows for energy recovery during braking, which improves overall
system efficiency and reduces energy consumption.
3. Precise Speed Control:
 o Offers fine control over motor speed and torque by adjusting the
converters’ firing angles and controlling the DC voltage supplied to
the motor.
4. Improved Performance:
o Provides better performance characteristics compared to single-
converter systems, especially in applications requiring frequent
direction changes or dynamic braking.

Single Phase DC Series Motor Drives

In the Single Phase DC Series Motor Drives the field is connected in series with
the armature. The field current is the same as the armature current. Single
Phase DC Series Motor Drives fed from a phase controlled converter is shown
in Fig.6. DC Series Motor is capable of high starting torque and constant power
operation at all speeds. They are used in traction, cranes, hoists, etc.
In a separately excited motor there is always a back emf present which actually
accelerates the decay of armature current, thereby making discontinuous
conduction occur, particularly at low currents. Discontinuous conduction
occurs over a wide range of operating conditions, on the other hand, in series
motors; the back emf being proportional to does not contribute to
discontinuous conduction very much. As the motor current decreases it tends
to become continuous, unlike in the case of a separately excited motor.

Operational Modes
1. Forward Operation: The motor operates in the forward direction when
the applied voltage is positive, causing it to rotate in one direction.
2. Reverse Operation: By reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to
the motor, it can rotate in the opposite direction. This is typically
achieved by switching the connections of the motor windings.
3. Speed Control: Speed can be controlled by varying the applied voltage or
by using a variable resistor (rheostat) in series with the motor. In more
 sophisticated systems, speed is controlled using electronic methods like
PWM.
4. Braking: Regenerative braking can be employed to recover energy when
slowing down. This involves using the motor as a generator and feeding
the generated power back into the power supply or a storage device.

Rectifier Control of DC Series Motor:

Single-phase controlled Rectifier Control of DC Series Motor is employed in

traction. A single-phase half-controlled Rectifier Control of DC Series Motor is
shown in Fig.6. Equivalent circuit of motor is also shown. Since back emf
decreases with armature current, discontinuous conduction occurs only in a
narrow range of operation. Hence, it will be neglected here.

Fig. 6 Single-phase controlled Rectifier Control fed DC Series Motor

Although, in steady state, fluctuations in speed are negligible, e is not constant

but fluctuates with ia. For a given speed, e is related to ia through
magnetization curve of motor, which is nonlinear owing to saturation. A cycle
of motor terminal voltage consists of three intervals
duty intervals (α ≤ ωt ≤ π) when motor is connected to the source and va = vs
Freewheeling intervals (π ≤ ωt ≤ π+ α)
The waveforms of va,ia and instantaneous back emf e for continuous
conduction are shown in Fig.7.
 Fig. 7 waveforms of voltage

Applications
1. Home Appliances: Used in washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and
other household devices where high starting torque is required.
2. Industrial Equipment: For driving conveyors, fans, and pumps where
variable loads are encountered.
3. Automotive: In applications like electric window lifts or seat
adjustments.

Control of Fractional hp Motors:

Because of low cost single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier of Fig. 6
employing a single thyristor, is commonly used for the control of fractional hp
universal, dc series and permanent-magnet dc motors. Such drives are
employed in hand tools and

Fig. 8 Control of universal motor by using single thyristor

Motor terminal voltage and armature current waveforms for universal motor
are shown in Fig.8. The drive operates is discontinuous conduction with a
large zero current interval and large current ripple. Consequently, efficiency is
poor, speed regulation is large and speed may fluctuate around its average
value when the inertia is low. Sometimes a freewheeling diode is added to
reduce the duration of zero current interval.

Fig. 9 Control of universal motor by using single thyristor

A series motor has a torque-speed characteristic making it suitable

for constant power operation. However, when it is fed from a converter it does
not exhibit constant power operation at all speeds for a given firing angle. To
achieve constant power at all speeds, adjustment of firing angle is required.
Universal motors may also be controlled by a triac ac voltage controller as
shown in Fig. 10 (a). The triac is fired at α and (π + α). Now the machine
armature carries ac current Fig. 10 (b). Because of reduced duration of zero
current interval, the drive has negligible speed fluctuations and lower speed
regulation

Fig. 10 Control of universal motor by using ac voltage controller

CHOPPER DRIVES

The chopper converts the fixed DC voltage to variable DC voltage. Self-

commutated devices like MOSFET, IGBT, power transistors, GTO and IGCT are
used for making choppers because they can be commutated by low power
control signal and do not need commutation circuit. When variable dc voltage
is to be obtained from fixed dc voltage, dc chopper is the ideal choice. Use of
chopper in traction systems is now accepted everywhere.
This results in overall energy saving which is the most welcome feature in
transportation systems requiring frequent stops, as for example in rapid transit
systems. A chopper is inserted in between a fixed voltage de source and the dc
motor armature for its speed control below base speed. In addition, chopper is
easily adaptable for regenerative braking of dc motors and thus kinetic energy
of the drive can be returned to the dc source.

Basic Operation of Chopper Drives

1. Switching: The chopper drive uses electronic switches to control the
power supplied to the motor. By rapidly switching these devices on and
off, the average voltage applied to the motor can be controlled.
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): This technique is commonly used in
chopper drives. PWM involves varying the width of the voltage pulses
delivered to the motor. The average voltage (and hence the speed of the
motor) is controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of these pulses.
3. Current Control: Chopper drives can also regulate the motor current to
prevent overheating and ensure efficient operation. This is achieved
through feedback mechanisms and current-limiting features in the
chopper circuit.

The chopper was operated at high frequency due to which it upgrades the
motor performances by decreasing the ripple and removing the discontinuous
conduction. The most important feature of chopper control is that the
regenerative braking is carried out at very low generating speed when the drive
is fed from a fixed voltage to low DC voltage. The variable voltage to the
armature of a dc motor for speed control can be obtained from a dc chopper
which is a single stage dc to dc conversion device. Chopper drives are also used
in battery-operated vehicles where energy saving is of prime importance
There are several advantages like high efficiency, controlling flexibility,
lightweight, small size, and fast response. There are two different modes of
operation of a chopper drive system.
1. Power control or motoring control.
2. Regenerative-braking control.

Power control or Motoring Control: Fig. 11 shows the basic arrangement of a

dc chopper feeding power to a Separately Excited dc motor. The chopper is
shown to consist of a force-commutated thyristor; it could equally well be a
transistor switch. It offers one-quadrant drive.

Fig. 11 Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor

A transistor Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor drive is shown in

Fig. 11. Transistor Tr is operated periodically with period T and remains on for
a duration ton. Present day choppers operate at a frequency which is high
enough to ensure continuous conduction. Waveforms of motor terminal voltage
va and armature current ia for continuous conduction are shown in Fig.12.
During on-period of the transistor, 0 ≤ t ≤ ton, the motor terminal voltage is V

Fig. 12 Waveforms of motor terminal voltage

In this interval, armature current increases from ial to ia2. Since motor is
connected to the source during this interval, it is called Duty Interval.
At t = ton, Tr is turned-off. Motor current freewheels through diode DF and
motor terminal voltage is zero during interval ton ≤ t ≤ T. Motor operation during
this interval, known as freewheeling interval
Average motor voltage
Vo= Vt=(Ton/T) Vs = δVs
δ= Duty interval / T
=Ton /T

Regenerative Braking:

In regenerative-braking control, the motor acts as a generator and the kinetic

energy of the motor and connected load is returned to the supply.
During motoring mode, armature current
Vt−Ea
I=
ra
i.e. armature current is positive and the motor consumes power. In case load
drives the motor at a speed such that average value of motor counter emf E,
exceedsVa, Ia is reversed and power is delivered to the dc bus. The motor is
then working as a generator in the regenerative braking mode.

Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor for regenerative braking

operation is shown in Fig. 13(a). Transistor Tr is operated periodically with a
period T and on-period of ton. Waveforms of motor terminal voltage va and
armature current ia for continuous conduction are shown in Fig.13(b) Usually
an external inductance is added to increase the value of La. When Tr is on,
ia increase from ia1 to ia2.
 Fig. 13 Regenerative braking of Separately Excited DC Motor by Chopper Control

The mechanical energy converted into electrical by the motor, now working as a
generator, partly increases the stored magnetic energy in armature circuit
inductance and remainder is dissipated in armature resistance and transistor.
When Tr is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V,
and reduces from ia2 to ia1. The stored electromagnetic energy and energy
supplied by machine is fed to the source.

The interval 0 ≤ t ≤ ton is now called energy storage interval and interval ton ≤ t ≤
T the duty interval. If δ is again defined as the ratio of duty interval to period
T,
δ= Duty interval / T
=T-ton /T
Voltage across armature terminal
Vt=(1- δ)Vs

Regenerative braking of chopper-fed separately-excited dc motor is stable. DC

series motors, however, offer unstable operating characteristics during
regenerative braking. As such, regenerative braking of chopper-controlled
series motors is difficult.
Two-quadrant Chopper Drives

A two quadrant converter is used where regeneration is required. Due to

unidirectional current carrying property of thyristors the two quadrant
operation is achieved by changing the polarity of voltage, retaining the direction
of current. However for reversing the direction of rotation and achieving the
speed control in the reverse direction, one should be able to reverse the
direction of armature current with the voltage variation from a positive
maximum to negative maximum.
Motoring control circuit for chopper drives offer only first-quadrant drive,
because armature voltage and armature current remain positive over the entire
range of speed control. In regenerative braking, second-quadrant drive is
obtained as armature terminal voltage remains positive but direction of
armature current is reversed.
In two-quadrant dc motor drive, both motoring mode as well as regenerative
braking mode are carried out by one chopper configuration. One such circuit is
shown in Fig. 14 which consists of two choppers CH1, CH2 and two diodes D1,
D2 and a separately-excited dc motor.

Fig. 14 Two-quadrant DC Chopper Drives

Motoring mode.When chopper CH1 is on, the supply voltage V, gets connected
to armature terminals and therefore armature current i, rises. When CH1 is
turned off, i, free wheels through D1 and therefore i decays. This shows that
with CH1 and D1, motor control in first, quadrant is obtained.

Regenerative mode.When CH2 is turned on, the motor acts as a generator

and the armature current i, rises and therefore energy is stored in armature
inductance L. When CH2 is turned off, D2 gets turned on and therefore
direction of i, is reversed. Now the energy stored in L is returned to dc source
and second quadrant operation is obtained, Fig.15. In this figure, first-
quadrant operation of dc motor is called forward-motoring mode and second-
quadrant operation as forward regenerative-braking mode.

Fig. 15 Two quadrant Diagram

Applications
 Elevator Drives: Common in applications where only forward motion
and braking are required.
 Conveyor Systems: For systems that operate primarily in one direction
but require controlled deceleration or energy recovery.
 Simple DC Motor Control: Where bidirectional control is needed, but
only in one direction (e.g., forward with regenerative braking).

In summary, two-quadrant chopper drives are useful for applications where

motor control is needed primarily in one direction with the ability to handle
braking or regeneration. They offer a balance between functionality and
complexity, making them suitable for various industrial and automotive
applications.
Four-quadrant Chopper Drives

A four quadrant chopper is a chopper which can operate in all the four
quadrants. The power can flow either from source to load or load to source in
this chopper. In first quadrant, a four quadrant chopper acts as a Step-down
chopper whereas in second quadrant it behaves as a Step-up chopper.
In four-quadrant dc chopper drives, a motor can be made to work in forward-
motoring mode (first quadrant), forward regenerative braking mode (second
quadrant), reverse motoring mode (third quadrant) and reverse regenerative-
braking mode (fourth quadrant). The power can flow either from source to load
or load to source in this chopper. The circuit shown in Fig.16 offers four-
quadrant operation of a separately-excited de motor. This circuit consists of
four choppers, four diodes and a separately-excited de motor.

Working Principle / Operation of four quadrant chopper:

The circuit of a four quadrant chopper basically consists of

four semiconductor switches CH1 to CH4 and four diodes D1 to D4. The four
diodes are connected in anti-parallel. The circuit diagram of this type of
chopper is shown below. This circuit consists of four choppers, four diodes and
a separately-excited dc motor. Its operation in the four quadrants can be
explained as under:

Fig. 16 Four-quadrant Chopper Drives

Forward motoring mode.

During this mode or first-quadrant operation, choppers CH2, CH3 are kept off,
CH4 is kept on whereas CH1 is operated. When CH1, CH4 are on, motor
voltage is positive and positive armature current rises. When CH1 is turned off,
positive armature current free-wheels and decreases as it flows through CH4,
D2. In this manner, controlled motor operation in first quadrant is obtained.

Forward regenerative-braking mode.

A dc motor can work in regenerative-braking mode only if motor generated emf

is made to exceed the dc source voltage. For obtaining this mode, CH1, CH3
and CH4 are kept off whereas CH2 is operated. When CH2 is turned on,
negative armature current rises through CH2, D4, E, L, R. CH2 is turned off,
when diodes D1, D2 are turned on and the motor acting as a generator returns
energy to the dc source.

Reverse motoring mode. Choppers CH1, CH4 are kept off, CH2 is kept on
whereas CH3 is operated. When CH3 and CH2 are on, armature gets connected
to source voltage V, so that both armature voltage V, and armature current ia,
are negative. As armature current is reversed, motor torque is reversed and as
a result motoring mode in third quadrant is obtained. When CH3 is turned off,
negative armature current freewheels through CH2, D4, E, L, r; armature
current decreases and thus speed control is obtained in third quadrant.

Reverse Regenerative-braking mode. As in forward braking mode, reverse

regenerative-braking mode is feasible only if motor generated emf is made to
exceed the dc source voltage. For this operating mode, CH1, CH2 and CH3 are
kept off whereas CH4 is operated. When CH4 is turned on, positive armature
current ia rises through CH4, D2, R, L, Ea. When CH4 is turned off, diodes
D2, D3 begin to conduct and motor acting as a generator returns energy to the
dc source.

The operation of a four quadrant chopper is summarized in the fig. 17 below.

 Fig. 17 Four quadrant diagram

Applications
This type of drive system is commonly used in applications requiring precise
control over the speed and direction of a DC motor, such as in robotics, electric
vehicles, and industrial automation.
 Robotics: For precise control of motors in robotic arms and mobile
robots.
 Electric Vehicles: To control the drive motors and manage regenerative
braking.
 Industrial Automation: For controlling conveyor belts, cranes, and other
equipment where precise speed and direction control is crucial.


References:
 P. S. Bimbhra, "Power Electronics", Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.

 G. K. Dubey, “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives”, CRC Press, 2002

 Vedam Subrahmanyam, “Electric Drives”, TMH (I), Second Edition