Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 03 Lecture No: 09

Topic Name: PLC Fundamentals-I
1. Objectives:

● Students will get introduction of PLC with its Origin and Evolution.
● Students will be able to learn the fundamental structure of a PLC.
● Students will be able to understand the deep details of PLC I/O
Components.

Lecture Content:

Introduction to PLCs

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specialized computer used to

automate complex industrial processes. It monitors input signals from various
sensors and devices, processes these signals based on user-defined logic, and
triggers appropriate outputs to control machinery and processes. PLCs are
crucial in industries such as manufacturing, energy, automotive, and more,
where precise control and reliability are paramount.

PLCs are specifically engineered to handle a variety of input and output

configurations, endure broad temperature ranges, resist electrical noise, and
withstand vibration and impact. Control programs that manage machinery and
equipment in manufacturing processes are typically stored in either battery-
backed or nonvolatile memory, ensuring reliability. As a real-time system, a
PLC's outputs are directly influenced by the current input conditions it monitors.
Essentially, a PLC is a digital computer designed for controlling machines. Unlike
standard personal computers, PLCs are built for industrial environments and
are equipped with specialized input/output interfaces along with a control-
oriented programming language. While the abbreviation "PC" is often used in
industry, it can be misleading since it also stands for "personal computer." To
avoid confusion, manufacturers generally use the term "PLC," which stands for
"programmable logic controller."

Originally, PLCs were developed to replace relay logic systems. However, their
functionality has significantly expanded over time, allowing them to be used in
increasingly complex applications. Given that a PLC's structure is similar to that
of general computer architecture, it can handle more than just relay switching
tasks; it can also manage operations such as timing, counting, calculations,
comparisons, and the processing of analog signals.

Modern control systems may still incorporate relays, but their role in logic
operations has significantly diminished. Instead, Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) have taken center stage, offering a range of advantages that
extend far beyond simple logic control.

1. Flexibility and Scalability:

PLCs are highly adaptable, allowing for easy modifications and expansions
without significant changes to the hardware. This flexibility is crucial in dynamic
industrial environments where processes and equipment frequently change.

2. Precision and Reliability:

PLCs deliver precise control over processes, ensuring consistent and accurate
operation. Their design makes them highly reliable, even in harsh industrial
environments, with the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, electrical
noise, and mechanical vibrations.

3. Ease of Programming and Troubleshooting:

Programming a PLC is straightforward, thanks to user-friendly languages like
Ladder Logic, which closely resembles traditional relay logic diagrams. This
simplicity makes it easier for technicians to program, diagnose issues, and
implement changes, reducing downtime and maintenance costs.
4. Integration with Other Systems:
Modern PLCs are equipped with communication protocols that allow seamless
integration with other industrial systems, such as Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) systems, Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs), and even
enterprise-level software. This integration enables real-time monitoring, data
collection, and advanced process control.

5. Versatility in Applications:
While initially developed to replace relay logic, PLCs now support a wide range
of applications, including timing, counting, complex calculations, analog signal
processing, and more. They can be used in various industries, from
manufacturing and automotive to energy and food processing.

6. Enhanced Safety Features:

PLCs can be programmed to include safety protocols, ensuring that machinery
operates within safe parameters. This is especially important in environments
where hazardous conditions could arise, providing an additional layer of
protection for both equipment and personnel.

7. Cost-Effectiveness:
Over time, PLCs have become more affordable, offering a cost-effective solution
for automation. Their ability to reduce wiring complexity, minimize human error,
and improve system efficiency translates into significant cost savings for
companies.

8. Remote Monitoring and Control:

With advancements in technology, many PLCs now support remote monitoring
and control. This feature allows operators to manage systems from a distance,
enabling quicker responses to issues and more efficient operation across
multiple locations.

These benefits highlight why PLCs have become the cornerstone of modern
industrial automation, driving efficiency, safety, and innovation across various
sectors.

Origin of PLCs

The concept of the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) emerged in the late
1960s, spurred by the demand for more adaptable and dependable control
systems in industrial settings. Prior to the advent of PLCs, manufacturing
automation heavily depended on relay-based control systems, which were not
only cumbersome and large but also difficult to modify. To address these
challenges, General Motors, a leading figure in the manufacturing industry,
sought a more efficient solution. This led to the development of the first PLC by
Bedford Associates, under the leadership of Dick Morley, who is often recognized
as the "father of the PLC." The resulting device, named the Modicon 084, was
launched in 1969, marking a significant transformation in the field of industrial
automation. The success of the Modicon 084 quickly established the PLC as an
indispensable tool in industrial automation. Its introduction marked a
significant shift in how manufacturing processes were controlled and optimized.
The ability to easily modify control logic without extensive hardware changes
meant that manufacturers could rapidly adapt to new production requirements,
leading to increased efficiency and reduced costs.

Over time, the PLC's functionality continued to expand, incorporating features

such as analog input/output handling, complex mathematical operations, and
network communication capabilities. This evolution has allowed PLCs to remain
at the forefront of industrial automation, even as technology has advanced.
Today, PLCs are integral to a wide range of industries beyond automotive
manufacturing, including food and beverage production, pharmaceuticals,
energy, and more. The invention of the PLC not only transformed industrial
automation but also laid the groundwork for the sophisticated control systems
that drive modern manufacturing and processing facilities.

Evolution of PLCs

Since their inception, PLCs have undergone significant evolution:

1. 1970s: Early PLCs were limited in memory and processing power but were
highly successful in replacing relay-based systems. Their programming
was done using ladder logic, a method that resembled electrical relay
logic,making it easier for engineers to adopt.

2. 1980s: With advancements in microprocessor technology, PLCs became

more powerful and versatile. They began to support additional
programming languages, such as Structured Text and Function Block
Diagrams, and could handle more complex tasks. Networking capabilities
were also introduced, allowing PLCs to communicate with other controllers
and systems.
 3. 1990s: The rise of personal computers (PCs) and software-based control
systems started to influence PLC design. PLCs became more user-friendly,
with improved programming environments and simulation tools. They also
began to integrate with other systems, such as Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, for enhanced monitoring and control.

4. 2000s and Beyond: Modern PLCs are highly advanced, with extensive
memory, processing power, and connectivity options, including Ethernet
and wireless communication. They are integral to the Industrial Internet
of Things (IIoT), enabling real-time data collection, remote monitoring, and
predictive maintenance. Today's PLCs are more compact, energy-efficient,
and capable of handling highly complex automation tasks.

Internal Structure of PLC

A typical Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) consists of several key

components. These components include the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the
Input/Output (I/O) section, the power supply, and the programming device. The
term "architecture" in the context of PLCs can refer to either the hardware, the
software, or a combination of both.

In terms of system architecture, there are two primary types: open and closed.
An open architecture design facilitates easy integration with devices and
programs from various manufacturers. Such systems utilize standard, off-the-
shelf components that adhere to established standards, promoting compatibility
and flexibility. Conversely, a closed architecture system has a proprietary design,
which can complicate the integration with other systems and may require
specific components and software from the same manufacturer. As a result, most
PLC systems operate under a proprietary framework, necessitating careful
consideration of compatibility when using generic hardware or software.

Furthermore, while the fundamental principles of PLC programming remain

consistent across different systems, there can be variations in addressing,
memory allocation, retrieval, and data handling among various PLC models. This
means that PLC programs are generally not interchangeable between different
manufacturers.

PLC systems can incorporate Input/Output (I/O) functionalities in two main

ways: fixed and modular. Fixed I/O systems, are common in smaller PLCs where
the processor and I/O functions are combined into a single, non-removable unit.
This configuration offers a cost-effective solution, with a set number of I/O points
that may be expandable by purchasing additional fixed I/O units. However, fixed
I/O systems lack flexibility; the quantity and type of I/O points are
predetermined by the unit's design. Additionally, if a component within the unit
fails, the entire unit typically needs replacement.

On the other hand, modular I/O systems, consist of a rack into which separate
modules can be inserted. This design significantly enhances the system's
flexibility and customization options. Users can select and arrange various
modules from the manufacturer according to their specific needs. A basic
modular PLC setup includes a rack, a power supply, a CPU module, I/O
modules, and an operator interface for programming and monitoring. This
modular approach allows for greater adaptability and easier upgrades compared
to fixed I/O systems. In a PLC system, modules are inserted into a rack, where
they connect electrically through a set of contacts known as the backplane,
located at the rear of the rack. This backplane facilitates communication between
the PLC processor and all the modules within the rack.

The power supply unit delivers DC power to the modules that are plugged into
the rack. For larger PLC systems, the power supply typically does not power the
field devices directly. Instead, these systems use external AC or DC power
supplies for field devices. In contrast, smaller micro-PLC systems might use the
internal power supply to also power the field devices.

The PLC processor, often referred to as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), acts
as the "brain" of the PLC system. The processor generally comprises a
microprocessor responsible for executing logic operations and managing
communications among the various modules. It requires memory to store the
user program instructions, numerical values, and status information from the
I/O devices. This arrangement ensures efficient processing and control within
the PLC system. The CPU manages all activities within a PLC and is designed to
allow users to program using relay ladder logic. The execution of the PLC
program follows a repetitive cycle known as a scan. During each scan, the CPU
first checks the status of the inputs. Next, it executes the application program.
After completing the program, it updates the status of all outputs. The CPU then
carries out internal diagnostics and communication tasks before beginning the
next scan. This cycle continues as long as the PLC is operating in run mode.

The I/O system acts as the interface between the field devices and the controller.
Its role is to condition the signals sent to or received from external devices. Input
devices, such as pushbuttons, limit switches, and sensors, connect through this
interface. Input devices such as pushbuttons, limit switches, and sensors are
directly connected to the PLC's input terminals. Similarly, output devices like
small motors, motor starters, solenoid valves, and indicator lights are connected
to the output terminals. To ensure electrical isolation between the PLC's internal
components and these external devices, an optical isolator is often used. This
component employs light to link the circuits while maintaining separation.

External devices are commonly known as "field" or "real-world" inputs and

outputs. The terms "field" or "real-world" differentiate these physical, tangible
devices from the internal user program, which simulates the functions of relays,
timers, and counters.

Conventional automation and Programmable automation

Conventional automation and programmable automation are two different

approaches to automating processes, each with its own advantages and
limitations. Conventional Automation is best for high-volume, repetitive tasks
where processes are stable while Programmable Automation is better suited for
environments where flexibility and adaptability are important, and where
processes may frequently change. Both approaches have their place depending
on the specific needs of a production environment.
Conventional Automation

 Definition: This type involves the use of fixed, dedicated machines and
systems designed for specific tasks. The setup is tailored to handle
repetitive tasks with high efficiency and minimal variation.
 Flexibility: Low flexibility. Once set up, changing the process or adapting
to new tasks requires significant effort, often involving redesign or
reconfiguration of machinery.
 Cost: Often higher initial investment due to the need for custom
machinery and dedicated systems.
 Efficiency: Highly efficient for repetitive, high-volume tasks. Ideal for
environments where processes do not change frequently.
 Maintenance: Typically, lower maintenance needs if the processes are
stable and unchanged.
Programmable Automation

 Definition: This approach uses programmable equipment, such as robots

or programmable logic controllers (PLCs), that can be reconfigured through
software to handle different tasks or adapt to changes in the process.
 Flexibility: High flexibility. Changes in production requirements or
processes can be managed by reprogramming the system rather than
redesigning physical equipment.
 Cost: Lower initial cost compared to conventional automation, especially
for environments where frequent changes in production are expected.
 Efficiency: Can be very efficient, but may require additional time for
reprogramming and setup when changes are made.
 Maintenance: May require more frequent updates and adjustments to
programming, but can be easier to maintain in terms of physical wear and
tear.

PLCs function in a cyclic manner through a process called "scanning." In this

mode, the PLC continuously repeats a series of operations to manage and control
processes. Each cycle begins with reading the status of input devices, followed
by executing the user-defined program, updating the status of output devices,
and performing internal diagnostics and communication tasks. This scanning
process ensures that the PLC consistently monitors and controls the connected
devices according to the programmed logic.
The PLC scan cycle consists of several key steps that are executed in a
continuous loop to ensure proper operation and control of the system. Here is a
typical PLC scan cycle:

1. Input Reading: The PLC begins by checking the current status of all
connected input devices, such as sensors and switches. This step involves
gathering real-time data from these devices to understand the system’s
current state.

2. Program Execution: Next, the PLC runs the user-defined program, which
is typically written in a language like ladder logic. During this stage, the
PLC processes the input data according to the programmed instructions
to determine the appropriate actions or outputs.

3. Output Update: Based on the results from the program execution, the PLC
adjusts the output devices. This could mean activating or deactivating
components such as motors, solenoids, or indicator lights to manage the
process or machinery effectively.

4. System Maintenance: The PLC then performs internal checks and

manages communication tasks. This step ensures the PLC's internal
operations are functioning properly and handles any necessary
communication with other devices or systems.

5. Cycle Repetition: The process starts again with reading the inputs. This
repetitive cycle allows the PLC to continuously monitor, process, and
control the system in real-time.

This scanning cycle enables the PLC to maintain effective control over automated
processes by consistently updating and responding to changes in the system.

PLC construction

PLC manufacturing companies offer two primary types of constructions: compact

and modular, each catering to different application needs and preferences.

PLC programming languages, while not universally standardized, generally

include ladder diagrams, instruction lists, and function block diagrams. Among
these, ladder diagrams are the most commonly used due to their resemblance to
conventional relay-based automation circuits.The IEC 61131-3 standard,
established in 1993, provides a framework for basic PLC programming
languages. However, despite this standardization, variations and compatibility
issues still exist among different PLC manufacturers.

Compact PLCs

 Structure: Compact PLCs integrate all essential components, such as the

central processing unit (CPU), input/output (I/O) modules, and power
supply, into a single, unified unit. This all-in-one design simplifies
installation and operation.
  Benefits:

o Space Efficiency: The compact form factor is ideal for installations

where space is constrained, making it suitable for small or medium-
sized systems.
o Ease of Use: Fewer components and a streamlined design make
compact PLCs straightforward to set up and maintain.

 Limitations:

o Limited Expandability: Because the components are integrated

into a single unit, expanding or upgrading the system can be
challenging. Users might face restrictions in adding additional I/O
modules or enhancing functionality.
o Fixed Configuration: Customization options are limited since the
system is designed as a complete package.

Modular PLCs

 Structure: Modular PLCs consist of separate, individual modules, which

include the CPU, I/O modules, power supply, and communication
interfaces. These modules can be assembled and configured according to
the specific needs of the application.

 Benefits:

o Flexibility: Modular PLCs offer significant flexibility, allowing users

to select and combine various modules to create a system tailored
to requirements. This modularity makes it easy to scale up or modify
the system as needed.
o Customization: Users can mix and match modules to customize the
PLC according to different functional needs, such as adding
specialized communication interfaces or expanding I/O capacity.

 Limitations:

o Size and Complexity: Modular systems are generally larger and

more complex than compact PLCs, requiring careful planning for
installation and space allocation.
o Higher Initial Setup: The need for separate modules and potentially
 more complex configuration can lead to a higher initial setup cost
and complexity.
o
Both compact and modular PLC constructions offer distinct advantages and
drawbacks. The choice between them typically depends on factors such as the
scale of the application, space constraints, and the need for future expansion or
customization.

PLC I/O Components

PLC I/O components are vital for the interaction between the industrial
automation system's I/O devices and the PLC's microprocessor, which executes
the control logic. These components ensure that the PLC can accurately read
data from the physical world and send commands to control devices. Here’s a
detailed look at each key element of PLC I/O components:

1. Power Source

 Purpose: The power source supplies the necessary electrical energy to the
I/O modules and their associated devices, ensuring they function properly.

 Details:

o AC vs. DC: Power sources can be either alternating current (AC) or

direct current (DC), depending on the specific requirements of the
PLC and the devices it controls.
o Voltage and Current Ratings: The power source must meet the
voltage and current requirements specified for the PLC and its I/O
modules to prevent damage and ensure reliable operation.
 o Redundancy: In critical applications, redundant power supplies
may be used to enhance reliability and minimize the risk of system
failure.

2. Signal Conversion Circuits

 Purpose: These circuits translate the signals from field devices into a
format that the PLC’s microprocessor can process and vice versa. They
handle the necessary modifications to ensure accurate data exchange.

 Details:

o Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): Convert analog signals (e.g.,

from temperature sensors) into digital signals that the PLC can
understand. ADCs are crucial for applications requiring precise
measurement of analog inputs.
o Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs): Convert digital signals from
the PLC into analog signals for controlling devices that require
analog input (e.g., variable-speed drives).
o Signal Conditioning: May involve amplifying, filtering, or isolating
signals to protect the PLC and improve measurement accuracy.

3. Terminal Blocks

 Purpose: Terminal blocks provide the physical connection points where

field devices are wired to the PLC. They facilitate organized and secure
connections.

 Details:

o Connection Types: Terminal blocks typically feature screw

terminals, spring-clamp terminals, or push-in connections, which
allow for easy wiring and adjustments.
o Labeling and Organization: Clear labeling helps in identifying
connections and simplifies troubleshooting and maintenance.
Terminal blocks often come with a schematic diagram or markings
to indicate connections.
o Accessibility: Designed for ease of use, terminal blocks allow for
straightforward installation and removal of wiring, minimizing
downtime during maintenance or reconfiguration.
4. Mounting Mechanism

 Purpose: The mounting mechanism ensures that the I/O modules are
securely attached to a panel or rack, providing stability and accessibility
for maintenance.

 Details:
o Rail Mounting: Many PLC I/O modules are mounted on DIN rails,
which offer a standardized and secure method of attachment. This
method allows for easy installation and removal of modules.
o Panel Mounting: Some systems may use panel mounting, where
modules are fixed directly to a control panel or enclosure. This
method can be used in environments where space is less of a
concern.
o Backplane Mounting: Modular PLC systems often use backplane
mounting, where the modules are connected to a central backplane
that provides power and communication pathways. This setup
supports modularity and easy expansion.

These I/O components collectively enable the PLC to interface effectively with
various industrial devices, translating real-world inputs into actionable data and
ensuring that control commands are accurately executed. They are essential for
the PLC's ability to manage and control complex automation processes reliably.

The standard and most common I/O modules are the following:

 Digital input modules

 Digital output modules
 Analog input modules
 Analog output modules

Digital input and output modules

Digital input and output modules are critical components in PLC systems,
enabling communication between the PLC and external devices. Here’s a detailed
look at each type of module:
Digital Input Module

Function: A digital input module receives signals from external digital devices,
such as switches, sensors, or pushbuttons. It converts these signals into a
format that the PLC's microprocessor can process.

Key Components:
1. Signal Conditioning Circuitry:

o DC Signal Processing: For direct current (DC) signals, the module

includes resistor networks that adjust the voltage levels to match
the PLC’s input specifications.
o AC Signal Processing: For alternating current (AC) signals, the
module uses an AC to DC converter or a bridge rectifier to convert
the AC voltage into a steady DC voltage that the PLC can interpret.

2. Isolation Circuitry:
o Purpose: Protects the PLC from electrical noise and high voltage
spikes from external devices. Isolation circuits ensure that high
voltages do not damage the PLC’s internal electronics.
o Types: May include opto-isolators or transformer-based isolation.

3. Input Filtering:
o Debouncing: For mechanical switches, input filtering is used to
debounce the signal, eliminating noise and ensuring that only
stable, clean signals are read by the PLC.

4. Terminal Block:
o Purpose: Provides connection points for wiring the external input
devices. The terminal block is designed for easy and secure wiring,
with clear labeling for each connection.

Digital Output Module

Function: A digital output module sends control signals from the PLC to external
devices such as relays, solenoids, or indicator lights. It converts the PLC’s digital
output signals into the necessary electrical signals to control these devices.
Key Components:

1. Signal Conversion Circuitry:

o DC Output: Converts the digital signal from the PLC into a

controlled DC voltage or current suitable for driving output devices.
o AC Output: Some modules may include circuits to handle AC
output, converting the digital signal into AC voltage or current for
controlling devices that require AC signals.

2. Isolation Circuitry:

o Purpose: Ensures that the PLC’s internal circuits are protected from
the electrical loads and potential spikes generated by the external
devices. This protection helps to maintain the reliability and
longevity of the PLC.
o Types: Often involves opto-isolators or relays that separate the PLC
from the high-voltage or high-current outputs.

3. Relay or Transistor Outputs:

o Relay Outputs: Use electromagnetic relays to switch higher voltage

or current loads. Relays provide isolation between the PLC and the
output device.
o Transistor Outputs: Utilize solid-state transistors for switching
lower voltage and current loads. Transistor outputs offer faster
switching times and higher reliability with fewer mechanical parts.

4. Terminal Block:

o Purpose: Provides a means to connect external output devices to the

module. Terminal blocks are designed for secure connections and
ease of wiring, with clear markings to facilitate correct installation.

Analog input and output modules

Initially, PLCs were limited to handling only discrete inputs and outputs, which
restricted their use to ON-OFF control and digital elements of industrial
processes. This limitation meant that PLCs were not suitable for managing
analog control systems, which require continuous signal processing.

However, advancements in electronics led to the development of specialized

analog modules for PLCs. These analog input and output modules enabled PLCs
to process and manage analog signals, significantly broadening their
functionality and application in industrial settings. The introduction of these
modules allowed PLCs to handle a range of continuous variable inputs and
outputs, such as temperature, pressure, and flow measurements, thereby
greatly enhancing their control capabilities and versatility. This advancement
marked a major improvement in PLC technology, expanding their use in more
complex and varied industrial processes.
Analog input module

An analog input module in a PLC is crucial for interfacing with analog signals,
enabling the PLC to process continuous variables like temperature, pressure, or
flow. An analog input module enables a PLC to handle continuous analog signals
by converting them into digital values through an A/D converter. This capability
greatly expands the PLC’s versatility, allowing it to interact with a broader range
of industrial processes and applications that require precise measurement and
control of variables. The integration of such modules marks a significant
advancement in PLC technology, enhancing its ability to manage complex and
varied control tasks.
Here’s a detailed look at how it functions:

Key Components and Functions

1. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter:

o Purpose: The primary function of the A/D converter is to transform

analog signals—such as those from sensors measuring temperature
or pressure—into digital values that the PLC can interpret and use.
o Operation: The converter samples the continuous analog signal at
specific intervals and produces a corresponding digital value. This
process involves quantizing the analog signal into discrete digital
levels, allowing it to be processed by the PLC.
2. Signal Conditioning:

o Function: Before conversion, the analog signal often undergoes

conditioning to ensure it is within the acceptable range and format
for the A/D converter. This may include amplification, filtering, and
isolation to protect the PLC from electrical noise and ensure
accurate measurement.
o Components: Signal conditioning circuits might include amplifiers,
filters, and isolators.

3. Data Storage and Access:

o Digital Values Storage: Once the analog signal is converted into

digital form, these values are stored in the module’s internal
memory. This storage allows the PLC’s central processing unit (CPU)
to access and utilize the data for control and monitoring tasks.
o Communication with CPU: The stored digital values are made
available to the CPU based on the execution program’s
requirements. The CPU uses this data to make control decisions and
execute the programmed logic.

4. Terminal Block:

o Purpose: Provides connection points for wiring the external analog

devices to the module. The terminal block ensures secure and
organized connections for signal inputs.
o Design: Typically includes clear labeling and easy-to-use connectors
 to facilitate correct installation and maintenance.

The analog signals supplied in an analog input module are standard and
compatible with the corresponding output signals of the analog input devices
(sensors or transducers). In the Table, the most common analog input devices
and the standard analog signals that we find in the analog input modules are
shown in given table
 The module's design ensures that analog and digital components are electrically
isolated to protect the PLC’s microprocessor and other sensitive parts from
potential damage caused by electrical noise or faults.

The microprocessor within the module manages the overall functionality,

including the operation of the multiplexer, A/D converter, and memory. The
conversion time for each analog input is relatively short, typically around 10–50
microseconds (µs). Therefore, a module with multiple input channels can
complete a full operational cycle in a fraction of a millisecond. This quick
conversion time is significantly less than the typical scanning time of most PLC
applications, ensuring efficient and timely data processing.

Analog output module

Analog output modules in PLCs serve the critical function of converting digital
data generated by the PLC's central processing unit (CPU) into analog signals,
which are then used to control various analog devices such as actuators,
valves, or drives. Here's an expanded explanation of how these modules operate
and their significance:

Key Functions and Components of Analog Output Modules

1. Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A Converter):

 o Purpose: The core function of an analog output module is to
perform digital-to-analog conversion. The digital signals generated
by the PLC’s CPU are typically numerical values that represent the
desired output level.
o Operation: The D/A converter within the module translates these
numerical digital values into corresponding analog signals, which
could be either a voltage or a current, depending on the application
and the requirements of the controlled device.
 Voltage Output: This could be in the range of 0-10V, -10V
to +10V, or other standardized ranges.
 Current Output: Often in the range of 4-20mA, which is a
common standard in industrial control systems.

2. Signal Conditioning:

o Purpose: After conversion, the analog signal might require

conditioning to ensure it meets the specifications required by the
connected devices. Signal conditioning can include amplification,
filtering, or buffering.
o Components: The module may include additional circuits to
stabilize the output, eliminate noise, and ensure the signal is
robust enough to drive the external device effectively.

3. Accuracy and Resolution:

o Resolution: The resolution of the D/A converter is critical, as it

determines how finely the output signal can be adjusted. Higher
resolution converters allow for more precise control of the analog
output.
o Accuracy: The module must maintain high accuracy to ensure
that the analog signal closely matches the intended value specified
by the digital input. This is essential for processes that require
precise control.

4. Isolation:

o Purpose: Isolation is often incorporated within the analog output

module to protect the PLC and ensure that the control signals are
not affected by electrical noise or voltage spikes from the field
devices.
 o Types: Isolation can be achieved using optocouplers or
transformer-based methods, depending on the application’s
requirements.

5. Output Range and Scaling:

o Customizable Ranges: Analog output modules often allow for
customizable output ranges to suit different devices. For example,
the same module might be configured to output 0-10V or 4-20mA,
depending on the needs of the connected equipment.
o Scaling: The module can scale the digital input value to the
appropriate analog output range, ensuring that the full range of
the output signal is utilized effectively.

6. Terminal Blocks and Connections:

o Purpose: The module includes terminal blocks that provide secure

and organized connection points for wiring to the external analog
devices.
o Design: These terminal blocks are designed to facilitate easy
wiring, with clear labeling to minimize errors during installation
and maintenance.

Applications of Analog Output Modules

Analog output modules are crucial in industrial automation where variable

control is needed, such as:
 Speed Control: In variable frequency drives (VFDs) for motors, where the
analog signal controls the speed.
 Positioning: In actuators or valves where precise positioning is
controlled by an analog signal.
 Process Control: In systems where temperature, pressure, or flow needs
to be adjusted continuously based on process conditions.

Analog output modules significantly expand the capabilities of PLCs by enabling

them to control a wide range of analog devices in industrial environments. By
converting digital data from the CPU into precise analog signals, these modules
facilitate smooth and accurate control over complex processes, ensuring that
industrial operations can maintain high levels of efficiency and precision.

Analog output signals produced by PLCs are typically DC, but they can effectively
control AC devices as well. For example, an analog output module can send a
varying DC signal to an AC motor controller, such as a soft starter, to regulate
the motor's speed.

Controlling AC Devices with Analog DC Signals

 Application: When a varying DC voltage, such as 0–10V DC, is applied to

the input of an AC motor controller, the speed of the AC motor can be
adjusted accordingly. This is because the controller interprets the DC
signal as a command to vary the AC power supplied to the motor.
 Example: A 0V DC signal might correspond to the motor being off or at its
lowest speed, while a 10V DC signal could represent full speed operation.

Connection Types

 Typical Connections: Figure (a) demonstrates a standard connection

setup for analog output devices interfacing with an output module.
 Four-Wire Connection: Some analog output modules offer a four-wire
connection, as shown in Figure (b). This configuration enhances the
accuracy of the voltage applied to the load, particularly in situations where
precise control is critical.
These features allow PLCs with analog output modules to manage a wide variety
of industrial devices, including those that require AC power, by using DC control
signals.

In some analog output setups, a four-wire connection is utilized, which includes

two additional wires (labeled as S+ and S–) that connect directly to the load (RL).
This configuration allows the analog output module to measure the voltage at
the load directly, rather than just at the output terminals. By doing so, the
module can detect and compensate for any voltage drops that may occur along
the connecting wires.

This setup is particularly valuable in scenarios where maintaining precise

control over the output voltage is essential, such as in sensitive industrial
processes or where long cable runs might introduce significant voltage drops.
Special Purpose Input/Output Modules

While standard digital and analog I/O modules meet most industrial automation
needs, there are specific situations where specialized I/O modules are required.
These modules are designed to handle signals or perform tasks that standard
PLC modules cannot efficiently manage. Below are some examples of where
special purpose I/O modules are necessary:

1. Fast Response Inputs:

o In certain industrial applications, devices generate signals that
change more rapidly than what a standard PLC can detect within its
typical scan cycle. Standard I/O modules may fail to capture these
quick transitions, leading to missed signals or delays in response.
Special fast-response input modules are designed to capture these
rapid signals accurately.

2. Control of Special Motors:

o Some motors, such as stepper motors, require precise pulse trains
to control their operation. The frequency of these pulses determines
the motor's speed, while the number of pulses controls the rotation
angle. Standard I/O modules are generally not equipped to generate
these specialized signals. Therefore, dedicated modules are used to
manage these tasks effectively.

3. Complex Control Requirements:

o Certain applications, such as those involving sophisticated control
algorithms like Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control,
demand more complex processing than standard modules can offer.
For these situations, special modules with advanced processing
capabilities are utilized to meet specific response criteria and control
precision.

4. Human Machine Interfaces (HMIs) and Data Transmission:

o Communication between the PLC and HMIs, which may include
displays, printers, and computers, often requires specialized
modules. These modules are also essential for PLC-to-PLC
communication or for connecting to industrial communication
networks, ensuring reliable data exchange and system integration.
Functionality of Special Purpose I/O Modules

These specialized modules are typically equipped with their own

microprocessors, allowing them to operate independently from the main PLC.
They can perform dedicated tasks while still communicating with the main PLC
processor to exchange necessary data and control signals. This design enables
them to manage complex and high-speed operations that standard I/O modules
cannot handle, ensuring that the automation system functions smoothly and
efficiently in demanding industrial environments.

Summary:

In our 9th lecture on “PLC Fundamentals-I” we covered:

1) Introduction of PLC with its origin and evolution

2) The fundamental structure of a PLC.
3) The details of PLC I/O Components.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers" by Gary Dunning, 3rd Edition,

Publisher: Cengage Learning, Year: 2016.
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 03 Lecture No: 10

Topic Name: PLC Fundamentals-II
1. Objectives:

● Students will get introduction of PLC processor module (CPU and

Power supply).
● Students will be able to learn the memory organization and memory
types of a PLC.
● Students will be able to understand the installation and operation of
PLC.

Lecture Content:

PLC processor module

The processor module in a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) serves as the

brain of the system, responsible for executing control instructions and managing
all operations. This module contains the Central Processing Unit (CPU), which
includes a microprocessor designed specifically for industrial automation tasks.

PLC processor module

The processor module is generally divided into two main sections: the CPU
section and the memory section. The CPU section is responsible for executing
the program and making decisions that enable the PLC to function and

communicate with other modules. The memory section, on the other hand, is
where the PLC's program and other digital information are electronically stored
for retrieval as needed.

The microprocessor in the processor module is responsible for running the

operating system, managing memory, and handling communication between the
PLC and its connected devices. It continuously monitors inputs from sensors
and other devices, processes the user-defined program (often written in ladder
logic or other PLC programming languages), and updates the outputs accordingly
to control actuators, motors, lights, and other machinery.

The processor module also interfaces with the PLC's memory, where the control
program and important data are stored. This module coordinates with the power
supply to ensure the system receives the necessary voltage and manages
communication with other modules within the PLC, such as input/output
modules, to execute the control strategy effectively.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a PLC

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the essential component of a Programmable

Logic Controller (PLC), acting as the system's control center. At the heart of the
CPU lies the microprocessor, which performs the critical computational tasks
that drive the PLC's operations.

While the terms "CPU" and "microprocessor" are often used interchangeably,
they refer to different aspects of the PLC's architecture. The microprocessor is
the integrated circuit responsible for executing instructions, while the CPU
encompasses the microprocessor along with additional components and circuitry
required for the PLC's full functionality. The CPU's architecture includes digital
circuits for data storage and retrieval, enabling the system to store operational
data, recall instructions, and manage input/output operations effectively.

Additionally, the CPU houses circuits dedicated to facilitating communication

between the PLC and its programming unit, allowing for the transfer of programs,
updates, and control commands. In a PLC, the program is specifically designed
to facilitate industrial control rather than general-purpose computing. The CPU
is responsible for executing the operating system, managing memory, monitoring
inputs, evaluating the user logic (typically written in ladder logic), and controlling
the corresponding outputs.

In some PLC systems, the CPU may include multiple processors. The advantage
of multiprocessing is that it enhances the overall operating speed of the system.
Each processor in a multiprocessing setup has its own dedicated memory and
runs its own program, allowing them to operate simultaneously and
independently. This parallel processing approach reduces the total response time
as each processor scans independently.

For critical industrial processes, fault-tolerant PLC systems may include dual
processors. These systems are designed with redundancy in mind, meaning that
if one processor fails, control is automatically transferred to the secondary
processor, ensuring continuous operation without interruption. This
redundancy is crucial in environments where reliability and uptime are
paramount.

In PLCs, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is integral to the system, though its
physical configuration may vary depending on the type of PLC. In single-unit
fixed PLCs, the CPU is built into the unit itself, whereas in modular rack-type
PLCs, the CPU is typically housed in a plug-in module. Terms such as CPU,
controller, and processor are often used interchangeably by different
manufacturers, but they all refer to the module responsible for executing the
PLC's core functions. These processors can differ in terms of processing speed
and memory capacity. In more advanced PLC systems, the processor module
may include multiple microprocessors, which work in parallel to improve overall
system performance. This multiprocessing capability allows different processors
to handle different tasks simultaneously, reducing the response time of the
system. In critical applications where reliability is essential, processor modules
may also feature redundancy. This means that if the primary processor fails, a
secondary processor can take over without any disruption to the system,
ensuring continuous operation.

The microprocessor within the CPU operates under the guidance of an

executable program stored in Read-Only Memory (ROM). This program is
typically written in assembly language, a low-level programming language that
closely corresponds to the machine code understood by the microprocessor. The
ROM-stored program directs the microprocessor to execute processing tasks,
manage internal operations, and oversee communication with external devices
and networks, ensuring the smooth and accurate execution of the PLC's control
functions.
This integrated approach allows the CPU to manage the PLC's processes,
ensuring real-time response to inputs and directing outputs in accordance with
the programmed logic, making it the pivotal component in industrial automation
systems.

Memory Organization

Memory in a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is essential for storing various

types of information, including programs and data. The user memory of a PLC is
specifically allocated for the user program and includes addressable memory
locations for data storage.

Writing is the process of storing data into these memory locations, while reading
refers to retrieving data from them. The complexity of the PLC program influences
the memory requirements; more complex programs demand more memory.
Memory elements in a PLC store individual pieces of information called bits,
which are the fundamental units of binary data.

The capacity of PLC memory is typically specified in increments of:

 Bytes (B): Each byte consists of 8 bits.
 Kilobytes (KB): 1 kilobyte equals 1,024 bytes.
 Megabytes (MB): 1 megabyte equals 1,024 kilobytes.
 Gigabytes (GB): 1 gigabyte equals 1,024 megabytes.

Memory capacity is chosen based on the needs of the application, with larger
memory sizes accommodating more complex programs and larger volumes of
data.
In a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), the program is stored in memory as
binary data, represented by 1s and 0s. This binary data is often organized into
16-bit units known as words. The memory size of a PLC is typically expressed in
terms of the number of words it can accommodate.

Memory capacities can range from as small as 1 K for simpler systems to as

large as 32 MB for advanced systems. The memory size is crucial for determining
if a PLC processor can meet the specific needs of an application, as it dictates
how much program code and data the system can handle.

Memory locations are specific addresses within the CPU's memory where binary
words are stored. Each word is generally composed of 16 bits. The smallest unit
of data is a bit, and 8 bits together make up a byte. Understanding this memory
organization is essential for effectively designing and managing PLC-based
control systems.

In a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), the memory is often organized into

distinct sections, each serving a specific function. Two important sections are
the input status files and output status files, also known as input and output
image tables.

 Input Status Files/Tables: These sections of memory track the current

 status of all input devices connected to the PLC. Each bit in the input
status table represents an input point. A bit value of 1 indicates that the
corresponding input device (e.g., a switch or sensor) is active or closed,
while a bit value of 0 signifies that the device is inactive or open. The state
of these bits is continuously updated by the PLC’s CPU, reflecting real-
time changes in the input conditions.

 Output Status Files/Tables: Similar to the input status tables, the

output status files store the status of output devices. Each bit in the
output status table corresponds to an output point, such as a relay or a
lamp. A bit value of 1 in the output table indicates that the output device
is turned on, whereas a bit value of 0 means the device is off. The PLC
constantly revises these tables to ensure that the output status accurately
reflects the commands issued by the PLC program.

The CPU routinely updates these status tables as it executes the control
program, ensuring that any changes in the state of inputs or outputs are
accurately captured and reflected in the memory. This continuous updating is
crucial for the PLC to respond dynamically to changes in the field devices and to
maintain accurate control over the process being managed.
To ensure the reliability and safety of operations, PLCs incorporate memory-
checking routines. These routines verify the integrity of the PLC’s memory to
detect any potential corruption. If memory corruption is detected, the PLC can
prevent the execution of its control program, thereby avoiding the risk of
erroneous operations and ensuring that only reliable, accurate commands are
executed. This safety feature is essential for maintaining the overall integrity of
automated processes and protecting both the equipment and the system’s
operators.
Memory Types

Memory can be placed into two general categories: vola tile and nonvolatile.
Volatile memory will lose its stored information if all operating power is lost or
removed. Volatile memory is easily altered and is quite suitable for most
applications when supported by battery backup. Nonvolatile memory has the
ability to retain stored information when power is removed accidentally or
intentionally. As the name implies, programmable logic controllers have
programmable memory that allows users to develop and modify control
programs. This memory is made nonvolatile so that if power is lost, the PLC holds
its programming.

In Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), various types of memory are

employed, each designed for specific functions and offering unique
characteristics:

1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)

 Function: ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that permanently stores

data and programs that generally do not require modification.

 Characteristics: It retains its contents even when the PLC loses power,
which eliminates the need for an emergency power supply to maintain its
data. In PLCs, ROM is primarily used to store the operating system and
essential firmware, ensuring that the PLC's core instructions are always
available for booting and operation.
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Function: RAM is a read/write memory that allows both data and

programs to be read from and written to it multiple times. It is used for
storing the user’s automation program and data generated during the
program’s execution.

 Characteristics: RAM is highly flexible and essential for real-time

operations. However, it is volatile, meaning it loses all stored data when
power is lost. To counteract this, many PLCs include a battery or other
power backup solutions to preserve RAM contents during power outages,
typically maintaining data for up to a year.

3. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

 Function: EPROM is a type of ROM that can be reprogrammed after

erasing its contents. The erasure is performed using ultraviolet (UV) light,
which requires physically removing the memory chip from the PLC and
exposing it to UV light.

 Characteristics: While EPROM retains data when power is lost, its need
for external erasing equipment and the inconvenience of chip removal have
led to its replacement by more modern technologies.

4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

 Function: EEPROM can be erased and rewritten electrically, which makes

it more flexible and convenient compared to EPROM. It allows for updating
its contents without needing to remove it from the PLC.

 Characteristics: EEPROM maintains data integrity during power

interruptions and is useful for storing user programs and configuration
settings. However, it is generally slower than RAM in terms of data access
speed.

5. Flash Memory

 Function: Flash memory is similar to EEPROM but offers enhanced

capabilities for storing large amounts of data. It allows for block erasure,
meaning it can erase large sections of data at once rather than byte-by-
 byte.

 Characteristics: This makes Flash memory particularly suitable for

storing large programs or extensive datasets. It is commonly used in larger
PLCs alongside EEPROM to provide extended storage options and faster
data access.

6. External Storage Devices

 Function: Some PLCs can be connected to external storage devices such

as hard drives or solid-state drives. These external devices are used to
store extensive automation programs or large datasets that exceed the
capacity of the internal memory.

 Characteristics: External storage expands the PLC’s ability to handle

complex applications and large volumes of data, complementing the
internal memory options.

Each memory type serves a distinct role in the PLC’s operation, from storing
critical system instructions and user programs to handling temporary data and
allowing flexibility for program updates. Understanding these memory types
helps ensure that the PLC can efficiently manage both its operational tasks and
user-defined programs while maintaining data integrity and flexibility.

Power supply of a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

The power supply of a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is a critical

component responsible for providing the necessary electrical power to the entire
PLC system. Its primary function is to convert and distribute electrical power to
various PLC components, ensuring they operate reliably and efficiently. Here’s
an expanded overview of the PLC power supply: The power supply of a PLC is
critical for providing the necessary power (typically 5 VDC) to the CPU and I/O
modules within the system's backplane. These power supplies are designed to
convert common voltage sources, such as 115 VAC or 230 VAC, into the DC
voltage required by the PLC's components. Additionally, PLC power supplies are
engineered to handle brief power interruptions without disrupting the system's
operation. The duration for which a PLC can tolerate a power loss without
affecting its performance, known as hold-up time, typically ranges from 10
milliseconds to 3 seconds.
 PLC Power Supply

Types of Power Supplies

1. AC Power Supplies:

Input Voltage Range: PLCs typically use AC power supplies with input voltages
like 110V, 220V, or 240V AC. The exact input voltage depends on the region and
PLC specifications.

Output Voltage: The AC power supply converts the incoming AC voltage to a

regulated DC voltage, commonly 24V DC or 12V DC. This DC output powers the
PLC and its components.

2. DC Power Supplies:

Input Voltage Range: DC power supplies are used in systems where a DC input
is required. They may accept various DC input voltages depending on the
application.

Output Voltage: These supplies provide stable DC voltages, typically 24V DC,
12V DC, or 5V DC, as required by the PLC system.

3. Integrated vs. External Power Supplies:

Integrated Power Supply: Some PLCs come with an integrated power supply,
meaning the PLC enclosure includes a built-in power supply unit. This simplifies
installation and reduces the need for external components.

External Power Supply: For modular or larger PLC systems, an external power
supply is often used. This allows flexibility in selecting a power supply that meets
specific requirements and provides isolation from the PLC's internal power
needs.

Power Supply Specifications

Voltage Rating:

Nominal Voltage: The power supply must match the PLC’s voltage requirements
precisely. Overvoltage or undervoltage can lead to system instability or damage.
Tolerance: Power supplies usually have a tolerance range (e.g., ±5%) for the
output voltage to ensure compatibility with the PLC’s operating range.

Current Rating:

Capacity: The power supply must provide enough current to support the PLC
and all connected devices. The current rating is crucial to avoid overloading the
power supply.

Peak vs. Continuous:

Consider both peak and continuous current requirements. Some systems may
have temporary peak demands that exceed the average current.

Power Supply Protection

Power supply protection is a critical aspect of ensuring the reliability and

longevity of a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) system. Effective protection
strategies encompass various techniques designed to safeguard the power
supply from potential hazards such as overvoltage, overcurrent, short circuits,
and other power quality issues. Here’s an expanded overview of the key
protection mechanisms:

1. Overvoltage Protection

 Surge Protection: Surge protection is essential for safeguarding the PLC's

power supply from sudden and brief spikes in voltage, often caused by
lightning strikes, power outages, or switching operations in the power grid.
Devices such as Surge Protectors or Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVS)
are commonly employed to absorb and redirect excessive voltage, thereby
preventing it from reaching the sensitive components of the PLC system.
  Voltage Clamping: Voltage clamping devices, such as Metal-Oxide
Varistors (MOVs) or Zener diodes, are used to limit the voltage that can
pass through to the PLC. These components are designed to "clamp" or
stabilize the voltage at a predefined level, ensuring that any transient
overvoltage is suppressed before it can cause damage.

2. Overcurrent Protection

 Circuit Breakers: Circuit breakers are a vital component in protecting the

PLC system from overcurrent situations. They are designed to
automatically interrupt the electrical flow when the current exceeds a
predetermined level, which could otherwise lead to overheating or potential
fires. The resettable nature of circuit breakers allows them to be easily
restored once the fault condition is cleared.

 Fuses: Fuses offer a straightforward and cost-effective means of

overcurrent protection. They are designed to "blow" or melt when the
current flowing through them exceeds their rated capacity, thereby
disconnecting the circuit and preventing further damage. While fuses are
not resettable, they are simple to replace and provide reliable protection
for the PLC system.

3. Short-Circuit Protection

 Internal Fuses: Many power supplies come equipped with internal fuses
as a built-in defense mechanism against short circuits. These fuses are
specifically designed to break the circuit if a short occurs, protecting the
power supply and connected PLC components from potential damage. This
internal safeguard ensures that the PLC system remains intact even in the
event of a severe electrical fault.

 Current Limiting: Some advanced power supplies incorporate current

limiting features, which automatically restrict the amount of current that
can flow during a short circuit. This function prevents excessive current
from reaching the PLC, thereby minimizing the risk of component damage
and enhancing the overall safety of the system.
4. Power Conditioning

 Voltage Regulation: Voltage regulation is crucial for maintaining a stable

output voltage, especially in environments where input voltage
fluctuations are common. Voltage regulators ensure that the PLC receives
a consistent voltage level, regardless of variations in the supply. This
stability is vital for the proper operation of the PLC, as fluctuations can
lead to malfunction or errors in processing.

 Filtering: Power supply filtering involves the use of capacitors, inductors,

and other components to reduce electrical noise, harmonics, and ripple in
the output voltage. Filtering is essential for ensuring that the power
delivered to the PLC is clean and stable, minimizing the risk of interference
with sensitive electronic components. This is particularly important in
industrial environments where electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
radio frequency interference (RFI) are prevalent.

By implementing these protective measures, the reliability and efficiency of the

PLC system are significantly enhanced, reducing downtime and preventing costly
damage to the system's components. Proper power supply protection not only
extends the lifespan of the PLC but also ensures that it operates within its
designed parameters, maintaining optimal performance in all conditions.

The installation and operation of PLCs

PLC Operation

In a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), various components and memory

sections work together to manage and execute automation tasks. Here’s an
expanded overview of how these elements function:

1. Operating System: The PLC’s operating system, stored in Read-Only

Memory (ROM), orchestrates the core tasks of the microprocessor. It
directs the processor to perform essential functions such as scanning
input states, updating output states, and executing the user’s automation
program. This system software ensures that the PLC operates smoothly
and adheres to the programmed logic.
2.
3. Automation Program Storage: The instructions of the user’s automation
program, which can be either graphical (such as ladder diagrams) or
alphanumeric (text-based programming), are stored in binary form within
the "automation program" or "user program" sector of memory. The
operating system translates these binary instructions into assembly
language, which is a low-level language that the microprocessor can
understand and execute.

4. Data Retrieval and Processing: During operation, the operating system

handles the retrieval of data from memory. For instance, it fetches input
states from the "input image table," a section of memory that holds the
current statuses of input devices. When scanning input states, the
microprocessor stores the data in input mapping memory, ensuring that
the most recent information about input conditions is available for
processing.

5. Output Mapping Memory: After the automation program is executed, the

microprocessor updates the output mapping memory with the results.
This updated data is then transferred to the output modules, which control
external devices such as actuators and lights based on the program’s logic.

6. Temporary Storage for Auxiliary Functions: The CPU also utilizes

specific sectors of RAM (Random Access Memory) to temporarily store
results and parameters related to operational functions such as counters,
timers, and other auxiliary functions. This temporary storage is crucial for
real-time processing and for maintaining the continuity of operations.

7. Auxiliary Memory Bits: Auxiliary memory bits in a PLC function like

auxiliary relays in traditional automation circuits. These single-bit
memory locations represent various operational states and are used within
the program to simulate relay contacts. This setup allows for a virtually
unlimited number of contacts in the program, with each bit assigned a
unique address, facilitating flexible and complex control logic.

8. Power Backup and Permanent Storage: To ensure data retention during

power outages, the PLC may use a battery to maintain the contents of
RAM. Additionally, EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory) is often used for permanent storage of the program,
 ensuring that the user’s program and configuration settings are preserved
even when the PLC is powered off.

By integrating these elements, the PLC can efficiently manage and execute
complex automation tasks, ensuring reliable operation and precise control over
industrial processes. The structured approach to memory organization and data
handling allows for effective program execution and robust system performance.

Installing and operating Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) in industrial

environments demands strict adherence to specific guidelines and standards.
This adherence is crucial to prevent operational issues, especially in challenging
industrial settings where electrical disturbances, environmental factors, and
improper installation can lead to significant system failures. The following
sections provide an expanded, detailed overview of the key aspects involved in
the installation and operation of PLCs, with a focus on ensuring zero plagiarism.

Electrical Enclosure for PLC Installation

The choice of an electrical enclosure for PLC installation plays a pivotal role in
protecting both the equipment and personnel from potential hazards. Enclosures
are designed to meet international standards, which define their protective
capabilities.

 Industrial Standards Compliance: The National Electrical Manufacturers

Association (NEMA) and the International Protection (IP) rating system
provide crucial guidelines for selecting the right enclosure. For example,
NEMA Type 12 enclosures are commonly used in industrial settings to
protect against dust, lint, and light splashing, while also preventing access
to hazardous internal components. The IP rating system further
categorizes enclosures based on their ability to resist ingress from solid
objects, dust, and water. Selecting an enclosure with the appropriate IP
rating ensures the PLC is adequately protected from environmental factors
specific to the installation site.

 Heat Dissipation: Effective heat management within the electrical

enclosure is essential to maintain the operational integrity of the PLC.
Enclosures must be appropriately sized to accommodate not only the PLC
but also other power devices that may generate additional heat.
Maintaining an internal temperature below the PLC’s maximum operating
 limit, typically around 50°C, is crucial. This may require the integration of
cooling systems such as fans, heat exchangers, or air conditioning units.
Calculating the thermal load and ensuring adequate ventilation or cooling
solutions can prevent overheating, which is a common cause of PLC
failures.

 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): To protect the PLC from the adverse

effects of electromagnetic interference, it is critical to segregate high-power
electrical components, like transformers and power relays, from low-power
control devices within the enclosure. Proper layout design within the
enclosure minimizes the risk of EMI disrupting the PLC's operations.
Shielding techniques and the use of EMI filters can further reduce
interference, ensuring the reliable performance of the PLC in
electromagnetically noisy environments.
Galvanic Coupling and Interference

Galvanic coupling, a common source of interference in industrial settings, occurs

when multiple electrical circuits share a common conductor. This can lead to
unwanted interactions between circuits, potentially compromising the PLC’s
performance.

 Minimizing Galvanic Coupling: Reducing the length of the common

conductor shared between high-power and low-power circuits is a
practical approach to mitigating galvanic coupling. By minimizing this
shared path, the voltage drops that cause interference can be significantly
reduced, thereby enhancing the reliability of the PLC. Careful circuit
design and physical separation of power and control wiring within the
enclosure are essential strategies for minimizing these effects.

Grounding

Proper grounding is one of the most fundamental aspects of a reliable and safe
PLC installation. Inadequate grounding not only affects the functionality of the
PLC but also poses safety risks to personnel.

 Grounding Guidelines: Grounding should be performed according to the

PLC manufacturer’s specifications. This typically involves securing
grounding connections using screws to ensure a low-resistance path to
earth. The electrical enclosure itself must also be properly grounded to
prevent potential differences that could lead to electrical shock or
equipment damage.
  Resistance Requirements: The resistance of the ground conductors
should be maintained below 0.1 ohms to ensure effective grounding. This
includes ensuring that the connections between the earth bus-bar and the
ground are secure and meet this low-resistance requirement

 Continuous Grounding and Lightning Protection: The grounding

system must be continuous and uninterrupted from the ground electrode
through to the PLC and its associated components. This continuity is vital
in preventing partial grounding, which can lead to floating grounds and
increased electrical noise. If the PLC installation includes lightning
protection, proper grounding is even more critical to safely dissipate the
high currents generated by lightning strikes, thereby protecting both the
PLC and the broader electrical system.
Electromagnetic Shielding of Cables

The protection of low-voltage signals, such as those from analog sensors or data
lines, from electromagnetic interference is crucial in maintaining the integrity of
the signals being processed by the PLC.

 Types of Shielding: Various forms of cable shielding are used depending

on the specific requirements of the installation environment. These include
foil shields, braid shields, and combinations of the two for enhanced
protection. In extremely noisy environments, triple shielding (foil-braid-
foil) may be necessary to provide the highest level of EMI protection.

 Shielding and Grounding Practices: The effectiveness of cable shielding

largely depends on how it is implemented. For analog signal cables, the
shield should be grounded at one end only, typically near the PLC, to avoid
ground loops that can introduce additional noise. In contrast, data cables
should be grounded at both ends to protect against high-frequency
interference. It is important to note that the shielding should not be used
as a part of the grounding system or for equipotential bonding, as this can
compromise its effectiveness.
Lightning Protection

Lightning protection is increasingly important in industrial environments where

sensitive automation equipment, including PLCs, is at risk of damage from
electrical surges caused by lightning strikes.

 Internal and External Lightning Protection: Lightning protection is

generally divided into two categories: external and internal. External
protection focuses on safeguarding the physical structure of the building,
while internal protection is concerned with protecting the electrical and
telecommunication systems within the facility. Internal lightning
protection includes measures like equipotential bonding, shielding, and
the use of surge protection devices to mitigate the effects of lightning
currents and the associated electromagnetic fields.

 Equipotential Bonding: This is a critical component of lightning

protection, ensuring that all parts of the installation maintain the same
electrical potential during a lightning event. This is achieved by connecting
metallic structures and electrical installations with conductive bridging,
ensuring uniform potential across all devices.
  Surge Protection Devices (SPDs): These are crucial for protecting the PLC
and other sensitive equipment from voltage surges. Properly installed
SPDs across all incoming and outgoing cables, including power and signal
lines, can effectively dissipate overvoltages, preventing damage to the PLC
system.

By meticulously following these guidelines, the installation and operation of

PLCs can be carried out safely and efficiently, minimizing the risk of damage or
interference and ensuring the long-term reliability of the control system.

Summary:

In our 10th lecture on “PLC Fundamentals-II” we covered:

1) Introduction of PLC processor module (CPU and Power supply).

2) The memory organization and memory types of a PLC.
3) The installation and operation of PLC.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers" by Gary Dunning, 3rd Edition,

Publisher: Cengage Learning, Year: 2016.
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 04 Lecture No: 11

Topic Name: PLC Programming-I
Objectives:

● Students will get introduction of PLC programming languages.

● Students will be able to learn the fundamental Memory Organization
and addressing in PLCs.
● Students will be able to understand the PLC Scan Cycle.

Lecture Content:

In addition to the hardware components of PLC systems, an essential part of their

operation involves the programming devices—typically personal computers (PCs) or
laptops. These computers are equipped with specialized software that allows users
to program the PLCs, making both hardware and software integral to the
successful operation of a PLC system.

Currently, the market is populated with several leading manufacturers of PLCs,

each offering different versions of their PLC systems, along with specific compatible
programming software. Here’s a brief overview of some major players and their
corresponding software:

 Siemens: Uses TIA Portal (Totally Integrated Automation Portal) and

STEP 7 software.

 Allen-Bradley (Rockwell Automation): Employs RSLogix 5000, now known

as Studio 5000 software.

 Mitsubishi Electric: Offers GX Works2, GX Works3, and GX Developer

software.

 Schneider Electric: Utilizes EcoStruxure Control Expert (formerly known

as Unity Pro software).

 Omron: Uses CX-Programmer and Sysmac Studio software.

  ABB: Provides Automation Builder software.

 Delta Electronics: Uses ISPSoft software.

While each manufacturer has its own software, the underlying principles of PLC
programming remain consistent across platforms. The primary differences lie in
memory organization, I/O addressing, and instruction sets. So, once you grasp the
basic concepts, adapting to different software becomes manageable.

PLC programming languages

PLC programming languages, as defined by the IEC 61131-3 standard, are a set of
standardized languages designed to provide versatility and flexibility for
programming PLCs. These languages allow for the creation of control programs
that dictate the operation of industrial automation systems.

The five main types of PLC programming languages are:

1. Ladder Diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram, also known as Ladder Logic, is one of the most widely used PLC
programming languages, particularly in the United States. It was originally
developed to resemble electrical relay logic, making it easier for electricians and
engineers familiar with relay-based control systems to transition to PLCs.
  Structure: Ladder Diagram is made up of rungs, each representing a logical
operation, similar to a rung on a ladder. These rungs contain symbols
representing contacts (inputs), coils (outputs), and other functions.
 Use Cases: Ideal for simple, straightforward control processes such as on/off
control, sequencing, and basic logic operations.

2. Function Block Diagram (FBD)

Function Block Diagram is a graphical language that allows users to create

programs using function blocks, which represent various control functions.

 Structure: In FBD, blocks represent different functions (such as AND, OR,

timers, counters, etc.), and these blocks are connected by lines representing
data flow.
 Use Cases: Suitable for complex control systems, especially those requiring
continuous control, such as PID controllers and analog processing.

3. Structured Text (ST)

Structured Text is a high-level textual programming language similar to Pascal or

C, designed for writing complex algorithms and processes.

 Structure: ST uses statements and expressions to perform operations. It

supports loops, conditional statements (IF, THEN, ELSE), and other
advanced programming constructs.
 Use Cases: Ideal for tasks requiring complex calculations, data processing,
and decision-making algorithms.

4. Instruction List (IL)

Instruction List is a low-level textual language that resembles assembly language.

It is a series of simple, single-line instructions that the PLC executes sequentially.

 Structure: IL consists of operations (such as load, store, add, subtract)

written in a list format. Each operation corresponds to a specific instruction
for the PLC.

 Use Cases: Best suited for small, simple programs that require fast
execution, or for users who prefer a low-level programming approach.
5. Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Sequential Function Chart is a graphical programming language used to design

programs that control sequential processes. SFC is particularly useful for
processes that require clear step-by-step instructions.

 Structure: SFC programs are composed of steps, transitions, and actions.

Each step represents a state of the process, and transitions determine when
to move from one step to the next.
 Use Cases: Commonly used in batch processing, machine control, and other
applications where operations must be executed in a specific sequence.

Each of these languages has its own strengths and is suited to different types of
applications within industrial automation. While some industries or regions may
favor one language over another, the IEC 61131-3 standard ensures that these
languages can be used interchangeably, allowing for greater flexibility in
programming and system design.

Memory Organization in PLCs

The SLC 500 series of Allen-Bradley PLCs utilizes a rack-based fixed memory
structure. This type of memory organization is systematically divided into sections
to manage the storage of both the control program and the data that the program
uses during operation.

1. Program Files:

 Program Files are dedicated to storing the instructions that make up the
PLC's control logic. These instructions are written by the programmer to
dictate how the PLC should respond to various input signals and how to
control outputs.
 In the SLC 500 series, the program files have a predetermined layout. For
example, File 2 is commonly the main program file (often referred to as "LAD
2"), where the core logic resides. Additional program files can be created for
subroutines or other tasks, which can be called from the main program.
• Program files store the user ladder logic program, which accounts for most of
the PLC's memory. This logic, formatted as ladder diagrams, consists of
instructions that control machine operations, with most instructions
requiring one word of memory. Program files include system functions (File
0), reserved files (File 1), the main ladder program (File 2), and subroutine
ladder programs (Files 3- 255), each serving specific roles in the controller's
operation.

Program memory Ranges from 0 to 255 but initial it start from LAD 2 as
shown in figure, 0 and 1 use for internal system, so we use 254 Ladder 2 to
255.
2. Data Files:

 Data Files are sections of memory used to store the various data types
needed by the program during execution. These can include real-time data
from inputs and outputs, as well as internal variables such as timers and
counters.

• Data files store the information necessary for executing the user program,
such as the status of input and output devices, timer and counter values, and
other data. The contents of the data files are divided into status data and
numerical or coded information.

• Status data, represented by 1s and 0s, indicates ON/OFF states and is

stored in unique bit locations, while numerical or code information is stored in
byte or word locations.

 Each type of data has a dedicated file:

o File 0: Stores the status of output devices.

o File 1: Stores the status of input devices.
o File 3: Contains processor status and control bits.
o File 4: Used for binary data (e.g., flags).
o File 7: Used for storing integer values.
o File 8: Holds timer values.
o File 9: Holds counter values.
Rack-Based Memory Structure:

In the SLC 500 PLCs, memory allocation is structured and unchangeable, meaning
each file type has a predefined space. The term "rack-based" refers to the physical
configuration of the PLC system, where each I/O module is inserted into a specific
slot within a rack. Each slot is linked to a specific address in the PLC's memory.

 Slot Addressing: Each I/O slot in the rack has a corresponding memory
address. For instance, inputs and outputs connected to Slot 1 would have
their statuses stored in the respective data files (such as File 1 for inputs
and File 0 for outputs).

This rack-based memory structure contrasts with more modern PLC systems that
use tag-based memory, where memory is more flexible, and data is organized using
descriptive tags rather than fixed memory addresses.

Addressing for Binary - B3: word No/Bit No

B3:0/0 to B3:0/15

To

B3:255/0 to B3: 255/15

Addressing for Timer – File No: Word No T4:0 to T4: 255

Addressing for Counter – File No: Word No C5:0 to C5: 255

Same for control, integer and float 0 to 255 R6, N7 and F8

• For the SLC 500 controller, program files include essential system functions,
reserved sections, the main ladder program, and subroutine programs.
• Data files are organized by data type and include output, input, status, bit,
timer, counter, control, integer, and float files.

• The I/O address format consists of three parts: input or output

identification, module slot number, and screw terminal number.

The input image table file records the status of connected discrete inputs, updating
during the I/O scan phase. If an input is detected, its corresponding bit is set to 1;
if not, it is set to 0.as seen in figure
Similarly, the output image table file stores the status of connected discrete
outputs, controlled by the user program, with bits set to 1 or 0 based on the
required output state. As seen in figure
Let’s take an example of SLC 500 controller AB PLC for addressing, which is
available in 4 slots, 7 slots, 10 slots and 13 slot rack.

Digital Addressing Denoted by-

File type: Slot No . Word No/ bit No 1 Word = 16 bit
1 byte = 8 bit
Actual software RSLogix Input table
PLC Program Scan Cycle

The PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is a critical component in industrial

automation systems, responsible for controlling machinery and processes by
executing programmed instructions. To function effectively, the PLC must
continuously monitor inputs from various devices, process the programmed logic,
and adjust outputs accordingly. This continuous loop of operations is known as
the program scan cycle. The scan cycle is essential for ensuring that the PLC
responds appropriately to real-time changes in the system it controls

Phases of the Program Scan Cycle

The program scan cycle in a PLC can be broken down into four distinct phases:
input scan, program scan, output scan, and housekeeping.

Input Scan: During this initial phase, the PLC reads the current status of all input
devices connected to it, such as sensors, switches, and other field devices. The PLC
stores this information in a dedicated memory area known as the input image
table. This table acts as a snapshot of all the inputs at that particular moment,
which the PLC uses to make decisions during the program scan phase.

Program Scan: In this phase, the PLC processes the instructions in its program,
which is often written in a language like ladder logic. The PLC evaluates each
instruction based on the input data stored in the input image table. The logic of
the program determines what actions need to be taken, such as turning on or off
specific outputs, setting flags, or performing calculations. This evaluation process
is akin to checking for logical continuity in hardwired circuits; if certain conditions
are met (i.e., there is a continuous path of true conditions in a rung), the PLC will
execute the corresponding action.

Output Scan: Once the program logic has been evaluated, the PLC updates the
output image table, which holds the status of all output devices, such as motors,
lights, or valves. The PLC then applies these updated statuses to the actual
physical outputs. This ensures that the devices controlled by the PLC reflect the
results of the program logic executed during the program scan phase.

Housekeeping: The final phase of the scan cycle involves the PLC performing
various internal tasks that ensure its smooth operation. These tasks may include
diagnostic checks, communication with other devices or systems, and updating
timers and counters. This phase is critical for maintaining the overall health and
reliability of the PLC.

The PLC repeats this entire scan cycle continuously as long as it remains in RUN
mode. This ensures that the PLC constantly monitors the system and can react to
any changes in the inputs.

Importance of Scan Cycle Time

The time it takes for a PLC to complete one full scan cycle is known as the scan
cycle time. This time is crucial because it dictates how quickly the PLC can
respond to changes in input conditions. Typical scan cycle times range from 1 to
20 milliseconds, though this can vary depending on the specific PLC model, the
complexity of the program, and the types of instructions used.

If an input signal changes more rapidly than the PLC’s scan time, there is a risk
that the PLC will miss the change. This is because the PLC only reads inputs
during the input scan phase, and if the input change occurs outside of this phase,
it will not be detected until the next scan cycle. Therefore, the scan time is a key
factor in the responsiveness and reliability of the control system.

Detailed Tasks During the Scan Process

The scan process is more than just a simple loop; it involves multiple tasks that
the PLC must perform for each rung of the ladder logic or other programming
structures:
Evaluating Inputs: The PLC checks the current status of the inputs stored in the
input image table. This evaluation determines whether the conditions for executing
specific program instructions are met.

Executing Program Logic: The PLC processes each rung of the ladder logic,
examining whether the conditions in the rung are true or false. If the conditions
are met, the PLC sets the corresponding output status in the output image table to
ON. This step is crucial for ensuring that the program logic is executed correctly
and that the system behaves as intended.

Updating Outputs: After evaluating the logic, the PLC updates the output image
table to reflect any changes in the output statuses. The PLC then applies these
changes to the physical output terminals, ensuring that the outputs accurately
represent the results of the logic evaluation.

This entire process ensures that each input and output is accurately represented
within the PLC’s memory, enabling precise control of the system.

Scan Patterns in Different PLCs

Different manufacturers may implement different scan patterns in their PLCs,

which can affect how the program is executed:
Horizontal Scan by Rung: This method, commonly used by Allen-Bradley PLCs,
involves scanning the program from the top left to the bottom right of each rung,
processing each instruction sequentially. The PLC evaluates the conditions in each
rung and executes the corresponding actions before moving on to the next rung.

Vertical Scan by Column: Modicon PLCs, on the other hand, often use a vertical
scan pattern. In this method, the PLC scans the program column by column and
page by page. This approach can affect how the program logic is executed,
particularly in complex programs with multiple branches and nested conditions.

Understanding the specific scan pattern used by a PLC is important for

programmers and engineers, as it can influence how they write and organize the
control logic. A thorough understanding of the scan pattern helps prevent
programming errors and ensures that the control system operates correctly.

The PLC program scan cycle is a fundamental aspect of how PLCs operate,
enabling them to monitor and control processes in real-time. By breaking down the
scan cycle into its constituent phases—input scan, program scan, output scan,
and housekeeping—we can better understand how the PLC processes inputs,
executes logic, and updates outputs. The scan cycle time is a critical parameter
that affects the system’s responsiveness, while the specific scan pattern used by
the PLC influences how the program logic is executed. A deep understanding of
these concepts is essential for anyone involved in programming, maintaining, or
troubleshooting PLC-based control systems.
Summary:

In our 11th lecture on “PLC Programming-I” we covered:

1) Introduction to PLC programming languages.

2) The fundamental Memory Organization and addressing in PLCs.
3) PLC Scan Cycle.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers" by Gary Dunning, 3rd Edition,

Publisher: Cengage Learning, Year: 2016.
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 04 Lecture No: 12

Topic Name: PLC Programming-II
Objectives:
 Students will gain an understanding of the fundamentals of binary
concepts.
 Students will learn Ladder Programming and its rules in PLCs.
 Students will learn to create Ladder programs for basic logic gates.

Lecture Content:

Programming with the Basics of the Binary Concept

The Binary Concept:

In the world of digital systems, including Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs),

the binary concept is foundational. At its core, this principle involves the idea that
many elements in a digital system can exist in one of two distinct states. These
states are typically represented by the numbers 0 and 1, which can correspond to
a variety of conditions such as ON/OFF, open/closed, true/false, or high/low.

Understanding Binary States:

The binary system is efficient because it simplifies complex decision-making

processes into two clear choices. For instance, in a PLC, the binary state of 1 might
indicate that a switch is turned on, while a 0 could signify that the switch is off.
This binary approach allows digital devices, including PLCs, to process information
rapidly and with high accuracy, as the system only needs to distinguish between
two possible states.

Logic Gates and Their Function in PLCs:

Logic gates are fundamental components in PLCs, enabling the system to make
decisions based on specific input conditions. A logic gate is essentially a circuit
that has multiple inputs but only one output. This output is determined by the
particular combination of inputs, following the rules of logic.
The Role of Logic in PLCs:

Logic in PLCs is the mechanism that allows the system to evaluate conditions and
make decisions. For example, a PLC may need to determine whether a machine
should start or stop based on the status of several sensors. This decision-making
process relies on logical operations, where the PLC checks if the required
conditions are met before executing a command.

Types of Logic Gates:

1. Basic Gates:
o AND Gate: Outputs 1 only if all inputs are 1.
o OR Gate: Outputs 1 if at least one input is 1.
o NOT Gate: Inverts the input; outputs 1 if the input is 0, and vice
versa.

2. Universal Gates:
o NAND Gate: Outputs 0 only if all inputs are 1 (inverted AND gate).
o NOR Gate: Outputs 1 only if all inputs are 0 (inverted OR gate).

3. Special Gates:
o XOR Gate (Exclusive OR): Outputs 1 if the inputs are different.
o XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR): Outputs 1 if the inputs are the same.

These gates are the building blocks of logical functions within a PLC, allowing it to
execute complex control strategies with precision.
.
The AND Function

The AND gate is a fundamental component in digital electronics and logic systems,
including Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). It is designed to have two or
more input signals and a single output signal. The operation of the AND gate is
based on a straightforward principle: the output will be in a high state, represented
by the binary value 1, only if all the input signals are also in a high state.

This means that for the AND gate to produce an output of 1, every one of its inputs
must be set to 1. If any of the inputs are set to 0, the output of the AND gate will
be 0, regardless of the other input values. This behavior makes the AND gate
useful in scenarios where a particular action should only be triggered when
multiple conditions are simultaneously met.

For example, in a PLC system controlling a machine, an AND gate might be used to
ensure that the machine only starts when all safety conditions, such as a closed
door and a pressed start button, are satisfied. This ensures that the operation is
safe and meets the required criteria before proceeding.
By using AND gates in conjunction with other logic gates, complex decision-making
processes can be implemented within digital systems, allowing for precise and
reliable control of operations.
The OR Function

The OR gate is a crucial logic element used in digital circuits and systems,
including Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). This gate is characterized by its
ability to accept multiple input signals while providing a single output signal. The
fundamental operation of an OR gate is based on the principle that the output will
be in a high state, represented by the binary value 1, if at least one of its input
signals is in a high state.

In practical terms, the OR gate's output will be 1 if any of the input signals are 1.
The output will only be in a low state, represented by the binary value 0, when all
input signals are 0. This behavior makes the OR gate especially useful in situations
where an action or decision needs to occur if any one of several conditions is met.

For example, in a PLC system, an OR gate might be used to control a warning light
that activates if any of several monitored sensors detect an issue. Even if only one
sensor registers a problem, the OR gate will output a 1, turning on the warning
light to alert operators.

By incorporating OR gates into digital logic circuits, engineers can design systems
that respond appropriately to multiple potential triggers, ensuring flexibility and
responsiveness in control processes.

The NOT Function

The NOT function, also known as an inverter, is a fundamental logic gate in digital
electronics and control systems, such as those used in Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs). Unlike other logic gates that can have multiple inputs, the NOT
gate is unique in that it only accepts a single input signal. The primary function of
the NOT gate is to invert the input signal, meaning it outputs the opposite binary
value of the input.

If the input to the NOT gate is a binary 0 (low state), the output will be a binary 1
(high state). Conversely, if the input is a binary 1, the output will be a binary 0.
This inversion process makes the NOT gate crucial in situations where it is
necessary to reverse or negate a signal.
The behavior of the NOT gate can be particularly useful in PLC applications where
an action must occur when a specific condition is not met. For example, a NOT
gate might be used to ensure that a motor stops running when a sensor does not
detect a certain condition. By inverting the sensor's signal, the NOT gate can
trigger the appropriate response, enhancing the control logic's flexibility and
reliability.

In summary, the NOT gate plays an essential role in digital logic by providing the
ability to invert signals, which is a critical function in many control and decision-
making processes.

The NAND Function

The NAND function, short for "NOT AND," is a fundamental logic gate that plays a
crucial role in digital electronics and control systems, including Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLCs). The NAND gate is essentially a combination of an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate. It can have two or more input signals and produces a
single output.

The operation of the NAND gate is based on the inverse of the AND gate's logic. In
an AND gate, the output is 1 only if all inputs are 1. However, in a NAND gate, the
output is 0 only if all inputs are 1. If any one or more of the inputs are 0, the
output will be 1. This means that the NAND gate provides a high output (1) in all
cases except when every input is high (1), in which case the output is low (0).

This unique behavior makes the NAND gate a versatile component in digital
circuits. It can be used to implement various logic functions, as it is considered a
"universal gate." This means that any other logic function (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) can
be constructed using only NAND gates.

For example, in a PLC system, a NAND gate might be used in safety circuits to
ensure that a machine only operates when not all safety conditions are met
simultaneously. This allows for a failsafe mechanism, ensuring that the machine
shuts down or does not start if any critical condition is not satisfied.

In summary, the NAND gate is an essential building block in digital logic, providing
both flexibility and reliability in the design and operation of complex control
systems. Its ability to invert the output of an AND gate and its status as a
universal gate make it indispensable in various applications.
The NOR Function

The NOR function, short for "NOT OR," is a fundamental logic gate widely used in
digital electronics and control systems, including Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs). The NOR gate combines the operations of an OR gate followed by a NOT
gate. It can accept two or more input signals and produces a single output signal.

The operation of the NOR gate is based on the inversion of the OR gate's logic. In
an OR gate, the output is 1 if at least one of the inputs is 1. However, in a NOR
gate, the output is 0 if any of the inputs are 1. The output will only be 1 when all
inputs are 0. This means that the NOR gate provides a high output (1) only when
all input signals are in a low state (0).

The NOR gate's behavior makes it particularly useful in situations where a specific
action should only occur when none of the input conditions are met. For instance,
in a PLC system, a NOR gate might be used to control a warning signal that
activates only when all monitored conditions are in a safe state (all inputs are 0). If
any condition becomes unsafe (any input becomes 1), the output of the NOR gate
drops to 0, deactivating the warning signal or triggering a different response.

Like the NAND gate, the NOR gate is considered a "universal gate," meaning that it
can be used to construct any other logic gate, including AND, OR, and NOT
functions. This versatility makes the NOR gate a critical component in digital logic
design, allowing engineers to create complex circuits and control systems using a
single type of gate.

In summary, the NOR gate is an essential tool in digital electronics, providing a

reliable means to produce a low output unless all inputs are low. Its ability to
invert the output of an OR gate and its status as a universal gate make it a
versatile and valuable component in various applications.

The Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function

The Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate is a fundamental logic gate in digital electronics,

often used in control systems such as Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). The
XOR gate is unique in its behavior compared to other basic logic gates. It operates
on two or more input signals and produces a single output.

The defining characteristic of the XOR gate is that its output is HIGH (represented
by a binary 1) only when exactly one of its inputs is HIGH. If both inputs are the
same—either both HIGH (1) or both LOW (0)—the output will be LOW (0). In other
words, the XOR gate outputs a 1 only when there is an odd number of HIGH
inputs.
This behavior is particularly useful in digital systems where binary comparison is
required. The XOR gate is commonly employed to compare two binary numbers bit
by bit. If the bits being compared are different, the XOR gate outputs a 1,
indicating a difference. If the bits are the same, the XOR gate outputs a 0,
indicating no difference. This makes the XOR gate invaluable in operations such as
error detection, parity checking, and certain arithmetic functions like addition.
For example, in a PLC application, an XOR gate might be used to monitor two
sensors that should not be triggered simultaneously. If only one sensor is
triggered, the XOR gate will output a HIGH signal, which could be used to activate
an alarm or other response. However, if both sensors are triggered at the same
time, the output will be LOW, indicating a potential issue.

In summary, the XOR gate is a powerful tool in digital logic, providing the ability to
detect differences between input signals and facilitating complex decision-making
processes in various electronic and control applications.

The XNOR Function

The XNOR gate, short for "Exclusive-NOR," is a crucial logic gate in digital
electronics, often utilized in control systems such as Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs). The XNOR gate is essentially the complement of the XOR gate
and operates on two or more input signals to produce a single output.

The defining characteristic of the XNOR gate is that its output is HIGH
(represented by a binary 1) only when all inputs are the same—either all HIGH (1)
or all LOW (0). If the inputs differ, meaning one is HIGH and the other is LOW, the
output will be LOW (0). In other words, the XNOR gate produces a 1 when the
number of HIGH inputs is even.

This behavior makes the XNOR gate particularly useful in applications where
equality between inputs is required. For instance, the XNOR gate is often employed
in digital systems for tasks such as equality checking, where it is important to
determine whether two binary numbers are identical. When used in comparison
circuits, the XNOR gate outputs a 1 if the binary values being compared are equal,
and a 0 if they are not.
In practical applications, an XNOR gate might be used in a PLC system to ensure
that two sensors are synchronized. If both sensors detect the same condition
(either both are on or both are off), the XNOR gate outputs a HIGH signal,
indicating proper synchronization. If the sensors are out of sync, the output will be
LOW, triggering an alarm or corrective action. In summary, the XNOR gate is a
versatile logic gate that plays a critical role in digital systems, particularly in
scenarios where the equality of inputs must be verified. Its ability to output a HIGH
signal when all inputs are identical makes it invaluable in tasks like parity
checking, error detection, and other decision-making processes.

Ladder Programming in PLCs

Ladder programming is a visual programming language used extensively in the

design and configuration of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). The structure
of ladder logic closely resembles that of a relay logic circuit diagram, making it
intuitive for engineers and technicians familiar with traditional electrical control
systems.

In ladder programming, the diagram is composed of two vertical lines, known as

rails, which represent the power supply. The left rail typically represents the
positive voltage or the power source, while the right rail represents the ground or
neutral. The space between these two rails is where the logic of the program is
created, using horizontal lines known as rungs.Each rung in the ladder diagram
represents a control operation or decision-making process. Components such as
contacts, coils, timers, and counters are placed on these rungs to define the logic
that controls the PLC’s operation. The components on the rungs simulate the
behavior of electrical switches and relays, allowing the PLC to perform complex
control tasks.

As the PLC executes the ladder program, it evaluates each rung from top to
bottom, just like how electricity flows in a physical circuit. If the conditions on a
rung are met (i.e., the logic is true), the PLC will activate the output associated with
that rung, such as turning on a motor or opening a valve. For example, consider a
simple rung where a normally open contact is used to control a coil. If the contact
is closed (indicating that a condition is true), the coil will be energized, causing the
connected device to operate. If the contact remains open (indicating the condition
is false), the coil stays de-energized, and the device does not operate.
Ladder programming is favored in industrial automation because it provides a
clear and logical representation of control processes, making it easier to design,
troubleshoot, and modify PLC programs.

Key Symbols in Ladder Programming

In ladder programming, three fundamental symbols are primarily used to create

and interpret control logic. These symbols are essential for defining how the inputs
and outputs of a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) interact with each other
within the ladder diagram. The three key symbols include two for inputs and one
for outputs:

1. Normally Open Contact (NO):

 o Symbol: A pair of vertical parallel lines.
o Function: The normally open (NO) contact represents a condition that
is true (closed) when the input associated with it is active (e.g., a
button is pressed or a sensor is triggered). When the input is not
active, the contact remains open, and the current does not pass
through. This symbol is used in ladder logic to simulate a switch that
closes the circuit only when a specific condition is met.

2. Normally Closed Contact (NC):

o Symbol: A pair of vertical parallel lines with a diagonal line crossing

through them.
o Function: The normally closed (NC) contact works opposite to the
normally open contact. It represents a condition that is true (closed)
when the input is inactive. When the input becomes active, the contact
opens, breaking the circuit. This symbol is useful for implementing
conditions where an action should occur when an input is not active,
such as stopping a motor when a safety gate is closed.

3. Coil: Output

o Symbol: A circle or a set of parentheses.

o Function: The coil represents the output of the ladder logic. When the
conditions on the associated rung are met (i.e., the logic evaluates to
true), the coil is energized, and the corresponding output device (such
as a motor, light, or relay) is activated. If the conditions on the rung
are not met, the coil remains de-energized, and the output stays
inactive.

These symbols form the basic building blocks of ladder logic programming,
allowing the creation of complex control sequences through a combination of
simple inputs and outputs. By understanding how to use these symbols effectively,
one can design, implement, and troubleshoot ladder logic diagrams with greater
ease and precision.

PLC Ladder Programming Rules

When working with PLC ladder programming, there are specific rules that must be
followed to ensure the program operates correctly and efficiently. These rules
govern how inputs, outputs, and rungs are arranged within the ladder logic
diagram. Below are the key rules to keep in mind, along with examples of correct
and incorrect practices:

1. Left Power Rail Input Requirement:

o Rule: Each rung must have at least one input connected to the left
power rail. This input can be either a Normally Open (NO) or Normally
Closed (NC) contact.
o Explanation: The rung cannot be left blank on the left side; an input
must be present to initiate the logic operation.

o Examples:

 Wrong: Rung without an input connected to the left power rail.

 Right: Rung with a NO or NC contact connected to the left power rail.

2. Right Power Rail Output Requirement:

o Rule: Each rung must have at least one output connected to the right
 power rail.
o Explanation: The rung cannot be left blank on the right side; an
output must be present to complete the logic operation.

o Examples:
 Wrong: Rung without an output connected to the right power
rail
 Right: Rung with an output coil connected to the right power
rail.

3. Outputs Should Not Be Connected in Series:

o Rule: Outputs cannot be connected in series. Only parallel

connections of outputs are valid.
o Explanation: Series connections of outputs are not allowed because it
can cause issues with the logic operation. Parallel connections ensure
each output operates independently based on the inputs.

o Examples:
 Wrong: Two output coils connected in series.
 Right: Two output coils connected in parallel.
4. Correct Connection of Inputs and Outputs:

o Rule: Inputs should be connected to the left side (input side), and
outputs should be connected to the right side (output side) of the rung.
o Explanation: Inputs control the flow of logic, and outputs are the
result of that logic. Mixing these connections can lead to incorrect
operation.

o Examples:
 Wrong: Output coil connected to the left side or input connected
to the right side.
 Right: Inputs on the left side and outputs on the right side.

5. No Series Connection of the Same Input Address:

 o Rule: The same input address should not be connected in series
within a rung.
o Explanation: Connecting the same input address in series can cause
unnecessary redundancy and potentially lead to logical errors.

o Examples:
 Wrong: Two identical input addresses connected in series.
 Right: Different input addresses or parallel connection of the
same input address.

6. Input and Output Addressing:

o Rule: An input address should not be used as an output address, but

an output address can be used as an input address.
o Explanation: Input and output addresses serve different purposes in a
PLC program. While outputs can reference previous states as inputs,
inputs should not directly control outputs without clear logic.

o Examples:
 Wrong: Using an input address directly as an output.
 Right: Using an output address as an input in a different
context.
7. Reuse of Input and Output Addresses:

o Rule: The same input and output addresses can be used multiple
times in the program, but keep in mind that all instances will respond
simultaneously to the same conditions.
o Explanation: Reusing addresses can simplify the program but
requires careful consideration to avoid unintended consequences.

o Examples:
 Right: Reusing an input or output address across different
rungs with the understanding that they will all respond together.
These rules ensure that the PLC ladder logic is structured correctly, enabling
reliable and predictable control operations. Following these guidelines helps
prevent common errors and improves the overall efficiency of the control system.

Ladder program for basic logic gates

In ladder programming, logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and
XNOR can be implemented using basic ladder logic elements.

1. AND Function
2. OR Function
3. NOT Function
Summary:

In our 12th lecture on “PLC Programming-II” we covered:

1) Fundamentals of binary concepts.

2) Ladder Programming and its rules in PLCs.
3) To create Ladder programs for basic logic gates.

References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher:

McGraw-Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram
International Publishing, Year: 2008
Course Name: Industrial Automation and Drives

Week No.: 04 Lecture No: 13

Topic Name: PLC Programming-III
Objectives:
 Students will learn to create Ladder programs for Universal and special
logic gates.
 Students will learn implementation of Boolean algebra using ladder
programming
 Students will learn the role and importance of latching relays and toggle
switches in industrial automation process.

Lecture Content:

PLC programming for Universal Gates

1. NAND Function
2. NOR Function
PLC programming for special gate

1. X-OR Function
2. X-NOR Function
Boolean algebra ladder programming

Boolean algebra ladder programming involves using ladder diagrams to implement

logical operations commonly found in Boolean algebra, such as AND, OR, and
NOT. These operations are represented in ladder logic using series and parallel
contacts, as well as coils, to control outputs based on the states of inputs.

Key Concepts:
By using these logical operations in ladder diagrams, complex control logic can be
implemented within PLCs, providing a clear visual representation of how inputs are
processed to generate desired outputs.

Let’s take some examples of Boolean algebra ladder programming –

1. ̅ )] = Y
(A*B) + (C*D) + [E*(𝑭 + 𝑮

Ladder Logic Implementation:

1. First Branch: Connect A and B in series to represent A*B.

2. Second Branch: Connect C and D in series to represent C*D.

3. Third Branch:

o Use a normally open contact F in parallel with a normally closed

contact G (for G̅) to represent F + G̅.
o Connect this parallel combination in series with E to represent E*(F +
G̅).

4. Final Step: Connect these three branches in parallel, with the output
leading to the coil Y.

This ladder logic structure implements the given Boolean expression.

 ̅ +R) * (S+T) * 𝑼
2.[(P+𝑸 ̅ *V] + [(W+X) *Y] = Z

Ladder Logic Implementation:

1. First Branch:

o Create a parallel connection of P, Q̅ (normally closed Q), and R for

P+Q̅+R.
o Create a parallel connection of S and T for S+T.
o Use U̅ (normally closed U) and V.
o Connect these three sections in series to represent (P+Q̅+R) * (S+T) * U̅
* V.

2. Second Branch:

o Create a parallel connection of W and X for W+X.

o Connect this parallel connection in series with Y to represent (W+X) *
Y.

3. Combine the Branches:

o Connect the first and second branches in parallel.

o The output of this parallel connection leads to the coil Z.
 3.[(A*B) + (C+D)] * [E*(Z+𝐹 ̅)] = Z

Ladder Logic Implementation:

1) Left Section:

o (A*B) is implemented with A and B in series.

o (C+D) is implemented with C and D in parallel.

These two are connected in parallel to represent the OR operation.

2) Right Section:

E is in series with (Z + F̅), where F̅ is a normally closed contact for F.

3) Final Output:

The two sections are connected in series, leading to the output Z.

Here output Z address is used as input switch address also.

 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
4. [(𝐋 +𝑴 ̅ + 𝐍) + (𝐐 ∗ 𝐑)] * R = Z

Ladder Logic Implementation:

1. First Section:

o (L+M̅+N) is implemented with L, M̅ (normally closed M), and N in parallel.

o (Q*R) is implemented with Q and R in series.
o These two branches are combined in parallel.

2. NOT Operation (̅ ):

o The combined result is inverted using a normally closed contact.

3. Final Section:

o The inverted result is connected in series with R, leading to the output

Z.

4. Here B3.0 is binary bit from data file. If B3 is low in 1st rung, in 2nd rung b3
will high, because of NC switch in 2nd rung.

This type of connection is called interlocking

Interlocking in PLC systems

Interlocking in PLC systems refers to a control technique used to ensure that certain
operations or conditions are mutually exclusive. It helps to prevent conflicting or
unsafe operations by ensuring that one process cannot start until another has
completed, or by controlling the sequence of operations.

Here’s how interlocking generally works in a PLC system:

1. Definition and Purpose: Interlocking involves creating logical conditions or

constraints that prevent specific actions from occurring unless certain
preconditions are met. This is crucial for safety and proper operation in
industrial processes.

2. Types of Interlocks:

o Mechanical Interlocks: Physical devices that prevent the operation of

one machine until another is in a safe position.
o Electrical Interlocks: Achieved using relays, switches, or sensors to
ensure one device or system does not operate until another is in a
specific state.
o Programmable Interlocks: Implemented in PLC logic using
programming to control the sequence of operations.

3. Implementation in Ladder Logic:

o Series and Parallel Interlocks: Ladder diagrams can use series (AND)
and parallel (OR) configurations to establish interlocking conditions. For
example, a motor might only start if a series of conditions are true (AND
logic), or if at least one of several conditions is true (OR logic).
o Interlock Rung: Specific rungs in the ladder diagram are used to define
the interlock conditions. For instance, you might have a rung that
ensures a conveyor cannot start if a safety gate is open.

4. Safety Considerations: Proper interlocking is critical for safety in automated

systems. It prevents hazardous conditions and ensures that equipment
operates in the correct sequence.
EXAMPLE –

Suppose we have 3 toggle switches (SW1, SW2 and SW3) and 3 digital outputs (DI1,
DI2 and DI3), when

CASE 1 -Any one switch is ON, o/p DI1 will high only
CASE 2 -Any two switch is ON, o/p DI2 will high only
CASE 3 -All three switch is ON, then o/p DI3 will high only

To create a ladder logic program for the given scenario, we need to evaluate the
number of switches (SW1, SW2, and SW3) that are ON and then activate the
appropriate digital output (DI1, DI2, or DI3). Here’s how to approach the
programming:

Step 1: Evaluate the Number of Switches ON

We need to create logic to determine how many switches are ON at any given time:

 CASE 1: If all 3 switches are ON, activate DI3.

 CASE 2: If exactly 2 switches are ON, activate DI2.
 CASE 3: If exactly 1 switch is ON, activate DI1.

Step 2: Create Ladder Logic for Each Case

Rung 1: CASE 1 (All 3 Switches ON)

Explanation: DI3 is high when all three switches (SW1, SW2, SW3) are ON.
Rung 2: CASE 2 (Exactly 2 Switches ON)

Explanation: DI2 is high when exactly two of SW1, SW2, or SW3 are ON (i.e., two
switches are ON, and the other one is OFF).

Rung 3: CASE 1 (Exactly 1 Switch ON)

Explanation: DI1 is high when exactly one of SW1, SW2, or SW3 is ON (i.e., one
switch is ON, and the other two are OFF).
Step 3: Combine All Cases

You can combine the logic for all three cases in the ladder logic program, ensuring
that each output (DI1, DI2, DI3) only turns on under its respective condition.

Full Ladder Logic Program

Step 4: Test the Program

To ensure the program functions correctly, simulate the operation by toggling SW1,
SW2, and SW3 and observing the outputs DI1, DI2, and DI3:
  Only DI1 should be high when exactly one switch is ON.
 Only DI2 should be high when exactly two switches are ON.
 Only DI3 should be high when all three switches are ON.

This logic ensures that the outputs respond correctly based on the number of
switches activated.

Latch circuit and logic

Latching relays, also known as bistable relays or keep relays, are special types of
relays that maintain their position after being actuated, even after the actuating
signal is removed. Unlike standard relays that require continuous power to hold their
contacts in one state, latching relays only require a momentary pulse to change
states, making them energy-efficient and useful in various applications where the
relay needs to maintain its state without continuous power.

Key Points about Latching Relays:

1. Latching Relay Mechanism:

o Latch Coil: When the latch coil is energized momentarily, the relay
switches to the latched (or "set") position. This means that the contacts
change state (from open to closed or vice versa) and remain in this state
even after the latch coil is de-energized.

o Unlatch (Release) Coil: When the unlatch or release coil is energized

momentarily, the relay returns to its original (unlatched) state, resetting
the contacts back to their initial condition.

2. Operation:

o The latching relay does not require continuous power to maintain its
state, making it energy-efficient for applications where maintaining a
particular state over long periods is essential.

o Once the relay is latched, the contacts will stay in that position until the
release coil is energized, which can be crucial for fail-safe designs in
control systems.

3. Applications:

o Latching relays are used in various applications such as memory

circuits, control panels, and situations where it is critical to maintain a
state through power interruptions or where maintaining coil power
would be inefficient.
Implementing Latching in PLC Ladder Logic:

In a PLC, the latching function can be implemented using the following instructions:

1. Set Coil (SET):

o This instruction latches the output coil (turns it ON) when a specific
condition is met.
o Example: [Condition] ---> [SET Q]

2. Reset Coil (RESET):

o This instruction unlatches the output coil (turns it OFF) when a different
condition is met.
o Example: [Condition] ---> [RESET Q]
When input I:1/0 is high output O:2/5 goes high. but when I:1/0 become low ,
output O:2/5 remain high, output become low , only and only when Input I:1/1
become high.

Basic Start stop concept

Push buttons are widely used in industrial control systems for starting and stopping
machines, motors, and processes. The preference for push buttons over toggle
switches is driven by their ability to enhance safety, provide precise control, and
integrate seamlessly with automation systems. Here’s why push buttons are
preferred and how they contribute to safety and control:

1. Safety Enhancement:

 Momentary Action:

o Push buttons are typically momentary, meaning they only stay engaged
while being pressed. This ensures that machines or processes are only
activated intentionally and do not remain in an ON state due to an
accidental bump or mechanical failure.

 Emergency Stop (E-Stop):

o Red push buttons are often used as emergency stop buttons. In an

emergency, operators can quickly disengage power or stop a process by
pressing the E-stop button. The momentary nature of push buttons
ensures that the stop command is immediate and reliable.

 Reduced Risk of Unintentional Operation:

o Unlike toggle switches, which can be accidentally flipped to the ON

position, push buttons require deliberate action, reducing the chance of
unintended activation. This is especially important in hazardous
environments where accidental activation could lead to injury or
damage.

2. Precise Control:

 Controlled Start-Up:
o Green push buttons are usually used to start a machine or process.
Since the button must be held down to initiate the start sequence, this
provides operators with control over when the process begins, allowing
for a deliberate, controlled start-up.

 Integration with PLCs and Automation:

o Push buttons are often integrated with Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs). The precise and momentary nature of push buttons ensures that
control signals are clean and unambiguous, leading to more accurate
process control and automation.
  Sequential Logic Implementation:
o In complex systems, starting and stopping sequences might need to
follow specific logic (e.g., safety checks, interlocks). Push buttons can be
easily configured within PLC ladder logic to follow these sequences,
ensuring that the machine operates only under safe and controlled
conditions.

3. User-Friendly Operation:

 Intuitive Design:
o Push buttons are often color-coded (green for start, red for stop) and
ergonomically designed, making them easy for operators to use correctly
even under stressful conditions. This reduces the risk of errors and
enhances operational safety.

 Feedback and Indicators:

o Many push buttons come with integrated lights or can be connected to
indicator lights that provide visual feedback to the operator, confirming
the state of the machine or process. This further contributes to safe and
controlled operation.

Push buttons are a critical component in industrial control systems because they
offer superior safety, precise control, and ease of integration with automation
systems. Their momentary action reduces the risk of accidental activation, while
their design and functionality support controlled and deliberate operation, essential
for maintaining safety and efficiency in industrial environments. If we consider the
power outage as a fault condition, after the fault, using push buttons gives you
control over when to turn the entire system back on. This is why push buttons are
used in the industry instead of toggle buttons.
Ladder Implementation

Press the GREEN/ start button – B3 and Motor ON

Again Press the green/ start button – B3 and Motor remain same ON.Same as
latching Condition.

Press the Red/ stop button – B3 and Motor of

Summary:

In our 13th lecture on “PLC Programming-III” we covered:

1) Ladder programs for Universal and special logic gates

2) Implementation of Boolean algebra using ladder programming.
3) The role and importance of latching relays and toggle switches in
industrial automation process
References:

• "Programmable Logic Controllers" by Frank D. Petruzella, 5th Edition, Publisher: McGraw-

Hill Education, Year: 2016.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers: Principles and Applications" by John W. Webb and

Ronald A. Reis, 5th Edition, Publisher: Pearson, Year: 2003.

• "Programmable Logic Controllers and Industrial Automation: An Introduction" by

Madhuchhanda Mitra and Samarjit Sen Gupta, 1st Edition, Publisher: Penram International
Publishing, Year: 2008