Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 05 Lecture No: 14

Topic Name: Timer Programming – I

Objectives:
 Students will gain an understanding of the fundamentals of
Mechanical Timing Relays.
 Students will learn PLC timers’ instructions
 Students will learn about TON Timer.

Lecture Content:

Mechanical Timing Relays

Mechanical timing relays are vital components in industrial control systems,

designed to introduce a time delay in the opening or closing of electrical contacts
within a circuit. These relays operate similarly to standard control relays but
with an added timing function, which is crucial for various control tasks.

These relays are commonly used in applications requiring controlled delays

in processes, such as motor control, sequence control, and safety circuits,
providing reliability and precision in timing operations.
There are two primary types of mechanical timing relays based on their
operational mode:

1. On-Delay Timing Relay: In this arrangement, when the relay coil

is energized, the contacts do not change state immediately.
Instead, a pre-set time delay occurs before the contacts either close
or open, depending on the relay's configuration. This delay is
useful in scenarios where a certain amount of time is required to
pass before an action is initiated in the control circuit.

The on-delay timer, often referred to as DOE (Delay on Energize),

is a crucial component in timing control within industrial systems.
This timer introduces a delay period after it is energized before the
contacts change state. Once the timer is switched on, the
countdown begins, and the contacts will actuate after the pre-set
delay time has elapsed.

There are two main types of contacts associated with on-delay

timers:

I} NOTC (Normally Open, Timed Closed): In this configuration,

the contact remains open when the timer is initially energized.
After the time delay has passed, the contact closes, allowing
current to flow through the circuit. This type of contact is
commonly used in applications where an action needs to be
initiated after a delay.

Circuit Example: The figure illustrates an on-delay timer circuit

employing a normally open, timed closed (NOTC) contact. When
the timer is energized, the contact remains open for the duration
of the delay period. Once the delay expires, the contact closes,
completing the circuit and enabling the subsequent process.
The operation of the circuit with an on-delay timer can be described in
the following steps:

1. Initial State:
o With switch S1 open, the timer relay (TD) coil is not energized.
As a result, the TD1 contacts remain open, preventing current
from reaching light L1, so L1 stays off.

2. Energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is closed, the TD coil becomes energized, and the timer
begins counting down the pre-set delay period. During this
time, the TD1 contacts remain open, so L1 continues to stay off.

3. After the Delay:

o Once the 10-second time delay has passed, the TD1 contacts
close, completing the circuit and allowing current to flow to light
L1. This action switches L1 on.

4. De-energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is opened again, the TD coil is de-energized
immediately. This causes the TD1 contacts to open instantly,
breaking the circuit and turning L1 off.
 This sequence ensures that L1 is only turned on after a precise delay
following the closure of S1 and is immediately turned off when S1
is opened.

2. NCTO (Normally Closed, Timed Open): This contact type is the

opposite of NOTC. The contact remains closed when the timer is
first energized, maintaining the circuit's continuity. After the time
delay, the contact opens, breaking the circuit and stopping the flow
of current.

NCTO (Normally Closed, Timed Open) contact in an on-delay timer

circuit operates as follows:

1. Initial State:
o With switch S1 open, the timer relay (TD) coil is de-energized.
In this state, the TD1 contacts are closed, allowing current to
flow to light L1, so L1 is on.

2. Energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is closed, the TD coil is energized, and the timer
starts its countdown. During this timing period, the TD1
contacts remain closed, keeping L1 on.

3. After the Delay:

o After the 10-second delay period has passed, the TD1 contacts
open, breaking the circuit and turning L1 off.

4. De-energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is opened again, the TD coil is de-energized, causing
the TD1 contacts to close instantly. This action completes the
circuit once more, switching L1 back on.

This NCTO configuration is useful in applications where an immediate

action is required when the circuit is initially powered, followed by a timed
disconnection after a set period.

2. Off-Delay Timing Relay: Conversely, an off-delay timing relay

functions when the relay coil is de-energized. Upon de-
energization, the contacts remain in their current state for a
 predetermined time before switching to their default position. This
type of relay is employed in situations where it's necessary to
maintain an action for a specific duration after the initiating signal
has been removed.

An off-delay timer with an NOTO (Normally Open, Timed Open) contact

operates as follows:

1. Initial State:
o With switch S1 open, the timer relay (TD) coil is de-energized,
which keeps the TD1 contacts open. As a result, light L1
remains off.

2. Energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is closed, the TD coil is energized. This causes the TD1
contacts to close instantly, completing the circuit and switching
light L1 on.

3. De-energizing the Timer:

o When S1 is opened again, the TD coil is de-energized, and the
off-delay timer begins its countdown. Despite the de-
energization of the coil, the TD1 contacts remain closed for the
duration of the delay period, keeping L1 on.

4. After the Delay:

o Once the 10-second time-delay period has elapsed, the TD1
contacts open, breaking the circuit and turning L1 off.
o
 This off-delay configuration ensures that L1 remains on for a specific
time after S1 is opened, allowing for a controlled delay in turning off the
light.

An off-delay timer with an NCTC (Normally Closed, Timed Closed)

contact functions as follows:

1. Initial State:
o With switch S1 open, the timer relay (TD) coil is de-energized,
keeping the TD1 contacts in their normal closed position. This
allows current to flow through the circuit, turning light L1 on.
2. Energizing the Timer:
o When S1 is closed, the TD coil becomes energized, causing the
TD1 contacts to open instantly. This breaks the circuit,
turning light L1 off.
3. De-energizing the Timer:
o When S1 is opened again, the TD coil is de-energized, and the
off-delay timer begins its countdown. Despite the coil being de-
energized, the TD1 contacts remain open for the duration of
the delay period, keeping L1 off.
4. After the Delay:
o Once the 10-second time-delay period has elapsed, the TD1
contacts close, completing the circuit and turning light L1
back on.

This NCTC configuration ensures that L1 remains off for a specific period
after S1 is opened, and then it automatically turns back on after the
delay.

PLC timers instructions

PLC timers are specialized instructions within Programmable Logic

Controllers (PLCs) designed to perform the same functions as traditional
mechanical and electronic timing relays, such as on-delay and off-delay
operations. These timers are crucial for managing time-based events within
automated systems, providing enhanced control and precision.
Advantages of PLC Timers Compared to Mechanical and Electronic
Timers:

1. Integrated Timing Operations:

o In a PLC, the timing process is entirely handled by the
controller, eliminating the need for separate timing devices. This
integration streamlines the control system by reducing the
complexity of wiring and the possibility of mechanical failures,
leading to a more reliable operation.

2. Simple Time Adjustment:

o Time delays can be effortlessly modified within the PLC
program, without requiring any physical intervention. This
ability to adjust time settings through software allows for rapid
reconfiguration of the system to accommodate changes in
operational needs, making the process much more efficient.

3. Scalability and Flexibility:

o One of the key advantages of PLC timers is their scalability. The
number of timers in a system can be easily increased or
decreased by altering the PLC program. This flexibility contrasts
sharply with mechanical and electronic timers, where any
change in the number of timers would typically require
additional hardware and extensive rewiring.

4. High Precision and Consistency:

o PLC timers offer superior accuracy and consistency because the
timing functions are governed by the PLC’s processor. This
ensures that the time delays are not only precise but also highly
repeatable, which is essential for maintaining the reliability of
time-critical operations in industrial automation.

PLC timers offer significant benefits over traditional mechanical and

electronic timers. They provide a more integrated, flexible, and precise
solution for managing time-dependent processes within automated control
systems, which enhances both the performance and reliability of industrial
operations.
PLC timers are critical components in industrial automation, allowing for precise
control over time-based operations. There are three primary types of PLC timers,
each serving different functions within a control system:

1. On-Delay Timer (TON):

o The TON timer begins counting time intervals when its instruction is
activated (when the condition is true). After the preset time has
elapsed, the timer completes its action, typically closing or opening a
contact.

2. Off-Delay Timer (TOF):

o The TOF timer starts counting down when the instruction transitions
from true to false. It delays turning off a device or function after the
condition that triggered it has been deactivated.

3. Retentive Timer On (RTO):

o The RTO timer counts time intervals while the instruction is true and
retains the accumulated time even if the instruction goes false or
during a power cycle. This type of timer is useful for applications
where the timing needs to persist across multiple cycles or
interruptions.

4. Reset (RES):
o The RES instruction is used specifically with retentive timers to reset
their accumulated value back to zero. This is crucial when you need
to restart the timing process from the beginning.

Additional Timer Concepts:

 Time Base:
o The time base is the unit of time that the timer uses to measure
events. Depending on the PLC model and manufacturer, time base
values can range from as small as 1 millisecond (0.001 seconds) to 1
second. The time base determines the precision and range of the
timer.

 Preset Value:
o The preset value is the target duration for the timing operation. It is
calculated by multiplying the preset value by the time base. For
 instance, if a timer has a preset value of 100 and a time base of 0.1
seconds, the total timing interval would be:

Total Timing Interval=100×0.1s=10 seconds

 Accumulated Value:
o The accumulated value tracks the amount of time that has passed
since the timer started. It represents how many intervals of the time
base have occurred since the timer instruction was initiated. This
value is crucial for understanding the progress of the timing
operation and is particularly important in retentive timers.

Understanding these fundamental timer types and associated terms is essential

before starting with PLC programming. Each timer type has its specific
applications and behavior, making them versatile tools in managing automated
processes.

In the Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC system, timer files are used to manage and
store the settings for various timers. Here's a breakdown of the timer file
addressing based on your description:

 Timer File 4: This is the file where the timers are stored. Each timer in
this file consists of three 16-bit words, known collectively as a timer
element. There can be up to 256 timer elements in this file.
  Timer Element Number 2 (T4:2): Refers to the second timer element in
Timer File 4.

o T4:2/DN: Address for the Done bit of Timer 2. This bit is set when
the timer's preset time has elapsed.
o T4:2/TT: Address for the Timer Timing bit of Timer 2. This bit is set
while the timer is counting.
o T4:2/EN: Address for the Enable bit of Timer 2. This bit indicates
whether the timer is currently enabled.

In the context of the Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC timer file, the control word for
each timer includes three key control bits:

1. Enable (EN) Bit:

o Description: Indicates whether the timer is active. When the timer
instruction (e.g., a rung in the ladder logic) is true, the EN bit is set
to 1 (true), meaning the timer is enabled and actively counting. If the
instruction is false, the EN bit is set to 0 (false), and the timer is not
counting.

2. Timer-Timing (TT) Bit:

o Description: Indicates that the timer is currently counting. This bit
is true (1) when the accumulated value of the timer is changing,
which means the timer is in the process of timing. If the timer is not
timing, the TT bit is false (0), meaning the accumulated value is not
changing.
 3. Done (DN) Bit:
o Description: Reflects whether the timer has completed its timing
cycle. The DN bit becomes true (1) when the accumulated value
reaches the preset value, indicating that the timer has finished
counting. The state of the DN bit may vary depending on the type of
timer being used (e.g., On-Delay Timer, Off-Delay Timer, etc.).
These control bits provide essential status information for timers, allowing you to
monitor and control the timing operations in your PLC programs.

TON (On-Delay Timer) instruction

The TON (On-Delay Timer) instruction is used in PLC programming to create

an on-delay timer, which delays the activation of an output or a control action for
a specified period after the input condition becomes true. Here's how it works:

TON Timer Instruction Overview

 Function: Delays the activation of an output by a preset amount of time

after the input condition has been true for the entire delay period.

TON Timer Parameters

1. Timer Preset Value (PT):

o The amount of time the timer will count before turning the Done bit
(DN) on.
o Set in units of time, such as milliseconds or seconds.
2. Accumulated Value (ACC):
o The amount of time that has elapsed since the timer started
counting.
o This value increases as long as the input condition remains true and
the timer is counting.
3. Enable Bit (EN):
o Set to true (1) when the timer is enabled and counting.
o Becomes false (0) when the timer is not active.
4. Timer-Timing Bit (TT):
o Set to true (1) while the timer is counting (i.e., the accumulated value
is increasing).
o Becomes false (0) when the timer is not counting.
 5. Done Bit (DN):
o Set to true (1) when the accumulated value equals or exceeds the
preset value.
o Indicates that the delay period has expired.

Operation of TON Timer

1. Initial Condition:
o When the input condition (e.g., a rung in ladder logic) becomes true,
the timer begins to count.
2. Counting:
o The timer starts accumulating time, and the Timer-Timing (TT) bit is
set to true.
3. Completion:
o If the input condition remains true for the entire preset time, the
timer’s accumulated value will reach or exceed the preset value.
o The Done (DN) bit is set to true, indicating that the delay has elapsed.
o The Timer-Timing (TT) bit remains true during the counting period
and then becomes false once the timer is done.
4. Reset:
o If the input condition becomes false before the timer’s accumulated
value reaches the preset value, the timer will reset, and the
accumulated value will be cleared.
The figure shows the actual program view of a timer, which includes a Done
bit (DN) and an Enable bit (EN) as outputs. The second figure illustrates the block
diagram and timing diagram of the operation.

The operation of the circuit follows the following steps:

• Initially, when the input is off, the timer remains in the off state, with the
Enable bit, Done bit, and Timer Timing bit all turned off (EN = 0, DN = 0, TT =
0).

• When the input is turned on, the Timer Enable bit is activated (EN = 1),
and the timer starts counting. However, the Done bit remains in the off state
(TT = 1, DN = 0).

• When The timed output becomes true sometime after the timer rung
becomes true EN=1, TT=0 & DN=1 hence, the timer is said to have an on-delay.

• The length of the time delay can be adjusted by changing the preset
value.

• In addition, some PLCs allow the option of changing the time base, or
resolution, of the timer. As the time base you select becomes smaller, the
accuracy of the timer increases.

Lets take some example to understand this TON

timer process – Example 1 Suppose we have one input A and three output B,C
and D connected to Enable bit EN ,timer timing bit TT and Done bit DN
respectively .as figure show
After analyzing these three cases, we can conclude that when input A is turned
on, the final output D, which is connected to the done bit, will be activated after
10 seconds. This behavior indicates that the timer has an on-delay because it
introduces a delay before turning on the output.

Lets take another example to understand TON timer operation –

Example 2 – Suppose we have 2 switch 1 for start and 1 for stop, and 3 motors
m1 m2 and m3 , our task is when we press the stat switch m1 will on,after 10
sec m2 will on and after 10 sec m3 will on.

Means 30 sec after pressing the start switch all the 3 motors will turn on , and
when I press the stop button the all will turn off .
Lets take another example

Example 3 – Suppose we have a start switch (green) and a stop switch (red).
When the green button is pressed, the horn will sound for 20 seconds. After 20
seconds, the horn will stop, and the motor will turn on. We have to prepare ladder
logic for that.
Summary:

In our 14th lecture on “PLC Timer Programming – I” we covered:

1) Fundamentals of Mechanical Timing Relays.

2) PLC timers’ instructions
3) TON Timer.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 05 Lecture No: 15

Topic Name: Timer Programming – II

Objectives:
 Students will gain an understanding of the PLC off Delay timer.
 Students will learn in-depth operation of PLC off Delay timer.
 Students will learn various examples to implement TOF timer process
on ladder diagram.

Lecture Content:

PLC Off-Delay Timer

A PLC Off-Delay Timer (TOF) is a control instruction used to delay the

deactivation of an output. When the input condition that controls the TOF
is active, the output is immediately turned on. However, when this input
condition goes false (i.e., becomes inactive), the TOF timer begins counting
down from its preset time. During this countdown, the output remains on.
Once the timer has finished counting down, the output is then turned off.

This function is commonly used in situations where you want to ensure that
an output remains active for a specified time after the controlling condition
has been removed, such as to allow a machine to run for a few seconds after
a stop command is issued.

Operation of a PLC Off-Delay Timer Circuit

The operation of a PLC Off-Delay Timer (TOF) circuit can be understood through
the following steps:

1.Initial State (Input is OFF):

When the input signal is off, the timer remains inactive. At this point:

The Timer Enable bit (EN) is off (EN = 0).

The Done bit (DN) is off (DN = 0).
The Timer Timing bit (TT) is off (TT = 0).
2.Input is Turned ON:

When the input signal is turned on:

The Timer Enable bit (EN) is activated (EN = 1).

The Done bit (DN) is also activated (DN = 1).
However, the timer does not start counting down, and:
The Timer Timing bit (TT) remains off (TT = 0).

3.Input is Turned OFF (Timer Starts):

The TOF timer begins its timing sequence when the input signal goes from on to
off, or from true to false:

The Timer Timing bit (TT) is turned on (TT = 1).

The Timer Enable bit (EN) is turned off (EN = 0).
The Done bit (DN) remains on (DN = 1).

4.Timer Completes Timing:

As the accumulated time reaches the preset time:

The output is deactivated (reset to 0).

The Timer Timing bit (TT) turns off (TT = 0).
The Timer Enable bit (EN) remains off (EN = 0).
The Done bit (DN) is turned off (DN = 0).
This sequence ensures that the output remains active for a specified time after
the input condition has been removed, providing controlled shutdowns or delayed
operations.

Lets take some example to understand this TOF timer process –

Example 1 Suppose we have one input A and three output B,C and D connected
to Enable bit EN ,timer timing bit TT and Done bit DN respectively as shown in
figure
Example 2 – Suppose we have two motors, M1 and M2, with green and red
switches to turn them on and off. When the green button is pressed, both motors
will turn on. When the red button is pressed, M1 will turn off after 10 seconds,
and M2 will turn off 10 seconds later.
Example 3 – Suppose we have three motors, M1 M2 and M3, with green and
red switches to turn them on and off. When the green button is pressed, both
motors will turn on. When the red button is pressed, M1 will turn, off after 10
seconds, M2 will turn off and after 10 sec M3 will turn off.
Summary:

 In our 15th lecture on “PLC Timer Programming – II” we covered:

1) Fundamentals of PLC off Delay timer.

2) Operation of PLC off Delay timer
3) Implementation of TOF timer process on ladder diagram

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 05 Lecture No: 16

Topic Name: Timer Programming – III

Objectives:
 Students will gain an understanding of the PLC Retentive timer
Instruction.
 Students will learn in-depth operation and applications of PLC
Retentive timer
 Students will learn various examples on how to implement PLC
Retentive timer process on ladder diagram.

Lecture Content:

PLC Retentive Timer Instruction

A Retentive Timer (RT) in a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is a

specialized timing instruction that retains its accumulated time value even
when the timer is not actively counting. Unlike non-retentive timers, which
reset to zero when their conditions go false, retentive timers maintain their
current accumulated time until they are explicitly reset.

Key Components of a Retentive Timer

1. Time Base:
The time base defines the unit of time measurement for the timer.
Common time bases include milliseconds, seconds, or minutes. For
instance, a time base of 1 second means the timer will increment its
count once per second.

2. Preset Value (PV):

The preset value is the target time that the timer counts up to before
taking action. For example, if the preset value is set to 10 seconds, the
timer will count until the accumulated value reaches 10 seconds.

3. Accumulated Value (AV):

 This value represents the current count of the timer. The accumulated
value increases incrementally based on the time base and is stored in
memory. The key feature of a retentive timer is that the accumulated
value does not reset to zero when the timer conditions go false, unless a
reset instruction is issued.

4. Enable Bit (EN):

This bit is set to true when the rung containing the retentive timer
instruction is true, indicating that the timer is active.

5. Timer Timing Bit (TT):

This bit is true while the timer is counting towards its preset value. It
turns off when the accumulated value equals the preset value or when the
rung goes false.

6. Done Bit (DN):

The done bit becomes true when the accumulated value reaches the
preset value, signaling that the timer has completed its timing cycle.

Operation of a Retentive Timer

1. Start Counting:
When the rung conditions leading to the retentive timer are met (true), the
timer begins incrementing its accumulated value based on the time base.
The enable bit (EN) and timer timing bit (TT) will be true during this
period.

2. Pause or Stop:
If the rung conditions go false before the accumulated value reaches the
preset value, the timer stops counting but retains the current
accumulated value. The timer timing bit (TT) turns off, but the
accumulated value remains stored.

3. Resume Counting:
When the rung conditions become true again, the timer resumes counting
from the stored accumulated value rather than starting from zero. This
allows the timer to pick up where it left off.
 4. Completion:
Once the accumulated value equals the preset value, the done bit (DN) is
set to true, indicating that the timer has completed its cycle.

5. Resetting:
To reset the accumulated value of a retentive timer to zero, a separate
reset instruction must be used. When this reset instruction is activated,
the accumulated value resets to zero, and the done bit (DN) is cleared.

Applications of Retentive Timers

Retentive timers are particularly useful in applications where an operation

needs to continue from where it left off after an interruption.

For example:

 Machinery that operates in cycles: If a machine is interrupted mid-

cycle, the retentive timer ensures that the next cycle begins from the
same point rather than starting over.
 Cumulative time tracking: Retentive timers can be used to track the
total run time of a piece of equipment, even if the equipment is started
and stopped multiple times.

Example in Ladder Logic

Consider a conveyor belt system that should run for a total of 30 seconds. The
retentive timer will accumulate time every time the conveyor is running. If the
conveyor stops at 15 seconds, the retentive timer holds this value. When the
conveyor restarts, the timer will continue from 15 seconds until it reaches the 30-
second preset value.

|---[Start Conveyor] ---[Timer On (RTO)] ---[Conveyor Motor] ---|

| | Timer T4:0 | |
| | Time Base: 1s | |
| | Preset Value: 30 | |
| | Accumulated Value: 15 | |
|---[Stop Conveyor] -----------------------------------------------------|
|---[Reset Timer] ---[Reset (RES) T4:0] ------------------------------|
In this example, the retentive timer (T4:0) accumulates time whenever the
conveyor is running. If the conveyor stops, the timer retains the 15 seconds. When
the conveyor restarts, the timer resumes counting from 15 seconds until the
accumulated value reaches 30 seconds, at which point the conveyor will stop
automatically.

Retentive timers are a vital component in PLC programming, enabling complex

control systems to maintain accurate timing across interruptions. Their ability to
retain the accumulated time value makes them indispensable in scenarios
requiring precise control and timing continuity.

Retentive timers Program

The operation of the circuit follows the following steps:

• The timer will start to time when time pushbutton PB1 is closed.

• If the pushbutton is closed for 3 s and then opened for 3 s, the timer
accumulated value will remain at 3 s.
• When the time pushbutton is closed again, the timer picks up the time at
3 s and continues timing

• When the accumulated value (9) equals the preset value (9), the timer done
bit T4:2/DN is set to 1 and the pilot light output PL is switched on.

• Whenever the momentary reset pushbutton is closed, the timer

accumulated value is reset to 0.

Figure shows a timing chart for the retentive on delay timer program. The timing
operation can be summarized as follows:

• When the timing rung is true (PB1 closed), the timer will commence timing.
• If the timing rung goes false, the timer will stop timing but will recommence
timing for the stored accumulated value each time the rung goes true.

• When the reset PB2 is closed, the T4:2/DN bit is reset to 0 and turns the
pilot light output off. The accumulated value is also reset and held at zero until
the reset pushbutton is opened

Actual program to visualize this process

Example 2 –

When start switch is press output on for 5 sec then off for 5 sec , this process are
continue until we press stop button. Means we have to make diwali light which
blinks in 5 sec.
Example 3 –

There is a machine with a large steel shaft supported by bearings. This shaft is
coupled to a large electric motor. The bearings need lubrication, which is supplied
by an oil pump driven by a small electric motor.

The operation follows the following steps –

• To start the machine, the operator turns SW on.

• Before the motor shaft starts to turn, the bearings are supplied with oil by
the pump for 10 seconds.
• The bearings also receive oil when the machine is running.
• When the operator turns SW off to stop the machine, the oil pump
continues to supply oil for 15 s.
• When the total running time is 3 hours, the motor is shut down and a pilot
light is turned on to indicate that the filter and oil need to be changed.
Summary:

In our 16th lecture on “PLC Timer Programming – III” we covered:

1) Fundamentals of PLC Retentive timer Instruction.

2) Operation and application of PLC Retentive timer.
3) Implementation of PLC Retentive timer process on ladder diagram

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 06 Lecture No: 17

Topic Name: PLC Counter Programming – I

Objectives:
 Students will learn about the PLC Counter and its types
 Students will learn in-depth Counter Implementation in PLC and Up
Counter operation
 Students will learn Allen-Bradley SLC 500 Counter Structure.

Lecture Content:

Counter in Industrial Automation

In industrial automation, a counter is a crucial component used to count events

or occurrences in a system, often as part of a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) or other automation systems. Counters are essential in applications where
it's necessary to keep track of repetitive operations, such as the number of items
passing on a conveyor belt, the number of machine cycles, or the number of
products in a batch.

Mechanical Counters

Mechanical counters operate by physically moving an actuating lever, which adds

one count each time the lever is triggered. These counters are simple and reliable
for basic counting tasks, such as tracking the number of cycles in a machine or
the number of items passing through a certain point. They are particularly useful
in environments where electronic devices might be less reliable, such as in high-
temperature or high-vibration settings.

 Operation: Each time the actuating lever is moved, the counter increases
its count by one.
 Reset Mechanism: The counter can be reset to zero manually using a
pushbutton. This is typically done at the start of a new process or batch.
 Figure of a mechanical counter showing the actuating lever and reset
pushbutton.

Electronic Counters

Electronic counters, unlike mechanical counters, can perform a range of counting

operations. These counters are widely used in industrial applications due to their
versatility and ability to handle complex counting tasks.

Types of Electronic Counters

1. Count Up: Adds to the total count with each input pulse. This type of
counter is most commonly used in industrial applications, such as
counting products on a production line or recording the number of
operations in a process.

2. Count Down: Subtracts from the total count with each input pulse. Down-
counters are useful when you need to track how many items remain before
a certain event occurs, such as the number of products left to process
before a machine needs to be stopped or a batch is complete.

3. Combination Up/Down Counting: Combines the functions of both up-

counters and down-counters. These counters are useful in more complex
processes where both addition and subtraction of counts are required, such
as in inventory management systems where both incoming and outgoing
items need to be tracked.
Figure of an electronic counter showing the different counting operations: Count
Up, Count Down, and Combination Up/Down.)

Types of Counters

1. Up Counter: Increments its count value with each input pulse. It is used
in applications where you need to count up to a certain value, like counting
products on a conveyor belt.
2. Down Counter: Decrements its count value with each input pulse. It's
useful in scenarios where you're counting down from a set value, such as
tracking how many items remain to complete a batch.
3. Up/Down Counter: Capable of both incrementing and decrementing based
on different inputs. It is used in more complex applications where both
increase and decrease in counts are required.

Key Concepts in Counters

 Preset Value: The target counts the counter is supposed to reach. Once
the counter reaches this value, it triggers an output or an event.
 Current Count: The current value of the counter, which changes as the
input pulses are received.
 Reset: Resets the counter’s value to zero or another specified value, often
used to restart the counting process.

Applications of Counters

 Production Counting: Counting the number of products manufactured in

a production line.
  Position Control: In systems like robotic arms or CNC machines, counters
help track the position of components.
 Time-Based Counting: Counting the number of operations or cycles within
a specific time period for performance analysis.
 Batch Processes: Counting the number of items processed before an
action, such as packaging, is triggered.

Counter Implementation in PLC

In a PLC, counters are usually programmed using ladder logic or other IEC
61131-3 standard languages. The counter instruction typically includes inputs
for counting pulses, resetting the counter, and setting the preset value. PLCs
often include different counter instructions like CTU (Count Up), CTD (Count
Down), and CTUD (Count Up/Down), each tailored to specific counting
requirements.

Benefits of Using Counters in Automation

 Accuracy: Provides precise control over counting operations, ensuring that

processes are completed correctly.
 Automation: Facilitates automatic tracking of repetitive tasks without
manual intervention.
 Efficiency: Enhances productivity by enabling real-time monitoring and
control of production quantities.

Counters are fundamental in ensuring the efficiency and accuracy of industrial

automation systems, making them indispensable in modern manufacturing and
processing environments.
Counter Representation in Ladder Logic:

In ladder logic, counters are often represented using two main formats: Coil
Format and Block Format. The Coil Format is a simple and commonly used
method to represent counters, especially in basic applications.

 Coil Format
In the Coil Format, the counter is depicted as a coil within a ladder diagram. The
coil is energized each time a specific condition in the rung transitions from false
to true. This transition triggers the counter to increment (in the case of an up-
counter) or decrement (in the case of a down-counter).

Example: Up-Counter in Coil Format

 Operation: When the rung condition changes from false to true (typically
when a switch is turned on or a sensor is activated), the counter coil is
energized, and the count value increases by one.
 Reset: The counter can be reset to zero using a separate reset instruction,
often represented as a normally open contact that, when closed, clears the
counter’s accumulated value.

Figure of an up-counter in coil format, showing how the count is triggered by

a false-to-true transition in the rung condition.
Use Cases

The Coil Format is particularly useful in simple applications where the counting
operation is straightforward and does not require complex logic. It's easy to
implement and understand, making it ideal for beginners or for use in systems
where counting is only one part of a larger automation process.
This format is a foundational aspect of PLC programming, especially for tasks
that involve basic event counting, such as tracking the number of products on a
conveyor belt or counting the number of machine cycles.

 Block Format

In ladder logic, the Block Format provides a more detailed and comprehensive
representation of a counter. This format is particularly useful in applications
where you need to manage and monitor multiple aspects of the counting process,
such as the type of counter, the preset value, and the accumulated value.

Block Format
The Block Format represents the counter as a block in the ladder diagram,
containing specific fields that display important details about the counter’s
operation. This format is more informative compared to the Coil Format and is
often used in more complex PLC programs.

Key Components of the Block Format:

1. Counter Type: Indicates whether the counter is an up-counter (CTU),

down-counter (CTD), or a combination counter (CTUD).

2. Preset Value: The target count that the counter aims to reach. Once the
accumulated count equals this preset value, the counter triggers an output
or initiates an event.

3. Accumulated Value: The current count value. It increments or decrements

with each input pulse depending on the type of counter.

Example: Up-Counter in Block Format

 Operation: The block shows the type of counter (e.g., CTU for Count Up),
along with the preset value and the accumulated value. Each time the rung
 condition transitions from false to true, the accumulated value increases
by one.

 Reset: Similar to the Coil Format, the counter can be reset using a reset
input, which sets the accumulated value back to zero.

Figure of an up-counter in block format, showing the counter type, preset

value, and accumulated value.

Use Cases

The Block Format is ideal for applications that require detailed monitoring and
control over the counting process. It is commonly used in industrial automation
systems where precision is critical, such as in batching processes, inventory
management, or complex sequencing operations. The clear display of both preset
and accumulated values allows operators to easily track the progress of the
counting operation and make adjustments as needed.
This format is essential for scenarios where multiple counters are used, or where
counters need to interact with other parts of the automation system, such as
timers, sensors, or actuators.

Coil-Formatted Up-Counters

In a PLC program, Coil-Formatted Up-Counters are used to count

 occurrences of specific events. The counter increments the count each
time the rung condition transitions from false to true. Here's how they
function and how to reset them:

Operation

 Triggering the Count: When the rung condition changes from false to true,
the up-counter increments its count by 1.
 Energizing the Output: Once the accumulated count equals the preset
value, the counter output is energized, meaning the output coil is set to 1.
This typically triggers a subsequent action in the control process.

Key Parts of the Coil-Formatted Up-Counter Instruction:

1. Counter Type: Specifies whether the counter is an up-counter (CTU) or a

down-counter (CTD).
2. Counter Address: Identifies the counter within the PLC program, allowing
it to be referenced and controlled elsewhere in the logic.
3. Counter Preset Value: The target count that, when reached, will trigger
the output to energize.
4. Accumulated Count: The current count value that increments with each
false-to-true transition in the rung condition.

Example of Coil-Formatted Up-Counter

 Rung Condition: Assume a sensor detects items passing on a conveyor.

Each detection triggers the rung condition from false to true, incrementing
the counter.
 Preset Value: If the preset value is set to 10, the counter output will
energize after the 10th item passes, possibly activating a diverter arm or
triggering a notification.
Resetting Counters

Resetting a counter is crucial to start the count anew or to prepare the system
for a new batch or process cycle.

Reset Instruction

 Counter Reset: The reset instruction is used to bring the count back to
zero for up-counters or to a preset value for down-counters.
 Integrated vs. Separate Reset: Some PLC systems include the reset
function within the counter instruction, while others require a separate
reset instruction.

Example: In a ladder diagram, you might see a reset instruction (CTR) used
alongside the up-counter (CTU). The reset instruction activates when its
rung condition is true, clearing the accumulated count.

Block-Formatted Counters
Block-Formatted Counters provide a detailed and structured representation
of counting operations, offering more information than the coil format.

Operation

 Counter Type and Values: The block format clearly indicates whether the
counter is an up-counter (CTU) or down-counter (CTD) and displays both
the preset and accumulated values.

 Input Conditions:
o Count: An input condition that triggers the counter to increment (for
an up-counter) or decrement (for a down-counter).
o Reset: Another input condition that resets the counter to its initial
state when true.

Leading Edge Operation

 Leading Edge Trigger: Counters operate on the leading edge of the input
signal, meaning they count when the input signal transitions from off to on
(false to true).
 Retentive Counters

 Power Failure Handling: Most PLC counters are retentive, meaning the
accumulated count is preserved even after a power shutdown. Upon power
restoration, the counter resumes from where it left off unless the reset
condition is active.

Counting Process in PLCs

The counting process in Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) is a fundamental

operation that involves tracking the number of specific events, such as objects
passing a sensor, machine cycles, or any other repetitive action in an industrial
environment. This process is critical for automation tasks where accurate
counting is essential for controlling operations, managing resources, or triggering
subsequent actions.

Counting Process Works in Detail:

1. Event Detection

o Input Devices: The counting process begins with the detection of an

event, typically through input devices like sensors, switches, or other
actuating devices. For example, a proximity sensor might detect each
item passing on a conveyor belt.
o Input Signal: When the input device detects an event, it sends a
signal (often a pulse) to the PLC. This signal is usually a digital signal
where a high state (1) or low state (0) indicates the occurrence of an
event.

2. Triggering the Counter

o Ladder Logic Rung: The signal from the input device is integrated
into a ladder logic rung, where it serves as the condition for the
counter instruction. The counter is typically represented in either
Coil Format or Block Format.
o Transition Detection: The counter operates on the principle of
detecting a transition from a false condition to a true condition in the
rung. This transition triggers the counter to increment (in the case of
an up-counter) or decrement (in the case of a down-counter).

3. Incrementing or Decrementing the Count

o Up-Counter: For an up-counter, each false-to-true transition

increments the count by 1. This count represents the number of
events that have occurred.
o Down-Counter: For a down-counter, each transition decreases the
count by 1, which is useful for counting down from a set value, such
as the number of items left in a batch.

4. Preset and Accumulated Values

o Preset Value: The preset value is the target count that you want to
reach. Once the accumulated count matches the preset value, the
PLC performs a specific action, such as energizing an output coil or
starting another process.
o Accumulated Value: The accumulated value is the current count
stored in the PLC’s memory. It updates with each event detected by
the counter.
5. Output Action

o Energizing Outputs: When the accumulated count equals the preset

value, the PLC may trigger an output. This output could activate a
machine, turn on a light, stop a conveyor belt, or initiate another
automated process.
o Feedback and Control: The output from the counter can also be
used as feedback for further control logic, ensuring that processes
are correctly synchronized with the counting operation.

6. Resetting the Counter

o Manual or Automatic Reset: Depending on the application, the

counter may need to be reset manually by an operator or
automatically through a PLC instruction. Resetting the counter
clears the accumulated value, allowing the counting process to start
anew.
o Separate Reset Instruction: In some PLCs, a separate reset
instruction is used, while in others, the reset function might be
integrated within the counter instruction.

7. Handling Special Cases

o Retentive Counters: In many PLCs, counters are retentive, meaning

they retain the accumulated count even if the PLC is powered down.
This feature ensures that the counting process can resume
accurately once power is restored.
o Handling Overflows: Some counters may have limits on the
maximum count they can store. In such cases, handling overflows or
providing warnings when nearing the maximum count is necessary.

Example of Counting Process

Consider an application where a PLC is used to count bottles passing on a
conveyor belt:
 Sensor: A photoelectric sensor detects each bottle and sends a signal to
the PLC.
 PLC Logic: The signal is processed by an up-counter in the PLC, which
increments the count each time a bottle passes.
 Preset Value: The preset value might be set to 100, meaning that once 100
bottles are counted, the PLC triggers an output to stop the conveyor belt.
  Reset: After the 100 bottles are processed, the operator presses a reset
button to clear the counter, preparing it for the next batch.

The counting process in PLCs is a vital part of industrial automation, providing

the capability to accurately track events and control processes based on counted
values. Whether it’s tracking production quantities, managing inventory, or
coordinating machine operations, PLC counters ensure precise and reliable
operation in automated systems.

Allen-Bradley SLC 500 Counter Structure

In the Allen-Bradley SLC 500 series PLC, counters are managed within a
dedicated file known as File 5. Each counter within this file is represented by a
counter element consisting of three 16-bit data words. These words are essential
for the counter's operation, storing crucial information about the counter's status
and behavior.

Structure of a Counter Element in File 5

Each counter element in File 5 includes the following three data words:

1. Control Word:
o Purpose: The control word contains the status bits that indicate the
 current state of the counter, such as whether the counter is enabled,
whether it has reached its preset value, or whether it has been reset.

o Status Bits: Common status bits include:

 CU (Count Up Enable): Indicates that the up-counter is active.
 CD (Count Down Enable): Indicates that the down-counter is
active.
 DN (Done Bit): Indicates that the accumulated value has
reached the preset value.
 OV (Overflow Bit): Indicates that the counter has overflowed.
 UN (Underflow Bit): Indicates that the counter has
underflowed.

2. Preset Word:

o Purpose: The preset word defines the target count value that the
counter aims to reach. Once the accumulated value matches this
preset value, the counter triggers the Done Bit (DN) in the control
word, which can be used to initiate subsequent actions in the control
logic.
o Preset Value: The value stored in this word is set by the programmer
and can be adjusted depending on the requirements of the process
being controlled.

3. Accumulated Word:

o Purpose: The accumulated word stores the current count value,

which increments or decrements as the counter receives input
signals. This value is constantly updated as the counter operates.
o Accumulated Value: The current count is compared against the
preset value to determine if the counter has reached its target.

Addressing of Counter Elements

All three data words share the same base address, which is the address of the
counter itself. For example, if a counter is assigned the base address C5:1, the
control word, preset word, and accumulated word for that counter would be
addressed as follows:
  Control Word: C5:1.CW
 Preset Word: C5:1.PRE
 Accumulated Word: C5:1.ACC

This structure allows for easy reference and manipulation of the counter's data
within the PLC program.

Example

 C5:1: Refers to the first counter element in File 5.

o C5:1.CW: Accesses the control word for this counter.
o C5:1.PRE: Accesses the preset value for this counter.
o C5:1.ACC: Accesses the accumulated value for this counter.

The counter elements in the Allen-Bradley SLC 500 series are crucial components
of the PLC's counting operations. By organizing counters into three distinct data
words (control, preset, and accumulated), the SLC 500 provides a robust and
flexible system for managing counting tasks in industrial automation.
Understanding how these data words interact is essential for programming and
troubleshooting counters within this PLC system.

Actual program view for counter operation

Example -1 The operation of the program can be follow the following steps:

• Operating pushbutton PB1 provides the off- to-on transition pulses that
are counted by the counter.

• The preset value of the counter is set for 7

• Each false-to-true transition of rung 1 increases the counter’s

accumulated value by 1.

• Output O:2/1 is energized as long as the accumulated value is less than

7.

• After 7 pulses, or counts, when the preset counter value equals the
accumulated counter value, output DN is energized.

• As a result, rung 2 becomes true and energizes output O:2/0 to switch

the red pilot light on.
• At the same time, rung 3 becomes false and de- energizes output O:2/1
to switch the green pilot light off.

• The counter is reset by closing pushbutton PB2, which makes rung 4

true and resets the accumulated count to zero.

• Counting can resume when rung 4 goes false again.

Counter program and timing diagram

Example -2
Summary

In our 17th lecture on “PLC Counter Programming – I” we covered:

 PLC Counter and its types
 Counter Implementation in PLC and Up Counter operation
 Allen-Bradley SLC 500 Counter Structure.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 06 Lecture No: 18

Topic Name: PLC Counter Programming – II
Objectives:

 Students will learn about One-Shot Instruction in PLCs

 Students will learn working, applications and benefits of One-Shot
Instruction in PLCs.
 Students will learn ONS, OSR and OSF instruction examples and
their implementation in PLC via. Ladder diagram

Lecture Content:

One-Shot Instruction in PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers)

A one-shot instruction in PLCs, also known as a transitional or edge-detection

instruction, is used to detect a change in a condition within a single scan cycle.
It triggers an output or action only once when an input condition changes from
off to on (rising edge) or from on to off (falling edge). This type of instruction is
useful for scenarios where an event should only occur a single time, even if the
input condition remains in the same state for multiple scan cycles.

Key Characteristics of One-Shot Instructions:

 Single-Scan Activation: The one-shot instruction activates only for a

single scan cycle when the specific transition (either rising or falling edge)
is detected. After this single activation, it resets and waits for the next
transition.

 Avoids Multiple Triggers: Even if the input condition remains true or false
for several scan cycles, the one-shot instruction ensures that the
associated output or action is only triggered once per transition. This
helps prevent unintended multiple activations.

 Types of One-Shots:

 Rising Edge One-Shot (ONS): Activates when an input changes from a low
state (0) to a high state (1).
 • Falling Edge One-Shot (OFFS): Activates when an input changes from a
high state (1) to a low state (0).

Applications in PLC Programming:

 Debouncing Inputs: One-shot instructions can be used to debounce noisy

signals or mechanical contacts, ensuring that only a single pulse is
registered even if there are multiple fluctuations or bounces.

 Counting Events: When counting specific events, like a machine cycle or

item passing a sensor, one-shot instructions can ensure the counter
increments only once per event.

 State Transitions: In state machines or control sequences, one-shot

instructions can help move from one state to another based on specific
edge-triggered conditions.

By using one-shot instructions effectively, PLC programmers can enhance the

accuracy and reliability of their control logic, preventing unintended multiple
activations and ensuring precise control over automated processes.

Working of One-Shot Instruction in PLCs

1. Triggering the One-Shot:

The one-shot instruction is activated by the leading edge of an input signal.

This means it triggers when the input transitions from an off state (0) to an
on state (1). This specific change is called an "off-to-on transition" or "rising
edge."

2. Duration:

After being triggered by the off-to-on transition, the one-shot instruction

keeps its output active for the duration of a single program scan cycle. This
is critical because, regardless of whether the input signal remains on (high
state), the output will turn off after that one scan cycle. This ensures the
 output is only momentarily active, preventing any continuous or repeated
triggering.

3. Resetting:

Once the output of the one-shot instruction turns off after one scan cycle, it
stays off until the input signal returns to the off state (0). When the input
signal subsequently transitions back to the on state (1) again, the one-shot
can be triggered once more. This cycle ensures that the one-shot only
responds to fresh rising edges and does not retrigger unless the input
condition has gone through another complete off-to-on transition.

By understanding these aspects of one-shot instructions, PLC programmers

can design control systems that respond accurately to specific events without
being affected by lingering or sustained input signals.

Use Cases of One-Shot Instructions in PLCs

1. Resetting Counters and Timers:

One-shot instructions are frequently employed to reset counters and timers

in a PLC system. When an event triggers the one-shot, the instruction
activates for only one program scan cycle. This behavior is particularly useful
for ensuring that counters or timers are reset only once per event. It avoids
multiple resets that could occur if the input signal remains active for an
extended period. This precise control is critical in applications where accurate
timing and counting are essential, such as in automated production lines or
quality control systems, where each reset must correspond to a single,
specific event.

2. Handling Momentary Signals:

For inputs that are activated briefly, like a pushbutton press, a one-shot
instruction ensures that the action is registered only once, even if the button
is held down longer. The one-shot triggers on the first transition from off to
on, activating its output for a single scan cycle, and then deactivates
regardless of the button’s continued state. This feature is particularly useful
in preventing multiple outputs or commands from being sent due to the
 button remaining pressed. It is ideal in scenarios where each press should
correspond to a single action, such as starting a machine or advancing a step
in a sequence.

3. Managing Persistent Signals:

When dealing with signals that remain on for a period of time, the one-shot
instruction ensures that only the initial transition to the "on" state causes
an action. Once the one-shot triggers, it will not activate again until the input
signal returns to "off" and then transitions back to "on" again. This
functionality is crucial in applications where a sustained signal should not
cause repeated actions. For example, in a conveyor belt system, a one-shot
can be used to trigger an alarm or notification when a box arrives at a
particular point, ensuring the alarm only sounds once per box, even if the
sensor remains blocked for some time.

By incorporating one-shot instructions, PLC programmers can design control

systems that effectively respond to specific changes in inputs without
unintended repeat actions, ensuring more reliable and predictable
automation processes.

Types of Transitional Contacts in PLCs

1. Off-to-On Transitional Contact (Rising Edge Contact):

This is the most common type of transitional contact used in PLC

programming. The off-to-on transitional contact, also known as a rising edge
contact, generates a one-shot pulse when the associated input signal
transitions from an off state (0) to an on state (1). When this transition occurs,
the contact closes momentarily for exactly one program scan cycle, regardless
of whether the input remains in the on state afterward. Once the program
scan cycle is complete, the contact opens again. This ensures that only a
single pulse is produced per input transition, preventing any repeated actions
if the input stays on. This type of contact is particularly useful for triggering
events that should occur only once when an input is activated, such as
starting a motor or logging an event in a monitoring system.
2. On-to-Off Transitional Contact (Falling Edge Contact):

The on-to-off transitional contact, also known as a falling edge contact,

operates similarly to the off-to-on contact but is triggered by a different signal
transition. This contact responds when the input signal changes from an on
state (1) to an off state (0). When this trailing edge or "falling edge" is detected,
the contact closes for one program scan cycle, providing logic continuity only
during this brief moment. After this cycle, the contact opens, even if the input
remains in the off state. This type of contact is useful in applications where
an action should occur when an input is deactivated, such as stopping a
timer or resetting a count when a machine stops running or when a safety
sensor is disengaged.

By using these transitional contacts, PLC programmers can design precise

control logic that responds accurately to specific changes in inputs, allowing
for more reliable and predictable automation systems.

Benefits of One-Shot Instructions in PLCs

1. Prevents Multiple Triggers:

One-shot instructions ensure that an output or action is triggered only once

for a specific input transition. This is particularly useful when a signal stays
in a high or low state for an extended period. Without one-shot instructions,
such conditions could cause the output to activate multiple times, leading to
unintended operations or erroneous data logging. One-shot instructions help
avoid these issues by allowing only a single activation per transition,
enhancing the reliability and accuracy of the control system.

2. Improves Control Precision:

One-shot instructions enable precise control over automated processes by

responding only to the initial change in input states. This precision is crucial
in scenarios requiring exact timing and actions, such as in industrial
automation systems where a single pushbutton press needs to start a
specific process. By ignoring further input changes until a new transition
occurs, one-shot instructions help maintain control consistency and prevent
unintended actions.

3. Facilitates Debouncing of Inputs:

Mechanical contacts, like pushbuttons and relays, can produce multiple

unintended signals or "bounces" when activated. One-shot instructions help
debounce these inputs by ensuring that only the first valid transition triggers
an action, effectively filtering out the noise caused by bouncing contacts.
This reduces the risk of multiple activations from a single button press or
switch flip, making the system more robust and dependable.

4. Simplifies Complex Logic:

In PLC programs where multiple conditions or transitions need to be

managed efficiently, one-shot instructions simplify the logic by reducing the
need for additional timers, counters, or state-tracking mechanisms. They
provide a straightforward way to manage edge-based events, making the code
 easier to read, write, and debug. This simplicity can significantly speed up
development time and reduce maintenance costs.
5. Enhances Safety and Reliability:

One-shot instructions can improve safety and reliability in automation

systems by ensuring that critical actions occur exactly when intended and
only once per specified condition. For example, in safety applications where
an emergency stop should activate a specific function only once per trigger,
one-shot instructions prevent multiple or unintended triggers, thereby
enhancing overall system safety.

One-shot instructions provide an essential tool for PLC programmers to

manage input transitions and create precise, reliable, and safe control logic
for a wide range of industrial applications.

Example 1 – Related to ONS bit

Case 1 –

Input - I:0/0 = 0 Output - B3:0/0 = O:0/0=0

Case 2 –

Input - I:0/0 = 1

Output - B3:0/0 =1 for fraction of second because ONS bit on for fraction of
second.

To observe this fraction - we connect one CTU with binary bit and mu counter
increase by 1 when it gets supply by binary bit

Case 3 –
When this switching process happened 5 times, means when switch on and off
for 5 times counter count this fraction output signal and after this preset =
accumulator that’s why done bit on

So, output connected to this done bit is high.

So, we can say that ONS is input instruction, and the connected output to this
ONS will be on for a fraction of second.

Example 2 related to OSR – Output instruction

Case 1

Input I:0/0 = 0

B3:0/1 = 0

C5:0/DN=0
Case 2

Input I:0/0 = 1

B3:0/1 = 1 for fraction of sec. Accumulator increase by 1 when switch status

changes from off to on means rise state.

Case 3

Input I:0/0 = 1

When 5 times repeat this process B3:0/1 = 1 for fraction of sec.

Accumulator increase by 1 and equal to preset value = 5, when switch status
changes from off to on

Output
C5:0/DN=1 So O:0/0= 1
Case 4

I:0/1 = 1
Counter accumulator reset = 0
Example 3 related to OSF – Output instruction

Case 1

Input I:0/0 = 0

B3:0/1 = 0 C5:0/DN=0

Case 2

Input I:0/0 = 1

B3:0/1 = 1 for fraction of sec.

Accumulator increase by 1 when switch status changes from ON to OFF

means Falling state

Case 3

Input I:0/0 = 1

When 5 times repeat this process B3:0/1 = 1 for fraction of sec. Accumulator
increase by 1 and equal to preset value = 5, when switch status changes from
ON to OFF

Output
C5:0/DN=1 So O:0/0= 1
Case 4

I:0/1 = 1
Counter accumulator reset = 0
Summary

In our 18th lecture on “PLC Counter Programming – II” we covered:

 One-Shot Instruction in PLCs

 Working, applications and benefits of One-Shot Instruction in PLCs.
 Implementation of ONS, OSR and OSF instruction in PLC via. Ladder
diagram

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 06 Lecture No: 19

Topic Name: PLC Counter Programming – III
Objectives:

 Students will learn about Down Counter (CTD) in PLC Programming.

 Students will learn working, and applications of Down Counter
(CTD) in PLCs.
 Students will learn Operation of down counter and examples related
to practical implementation in PLC via. Ladder diagram

Lecture Content:

Down Counter (CTD) in PLC Programming

Down Counter (CTD) in PLC Programming

A down counter, often abbreviated as CTD in PLC programming, is designed to

count downward from a specific preset value toward zero. This type of counter
is commonly used in applications where tasks need to be counted down to
completion, such as packaging systems, batch processing, or event sequencing
in industrial automation.
Components of a Down Counter

1. Preset Value (PV):

o The preset value is the starting count that the down counter uses.
It represents the maximum count value, from which the counter
will decrement.

o This value is typically set by the programmer based on the specific

requirements of the process being controlled.

2. Accumulator (ACC):

o The accumulator is a register that holds the current count value of

the counter. It starts at the preset value and decreases by one each
time the count input condition is met.

o As the counter counts down, the accumulator reflects the

remaining count needed to reach zero.

3. Count Down (CD) Bit:

o The CD bit is the input trigger for the counter. It represents the
condition or signal that causes the counter to decrement.

o For example, the CD bit could be tied to a sensor detecting items

passing on a conveyor belt. Each time an item is detected, the CD
bit activates, causing the accumulator to decrement by one.

4. Done (DN) Bit:

o The DN bit indicates when the counter has finished counting. It is

set when the accumulator reaches zero.

o This bit can be used to trigger subsequent actions or sequences in

the PLC program, such as stopping a machine, activating an alarm,
or transitioning to a new process phase.
Operation of a Down Counter

The operation of a down counter in PLC programming can be broken down into
several key steps:

1. Initialization:

o The counter is initialized with a preset value, which is loaded into

the accumulator. This preset value determines how many counts
are required before the counter reaches zero.

2. Counting Down:

o Each time the CD bit is activated (usually by an input signal

transitioning from low to high), the counter decrements the
accumulator by one.

o The counter continues to decrement with each trigger, reducing the

accumulator value step-by-step.

3. Completion:

o When the accumulator reaches zero, the DN bit is set. This

indicates that the counting process is complete.

o At this point, any programmed actions that are linked to the DN bit
will be executed. This could involve turning off a motor, sending a
notification, or moving to the next stage in an automated process.

4. Resetting the Counter:

o After the counting process is complete, the counter can be reset to

its preset value, ready to start the counting process again if needed.

o Resetting can be manual or automatic, depending on the system's

design and the PLC program's logic.
Applications of Down Counters

Down counters are versatile tools in industrial automation and are used in
various applications, such as:

1. Inventory Management:

o In a warehouse or production setting, down counters can keep

track of items being removed from stock, ensuring accurate
inventory levels are maintained.

2. Batch Processing:

o For processes that require a specific number of operations or items

before moving to the next step, a down counter can ensure that the
required count is achieved before proceeding.

3. Event Sequencing:

o Down counters are useful in processes where a series of events

must occur in a specific order. By counting down to zero, the system
ensures all required steps are completed before initiating the next
action.

4. Quality Control:

o In quality control applications, a down counter can be used to

monitor the number of items passing through a checkpoint. If the
counter reaches zero before a defect is detected, the system might
flag an issue for further inspection.

5. Safety Systems:

o Down counters can also play a role in safety systems. For instance,
they can be used to ensure a machine completes a certain number
of operations before a maintenance check is required.

Example Use Case: Conveyor Belt System

Consider a conveyor belt system in a manufacturing plant where boxes need to

be filled with a specific number of products. A down counter can be set with a
preset value corresponding to the required number of products per box. Each
time a product is detected by a sensor as it is placed in the box, the counter
decrements by one. When the counter reaches zero, the DN bit is activated,
signaling the conveyor system to stop, indicating that the box is full and ready
to be sealed and shipped. The counter is then reset, and the process repeats for
the next box.

Down counters are essential components in PLC programming that help

automate processes requiring decremental counting. Their ability to precisely
track and manage tasks ensures accuracy and efficiency in industrial
automation systems. By understanding how to implement and use down
counters effectively, programmers can design robust control systems tailored to
a wide range of applications.

Operation of down counter –

Example 1 -

Initially this is in program mode

Pre set = 0
Accumulator = 5
Case 1
when changed it to running mode.

I:0/0= 0 then also Done bit is high that’s why output is also high

C5:0/DN =1

O:0/0 = 1

Case 2
I:0/0= 1 then
B3:0/0 = 1 and also Done bit is high that’s why output is also high
C5:0/DN =1
O:0/0 = 1

Counter start counting in decreasing order as you can see in the diagram
accumulator value decrease by 1 and equal to 4
Case 3

When this on and off process of input switch is repeating 5 times accumulator
goes to 0 and accumulator = pre set value

then also Done bit is high that’s why output is also high

C5:0/DN =1

O:0/0 = 1
Case 4

When accumulator value less then pre set value, then only done bit goes low

Accumulator = -1

Pre set = 0

Accumulator < Pre set then

C5:0/DN =0
O:0/0 = 0
Major conclusion about down counter is –

When accumulator = pre set value the also my done bit is high, but in other
cases like TON TOFF and CTU all the time this type of condition is final
condition when ACC= pre set

This is main drawback of down counter because done bit operate when
accumulator is less then pre set value

Means in the previous example, process is need to be happened 5 times that’s

why accumulator is set to 5, but actually process happened 6 times then done
bit operate.

Example 2 -
Case 1

I:0/0 = 0
I:0/1 = 0
I:0/2 = 0
C5:0 up counter and down counter

Accumulator = 0
Pre set = 5
C5:0/CU =0
C5:0/CD =0
C5:0/DN =0
Case 2

I:0/0 = 1
I:0/1 = 0
I:0/2 = 0

Accumulator = 1
Pre set = 5
C5:0/CU =1
O:0/0 = 1
C5:0/CD =0
C5:0/DN =0
Case 3

I:0/0 = 1
I:0/1 = 1
I:0/2 = 0

Again Accumulator = 0

Pre set = 5
C5:0/CU =1
O:0/0 = 1
C5:0/CD =1
O:0/1 = 1
C5:0/DN =0
So, up counter increase accumulator by 1, when switch I:0/0 goes on and off ,
And down counter decrease accumulator by 1, when switch I:0/1 goes off and
on
Since, in up counter we get done bit high, when accumulator value is equal to
pre set value. But in case off down counter, we get done bit high when
accumulator is greater than pre set value because in down counter, counter
counts in decreasing order and done bit goes low when accumulator is less then
pre set value.

Or in other words, it means in case of up counter we set pre set value and in
case of down counter we set accumulator value for smooth counter operation.

Case 4

To make done bit high

I:0/0 = 1 switch goes ON and OFF for 5 times

I:0/1 = 1
I:0/2 = 0

Then Accumulator = 5

Pre set = 5
C5:0/CU =1 O:0/0 = 1
C5:0/CD =1 O:0/1 = 1
C5:0/DN =1 O:0/2 = 1
Case 5

I:0/0 = 0
I:0/1 = 0
I:0/2 = 1

Accumulator = 0
Pre set = 5

C5:0/CU =0
O:0/0 = 0
C5:0/CD =0
O:0/1 = 0
C5:0/DN =0
O:0/2 = 0
Example 3 – related to NEQ – not equal to

Case 1

NEQ output is high when source A and B value are not equal
Equal value output zero
Case 2

NEQ output is high because source A and B value are not equal
Example 4 – related to LES and GRT
Case 1

LES and GRT output are low because source A and B value are equal

Equal value output zero

Case 2

LES output is High and GRT output is Low because source A value is low as
compare to source B value .
Example 5 – related to LEQ and GEQ

Case 1

LEQ and GEQ output is high because source A and B value are equal
Case 2

LEQ output is Low and GEQ output is high because source A value is high as
compare to source B value .
Summary

In our 19th lecture on “PLC Counter Programming – III” we covered:

 Down Counter (CTD) in PLC Programming.

 Working, and applications of Down Counter (CTD) in PLCs.
 Operation of down counter and examples related to practical
implementation in PLC via. Ladder diagram.
References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 07 Lecture No: 20

Topic Name: Star – Delta starter PLC program
Objectives:

 Students will learn in -depth about Star –Delta starter PLC program.
 Students will learn why Induction Motors is the Preferred Choice in
Industrial Applications.
 Students will learn examples related to operation of Star –Delta
starter in PLC via. Ladder diagram

Lecture Content:

Delta starter PLC program

Induction Motors: The Preferred Choice in Industrial

Applications

Induction motors are one of the most widely used types of electric motors in
industrial settings. Their popularity stems from several advantageous
characteristics that make them particularly suitable for a wide range of
industrial applications. Let's explore the reasons why induction motors are
favored over other types of motors:

1. Simplicity and Robustness

Induction motors have a simple and rugged design, which contributes to their
widespread use. Unlike other types of motors that have brushes and
commutators, induction motors do not have these components, making them
less susceptible to wear and tear. The absence of these parts reduces the need
for frequent maintenance, resulting in lower maintenance costs and longer
operational life.
 Single phase Induction motor

2. Durability and Reliability

The construction of induction motors is inherently durable, making them highly

reliable in various industrial environments. These motors can withstand harsh
conditions, such as dust, moisture, and fluctuating temperatures, without
significant degradation in performance. Their ability to operate continuously
under heavy loads makes them ideal for industrial applications that demand
high reliability.

3. Cost-Effectiveness

Induction motors are generally more cost-effective than other motor types, both
in terms of initial cost and operational expenses. Their straightforward design
makes them less expensive to manufacture, and their high efficiency means
they consume less electricity. Over time, the energy savings and low
maintenance requirements contribute to a lower total cost of ownership.
 Three phase Induction motor

4. High Efficiency and Performance

Induction motors offer high efficiency, particularly in applications where they

run at full load. Their ability to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
efficiently ensures that they deliver strong performance with minimal energy
waste. This efficiency is crucial in industrial settings, where energy costs can
significantly impact overall operating expenses.

5. Versatility and Flexibility

Induction motors are highly versatile and can be used in a variety of

applications, from driving pumps and compressors to powering conveyor belts
and machine tools. They are available in different sizes and capacities, allowing
them to be customized to specific industrial needs. Whether for small-scale
operations or large industrial processes, there is likely an induction motor that
fits the requirement.

6. Ease of Operation and Control

Induction motors are straightforward to operate and control. They can easily be
started and stopped using simple control systems, and their speed can be
adjusted using variable frequency drives (VFDs). This ease of control makes
them suitable for applications where precise speed regulation is not critical but
robustness and reliability are.

7. Low Starting Current Requirements

One of the advantages of induction motors is their relatively low starting current
compared to other motor types. This characteristic reduces the stress on
electrical systems and minimizes the risk of electrical faults during startup. For
industries with sensitive electrical infrastructure, this feature is particularly
beneficial.

8. Compatibility with Industrial Power Supplies

Induction motors are designed to operate directly with the standard AC power
supplies available in industrial settings. This compatibility eliminates the need
for complex power conversion equipment, simplifying the electrical design of
industrial facilities.

9. Safety and Dependability

Induction motors are considered safer compared to other motor types, especially
in environments with flammable or explosive materials. The absence of brushes
and commutators means there are no sparks that could ignite such materials,
making induction motors a safer choice in these applications.

Applications of Induction Motors in Industries

Due to these advantages, induction motors are used in various industrial

applications, such as:
  Pumps and Fans: Induction motors drive pumps and fans in HVAC
systems, water treatment facilities, and industrial ventilation systems.

 Conveyors: In manufacturing and material handling, induction motors

power conveyor belts that transport goods along assembly lines.

 Machine Tools: They are used in lathes, milling machines, and drills
where consistent speed and torque are required.

 Compressors: Induction motors drive air compressors in various

industrial applications, providing compressed air for tools and machinery.

Induction motors' simplicity, durability, cost-effectiveness, and versatility make

them the preferred choice for many industrial applications. Their ability to
deliver high performance and reliability in challenging environments, along with
low maintenance requirements and efficient energy use, ensures their
continued prevalence in industries around the world.

Star-Delta Starters: An Overview

A star-delta starter is a type of motor starter used to reduce the inrush current
that occurs when an induction motor starts. This method is commonly used in
industrial settings where it is crucial to limit the initial high current draw
associated with starting large motors. The star-delta starter achieves this by
initially connecting the motor windings in a star (Y) configuration and then
switching to a delta (Δ) configuration once the motor reaches a certain speed.

1. High Starting Current

Direct-on-Line (DOL) Starting:

Direct-on-Line (DOL) starting is a method where the motor is connected directly

to the power supply, allowing it to receive the full line voltage immediately. This
approach is straightforward and inexpensive but results in a very high starting
current, typically six to eight times the motor’s full-load current. This high
inrush current can create significant stress on the electrical components,
potentially leading to overheating, increased wear and tear, and reduced
lifespan of both the motor and the electrical infrastructure.
Electrical Stress:

The sudden surge in current caused by DOL starting places a heavy load on the
electrical distribution system. This can lead to electrical stress, characterized
by overheating of conductors, voltage dips, and potential tripping of circuit
breakers or fuses. Electrical stress can compromise the integrity of the power
supply network, affecting not only the motor in question but also other
equipment connected to the same network.

2. Mechanical Stress

Torque Impact:

When a motor starts with DOL or similar methods, the torque generated at
startup is very high—sometimes up to 200% of the motor's rated torque. This
abrupt application of torque can cause mechanical stress on the motor shaft
and driven equipment. Components such as gears, belts, and bearings can
experience excessive strain, leading to premature wear, mechanical failures, or
even catastrophic damage.

Shock Load:

A high starting torque results in a shock load to both the motor and the
mechanical components it drives. This shock load is a sudden force that can
cause vibrations, misalignment, and mechanical fatigue. In systems with
delicate or precise components, this kind of stress can significantly reduce
operational life and reliability, necessitating more frequent maintenance and
replacement.

3. Energy Efficiency

Controlled Start:

Using motor starters like soft starters or variable frequency drives (VFDs) allows
for a controlled start, where the motor gradually reaches its operational speed.
This approach not only reduces the starting current but also improves energy
efficiency. By minimizing the inrush current and reducing mechanical shock,
controlled starts help to lower energy consumption and decrease losses in both
electrical and mechanical systems. Over time, this translates into energy
savings and lower operational costs.
 4. System Stability

Voltage Stability:

Starting a large motor directly on line (DOL) can cause significant dips in voltage
due to the high inrush current. These voltage dips can affect other equipment
connected to the same power supply, leading to malfunctions or disruptions in
sensitive devices. Maintaining voltage stability is crucial for the smooth
operation of an entire facility, particularly in industrial environments where
numerous machines and processes rely on a consistent power supply.

Preventing Voltage Sags:

By employing reduced-voltage starting methods like star-delta starters or

autotransformer starters, the inrush current is lowered, reducing the risk of
voltage sags. Voltage sags are brief drops in voltage that can lead to equipment
malfunction or shutdowns, especially in sensitive electronics or computer
systems. Preventing these sags ensures a more stable and reliable power
distribution network.

5. Compliance with Regulations

Many regions and industries are governed by regulations that limit the impact
of electrical equipment on the power grid. These regulations may dictate the
maximum allowable inrush current or mandate the use of energy-efficient
starting methods. Compliance with these regulations is essential to avoid
penalties and ensure the safe and efficient operation of electrical equipment. By
using controlled start methods, companies can ensure that they meet regulatory
requirements for electrical safety, energy efficiency, and system stability.

While DOL starting is simple and cost-effective for small motors, larger motors
benefit from controlled start methods that minimize electrical and mechanical
stress, improve energy efficiency, enhance system stability, and ensure
regulatory compliance. By understanding these factors, industries can make
informed decisions that optimize performance and reduce operational costs.
Components of a Star-Delta Starter

A star-delta starter consists of several key components:

1. Contactor Set:

o There are typically three contactors in a star-delta starter: the star

contactor, the delta contactor, and the main contractor. These
contactors are responsible for connecting and disconnecting the
motor windings to the star or delta configurations.

2. Timer:

o A timer controls the duration for which the motor remains in the
star configuration before switching to the delta configuration. The
timing is usually set based on the characteristics of the motor and
the load it drives, ensuring a smooth transition with minimal
mechanical and electrical shock.

3. Overload Relay:

o An overload relay is included in the circuit to protect the motor from

drawing excessive current for extended periods. It disconnects the
motor from the power supply if it detects a sustained overload
condition, preventing potential damage to the motor and connected
equipment.

4. Switching Mechanism:

o The switching mechanism, often operated by a relay or a manual

switch, initiates the start sequence, transitioning the motor from
the star to the delta configuration at the appropriate time.

Advantages of Using a Star-Delta Starter

1. Reduced Starting Current:

o The primary advantage of using a star-delta starter is the

significant reduction in starting current. By starting the motor in a
star configuration, the initial inrush current is minimized, reducing
 the risk of voltage drops and disturbances in the electrical network.

2. Reduced Mechanical Stress:

o By lowering the starting torque, star-delta starters reduce

mechanical stress on the motor and the driven machinery. This
prolongs the lifespan of the motor and connected equipment,
reducing maintenance costs and downtime.

3. Cost-Effectiveness:

o Star-delta starters are relatively simple and cost-effective compared

to other types of reduced-voltage starters. They do not require
sophisticated electronics or complex control systems, making them
an economical choice for many industrial applications.

4. Widely Applicable:

o This type of starter is suitable for applications where the motor is

not required to deliver full torque immediately upon starting. It is
commonly used in applications like pumps, fans, compressors, and
conveyor systems, where a gradual increase in speed is acceptable.

Disadvantages and Considerations

1. Limited to Low Starting Torque Applications:

o Because the starting torque is reduced to one-third of its maximum

value, star-delta starters are not suitable for applications that
require high starting torque. This limitation must be considered
when selecting a starter for a specific application.

2. Transition Disturbances:

o The transition from star to delta can cause electrical and

mechanical disturbances if not managed properly. A poorly timed
or abrupt switch can result in a sudden surge in current or a
mechanical jerk, potentially causing damage to the motor or load.
 3. Not Ideal for High-Inertia Loads:

o Star-delta starters are not well-suited for high-inertia loads, such

as large flywheels or heavy machinery, where a gradual ramp-up in
speed and torque is needed to overcome the load inertia.

Star-delta starters are a popular choice in industrial settings for reducing the
starting current of induction motors, thereby protecting electrical networks and
reducing mechanical stress on equipment. While they are cost-effective and
widely applicable, their use is best suited for low-inertia applications that do
not require high starting torque. Proper implementation and timing of the star-
to-delta transition are crucial to ensuring smooth operation and minimizing
disturbances.

Star-Delta Starter Operation

A star-delta starter is an effective method for starting induction motors with

reduced current and torque. The primary purpose of this starter is to reduce
the starting current and torque during the initial energization of the motor. This
is achieved through a two-step process involving a star (Y) configuration followed
by a transition to a delta (Δ) configuration.

Star Configuration Phase

1. Reduced Voltage Application: At the moment of startup, the motor

windings are connected in a star configuration. In this setup, the phase
voltage applied to each motor winding is reduced to 1/√3 (approximately
58%) of the line voltage. This reduction is crucial because it directly
impacts both the current and torque produced by the motor.

2. Lower Starting Current: The reduction in phase voltage results in a

proportional decrease in the starting current. For a star configuration, the
starting current is approximately one-third of the starting current that
would be experienced if the motor were started directly in a delta
configuration. This reduced current minimizes the electrical load on the
power supply network and reduces the risk of tripping circuit breakers or
causing voltage sags.
 3. Decreased Starting Torque: Along with the reduction in current, the
torque generated by the motor also decreases. The starting torque in a
star configuration is about one-third of what it would be in a delta
configuration. This lower torque reduces mechanical stress on the motor
and the connected load, such as conveyors or pumps, leading to smoother
starts and less wear on mechanical components.

Transition to Delta Configuration

4. Acceleration Phase: As the motor starts to turn, it begins accelerating

towards its rated speed. The initial lower torque is often sufficient to get
the motor moving, especially in applications where high starting torque is
not required. However, as the motor speeds up, it becomes necessary to
 provide full torque to achieve and maintain operating speed.

5. Switching Mechanism: A timer or control relay is used to monitor the

motor speed or elapsed time. Once the motor reaches approximately 70-
80% of its rated speed, the control system initiates a switch from the star
configuration to the delta configuration. This transition is carefully timed
to ensure a smooth shift without causing a sudden surge of current or
torque that could damage the motor or the driven equipment.

Delta Configuration Phase

6. Full Voltage and Torque Application: In the delta configuration, each

motor winding receives the full line voltage. This results in the motor
developing its full-rated torque and operating at its full power. The delta
configuration is ideal for the continuous operation of the motor, providing
the necessary power and torque to drive the load effectively.

7. Stable Operation: Once in the delta configuration, the motor continues

to operate at its full capacity until it is turned off or stopped for
maintenance. The electrical and mechanical systems are designed to
handle the normal operational loads without excessive stress.

Advantages of Star-Delta Starters

 Reduced Electrical Stress: By lowering the starting current, star-delta

starters prevent excessive electrical stress on the power distribution
system, reducing the risk of electrical faults and equipment failure.

 Lower Mechanical Stress: The reduced starting torque also decreases

mechanical wear and tear on the motor and connected machinery,
extending their operational life and reducing maintenance costs.

 Energy Efficiency: The reduced inrush current means less energy is

wasted in heating up electrical components, improving the overall
efficiency of the motor during startup.

 Cost-Effective: Star-delta starters are a simple and cost-effective

solution for starting large induction motors compared to more complex
systems like soft starters or variable frequency drives (VFDs).
Disadvantages of Star-Delta Starters

 Reduced Starting Torque: The significant reduction in starting torque

may not be suitable for all applications, especially those requiring high
torque from the start, such as heavy machinery or high-friction loads.

 Complexity in Switching: The star-delta transition requires precise

timing and synchronization. Improper switching can lead to electrical or
mechanical disturbances that might damage the motor or equipment.

 Momentary Loss of Power: The brief period during which the motor
switches from star to delta configuration can cause a momentary loss of
power, which might be problematic in applications where continuous
operation is critical.

Star-delta starters provide an efficient and economical way to start large

induction motors with reduced starting current and torque. By minimizing
electrical and mechanical stress during startup, they help protect both the
motor and the electrical network, making them a popular choice in industrial
applications. However, careful consideration must be given to their limitations,
especially in situations requiring high starting torque or where switching
disturbances could cause operational issues.

Star-delta starters PLC programming

Case 1

Start =0

Main contact = 0
Star connection =0

Timer = 0
Delta connection = 0
Case 2

Start =1

Main contact = 1
Star connection =1
Timer done bit= 0
Start count for 10s
Delta connection = 0
Case 3

Start =1
Main contact = 1
After 10 s

Star connection =0
Timer done bit= 1
Delta connection = 1
Case 4

Start =1
OLR=1
Main contact = 0

Star connection =0
Timer done bit= 0
Delta connection = 0
Summary

In our 20th lecture on “PLC Counter Programming – III” we covered:

 Star –Delta starter PLC program.

 Why Induction Motors is the Preferred Choice in Industrial
Applications.
 Operation of Star –Delta starter in PLC via. Ladder diagram
References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 07 Lecture No: 21

Topic Name: Mathematical instruction-based PLC program
Objectives:

 Students will learn in -depth Key Mathematical Instructions in PLCs.

 Students will learn implementation of Mathematical Instructions in
PLCs via. Ladder diagram
 Students will learn about Gray Code: The Reflected Binary Code
examples in PLC.

Lecture Content:

Mathematical Instructions in PLC Programming

Mathematical instructions in PLC programming refer to operations that

involve arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and more advanced functions like square roots, exponents, or
trigonometric calculations. These instructions are used in PLC programs to
perform calculations on input data, adjust control variables, or compute output
values.

Key Mathematical Instructions in PLCs:

1. Addition (+): Adds two or more numbers together. Useful for

accumulating values or calculating totals.

2. Subtraction (-): Subtracts one number from another. This is often used
in applications where a difference needs to be calculated, such as the
difference between a setpoint and a measured value.

3. Multiplication (*): Multiplies two numbers. Used in scaling applications

or converting units.

4. Division (/): Divides one number by another. Important for calculating

ratios or proportional control.
 5. Square Root (√): Calculates the square root of a number, which can be
useful in applications requiring geometric calculations or certain types of
control algorithms.

6. Exponentiation (^): Raises a number to the power of another number.

This is used less frequently but is crucial for certain scientific and
engineering calculations.

7. Trigonometric Functions (sin, cos, tan): Used in more advanced control

applications, such as those involving motion control or coordinate
transformations.

Expanding on the PLC Program with Mathematical Instructions

To illustrate how mathematical instructions are used in PLC programming,

consider a simple example:

Example: Temperature Control System

Imagine a temperature control system where the temperature needs to be

maintained within a specific range. A PLC could use mathematical instructions
to perform the following tasks:

1. Reading Sensor Input: The PLC reads the temperature sensor input,
which provides a raw value.

2. Scaling the Input: The raw sensor value is then scaled using a
mathematical formula (e.g., converting an analog input value to a
temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit).

3. Calculating Error: The PLC calculates the error between the desired
setpoint and the current temperature using subtraction:

Error = Setpoint−Measured Temperature

4. Control Algorithm: The PLC uses a Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)

control algorithm to adjust the heating or cooling output. This involves
multiplication and addition:
 o Proportional Term (P): Calculated by multiplying the error by a
proportional gain (Kp).

o Integral Term (I): Calculated by summing the error over time and
multiplying by an integral gain (Ki).

o Derivative Term (D): Calculated by determining the rate of change

of the error and multiplying by a derivative gain (Kd).

5. Output Calculation: The PLC sums the P, I, and D terms to determine

the control output:

6. Actuating the Output: Based on the calculated output, the PLC adjusts
the heating or cooling device to maintain the desired temperature.

Practical Applications of Mathematical Instructions in PLCs

Mathematical instructions in PLCs are essential in various industrial

applications, including:

 Batch Processing: Calculating quantities and ensuring the correct

mixture of ingredients in food and beverage industries.

 Motion Control: Performing trigonometric calculations to control the

movement of robotic arms in automotive manufacturing.

 Energy Management: Optimizing power consumption by calculating load

demands and adjusting generation or storage systems accordingly.

 Data Logging and Analysis: Summing and averaging data points for
trend analysis and predictive maintenance in facilities management.
1. ADD –ADD Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 8
2. SUB – Subtraction Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 4
3. MUL – Multiplication Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 12
4. DIV – Division Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 6
N7:1 = 2
N7:2 = 3
5. SQR – Square Root Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 25
N7:1 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 25
N7:1 = 5
5. NEG – Negative Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0,

N7:0 = 25
N7:1 = 0

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1,

N7:0 = 25
N7:1 = -25
6. TOD –Convert to BCD Number Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0 ,

N7:0 = 12 0001100
N7:1 = 0 0000000

BCD Number - BCD stands for Binary-Coded Decimal. It is a method of

representing decimal numbers in binary form. In BCD, each digit of a decimal
number is represented by its own four-bit binary equivalent.

The decimal digit is represented as in BCD are-

Decimal Binary Number BCD Number

Number 4 bit 4 bit

0 0000 0000

1 0001 0001

2 0010 0010

3 0011 0011

4 0100 0100

5 0101 0101

6 0110 0110

7 0111 0111

8 1000 1000

9 1001 1001
• Till number 9 BCD number and binary number are represented by 4 bit
binary and they are same.

After Number 9 in BCD 10 is represented by 8 bit binary like – 0001 0000 =

10 in BCD

Decimal Number Binary Number BCD Number

4 bit 8 Bit

10 1010 0001 0000

11 1011 0001 0001

12 1100 0001 0010

13 1101 0001 0011

14 1110 0001 0100

15 1111 0001 0101

Decimal Number Binary Number BCD Number

8 bit 8 Bit

16 0001 0000 0001 0110

17 0001 0001 0001 0111

18 0001 0010 0001 1000

19 0001 0011 0001 1001

20 0001 0100 0010 0000

To Convert binary to BCD after number 9 simple solution just add 6 (0110) in
binary no.

Example - 12 in binary 00001100

So for BCD - + 00000110

Final BCD 00010010

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0 ,

N7:0 = 12 0000000000001100
N7:1 = 0 0000000000000000

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1 ,

N7:0 = 12 00001100
N7:1 = 18 00010010
7. FRD – Convert from BCD Number Instruction

CASE-1

When Input I:0/0 = 0 ,

N7:0 = 18 00010010 12H in hexa decimal

N7:1 = 0 0000000

CASE-2

When Input I:0/0 = 1 ,

N7:0 = 18 00010010
N7:1 = 12 00001100
Gray Code: The Reflected Binary Code

Gray code, also known as reflected binary code, is a type of binary numeral
system where two consecutive numbers differ by only a single bit. This
characteristic makes Gray code particularly useful in digital systems where
minimizing errors during transitions between values is crucial.

Key Features of Gray Code

1. Single-bit Transition: The most distinctive feature of Gray code is that

only one bit changes between consecutive numbers. For example, in a 3-
bit Gray code, the sequence progresses as follows:

o 000 (0 in binary)
o 001 (1 in binary)
o 011 (2 in binary)
o 010 (3 in binary)
o 110 (4 in binary)
o 111 (5 in binary)
o 101 (6 in binary)
o 100 (7 in binary)

Between each number in the sequence, only one bit changes. This property
reduces the chance of errors when switching from one value to another in digital
circuits, such as rotary encoders or analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

2. Error Minimization: The single-bit change characteristic helps minimize

errors in digital communication and processing. In scenarios where
multiple bits might change at the same time, there is a higher risk of
misinterpretation if not all bits change simultaneously. Gray code reduces
this risk by ensuring that any transition from one value to the next
involves only a single bit change, thereby reducing the likelihood of
significant errors during the transition period.

3. Applications in Digital Systems: Gray code is widely used in

applications that require error reduction during transitions. Some
common applications include:

o Rotary Encoders: These devices convert the angular position of a

shaft into an analog or digital code. By using Gray code, rotary
encoders can ensure that, as the shaft rotates and positions are
read, only one bit changes at a time, reducing the chance of error
from mechanical noise or timing issues.

o Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): Gray code is also useful in

ADCs where the output may transition between values frequently.
Using Gray code helps in ensuring that the digital representation of
an analog input signal changes smoothly with minimal error.

4. Simplified Logic Design: In digital electronics, designing circuits that

minimize bit changes can simplify the logic needed for error detection and
correction. Gray code naturally aligns with this requirement, making it a
valuable tool for designers.

To understand how Gray code is generated and used, consider how binary
numbers are converted into Gray code:

 Binary to Gray Code Conversion:

Step 1: The most significant bit (MSB) of the Gray code is the same as the
MSB of the binary number.
Step 2: For each subsequent bit, perform an XOR operation between the current
binary bit and the previous binary bit.

Example: Convert the binary number 1011 to Gray code:

Step 1: The first bit of Gray code = First bit of Binary = 1.

Step 2:

Second bit of Gray = 1 (second bit of binary) XOR 0 (first bit of binary) = 1
Third bit of Gray = 0 (third bit of binary) XOR 1 (second bit of binary) = 1
Fourth bit of Gray = 1 (fourth bit of binary) XOR 0 (third bit of binary) = 1

So, 1011 (Binary) converts to 1110 (Gray Code).

 Gray Code to Binary Conversion:

Step 1: The most significant bit (MSB) of the binary number is the same as the
MSB of the Gray code.

Step 2: For each subsequent bit, perform an XOR operation between the
previous binary bit and the current Gray code bit.

Example: Convert the Gray code 1110 to binary:

Step 1: The first bit of Binary = First bit of Gray = 1.

Step 2:

Second bit of Binary = 1 (first bit of binary) XOR 1 (second bit of Gray) = 0
Third bit of Binary = 0 (second bit of binary) XOR 1 (third bit of Gray) = 1
Fourth bit of Binary = 1 (third bit of binary) XOR 0 (fourth bit of Gray) = 1

So, 1110 (Gray Code) converts to 1011 (Binary).

This output instruction converts the Gray code Source to integer and places it
in the Destination.

On a True rung, this instruction sets the value of the Destination to the
integer value corresponding to the Gray code Source.

If the Gray code input is negative (high bit set), the destination is set to 32767
and the overflow flag is set. The GCD instruction only operates on Word
operands.

Entering Parameters:

Source contains the Gray code input. This may be a direct or indirect address
using any O, I, B, T, C, R, or N file type.

Destination contains the integer value corresponding to the Source. This may
be a direct or indirect address using any O, I, B, T, C, R, or N file type.

Arithmetic Flags

S:0/0 - Carry bit is reset.

S:0/1 - Overflow bit sets if the Gray code input is negative, otherwise reset.

S:0/2 - Zero bit sets if the Destination is zero.

S:0/3 - Sign bit is reset.

The Math Overflow Trap bit is only set if the Overflow bit is set. Otherwise, it
remains in its last state.

Summary
In our 21st lecture on “Mathematical instruction-based PLC program” we
covered:

 Key Mathematical Instructions in PLCs.

 Implementation of Mathematical Instructions in PLCs via. Ladder
diagram
 Gray Code: The Reflected Binary Code examples in PLC.
References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 07 Lecture No: 22

Topic Name: Application based PLC programming
Objectives:

 Students will look in-depth look at application-based PLC programming, its

principles, and key considerations:
 Students will learn implementation of application-based PLC
programming via. Ladder diagram
 Students will learn Industrial Process programming - Level sensor
based, traffic light program and car parking.

Lecture Content:

Application-based PLC programming

Application-based PLC programming refers to the process of developing control

logic for specific industrial or automation tasks using Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs). This type of programming is tailored to the requirements of
particular applications, such as manufacturing processes, machinery
operations, and automated systems in various industries. Here's an in-depth
look at application-based PLC programming, its principles, and key
considerations:

1. Understanding the Application Requirements

The first step in application-based PLC programming is to thoroughly

understand the requirements of the specific application. This involves:

 Defining the Objectives: Clearly identify what the PLC needs to

accomplish, such as controlling a conveyor belt, managing a robotic
arm, or regulating a chemical mixing process.

 Analyzing Inputs and Outputs: Determine the types of sensors and

input devices that will feed data to the PLC (e.g., proximity sensors,
push buttons, temperature sensors) and the actuators and output
devices the PLC will control (e.g., motors, valves, indicators).
  Understanding Process Flow: Create a detailed process flow diagram to
understand the sequence of operations and how different components
interact.

2. Designing the Control Logic

Once the application requirements are understood, the next step is to design
the control logic. This is often done using one of the PLC programming
languages defined in the IEC 61131-3 standard, such as Ladder Logic,
Function Block Diagram (FBD), Structured Text (ST), or Sequential Function
Chart (SFC).

 Ladder Logic: Commonly used for its simplicity and ease of

understanding, Ladder Logic is visual and resembles electrical relay
logic diagrams. It is ideal for applications involving straightforward
on/off control and interlocking.

 Function Block Diagram (FBD): FBD is used for applications requiring

modular programming with reusable blocks, such as in process control
systems.

 Structured Text (ST): This high-level programming language is suitable

for complex mathematical calculations, algorithms, and data processing
tasks.

 Sequential Function Chart (SFC): Best for processes that need to be

broken down into sequential steps or stages, such as batch processing
in chemical industries.

3. Programming the PLC

With the control logic designed, the next step is to program the PLC. This
involves:

 Creating the Program: Write the PLC program using the chosen
language(s) in a programming environment compatible with the PLC
hardware. Ensure that the program accurately reflects the control logic
design and meets all application requirements.

 Incorporating Safety Features: Integrate necessary safety features,

 such as emergency stop functions, overload protection, and safe
shutdown procedures, to prevent accidents and protect equipment.

 Testing and Simulation: Before deploying the program, conduct

simulations to verify that the control logic works as intended. This step
helps identify potential issues without risking damage to actual
machinery.

4. Deploying and Commissioning

Once the PLC program is tested and validated, it is ready for deployment. The
deployment process includes:

 Loading the Program: Transfer the program from the programming

device (usually a PC) to the PLC via communication interfaces like USB,
Ethernet, or proprietary cables.

 Commissioning: Start the PLC in the field and monitor its operation to
ensure it performs as expected. Adjust the program if necessary to fine-
tune the control logic based on real-world conditions.

 Documentation: Thoroughly document the PLC program, including a

detailed description of the control logic, input/output configuration, and
any specific parameters or settings. This documentation is vital for
maintenance and troubleshooting.

5. Maintaining and Updating the PLC Program

Application-based PLC programming doesn’t end with deployment. Regular

maintenance and updates are necessary to ensure optimal performance:

 Monitoring and Diagnostics: Continuously monitor the PLC system's

performance to detect any deviations from expected operation. Use built-
in diagnostic tools and logs to identify issues.

 Troubleshooting: Address any problems promptly by diagnosing faults

using the PLC's diagnostics or external tools. Modify the program if
necessary to correct issues.

 Updates and Upgrades: As operational requirements change, update

 the PLC program to accommodate new features, process changes, or
equipment upgrades. Ensure that any changes are carefully tested
before implementation.

6. Best Practices for Application-Based PLC Programming

 Modular Programming: Break down complex programs into smaller,

reusable modules or functions. This makes the program easier to
understand, maintain, and troubleshoot.

 Consistency in Naming Conventions: Use clear and consistent naming

conventions for variables, inputs, and outputs. This improves readability
and reduces the chance of errors.

 Commenting and Documentation: Include comments within the code

to explain the purpose of specific sections or instructions. Maintain up-
to-date documentation for future reference and training.

 Version Control: Use version control systems to manage changes to the

PLC program, enabling easy rollback if needed and keeping track of
program evolution.

7. Industry Applications of PLC Programming

Application-based PLC programming is widely used across various industries

due to its flexibility and reliability. Examples include:

 Manufacturing: Automating assembly lines, controlling machining

processes, and managing inventory systems.

 Automotive: Robotics control, painting processes, and assembly line

automation.

 Food and Beverage: Recipe management, packaging, and quality

control.

 Chemical Processing: Batch processing, mixing, and reactor control.

 Water and Wastewater Management: Pump control, filtration

processes, and chemical dosing.
Application-based PLC programming is essential for creating tailored
automation solutions that meet specific industrial needs. By understanding
application requirements, designing robust control logic, and adhering to best
practices, engineers can develop effective and reliable PLC programs that
enhance operational efficiency, safety, and productivity.

Example 1
Above figure shows the sketch of a continuous filling operation. This process
requires that boxes moving on a conveyor be automatically positioned and
filled.

The sequence of operation for the continuous filling operation is

• Start the conveyor when the start button is momentarily pressed.

• Stop the conveyor when the stop button is momentarily pressed.

 Energize the run status light when the process is operating.

• Energize the standby status light when the process is stopped.

• Stop the conveyor when the right edge of the box is first sensed by the photo
sensor.

• With the box in position and the conveyor stopped, open the solenoid valve
and allow the box to fill. Filling should stop when the level sensor goes true.

 Energize the full light when the box is full. The full light should remain
energized until the box is moved clear of the photo sensor.

The actual program is shown in the below diagram:

Input Address –

Start - I:0/0
Stop – I:0/1
Level Switch - I:0/2
Photo Sensor - I:0/3

Output Address–

Run – O:0/0
Standby- O:0/1
Full - O:0/2
Motor - O:0/3
Solenoid - O:0/4

Case 1 –

Start =0
Run= 0

So, Standby =1
Case 2 –

Start =1
Run= 1

Motor =1

So, Standby =0
Case 3 –

Start =1
Run= 1

If we got input from photo sensor =1

Motor =0
Solenoid =1
Case 4 –

Start =1
Run= 1
photo sensor =1

After some time, level sensor =1

Motor =1
Solenoid =0
Case 5 –

Start =1
Stop=1
Run= 0

Motor =0
Solenoid =0
Standby = 1
Example 2

Two-directional control of traffic lights-

Diagram shows Timing chart for two-directional control of traffic lights

Red—30s on
Green—25s on
Amber—5s on
Input Address –

Enable bit and done bit of TON timer

Output Address–
North/ South
RED - O:0/0
Yellow - O:0/2
Green - O:0/1
Output Address–

East / west
RED - O:0/5
Yellow - O:0/4
Green - O:0/3
Example 3

• 0 car means Green ON or show Empty Display

• In between 0 to less then 5 car yellow ON or Vacant Display

• 5 car RED ON or Full Display

Input

Entry sensor –
I:0/0

Exit sensor –

I:0/1

Output

Full – O:0/0
Vacant - O:0/1
Empty - O:0/2
Case -1

Entry =0
Exit = 0
Vacant = 1
Empty =1
Case -2

Entry =1 two times , accumulator increase by 2 and only

Vacant - O:0/1= 1
Full =0
Empty =0
Case -3

Entry =1
five times , accumulator increase by 5 and only
Vacant = 0
Full =1
Empty =0
Case -4

Entry =0
Exit =1
accumulator decrease by 1
Vacant = 1
Full =0
Empty =0
Summary
In our 22st lecture on ―Application based PLC programming‖ we covered:

 Principles, and key considerations of application-based PLC

programming.
 Implementation of application-based PLC programming via. Ladder
diagram.
 Industrial Process programming - Level sensor based, traffic light
 program and car parking.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb

and Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 11 Lecture No: 35

Topic Name: Introduction to SCADA architecture/block diagram.

Objectives:
 Students will learn about the history of SCADA and basics key
blocks involved in a SCADA system.
 Students will learn SCADA architecture/block diagram.
 Students will learn working and application of SCADA.

Lecture Content:

Introduction to SCADA architecture/block diagram.

SCADA System

SCADA is the short abbreviation of Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.

As the name suggests SCADA mainly does three operations:
• Supervise real-time data in the form of graphical presentation
• Control industrial processes locally or through Remote locations
• Acquire real-time data as well as logs data

SCADA, or Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition, is a comprehensive

control system used for monitoring and managing industrial processes. It
integrates computers, communication networks, and Human Machine
Interfaces (HMIs) to provide operators with real-time data and control
capabilities over large-scale processes, often spanning multiple locations.
SCADA systems are employed in industries like manufacturing, energy
production, water treatment, and transportation, where continuous monitoring,
data collection, and process control are critical.

Key Functions of SCADA:

1. Data Acquisition: SCADA systems continuously collect data from

sensors, field devices, and control units such as Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) and Remote Terminal Units (RTUs). These devices
 measure key parameters like pressure, temperature, flow rate, voltage,
and more. This data is then transmitted to the SCADA system for
processing.

2. Real-Time Monitoring: The collected data is displayed through graphical

HMIs, giving operators a clear, real-time overview of the process.
Operators can view system performance metrics, equipment status, and
alarms that notify them of abnormal conditions or potential issues.

3. Control: SCADA systems allow operators to send control commands to

connected devices. For instance, an operator could use SCADA to open or
close valves, start or stop motors, adjust temperature setpoints, or initiate
process sequences, all from a central control room. This enables remote
control over industrial plants without the need for manual intervention
on-site.
 4. Data Logging and Historical Trends: SCADA systems store historical
data for analysis, reporting, and compliance purposes. This data is
valuable for tracking system performance, identifying trends, and
predicting maintenance needs. Operators can analyze long-term trends to
detect potential equipment failures or optimize process efficiency.

5. Alarm Handling: When critical thresholds are crossed (e.g., temperature

exceeding a safe limit), SCADA systems trigger alarms to alert operators.
Alarms can be configured to display visually on the HMI, send
notifications via email or text, and activate safety measures to prevent
accidents or damage.

SCADA Components:

1. Human Machine Interface (HMI): The HMI is the user interface through
which operators monitor and control processes. It presents real-time data
graphically, using representations like diagrams, animations, and charts
 that reflect the plant's operation. This makes it easy to visualize processes
and respond quickly to changing conditions.

2. Supervisory System: This part of the SCADA system is responsible for

data acquisition and processing. It gathers data from field devices like
PLCs and RTUs, processes it, and updates the HMI to provide a live view
of the system.
3. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs): RTUs are microprocessor-based devices
that interface with field devices (such as sensors and actuators) to collect
data and transmit it back to the supervisory system. They also execute
commands from the SCADA system to control equipment in the field.

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): PLCs are robust, industrial

computers used to execute control logic in real time. They take input
signals from sensors, process them based on programmed logic, and send
commands to actuators like motors, pumps, and valves. PLCs are often
used in conjunction with SCADA systems because they provide local
control, while SCADA offers high-level oversight and centralized
management.

5. Communication Infrastructure: The communication network is critical

for SCADA systems, enabling the transfer of data between the central
SCADA servers and distributed field devices (RTUs, PLCs).
Communication can occur via Ethernet, fiber optics, wireless networks, or
serial connections, depending on the system's configuration and scale.

SCADA Interfacing with PLCs:

SCADA systems are commonly integrated with PLCs to control and monitor
automated industrial processes. Here's how the integration works:

 Communication Protocols: SCADA and PLCs communicate using

protocols like Modbus, Ethernet/IP, PROFINET, or OPC (OLE for
Process Control). These protocols ensure reliable data exchange,
enabling SCADA to read and write data to PLCs.

 Tag Configuration: Each input/output point in the PLC is mapped to a

tag in the SCADA system. Tags are used to represent variables like motor
status, valve position, temperature readings, or pressure levels. The
 SCADA system continuously updates these tags to reflect real-time
process conditions.

 Control and Feedback: Operators can send commands from the SCADA
system to the PLC, which then executes those commands to control the
process (e.g., turning a pump on or off). The PLC, in turn, sends feedback
to SCADA to confirm whether the command was executed and how the
process is performing.

Benefits of SCADA-PLC Integration:

1. Centralized Control: SCADA enables operators to manage and monitor

an entire plant from a single location, reducing the need for personnel to
physically inspect equipment on-site.

2. Increased Efficiency: By automating processes and providing real-time

feedback, SCADA-PLC integration improves operational efficiency.
Problems can be detected and resolved quickly, minimizing downtime.

3. Data-Driven Decision Making: SCADA systems collect vast amounts of

data that can be analyzed for insights into process performance,
equipment health, and efficiency improvements. This data helps in
making informed decisions, improving productivity and optimizing
maintenance schedules.

4. Alarm and Event Management: SCADA systems provide comprehensive

alarm management, alerting operators to critical issues like equipment
malfunctions, leaks, or overheating. This helps prevent serious incidents
and ensures timely corrective action.

5. Scalability: SCADA systems are designed to scale with plant operations.

As facilities expand, additional PLCs and devices can be integrated into
the system, allowing for seamless growth without major overhauls.

Example Use Case:

In a water treatment plant, a SCADA system is used to monitor and control

water pumps, chemical dosing equipment, and filtration systems. The PLCs
control the real-time operation of valves and pumps based on sensor inputs like
water levels and flow rates. The SCADA system provides a graphical interface
that shows plant operators the current status of each system, allows them to
adjust setpoints, and generates alarms when water quality falls outside
acceptable ranges.

History of SCADA

The history of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) is closely tied
to the evolution of industrial automation and control systems. Here’s an in-
depth look at its development:

1. Pre-SCADA Era: Manual Control and Early Automation (Pre-1960s)

 Manual operations: In early industrial setups, plant control and

monitoring were done manually. Operators used analog gauges, push
buttons, and dials to control equipment.
 Relays and Timers: As industries expanded, basic automation using
timers and relays was introduced to simplify tasks like turning machines
on and off. However, this system offered limited functionality, flexibility,
and was difficult to reconfigure.

2. 1960s: The Beginnings of SCADA

 Early computer technologies: With advancements in computers and

electronics in the 1960s, industries began using computers for more
sophisticated monitoring and control.
 Supervisory Control: Early SCADA systems were designed to provide
basic data acquisition and supervisory control over processes. The
systems used early telemetry and remote-control technologies to gather
data from remote locations and transmit it to a central location.

3. 1970s: Birth of SCADA Systems

 Introduction of Digital SCADA: The first SCADA systems were developed

in the 1970s, leveraging digital technology to overcome the limitations of
relay-based systems. These systems were capable of collecting and
monitoring data in real time from multiple sites.

 Key Features: SCADA systems at this stage provided:

 o Remote monitoring and control: Centralized control rooms could
monitor remote equipment and make adjustments in real-time.
o Basic human-machine interfaces (HMIs): Early visual
representations of the plant’s state allowed operators to interact
with equipment via computers.

4. 1980s: Rise of Distributed SCADA Systems

 Introduction of PLCs: Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) began

being integrated into SCADA systems, allowing for more reliable and
flexible control of industrial processes. PLCs replaced much of the relay
logic used in earlier systems.
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS): SCADA systems started evolving
into more distributed networks, allowing for decentralized control over
multiple processes or plants.
 Improved Communication Protocols: Communication technologies and
protocols like Modbus and DNP3 emerged, standardizing data exchange
between devices and SCADA systems.

5. 1990s: Advanced SCADA Systems

 Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs): SCADA systems moved from basic

HMIs to more sophisticated graphical interfaces, making it easier for
operators to visualize and control complex systems.
 Networking and Remote Access: The rise of networking technologies like
Ethernet allowed SCADA systems to connect to broader networks,
facilitating remote access and control over wider geographical areas.
 Integration with Business Systems: SCADA systems began integrating
with enterprise-level software like ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)
and MES (Manufacturing Execution Systems) to streamline operations
and improve business decisions.

6. 2000s: Modernization of SCADA

 Internet and Cloud Integration: SCADA systems began using the

internet and cloud technologies, enabling remote monitoring and control
from any location.
 IoT and Wireless Technologies: The Internet of Things (IoT) allowed
SCADA systems to connect to a vast array of sensors and devices
 wirelessly, improving data collection and monitoring capabilities.
 Cybersecurity Concerns: As SCADA systems became more connected,
concerns over cybersecurity grew. Efforts were made to secure SCADA
networks against cyberattacks, especially in critical infrastructure sectors
like power and water.

7. 2010s–Present: Advanced SCADA Systems

 Big Data and Predictive Analytics: Modern SCADA systems can process
vast amounts of data in real-time, allowing for advanced predictive
maintenance and performance optimization.
 Cloud-based SCADA: SCADA systems have increasingly migrated to
cloud-based platforms, offering scalability, flexibility, and lower
infrastructure costs.
 AI and Machine Learning: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) technologies are being integrated with SCADA systems to
optimize decision-making and automate more complex control processes.
 Smart Infrastructure: SCADA systems are becoming integral to smart
city infrastructure, automating utilities like water, power, and traffic
systems.

SCADA systems have evolved significantly, from basic manual controls to

sophisticated automated systems capable of managing and optimizing large-
scale industrial processes. The future of SCADA is likely to be shaped by further
advancements in cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and cybersecurity,
enabling more efficient and resilient industrial operations.

SCADA Basics

Before delving into the architecture of SCADA systems, it's important to

understand the basic components and their roles. A SCADA (Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition) system is designed for remote monitoring and
control of industrial processes, enabling real-time data acquisition and
automation.

Here’s an overview of the key blocks involved in a SCADA system:

1. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):

o HMI is the interface through which the human operator interacts

 with the SCADA system. It presents real-time data from the system
in a user-friendly format, often through graphical representations
such as diagrams, charts, and alarms.
o Operators can view the system's status, make adjustments, and
initiate commands to control the process.
o

2. Supervisory System:

o The Supervisory System is the central control component of

SCADA. It gathers data from the field devices, processes the
information, and sends control commands.
o This system is responsible for the overall monitoring and
supervisory control of the industrial process, typically through a
central server or set of servers.

3. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs):

o RTUs are field devices that collect data from sensors and other
equipment in the industrial process. They transmit this data back
to the supervisory system and can receive control signals to perform
actions like opening valves or starting motors.
o RTUs typically operate in remote locations, where they monitor and
control processes in environments such as power plants, pipelines,
 or water distribution systems.

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

o PLCs are robust industrial computers used for automation tasks. In

many modern SCADA systems, PLCs perform control functions
locally at the field level.
o PLCs are used because of their reliability and flexibility for
performing real-time control and automation tasks. They can be
integrated with RTUs or directly interfaced with the SCADA system.

5. Communication Infrastructure:

o The Communication Infrastructure links all the components of a

SCADA system together. It enables data transmission between
RTUs, PLCs, and the supervisory system.
o Communication can take place over a wide variety of media,
including wired (Ethernet, fiber optic, telephone lines) and wireless
technologies (radio, cellular networks, satellite).
 o Standardized protocols like Modbus, DNP3, and OPC are commonly
used for communication within SCADA systems.

6. SCADA Programming:

o SCADA Programming involves creating logic and configurations

that govern how the system behaves. This includes defining how
data is collected, processed, and presented to operators, as well as
specifying control strategies and alarm conditions.

o SCADA systems often support high-level programming languages

and scripting tools for customization.
SCADA System Architecture

SCADA systems can be designed in several architectural forms based on the

needs of the application and the scale of the operation. There are four basic
types of SCADA system architectures, each with distinct features.

1. Monolithic (Early SCADA Systems)

 Overview: These are standalone systems where all SCADA functionality is
centralized in one computer.

 Characteristics:
o No networked communication with other systems.
o Early SCADA systems used proprietary hardware and software.

 Limitations: Lack of scalability and difficulty in integrating with other

systems.

2. Distributed SCADA Systems

 Overview: In distributed SCADA systems, the processing is distributed
across multiple systems or nodes, increasing reliability and flexibility.

 Characteristics:
o Data and control commands can be shared between multiple
control stations.
o Each node has some autonomy and can perform control tasks.

 Advantages: Improved fault tolerance and flexibility in expanding the

system.

3. Networked SCADA Systems

 Overview: With advancements in networking, SCADA systems started

using LAN and WAN communication to link various control centers and
field devices.

 Characteristics:

o Communication between different SCADA nodes and field devices

via standardized protocols (e.g., Modbus, DNP3).
o Centralized data processing, with field devices sending data to
central hubs.
  Advantages: High scalability, improved performance, and easier
integration with other enterprise systems.

4. Internet of Things (IoT) and Cloud-based SCADA

 Overview: The latest SCADA systems utilize IoT and cloud technologies,
allowing for greater flexibility, scalability, and remote access from
anywhere.

 Characteristics:
o Field devices and sensors are connected to the cloud, providing
real-time data collection and analysis.
o Centralized monitoring with cloud-based dashboards.

 Advantages: Reduced infrastructure costs, scalability, enhanced data

analytics, and global accessibility.

SCADA Architecture Block Diagram

In A SCADA architecture block diagram typically illustrates the flow of data and control
between various components of a SCADA system. Here's a basic description of the
blocks and how they interact in a SCADA system:

SCADA Architecture Block Diagram Components

1. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):
o Acts as the user interface for the operator to interact with the
system.
o Displays real-time data, alarms, and controls for adjusting system
parameters.

2. Supervisory System / SCADA Central System:

o This is the main computer system or server that manages data
acquisition and supervises the overall operation.
o Receives and processes data from remote units, and sends control
commands.

3. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs):

o Field devices responsible for collecting data from sensors, and
sending control commands to actuators.
o Interfaces with sensors to gather real-time data and report back to
the supervisory system.

4. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

o Performs local automation and control tasks.
o Can act as an intermediary between the RTUs and the SCADA
system for managing control logic.

5. Communication Infrastructure:
o Enables communication between RTUs, PLCs, and the central
supervisory system.
o Uses various communication protocols (e.g., Modbus, DNP3,
Ethernet) and mediums (wired, wireless, fiber optic, radio, cellular).

6. Sensors and Actuators:

 o Sensors: Collect real-time data from the process (e.g., temperature,
pressure, flow).
o Actuators: Execute control actions, such as opening a valve or
starting a motor, based on commands from the PLC or RTU.

7. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):

o Acts as the user interface for the operator to interact with the
system.
o Displays real-time data, alarms, and controls for adjusting system
parameters.
8. Supervisory System / SCADA Central System:
o This is the main computer system or server that manages data
acquisition and supervises the overall operation.
o Receives and processes data from remote units, and sends control
commands.

9. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs):

o Field devices responsible for collecting data from sensors, and
sending control commands to actuators.
o Interfaces with sensors to gather real-time data and report back to
the supervisory system.

10. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

o Performs local automation and control tasks.
o Can act as an intermediary between the RTUs and the SCADA
system for managing control logic.

11. Communication Infrastructure:

o Enables communication between RTUs, PLCs, and the central
supervisory system.
o Uses various communication protocols (e.g., Modbus, DNP3,
 Ethernet) and mediums (wired, wireless, fiber optic, radio, cellular).

12. Sensors and Actuators:

o Sensors: Collect real-time data from the process (e.g., temperature,
pressure, flow).
o Actuators: Execute control actions, such as opening a valve or
starting a motor, based on commands from the PLC or RTU.

SCADA Architecture Block Diagram Description

1. Field Level:
o Sensors and Actuators are connected to RTUs and PLCs. These
devices collect data (e.g., temperature, flow, pressure) and execute
commands (e.g., open valve, stop motor).
 2. Control Level:
o PLCs control the processes based on data from sensors and logic
implemented in the program.
o RTUs act as data collectors, sending the information back to the
supervisory system.

3. Communication Level:
o Communication Infrastructure ensures that data is transmitted
between field devices (RTUs, PLCs) and the supervisory system.
This can involve wired (Ethernet, fiber optic) or wireless
communication (radio, cellular).

4. Supervisory Level:
o The Supervisory System processes data from field devices and
sends commands to control processes.
o HMI interfaces allow operators to visualize data, control processes,
and respond to alarms.

Working of SCADA
A SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) system operates in several
stages, from data acquisition to process control and monitoring. Here’s a
simplified breakdown of how it works:

1. Data Acquisition

 Sensors and Field Devices: SCADA systems collect real-time data from
sensors and field devices (e.g., pressure sensors, temperature sensors,
flow meters) that monitor physical parameters of the industrial process.
 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) / Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs): These devices interface with the sensors, convert analog signals
into digital data, and transmit it to the SCADA system for processing.

2. Data Communication
  Communication Networks: Data collected from field devices is
transmitted to the SCADA system using communication protocols such as
Ethernet, Modbus, or DNP3. The network infrastructure may include
wired or wireless connections, depending on the setup.
 Centralized Servers: The data is sent to centralized SCADA servers,
which aggregate and organize the data from various locations.
3. Data Processing
 Real-Time Data Processing: The SCADA servers process the incoming
data in real-time, converting it into meaningful information that can be
used for decision-making and process control.
 Data Archiving: Historical data is also stored for trend analysis,
reporting, and auditing.

4. Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

 Visual Representation: The processed data is displayed on the HMI,
which provides operators with graphical representations, alarms, trends,
and system statuses. The HMI allows operators to monitor the system and
understand the current operational state.
 Alarms and Alerts: SCADA systems trigger alarms for abnormal
conditions, such as equipment malfunctions or out-of-range parameters,
alerting operators to take corrective action.

5. Control
 Manual and Automatic Control: Based on the data from sensors,
operators can issue manual control commands through the HMI (e.g.,
start/stop equipment, adjust setpoints). In many cases, SCADA systems
also perform automatic control based on predefined logic.
 Feedback Loops: SCADA systems provide feedback to the field devices to
ensure that process parameters are maintained within desired limits,
ensuring smooth operation.
6. Monitoring and Reporting
 System Monitoring: The SCADA system continuously monitors the
process to detect anomalies, track performance, and maintain operational
efficiency.
 Data Reporting: The system generates reports based on the data
gathered, which can be used for operational insights, compliance, and
decision-making.
This cycle of data acquisition, communication, processing, control, and
monitoring enables SCADA systems to efficiently manage complex industrial
processes, ensuring that operations are optimized, safe, and reliable.

Application of SCADA

SCADA is used in various industries for several reasons, including:

1) Real-time monitoring: SCADA systems provide real-time visibility into

industrial processes, allowing operators to continuously monitor parameters
and performance metrics. This helps identify issues promptly and take
corrective actions to prevent downtime and optimise operations.
2) Remote control: SCADA enables remote monitoring and control of
processes, allowing operators to manage operations from centralised locations.
This capability is precious in industries with distributed assets or hazardous
environments where human intervention may be limited.

3) Data analysis: SCADA systems collect and analyse vast amounts of data
from sensors and devices, offering valuable insights into process performance,
trends, and anomalies. This data analysis helps improve efficiency, predict
maintenance needs, and optimise resource utilisation.

4) Enhanced safety: By enabling real-time monitoring and control, SCADA

systems improve safety in industrial environments. Operators can respond
quickly to emergencies, implement safety protocols, and mitigate risks to
personnel and assets.

5) Regulatory compliance: Industries are subject to regulatory requirements

regarding process monitoring, reporting, and control. SCADA systems help
ensure compliance with these regulations by providing accurate data collection,
documentation, and reporting capabilities.

Summary

In our 35th lecture on “Interfacing SCADA system with PLC” we covered:

 History of SCADA and basics key blocks involved in a SCADA
system.
 SCADA architecture/block diagram.
 Working and application of SCADA.

References:

• "Automation and Control Systems Basics: Industrial Control, Instrumentation and

Automation Techniques" by Jon Stenerson, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2004

• " Fundamentals of Industrial Control: Practical Guides for Programmable Logic

Controllers (PLC), SCADA, DCS, & Process Automation" by Genick Bar-Meir,
independently published, 2018.

• " Industrial Automation with SCADA: Concepts, Programming and Applications" by K

S Manoj, New Age International Publishers, 2020.