TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS

Based on the type of work transfer system that is used in the assembly
system:
• Continuous transfer system
With the continuous method of transfer, the work parts are moved continuously
at constant speed. This requires the work heads to move during processing in
order to maintain continuous registration with the work part. For some types of
operations, this movement of the work heads during processing is not feasible. It
would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer
line because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the work heads. In
other cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are
in beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where
the human operator can move with ‘the moving flow line, and relatively simple
automatic assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles
are transported around a continuously rotating drum.

• Synchronous transfer system (Intermittent transfer)

As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an
intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and
the parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper locations
for processing. All work parts are transported at the same time and, for this reason,
the term “synchronous transfer system” is also used to describe this method of
work part transport. Examples of applications of the intermittent transfer of work
parts can be found in machining operations, press working operations or
progressive dies, and mechanized assembly.

• Asynchronous transfer system

This system of transfer, also referred to as a “power-and-free system,” allows
each work part to move to the next station when processing at the current station
has been completed. Each part moves independently of other parts. Hence, some
parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others are being
transported between stations. Asynchronous transfer systems offer the
opportunity for greater flexibility than do the other two systems, and this
flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances. In-process storage
of work parts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with relative
ease

• Stationary base part system

The first three types involve the same methods of work-part transport described
in automated flow line. In the stationary base part system, the base part to which
the other components are added is placed in a fixed location, where it remains
during the assembly work.

Based on physical configuration:

• Dial-type assembly machine
A dial-type assembly machine is a type of assembly machine that uses a rotating
table, or dial, to transport workpieces from one station to the next. The dial is
typically divided into multiple stations, each of which performs a specific task in
the assembly process. The workpieces are loaded onto the dial at one station and
then rotated to the next station, where the next task is performed. This process
continues until the workpiece is complete, at which point it is unloaded from the
dial. Dial-type assembly machines are used in a wide variety of industries,
including automotive, electronics, food and beverage, and consumer goods. They
are particularly well-suited for assembling products that have a high number of
components or that require a high degree of precision.
• In-line assembly machine
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more or less
straight-line arrangement. An example of an in-line transfer machine used for
metal cutting operations.
Segmented in-line Type: The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or
more straight line arrangement which are usually perpendicular to each other with
L shaped or U shaped or rectangular shaped. The flow of work can take a few
90°turns, either for workpiece reorientation, factory layout limitations, or other
reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

• Carousel assembly system

Carousel assembly system represents a hybrid between the circular flow of work
provided by the dial assembly machine and straight work flow of the in-line.

 Single-station assembly machine

In the single-station assembly machine, the assembly operations are performed at
a single location. The typical operation involves the placement of the base part at
the workstation where various components are added to the base. The components
are delivered to the station by feeding mechanisms, and one or more workheads
perform the various assembly and fastening operations.
 TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
Based on the type of work transfer system that is used in the assembly
system:
• Continuous transfer system
With the continuous method of transfer, the work parts are moved continuously
at constant speed. This requires the work heads to move during processing in
order to maintain continuous registration with the work part. For some types of
operations, this movement of the work heads during processing is not feasible. It
would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer
line because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the work heads. In
other cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are
in beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where
the human operator can move with ‘the moving flow line, and relatively simple
automatic assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles
are transported around a continuously rotating drum.

• Synchronous transfer system (Intermittent transfer)

As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an
intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and
the parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper locations
for processing. All work parts are transported at the same time and, for this reason,
the term “synchronous transfer system” is also used to describe this method of
work part transport. Examples of applications of the intermittent transfer of work
parts can be found in machining operations, press working operations or
progressive dies, and mechanized assembly.

• Asynchronous transfer system

This system of transfer, also referred to as a “power-and-free system,” allows
each work part to move to the next station when processing at the current station
has been completed. Each part moves independently of other parts. Hence, some
parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others are being
transported between stations. Asynchronous transfer systems offer the
opportunity for greater flexibility than do the other two systems, and this
flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances. In-process storage
of work parts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with relative
ease

• Stationary base part system

The first three types involve the same methods of work-part transport described
in automated flow line. In the stationary base part system, the base part to which
the other components are added is placed in a fixed location, where it remains
during the assembly work.

Based on physical configuration:

• Dial-type assembly machine
A dial-type assembly machine is a type of assembly machine that uses a rotating
table, or dial, to transport workpieces from one station to the next. The dial is
typically divided into multiple stations, each of which performs a specific task in
the assembly process. The workpieces are loaded onto the dial at one station and
then rotated to the next station, where the next task is performed. This process
continues until the workpiece is complete, at which point it is unloaded from the
dial. Dial-type assembly machines are used in a wide variety of industries,
including automotive, electronics, food and beverage, and consumer goods. They
are particularly well-suited for assembling products that have a high number of
components or that require a high degree of precision.
• In-line assembly machine
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more or less
straight-line arrangement. An example of an in-line transfer machine used for
metal cutting operations.
Segmented in-line Type: The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or
more straight line arrangement which are usually perpendicular to each other with
L shaped or U shaped or rectangular shaped. The flow of work can take a few
90°turns, either for workpiece reorientation, factory layout limitations, or other
reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

• Carousel assembly system

Carousel assembly system represents a hybrid between the circular flow of work
provided by the dial assembly machine and straight work flow of the in-line.

 Single-station assembly machine

In the single-station assembly machine, the assembly operations are performed at
a single location. The typical operation involves the placement of the base part at
the workstation where various components are added to the base. The components
are delivered to the station by feeding mechanisms, and one or more workheads
perform the various assembly and fastening operations.
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UNIT 3:

ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATED FLOW LINE & LINE BALANCING

General Terminology & Analysis:

There are two problem areas in analysis of automated flow lines which must be addressed:
1. Process Technology
2. Systems Technology
Process Technology refers to the body of knowledge about the theory & principles of the
particular manufacturing process used on the production line. E.g. in the manufacturing
process, process technology includes the metallurgy & machinability of the work material,
the correct applications of the cutting tools, chip control, economics of machining, machine
tools alterations & a host of other problems. Many problems encountered in machining can
be overcome by application of good machining principles. In each process, a technology is
developed by many years of research & practice.

Terminology & Analysis of transfer lines with no Internal storage:

There are a few assumptions that we will have to make about the operation of the Transfer
line & rotary indexing machines:
1. The workstations perform operations such as machining & not assembly.
2. Processing times at each station are constant though they may not be equal.
3. There is synchronous transfer of parts.
4. No internal storage of buffers.
In the operation of an automated production line, parts are introduced into the first
workstation & are processed and transported at regular intervals to the succeeding stations.
This interval defines the ideal cycle time, Tc of the production line. Tc is the processing
time for the slowest station of the line plus the transfer time; i.e. :

Tc = max (Tsi) + Tr ---------------- (1)

Tc = ideal cycle on the line (min)

Tsi = processing time at station (min)
Tr = repositioning time, called the transfer time (min)

In equation 1, we use the max (Tsi) because the longest service time establishes the pace of
the production line. The remaining stations with smaller service times will have to wait for
the slowest station. The other stations will be idle.

In the operation of a transfer line, random breakdowns & planned stoppages cause
downtime on the line.

Common reasons for downtime on an Automated Production line:

1. Tool failures at workstations.
2. Tool adjustments at workstations
3. Scheduled tool charges
4. Limit switch or other electrical malfunctions.

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5. Mechanical failure of a workstation.

6. Mechanical failure of a transfer line.
7. Stock outs of starting work parts.
8. Insufficient space for completed parts.
9. Preventive maintenance on the line worker breaks.

The frequency of the breakdowns & line stoppages can be measured even though they occur
randomly when the line stops, it is down for a certain average time for each downtime
occurrence. These downtime occurrences cause the actual average production cycle time of
the line to be longer than the ideal cycle time.

The actual average production time Tp:

Tp = Tc + FTd ------------------------ 2
F = downtime frequency, line stops / cycle
Td = downtime per line stop in minutes
The downtime Td includes the time for the repair crew to swing back into action, diagnose
the cause of failure, fix it & restart the drive.

FTd = downtime averaged on a per cycle basis

Production can be computed as a reciprocal of Tp

Rp = 1 ----------------------------- 3
Tp
Where, Rp = actual average production rate (pc / min)
Tp = the actual average production time
The ideal production rate is given by

Rc = 1 ------------------------------ 4
Tc
Where Rc = ideal production rate (pc / min)

Production rates must be expressed on an hourly basis on automated production lines.

The machine tool builder uses the ideal production rate, Rc, in the proposal for the
automated transfer line & calls it as the production rate at 100% efficiency because of
downtime. The machine tool builder may ignore the effect of downtime on production rate
but it should be stated that the amount of downtime experienced on the line is the
responsibility of the company using the production line.
Line efficiency refers to the proportion of uptime on the line & is a measure of reliability
more than efficiency.
Line efficiency can be calculated as follows:

E = Tc = Tc + FTd ----------------- 5
Tp Tc

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Where E = the proportion of uptime on the production line.

An alternative measure of the performance is the proportion of downtime on the line which
is given by:

D = FTd = FTd + FTd ----------------- 6

Tp Tc
Where D = proportion of downtime on the line

E + D = 1.0

An important economic measure of the performance of an automated production line is the

cost of the unit produced. The cost of 1 piece includes the cost of the starting blank that is to
processed, the cost of time on the production line & the cost of the tool consumed. The cost
per unit can be expressed as the sum of three factors:

Cpc = Cm + CoTp + Ct ------------------------ 7

Where Cpc = cost per piece (Rs / pc)
Cm = cost per minute to operate the time (Rs / min)
Tp = average production time per piece (min / pc)
Ct = cost of tooling per piece (Rs / pc)
Co = the allocation of capital cost of the equipment over the service life, labour to
operate the line, applicable overheads, maintenance, & other relevant costs all reduced to
cost per min.

Problem on Transfer line performance:

A 30 station Transfer line is being proposed to machine a certain component currently

produced by conventional methods. The proposal received from the machine tool builder
states that the line will operate at a production rate of 100 pc / hr at 100% efficiency. From a
similar transfer line it is estimated that breakdowns of all types will occur at a frequency of
F = 0.20 breakdowns per cycle & that the average downtime per line stop will be 8.0
minutes. The starting blank that is machined on the line costs Rs. 5.00 per part. The line
operates at a cost for 100 parts each & the average cost per tool = Rs. 20 per cutting edge.
Compute the following:
1. Production rate
2. Line efficiency
3. Cost per unit piece produced on the line

Solution:

1. At 100% efficiency, the line produces 100 pc/hr. The reciprocal gives the unit time
or ideal cycle time per piece.

Tc = 1 = 0.010hr / pc = 0.6 mins

100

The average production time per piece is given by:

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Tp = Tc + FTd
= 0.60 + 0.20 (8.0)
= 0.60 + 1.60
= 2.2 mins / piece
Rp = 1 / 2.2m = 0.45 pc / min = 27 pc / hr

Efficiency is the ratio of the ideal cycle time to actual production time

E = 0.6 / 2.2
= 27 %

Tooling cost per piece

Ct = (30 tools) (Rs 20 / tool)

100 parts
= Rs. 6 / piece

The hourly ratio of Rs 100 / hr to operate the line is equivalent to Rs. 1.66 / min.

Cpc = 5 + 1.66 (2.2) + 6

= 5 + 3.65 + 6
= Rs 14.65 / piece

Upper Bound Approach:

The upper bound approach provides an upper limit on the frequency on the line stops per
cycle. In this approach we assume that the part remains on the line for further processing. It
is possible that there will be more than one line stop associated with a given part during its
sequence of processing operations. Let
Pr = probability or frequency of a failure at station i where i = 1, 2,………. η
Station i where i = 1, 2, ……………. η

Since a part is not removed from the line when a station jam occurs it is possible that the
part will be associated with a station breakdown at every station. The expected number of
lines stops per part passing through the line is obtained by summing the frequencies Pi over
the n stations. Since each of the n stations is processing a part of each cycle, then the
expected frequency of line stops per cycle is equal to the expected frequency of line stops
per part i.e.
η
F = ∑ Pi ----------------------------- 8
i=1
where F = expected frequency of line stops per cycle
Pi = frequency of station break down per cycle, causing a line stop
η = number of workstations on the line
If all the Pi are assumed equal, which is unlikely but useful for computation purposes, then

F = η.p where all the Pi are equal ---------------- 9

p = p = ………….. p = p
1 2 η

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Lower Bound Approach:

The lower bound approach gives an estimate of the lower limit on the expected frequency of
line stops per cycle. Here we assume that a station breakdown results in destruction of the
part, resulting in removal of the part from the line & preventing its subsequent processing at
the remaining workstations.

Let Pi = the probability that the workpiece will jam at a particular station i.

Then considering a given part as it proceeds through the line, Pi = probability that the part
will jam at station 1
(1 - Pi) = probability that the part will not jam station 1 & thus will available
for processing at subsequent stations. A jam at station 2 is contingent on successfully
making it through station 1 & therefore the probability that the same part will jam at station
2 is given by
P (1 – P )
1 2

Generalising the quantity

P (1 – Pi - 1) (1 – Pi - 2) = (1 – P2) (1 – P1)
Where i = 1,,2, ………. η
is the probability that a given part will jam at any station i. Summing all these probabilities
from i = 1 through i = η gives the probability or frequency of line stops per cycle.

Probability that the given part will pass through all η stations without a line stop is
η
π (1 - Pi)
i=1

Therefore the frequency of line stops per cycle is:

η
F = 1 – π (1 - Pi) --------------------------------- 10
i=1
If all the probabilities, Pi, are equal, Pi = P, then
η
F = 1 - (1 - P)

Because of parts removal in the lower bound approach, the number of parts coming of the
line is less than the number launched onto the front of the line.
If F= frequency of line stops & a part is removed for every line stop, then the proportion of
parts produced is (1 - F). This is the yield of the production line. The production rate
equation then becomes:

Rap = 1 – F --------------------------------------- 11
Tp
where Rap = average actual production rate of acceptable parts from the line
Tp = average cycle rate of the transfer machine
Rp = 1 = average cycle rate of the system
Tp

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Example 2 Upper Bound v/s Lower Bound Approach

A 2 station transfer line has an ideal cycle time of Tc = 1.2 mins. The probability of station
breakdown per cycle is equal for all stations & P = 0.005 breakdowns / cycle. For each of
the upper bound & lower bound determine:
a) frequency of line stops per cycle
b) average actual production rate
c) line efficiency

a) For the Upper bound approach

F = 20 (0.005) = 0.10 lines per cycle
20 20
F = 1 - (1 – 0.005) = 1 – (0.995)
= 1 – 0.0946
= 0.0954 line stops per cycle
For the Upper bound approach the production rate,

Rp = 1
20
= 0.500 pc / min
= 30 pc /hr
For the lower bound approach the production time we calculate by using the formula for F
Tp = Tc + F (Td)
= 1.2 + 0.0954 (0.8)
= 1.9631 mins

Production rate = 0.9046

1.9631
= 0.4608 pc / min
= 27.65 pc / hr
The production rate is about 8% lower than that we computed by the upper bound approach.
We should note that:
Rp = 1
0.9631
= 0.5094 cycles / min
= 30.56 cycles / hr
which is slightly higher than in the upper bound case.

c) For the upper bound the line efficiency will be

E = 1.2
2.0
= 0.6
= 60 %
For the lower bound approach we have

E = 1.2
1.9631
= 0.6113
= 61.13 %

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Line efficiency is greater with lower bound approach even though production rate is lower.
This is because lower bound approach leaves fewer parts remaining on the line to jam.

Analysis of Transfer Lines with Storage Buffers:

In an automated production line with no internal storage of parts, the workstations

are interdependent. When one station breaks down all other stations on the line are affected
either immediately or by the end of a few cycles of operation. The other stations will be
forced to stop for one or two reasons 1) starving of stations 2) Blocking of stations
Starving on an automated production line means that a workstation is prevented from
performing its cycle because it has no part to work on. When a breakdown occurs at any
workstation on the line, the stations downstream from the affected station will either
immediately or eventually become starved for parts.

Blocking means that a station is prevented from performing its work cycle because it
cannot pass the part it just completed to the neighbouring downstream station. When a break
down occurs at a station on the line, the stations upstreams from the affected station become
blocked because the broken down station cannot accept the next part for processing from the
neighbouring upstream station. Therefore none of the upstream stations can pass their just
completed parts for work.

By Adding one or more parts storage buffers between workstations production lines
can be designed to operate more efficiently. The storage buffer divides the line into stages
that can operate independently for a number of cycles.
The number depending on the storage capacity of the buffer
If one storage buffer is used, the line is divided into two stages.
If two storage buffers are used at two different locations along the line, then a three
stage line is formed.
The upper limit on the number of storage buffers is to have a storage between every pair of
adjacent stations.
The number of stages will then be equal to the number of workstations.
For an η stage line, there will be η – 1 storage buffers. This obviously will not include the
raw parts inventory at the front of the line or the finished parts inventory that accumulates at
the end of the line.
Consider a two – stage transfer line, with a storage buffer separating the stages. If we
assume that the storage buffer is half full. If the first stage breaks down, the second stage
can continue to operate using parts that are in the buffer. And if the second stage breaks
down, the first stage can continue to operate because it has the buffer to receive its output.
The reasoning for a two stage line can be extended to production lines with more than two
stages.

Limit of Storage Buffer Effectiveness:

Two extreme cases of storage buffer effectiveness can be identified:

1. No buffer storage capacity at all.
2. Infinite capacity storage buffers
If we assume in our Analysis that the ideal cycle time Tc is the same for all stages
considered.

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In the case of no storage capacity, the production line acts as one stage when a station
breaks down the entire line stops. This is the case of a production line with no internal
storage.
The line efficiency of a zero capacity storage buffer:

Eo = Tc --------------------------------- 12
Tc + FTd
The opposite extreme is the case where buffer zones of infinite capacity are installed
between every pair of stages. If we assume that each storage buffer is half full, then each
stage is independent of the next. The presence of the internal storage buffer means that then
no stage will ever be blocked or starved because of a breakdown at some other stage.
An infinite capacity storage buffer cannot be realized in practice. If it could then the
overall line efficiency will be limited by the bottleneck stage.
i.e. production in all other stages would ultimately be restricted by the slowest stage. The
downstream stages could only process parts at the output rate of the bottleneck stage.
Given that the cycle time Tc is the same for all the stages the efficiency for any stage
k is given by:

Ek = Tc
Tc + F Td
k k

where k is used to identify the stage.

The overall line efficiency would be given by:

E = Minimum (E )
∞ k

where the subscript ∞ identifies E as the efficiency of a line whose storage buffers have
∞
infinite capacity.
By including one or more storage buffers in an automated production line, we expect to
improve the line efficiency above E , but we cannot expect to achieve E .
0 ∞
The actual value of line efficiency will fall somewhere between these extremes for a given
buffer capacity

E <E <E
0 b ∞
Analysis of a Two stage transfer line:

The two stage line is divided by a storage buffer of capacity is expressed in terms of
the number of work parts that it can store. The buffer receives the output of stage 1 &
forwards it to stage 2, temporarily storing any parts not immediately needed by stage 2 upto
its capacity b. The ideal cycle time Tc is the same for both stages. We assume the downtime
distributions of each stage to be the same with mean downtime = Td, let F 1 & F2
be the breakdown rates of stages 1 & 2 respectively.
F1 & F2 are not necessarily equal.

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Over the long run both stages must have equal efficiencies. If the efficiency of stage 1 is
greater than the efficiency of stage 2 then inventory would build up on the storage buffer
until its capacity is reached.
Thereafter stage 1 would eventually be blocked when it outproduced stage 2.
Similarly if the efficiency of stage 2 is greater than the efficiency of stage 1 the inventory
would get depleted thus stage 2 would be starved.
Accordingly the efficiencies would tend to equalize overtime in the two stages.
The overall efficiency for the two stage line can be expressed as:

1
E = E + { D η (b) } E ------------------------- 13
b 0 1 2

where Eb = overall efficiency for a two stage line with a buffer capacity

E = line efficiency for the same line with no internal storage buffer
0
1
{ D η (b) } E represents the improvement in efficiency that results from having a
1
storage buffer with b > 0
when b = 0

E = Tc ----------------------------------14
0 Tc + (F + F ) Td
1 2
1
The term D can be thought of as the proportion of total time that stage 1 is down
1

1
D = F Td
1 1 ----------------------------------------- 15
Tc + (F + F ) Td
1 2

The term h (b) is the proportion of the downtime D'1 (when the stage 1 is down) that stage 2
could be up & operating within the limits of storage buffer capacity b. The equations cover
several different downtime distributions based on the assumption that both stages are never
down at the same time. Four of these equations are presented below:

Assumptions & definitions: Assume that the two stages have equal downtime distributions
(Td1 = Td2 = Td) &
equal cycle times (Tc1 = Tc2 = Tc).
Let F1 = downtime frequency for stage 1, & F2 = downtime frequency for stage 2. Define r
to be the ration of breakdown frequencies as follows:

r = F1 ------------------- 16 F2

Equations for h(b) :

With these definitions & assumptions, we can express the relationships for h(b)for two
theoretical downtime distributions :

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Constant downtime:
Each downtime occurrence is assumed to be of constant duration Td. this is a case of no
downtime variation. Given buffer capacity b, define B & L as follows:

b = B Td + L --------------- 17
Tc

Where B is the largest integer satisfying the relation : b Tc ≥ B,

Td
& L represents the leftover units, the amount by which b exceeds B Td .
Tc
There are two cases:

Case 1: r=1.0.h(b)
= B + LTc 1 --------18
B+1 Td (B+1)(B+2)

Case 2: r≠1.0.h(b)
=r1 - rB+L Tc rB(1 - r)2 -----19
Td (1 – r ) (1 – rB+2)
B+1

Geometric downtime distribution:

In this downtime distribution, the probability that repairs are completed during cycle
duration Tc, is independent of the time since repairs began. This a case of maximum
downtime variation. There are two cases:
Case 1: r = 1.0.h(b)
B Tc
= Td ------------------- 20
2 + (b – 1) Tc
Td
Case 2: r ≠ 1.0.
1 + r - Tc
Define K = Td --------------- 21
1 + r – r Tc
Td

Then h(b) = r (1 - Kb) --------------22 1-

rKb

Finally, E2 corrects for the assumption in the calculation of h (b) that both stages are
never down at the same time. This assumption is unrealistic. What is more realistic is that
when stage 1 is down but stage 2 could be producing because of parts stored in the buffer,
there will be times when stage 2 itself breaks down. Therefore E2 provides an estimate of
the proportion of stage 2 uptime when it could be otherwise be operating even with stage 1
being down. E2 is calculated as:

E2 = Tc --------------- 23 Tc + F2Td

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Two-Stage Automated Production Line:

A 20-station transfer line is divided into two stages of 10 stations each. The ideal cycle time
of each stage is Tc = 1.2 min. All of the stations in the line have the same probability of
stopping, p = 0.005. We assume that the downtime is constant when a breakdown occurs, Td
= 8.0 min. Using the upper-bound approach, compute the line efficiency for the following
buffer capacities: (a) b = 0, (b) b = ∞, (c) b = 10, (d) b = 100

Solution:

F = np = 20(0.005) = 0.10

E0 = 1.2 = 0.60
1.2 + 0.1(8)

(a) For a two stage line with 20 stations (each stage = 10 stations) & b = ∞, we first
compute F:

F1 = F2 = 10(0.005) = 0.05

E∞ = E1 = E2 = 1.2 = 0.75
1.2 + 0.05(8)

(b) For a two stage line with b = 10, we must determine each of the items in equation 13.
We have E0 from part (a). E0 = 0.60. And we have E2 from part (b). E2 = 0.75

D'1 = 0.05 (8) = 0.40 = 0.20

1.2 + (0.05 + 0.05) (8) 2.0

Evaluation of h(b) is from equation 18 for a constant repair distribution. In equation 17, the
ratio

Td = 8.0 = 6.667.
Tc 1.2
For b = 10, B = 1 & L = 3.333.

Thus,
h(b) = h(10)
= 1 + 3.333 (1.2) 1
1+1 (8.0) (1 + 1)(1 + 2)
= 0.50 + 0.8333 = 0.5833
We can now use equation 13:

E10 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.5833) (0.75)

= 0.600 + 0.0875 = 0.6875

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(c) For b = 100, the only parameter in equation 13 that is different from part (c) is h(b).
for b = 100, B = 15 & L = 0 in equation 18. Thus, we have:

h(b ) = h(100) = 15
15 + 1
= 0.9375
Using this value,

E100 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.9375) (0.75)

= 0.600 + 0.1406 = 0.7406

The value of h(b) not only serves its role in equation 13 but also provides information on
how much improvement in efficiency we get from any given value of b. note in example 15
that the difference between E∞ & E0 = 0.75 – 0.60 = 0.15.
For b = 10, h(b) = h(10) = 0.58333, which means we get 58.33% of the maximum possible
improvement in line efficiency using a buffer capacity of
10 {E10 = 0.6875 = 0.60 + 0.5833)(0.75 – 0.60)}.
For b = 100, h(b) = h(100) = 0.9375, which means we get 93.75% of the maximum
improvement with b = 100 {E100 = 0.7406 = 0.60 + 0.9375 (0.75 – 0.60)}
We are not only interested in the line efficiencies of a two stage production line. We
also want to know the corresponding production rates. These can be evaluated based on
knowledge of the ideal cycle time Tc & the definition of line efficiency. According to
equation 5, E = Tc / Tp. Since Rp = the reciprocal of Tp, then E = TcRp. Rearranging this we
have:

Rp = E ------------------- 24
Tc

Production Rates on the Two-Stage Line of the example above:

Compute the production rates for the 4 cases in the above example. The value of
Tc = 1.2 min is as before.

Solution:

(a) For b = 0, E0 = 0.60. Applying equation 23, we have

Rp = 0.60/ 1.2 = 0.5 pc/min = 30 pc /hr.

(b) For b = ∞, E∞ = 0.75.

Rp = 0.75 / 1.2 = 0.625 pc / min = 37.5 pc /hr

(c) For b = 10, E10 = 0.6875.

Rp = 0.6875 / 1.2 = 0.5729 pc / min = 34.375 pc /hr.

(d) For b = 100, E100 = 0.7406

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Rp = 0.7406 / 1.2 = 0.6172 pc / min = 37.03 pc / hr

Effect of High Variability in Downtimes:

Evaluate the line efficiencies for the two-stage line in above example, except that the
geometric repair distribution is used instead of the constant downtime distribution.

Solution:
For parts (a) & (b), the values of E0 & E∞ will be the same as in the previous
example. E0 = 0.600 & E∞ = 0.750.

(c) For b = 10, all of the parameters in equation 13 remain the same except h(b).

Using equation 20, we have:

h(b) = h(10) = 10(1.2/8.0) = = 0.4478

2 + (10 - 1)(1.2/8.0)

Now using equation 13, we have

E10 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.4478)(0.75)

= 0.6672

(d)For b = 100, it will be:

h(b) = h(100) = 100(1.2/8.0) = 0.8902

2 + (100 - 1)(1.2/8.0)

E100 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.8902)(0.75)

= 0.7333

Transfer Lines with More thanTwo Stages:

If the line efficiency of an automated production line can be increased by dividing it into
two stages with a storage buffer between, then one might infer that further improvements in
performance can be achieved by adding additional storage buffers. Although we do not
exact formulas for computing line efficiencies for the general case of any capacity b for
multiple storage buffers, efficiency improvements can readily be determined for the case of
infinite buffer capacity.

Transfer Lines with more than One Storage Buffer:

For the same 20-station transfer line we have been considering in the previous examples,
compare the line efficiencies & production rates for the following cases, where in each case
the buffer capacity is infinite: (a) no storage buffers, (b) one buffer, (c) three buffers, &

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19 buffers. Assume in cases (b) & (c) that the buffers are located in the line to equalise the
downtime frequencies; i.e. all Fi are equal. As before, the computations are based on the
upper-bound approach.

Solution:
(a) For the case of no storage buffer, E∞ = 0.60

Rp = 0.60/1.2 = 0.50 pc/min = 30 pc/hr

(b) For the case of one storage buffer

(a two stage line), E∞ = 0.75

Rp = 0.75/1.2 = 0.625 pc/min = 37.5 pc/hr

(c) For the case of three storage buffers (a four stage line), we have

F1 = F2 = F3 = F4 = 5(0.005) = 0.025

Tp = 1.2 + 0.025(8) = 1.4 min / pc.

E∞ = 1.2 / 1.4 = 0.8571

Rp = 0.8571/1.2 = 0.7143 pc/min

= 42.86 pc/hr.

(d) For the case of 19 storage buffers (a 20 stage line, where each stage is one station), we
have

F1 = F2 = ….. = F20 = 1(0.005) = 0.005

Tp = 1.2 + 0.005(8) = 1.24 min / pc.

E∞ = 1.2 / 1.24 = 0.9677

Rp = 0.9677/1.2 = 0.8065 pc/min

= 48.39 pc/hr.

This last value is very close to the ideal production rate of Rc = 50 pc/hr

Problem:

Suppose that a 10 station transfer machine is under consideration to produce a component

used in a pump. The item is currently produced by mass conventional means but demand for
the item cannot be met. The manufacturing engineering department has estimated that the
ideal cycle time will be
Tc = 1.0 min. From similar transfer lines & that the average downtime for line stop occur
with a frequency;

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F = 0.10 breakdown/cycle & the average downtime per line stop will be 6.0 min. The scrap
rate for the current conventional processing method is 5% & this is considered a good
estimate for a transfer line. The starting costing for the component costs Rs. 1.50 each & it
will cost Rs 60.00 / hr or Rs 1 / min to operate the transfer line. Cutting tools are estimated
to cost Rs 0.15/ work part. Compute the following measures of line performance given the
foregoing data.

(a) Production rate

(b) Number of hours required to meet a demand of 1500 units/week.
(c) Line efficiency
(d) Cost per unit produced.

Problem:

If a line has 20 work stations each with a probability of breakdown of 0.02, the cycle time of
the line is 1 min & each time a breakdown occurs, it takes exactly 5 minutes to repair. The
line is to be divided into two stages by a storage buffer so that each stage will consist of 10
stations. Compute the efficiency of the two stage line for various buffer capacities.

Solution:

Let us compute the efficiency of the line with no buffer

F = np = 20(0.02) =0.4
Eo = 1.0 = 0.20
1.0+0.4(10)

Next dividing the line into equal stages by a buffer zone of infinite capacity each stage
would have an efficiency given by
F1 = F2 = 10 (0.02) = 0.2
E1 = E2 = Tc = 1.0 = 0.333
Tc + (F1+F2)Td 1.0+ 0.2(10)

d) The cost per product can be computed except that we must account for the scrap rate.
Cpc = 1 (1.50+1.00 x 1.60 + 0.15) = Rs.3.42/good unit
0.95

The Rs.3.42 represents the average cost per acceptable product under the assumption that
we are discarding the 5% bad units with no salvage value and no disposal cost. Suppose that
we could repair these parts at a cost of Rs.5.00/unit. To compute the cost per piece the repair
cost would be added to other components.
Cpc = 1.50 + 1.00 x 1.60 + 0.15 + 0.05 (5.00) = Rs. 3.50/unit.
The policy of scrapping the 5% defects ,yields a lower cost per unit rather than repairing
them.

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Problem:

An eight station rotary indexing machine operates with an ideal cycle time of 20 secs. The
frequency of line stop occurrences is 0.06 stop / cycle on the average. When a stop occurs it
takes an average of 3 min to make repairs. Determine the following:

1. Average production time 3. Line efficiency

2. Proportion of downtime 4. Average production rate
Solution
Tp = Tc + F ( Td)
= 0.33 + 0.06(3)
= 0.5133 minutes.
Rp = 1 = 1.94 pieces /minutes
0.5133
Line efficiency = Tc = 0.333 = 0.491
Tp 0.51
Proportion of downtime can be calculated by D = F Td = 0.06(3) = 0.35
Tp 0.5133

Partial Automation:

Many assembly lines in industry contain a combination of automated & manual work
stations. These cases of partially automated production lines occur for two main reasons:

1. Automation is introduced gradually on an existing manual line. Suppose that

demand for the product made on a manually operated line increases, & it is desired
to increase production & reduce labour costs by automating some or all of the
stations. The simpler operations are automated first, & the transition toward a fully
automated line is accomplished over a long period of time. Meanwhile, the line
operates as a partially automated system.
2. Certain manual operations are too difficult or too costly to automate. Therefore,
when the sequence of workstations is planned for the line, certain stations are
designed to be automated, whereas the others are designed as manual stations.

Examples of operations that might be too difficult to automate are assembly

procedures or processing steps involving alignment, adjustment, or fine-tuning of the
work unit. These operations often require special human skills and/or senses to carry
out. Many inspection procedures also fall into this category. Defects in a product or a
part that can be easily perceived by a human inspector are sometimes extremely
difficult to identify by an automated inspection device. Another problem is that the
automated inspection device can only check for the defects for which it was
designed, whereas a human inspector is capable of sensing a variety of unanticipated
imperfections & problems.

To analyze the performance of a partially automated production line, we

build on our previous analysis & make the following assumptions:
1. Workstations perform either processing or assembly operations;

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2. Processing & assembly times at automated stations are constant, though not
necessarily equal at all stations;
3. Synchronous transfer of parts;
4. No internal buffer storage ;
5. The upper bound approach is applicable &
6. Station breakdowns occur only at automated stations.
Breakdowns do not occur at manual workstations because the human workers are
flexible enough, we assume, to adapt to the kinds of disruptions & malfunctions that
would interrupt the operation of an automated workstation. For example, if a human
operator were to retrieve a defective part from the parts bin at the station, the part
would immediately be discarded & replaced by another without much lost time. Of
course, this assumption of human adaptability is not always correct, but our analysis
is based on it.
The ideal cycle time Tc is determined by the slowest stations on the line,
which is generally one of the manual stations. If the cycle time is in fact determined
by a manual station, then Tc will exhibit a certain degree of variability simply
because there is a random variation in any repetitive human activity. However, we
assume that the average Tc remains constant over time. Given our assumption that
breakdowns occur only at automated stations, let na = the number of automated
stations & Td = average downtime per occurrence. For the automated stations that
perform processing operations, let pi = the probability (frequency) of breakdowns
per cycle; & for automated stations that perform assembly operations, let qi & mi
equal, respectively, the defect rate & probability that the defect will cause station i to
stop. We are now in a position to define the average actual production time:

Tp = Tc + ∑ piTd --------- 25
iєna
where the summation applies to the na automated stations only. For those automated
stations that perform assembly operations in which a part is added,

pi = miqi

If all pi, mi, & qi are equal, respectively to p, m, & q, then the preceding equations
reduce to the following:

Tp = Tc +napTd ---------- 26

and p = mq for those stations that perform assembly consisting of the addition of a
part.
Given that na is the number of automated stations, then nw = the number of
stations operated by manual workers, & na + nw = n, where n = the total station
count. Let Casi = cost to operate the automatic workstation i ($ / min), Cwi = cost to
operated manual workstation
i ($ / min), Cat = cost to operate the automatic transfer mechanism. Then the total
cost to operate the line is given by:

Co = Cat + ∑Casi + ∑Cwi -------- 27

iєna iєnw

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where Co = cost or operating the partially automated production system ($ / min).

For all Casi = Cas & all
Cwi = Cw, then
Co = Cat + naCas + nwCw -------- 28

Now the total cost per unit produced on the line can be calculated as follows:

Cpc = Cm + CoTp + Ct ---------- 29

Pap

Where Cpc = cost per good assembly ($ / pc), Cm = cost of materials & components
being processed & assembled on the line ($ / pc),
Co = cost of operating the partially automated production system by either of the
equations 27 or 28
($ / min), Tp = average actual production time (min / pc), Ct = any cost of disposable
tooling ($ / pc), & Pap = proportion of good assemblies.

Problem On Partial Automation:

It has been proposed to replace one of the current manual workstations with
an automatic work head on a ten-station production line. The current line has six
automatic stations & four manual stations. Current cycle time is 30 sec. The limiting
process time is at the manual station that is proposed for replacement. Implementing
the proposal would allow the cycle time to be reduced to 24 sec. The new station
would cost $0.20/min. Other cost data: Cw = $0.15/min,
Cas = $0.10/min, & Cat = $0.12/min. Breakdowns occur at each automated station
with a probability p = 0.01. The new automated station is expected to have the same
frequency of breakdowns. Average downtime per occurrence Td = 3.0min, which
will be unaffected by the new station. Material costs & tooling costs will be
neglected in the analysis. It is desired to compare the current line with the proposed
change on the basis of production rate & cost per piece. Assume a yield of 100%
good product.

Solution:

For the current line,

Tc = 30 sec = 0.50min.
Tp = 0.50 + 6(0.01)(3.0) = 0.68 min.
Rp = 1/0.68 = 1.47 pc/min = 88.2pc/hr
Co = 0.12 + 4(0.15) + 6 (0.10)
= $1.32 / min
Cpc = 1.32 (0.68) = $0.898 / pc

For the proposed line,

Tc = 24 sec = 0.4 min.
Rp = 1/0.61 = 1.64 pc/min = 98.4pc/hr
Co = 0.12 + 3(0.15)+ 6(0.10)+ 1(0.20)

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= $1.37/min
Cpc = 1.67(0.61) = $0.836 / pc

Even though the line would be more expensive to operate per unit time, the proposed
chage would increase production rate & reduced piece cost.

Storage Buffers:

The preceding analysis assumes no buffer storage between stations. When

the automated portion of the line breaks down, the manual stations must also stop for
lack of work parts (either due to starving or blocking, depending on where the
manual stations are located relative to the automated stations). Performance would
be improved if the manual stations could continue to operate even when the
automated stations stop for a temporary downtime incident. Storage buffers located
before & after the manual stations would reduce forced downtime at these stations.

Problem On Storage Buffers on a Partially Automated Line:

Considering the current line in the above example, suppose that the ideal cycle time
for the automated stations on the current line Tc = 18 sec. The longest manual time is
30 sec. Under the method of operation assumed in the above example both manual &
automated stations are out of action when a breakdown occurs at an automated
station. Suppose that storage buffers could be provided for each operator to insulate
them from breakdowns at automated stations. What effect would this have on
production rate & cost per piece?

Solution:

Given Tc = 18sec = 0.3min, the average actual production time on the automated
stations is computed as follows:

Tp = 0.30 + 6(0.01)(3.0) = 0.48min

Since this is less than the longest manual time of 0.50, the manual operation could
work independently of the automated stations if storage buffers of sufficient capacity
were placed before & after each manual station. Thus, the limiting cycle time on the
line would be
Tc = 30sec = 0.50 min, & the corresponding production rate would be:

Rp = Rc = 1/0.50 = 2.0pc/min
= 120.0 pc/hr

Using the line operating cost from the previous example, Co = $1.32/min, we have a
piece cost of

Cpc = 1.32 (0.50) = $0.66 / pc

Comparing with the previous example, we can see that a dramatic improvement in
production rate & unit cost is achieved through the use of storage buffers.

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Problem On Partial Automation:

A partially automated production line has a mixture of three mechanized & three
manual workstations. There are a total of six stations, & the ideal cycle time Tc = 1.0
min, which includes a transfer time Tr = 6 sec. Data on the six stations are listed in
the following table. Cost of the transfer mechanism Cat = $0.10/min, cost to run each
automated station Cas = $ 0.12/min, & labour cost to operate each manual station
Cw = $ 0.17 /min. It has been proposed to substitute an automated station in place of
station 5. The cost of this station is estimated at
Cas5 = $ 0.25 / min, & its breakdown rate P5 = 0.02, but its process time would be
only 30 sec, thus reducing the overall cycle time of the line from 1.0 min to 36 sec.
Average downtime per breakdown of the current line as well as the proposed
configuration is Td = 3.5 min. Determine the following for the current line & the
proposed line: (a) production rate, (b) proportion uptime, & (c) cost per unit. Assume
the line operates without storage buffers, so when an automated station stops, the
whole line stops, including the manual stations. Also, in computing costs, neglect
material & tooling costs.

Station Type Process Time (sec) pi

1 Manual 36 0
2 Automatic 15 0.01
3 Automatic 20 0.02
4 Automatic 25 0.01
5 Manual 54 0
6 Manual 33 0

Solution : Tc = 1.0 min

Tp = 1.0 + 2(0.01)x3.5 + 1( 0.02) x 3.5 = 1.14 mins
Rp = 1 = 0.877 pcs /min x 60 = 52.65 pcs / hr
1.14
Cp = 0.12 + 3(0.17) + 3(0.10) = $ 0.93/mins
Cpc = 0.93x 1.14 = $1.062/piece
For the proposed line Tc = 36 secs = 0.6 mins
Tp = 0.6 + 2(0.01)3.5 + 2(0.02)3.5 = 0.81 mins
Rp = 1.234 pieces / min = 74.07 pieces/hr
Cp = 0.012 + 2(0.17) + 3(0.10) + 1(0.25) = $ 0.902/min
Cpc = 0.90 x 0.81 mins = $ 0.73062/piece

Transfer of Work between Work Stations:

There are two basic ways in which the work (the subassembly that is being built up) is
moved on the line between operator workstations.
1. Nonmechanical Lines. In this arrangement, no belt or conveyor is used to move the
parts between operator workstations. Instead, the parts are passed from station to
station by hand. Several problems result from this mode of operation:

Starving at stations, where the operator has completed his or her work
but must wait for parts from the preceding station.

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Blocking of stations, where the operator has completed his or her

work but must wait for the next operator to finish the task before
passing along the part.

As a result of these problems, the flow of work on a nonmechanical line

is usually uneven. The cycle times vary, and this contributes to the
overall irregularity. Buffer stocks of parts between workstations are often
used to smooth out the production flow.
• Moving conveyor lines. These flow lines use a conveyor (e.g., a moving belt,
conveyor, chain-in-the-floor, etc.) to move the subassemblies between workstations.
The transport system can be continuous, intermittent (synchronous), or
asynchronous. Continuous transfer is most common in assembly lines, although
asynchronous transfer is becoming more popular. With the continuously moving
conveyor, the following problems can arise:

Starving can occur as with non mechanical lines.

Incomplete items are sometimes produced when the operator is
unable to finish the current part & the next part travels right by on the
conveyor. Blocking does not occur.

Again, buffer stocks are sometimes used to overcome these problems. Also stations
overlaps can sometimes be allowed, where the worker is permitted to travel beyond the
normal boundaries of the station in order to complete work.

In the moving belt line, it is possible to achieve a higher level of control over the
production rate of the line. This is accomplished by means of the feed rate, which refers to
the reciprocal of the time interval between work parts on the moving belt. Let fp denote this
feed rate. It is measured in work pieces per time & depends on two factors: the speed with
which the conveyor moves, & the spacing of work parts along the belt. Let Vc equal the
conveyor speed (feet per minute or meters per second) & sp equal the spacing between parts
on the moving conveyor (feet or meters per work piece). Then the feed rate is determined by
fp = Vc -------------- 1
Sp

To control the feed rate of the line, raw work parts are launched onto the line at
regular intervals. As the parts flow along the line, the operator has a certain time period
during which he or she begin work on each piece. Otherwise, the part will flow past the
station. This time period is called the tolerance time Tt. It is determined by the conveyor
speed & the length of the workstation. This length we will symbolize by Ls, & it is largely
determined by the operator’s reach at the workstation. The tolerance time is therefore
defined by
Tt = Ls ----------- 2
Vc

For example, suppose that the desired production rate on a manual flow line with
moving conveyor were 60 units/h. this would necessitate a feed rate of 1 part/min. This
could be achieved by a conveyor speed of 0.6m/min & a part spacing of 0.5m. (Other
combinations of Vc & sp would also provide the same feed rate.) If the length of each
workstation were 1.5m. the tolerance time available to the operators for each work piece

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would be 3 min. It is generally desirable to make the tolerance time large to compensate for
worker process time variability.

Mode Variations:

In both nonmechanical lines & moving conveyor lines it is highly desirable to assign
work to the stations so as to equalize the process or assembly times at the workstations. The
problem is sometimes complicated by the fact that the same production line may be called
upon to process more than one type of product. This complication gives rise to the
identification of three flow line cases (and therefore three different types of line balancing
problems).
The three production situations on flow lines are defined according to the product or
products to be made on the line. Will the flow line be used exclusively to produce one
particular model? Or, will it be used to produce several different models, & if so how will
they be scheduled on line? There are three cases that can be defined in response to these
questions:

1. Single-model line. This is a specialized line dedicated to the production of a single

model or product. The demand rate for the product is great enough that the line is
devoted 100% of the time to the production of that product.
2. Batch-model line. This line is used for the production of two or more models. Each
model is produced in batches on the line. The models or products are usually
similar in the sense of requiring a similar sequence of processing or assembly
operations. It is for this reason that the same line can be used to produce the
various models.
3. Mixed-model lines. This line is also used for the production of two or more models,
but the various models are intermixed on the line so that several different models
are being produced simultaneously rather than in batches. Automobile & truck
assembly lines are examples of this case.
To gain a better perspective of the three cases, the reader might consider the
following. In the case of the batch-model line, if the batch sizes are very large, the batch-
model line approaches the case of the single-model line. If the batch sizes become very
small (approaching a batch size of 1), the batch-model line approximates to the case of the
mixed-model line.
In principle, the three cases can be applied in both manual flow lines & automated
flow lines. However, in practice, the flexibility of human operators makes the latter two
cases more feasible on the manual assembly line. It is anticipated that future automated lines
will incorporate quick changeover & programming capabilities within their designs to
permit the batch-model, & eventually the mixed-model, concepts to become practicable.
Achieving a balanced allocation of work load among stations of the line is a problem
in all three cases. The problem is least formidable for the single-model case. For the batch-
model line, the balancing problem becomes more difficult; & for the mixed-model case, the
problem of line balancing becomes quite complicated.
In this chapter we consider only the single-model line balancing problem, although
the same concepts & similar terminology & methodology apply for the batch & mixed
model cases.

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The Line Balancing Problem:

In flow line production there are many separate & distinct processing & assembly
operations to be performed on the product. Invariably, the sequence of processing or
assembly steps is restricted, at least to some extent, in terms of the order in which the
operations can be carried out. For example, a threaded hole must be drilled before it can be
tapped. In mechanical fastening, the washer must be placed over the bolt before the nut can
be turned & tightened. These restrictions are called precedence constraints in the language
of line balancing. It is generally the case that the product must be manufactured at some
specified production rate in order to satisfy demand for the product. Whether we are
concerned with performing these processes & assembly operations on automatic machines
or manual flow lines, it is desirable to design the line so as to satisfy all of the foregoing
specifications as efficiently as possible.
The line balancing problem is to arrange the individual processing & assembly tasks
at the workstations so that the total time required at each workstation is approximately the
same. If the work elements can be grouped so that all the station times are exactly equal, we
have perfect balance on the line & we can expect the production to flow smoothly. In most
practical situations it is very difficult to achieve perfect balance. When the workstations
times are unequal, the slowest station determines the overall production rate of the line.
In order to discuss the terminology & relationships in line balancing, we shall refer
to the following example. Later, when discussing the various solution techniques, we shall
apply the techniques to this problem.

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 Control technologies used in automa on

It might be challenging to comprehend the many control systems used in automation,

particularly considering their wide range of features and capabilities. Control systems
play crucial roles in everything from manufacturing to distribution, making them the
cornerstone of contemporary industrial processes. Common control systems used in
factory automation include:

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs),

Distributed Control Systems (DCS), and
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
Human-Machine Interfaces (HMI)
Industrial Automation and Control Systems (IACS)

Control systems engineers design solutions to the needs of the application. Human-
Machine Interfaces (HMI), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA),
Distributed Control Systems (DCS), Industrial Automation and Control Systems
(IACS), and Programmable Logic Controllers are some of the control systems used in
automation.

Key features of the control systems

 Expertise and interoperability, safety and security features, communication
capabilities, scalability, and flexibility are important factors to take into account
when selecting an automation control system.
 Physical attacks, insider threats, and cybersecurity are common threats to industrial
control systems.
 To safeguard these systems, appropriate security measures must be put in place.
 Although control systems have advantages like higher production and efficiency,
they may also have drawbacks that need to be fixed.

Various control system used in automated industries are:

 Distributed Control Systems (DCS):
 Distributed control systems (DCS), are used in large facilities. They move and
monitor items all over the factory. When people work very little or not at all, this
 happens. Think of it like a manager going over a lot of assignments at once. This
manager oversees all operations and ensures that every work is carried out
accurately. To maintain safety in dangerous environments like power plants and oil
refineries, DCS are frequently used. Using a DCS makes doing numerous tasks at
once safer and simpler. In fact, the system will continue to operate normally even if
one of its parts fails.

 Industrial Automation and Control Systems (IACS):

 In many organizations, industrial automation and control systems (IACS) are vital.
They provide quick and error-free step movement. In this case, the system logs the
amount of sugar added to each candy bar. If too much or too little is mistakenly
added, the problem is resolved quickly. IACS is concerned with the cooperation of
sensors, controls, and actuators. The goal is to do jobs without the need for human
intervention. Delegating jobs to machines speeds up work and reduces errors. The
ninth truth underlines how, when used effectively, these solutions may have a major
impact on business operations overall.

 Human-Machine Interface (HMI):

 You deal with a Human-Machine Interface (HMI) on a daily basis. It's how you give
instructions to a machine. In automation, an HMI could be a computer screen that
shows workers data from machinery.
 The HMI also enables them to control the machines. They can change speeds and
initiate and terminate processes. Automation control specialists use it as their main
tool in their work. An HMI makes it simple to monitor and operate complex
systems.

 SCADA
 SCADA is a type of automation control system. It gives operators the ability to
keep an eye on and manage operations in a variety of sectors, such as
manufacturing, energy, and transportation. Sensor and device data is collected by
SCADA systems and displayed for analysis on a central computer or HMI. This
 makes it possible for operators to make wise decisions and take the necessary
actions to enhance automated processes' performance. Faster diagnosis and
maintenance are made possible by SCADA systems' ability to notify users of
anomalous situations or issues. Businesses can boost output, decrease downtime,
and ensure the seamless operation of their automated processes with SCADA.

 Programmable Logical Controllers

 Programmable logic controllers, or PLCs, are a type of automation control
system. They monitor and manage industrial operations in a manner akin to
that of tiny computers. PLCs use sensors to gather process data before making
decisions to operate machinery or other equipment. They can be made to react
to different inputs and carry out specific tasks. For instance, they have the
ability to regulate temperatures, open and close valves, and turn motors on
and off. PLCs are used extensively in manufacturing sectors like oil
refineries, food processing, and automobiles because of their dependability,
simplicity in programming, and capacity to handle complex processes.

Factors to Consider in Selecting a Control System

Scalability and adaptability, communication capabilities, security and safety features,

and experience and compatibility should all be taken into account when selecting a
control system.
Scalability and Adaptability
For automation control systems to run successfully, compatibility and experience are
required. Specialists are required to program and administer these systems. They must
be able to understand your industry's specific requirements in order to design the control
system to it. For smooth integration, the chosen control system should be compatible
with other systems already in place in your facility.
Communication Capabilities
For automation control systems to operate smoothly and effectively, they need to have
strong communication capabilities. Data and instructions must be transmitted between
the system's components via communication. For instance, Distributed Control Systems
(DCS) use contemporary communication protocols to link several sensors, controllers,
and actuators across an industrial facility. Communication capabilities are essential for
PLCs to communicate with other devices and exchange data needed for process control.
By facilitating smooth data transfer and enabling real-time decision-making based on
trustworthy information from several sources, communication capabilities enhance the
overall performance of control systems. The effectiveness and efficacy of your
automation control system can be boosted with the assistance of professionals who
possess the essential skills and compatibility, hence improving overall business
operations.

Security and Safety Features

To protect critical data and processes, industrial control systems that are utilised
in automation place a high premium on security and safety features.
Cybersecurity risks are a major concern because these systems are vulnerable to
hackers and unauthorized access. Physical attacks, such as tampering with
equipment, are also risky. To solve these issues, control systems make use of
firewalls, encryption methods, and authentication processes. To spot any
suspicious activity, stringent monitoring protocols and access limits are also
implemented. Safety elements that prevent accidents or equipment damage
include emergency shutdown procedures and failsafe mechanisms.

Experience and Compatibility

For automation control systems to function well, they need to be capable and
compatible. Having staff members with programming and maintenance skills is
essential. They must be able to design the control system in accordance with the
particular requirements of your area. To enable smooth integration, the control system
you select should also be interoperable with other systems inside your company. By
hiring experts with the right expertise and making sure your system is compatible, you
may increase the automation control system's efficacy and efficiency, which will benefit
corporate operations as a whole.

Common Threats to Industrial Control Systems

Industrial control systems face several common threats including cybersecurity risks,
physical attacks, and insider threats. These can compromise the functionality and safety
of automated processes. Understanding these threats is crucial for organizations to
implement effective security measures and safeguards to protect their control systems.
Discover more about how control systems are vulnerable to these threats in our blog.

Cybersecurity risks
One important aspect to consider when selecting control systems for automation is
cybersecurity risks. With the increasing reliance on technology and connectivity,
industrial control systems are vulnerable to cyber-attacks. These risks can lead to
unauthorized access, data breaches, and disruptions in operations. It is crucial to choose
control systems that prioritize security measures such as encryption, authentication
protocols, and regular software updates. Additionally, implementing proper network
segmentation and user access controls can help mitigate these risks. Cybersecurity
should be a top priority when designing and deploying automation control systems to
ensure the protection of sensitive information and the overall safety of industrial
processes.

Physical attacks
Physical attacks pose a significant threat to industrial control systems used in
automation. These attacks involve physical tampering, vandalism, or theft that can
disrupt or damage the control systems. For example, an attacker may physically disable
a sensor or sabotage equipment to cause malfunctions in the system. This type of attack
can have severe consequences, including production downtime and potential safety
hazards for workers. It is crucial for organizations to implement robust security
measures such as surveillance cameras and access controls to prevent physical attacks
on their control systems.

Insider threats
Insider threats are a big concern when it comes to industrial control systems used in
automation. These threats occur when someone who has access to the system uses that
access for malicious purposes. It could be an employee, contractor, or even a trusted
business partner. Insider threats can come in different forms, such as employees
intentionally causing damage or stealing sensitive information. One way to mitigate
these risks is by implementing strong access controls and monitoring systems, so any
suspicious activities can be detected early on. Regular training and awareness programs
can also help educate employees about the importance of cybersecurity and prevent
insider threats from happening.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Systems

Control systems offer numerous advantages, such as improved efficiency and
productivity, increased control and monitoring capabilities, but they also have potential
vulnerabilities and dependencies.

Improved efficiency and productivity

Automation control systems play a crucial role in improving efficiency and productivity
across industries. By integrating sensors, controls, and actuators, these systems
minimize or eliminate the need for human intervention in various processes. Control
loop performance monitoring is one way to enhance efficiency in automation. Industrial
automation control systems also allow for precise monitoring and adjustment of
processes based on feedback signals. This helps optimize operations, reduce errors, and
streamline production workflows. With improved efficiency and productivity,
businesses can achieve higher output levels while maintaining quality standards.

Increased control and monitoring capabilities

With control systems used in automation, you can have better control and monitoring
abilities. These systems allow you to track and manage various processes more
effectively. With the help of sensors and feedback loops, you can collect data on input
and output signals, which helps you make necessary adjustments in real-time. This
improves efficiency and ensures that everything is running smoothly. Automation
technology has made it possible for businesses to have greater control over their
operations and monitor them closely for optimal performance.

Potential vulnerabilities and dependencies

Control systems used in automation can have potential vulnerabilities and dependencies
that need to be considered. One major concern is cybersecurity risks. As control systems
become more connected, they are at a higher risk of being targeted by hackers who may
try to gain unauthorized access or disrupt operations. It’s important to have robust
security measures in place, such as firewalls and encryption, to protect against these
threats. Another vulnerability is physical attacks. Control systems are sometimes
located in vulnerable areas where they can be physically tampered with or damaged.
Implementing physical barriers and surveillance measures can help mitigate these risks.
Insider threats also pose a potential vulnerability. Employees or contractors with insider
knowledge may intentionally or unintentionally compromise the control system’s
security. Proper access controls and regular employee training can help reduce the
likelihood of insider threats.
Furthermore, control systems often have dependencies on other components or
networks for their operation. If any of these dependencies fail or experience disruptions,
it can affect the overall functioning of the control system.

Future Trends in Control System Architecture

Integration of Internet of Things (IoT), cloud-based control systems, and artificial
intelligence and machine learning are shaping the future of control system architecture.
Integration of Internet of Things (IoT)
The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technology is a future trend in control system
architecture. IoT allows devices and systems to connect and communicate with each
other through the internet.
In the context of control systems used in automation, IoT can enable real-time
monitoring, remote access, and data analytics. For example, sensors embedded in
machines can collect data on performance and send it to a central database for analysis.
This information can be used to identify patterns, optimize processes, and make
informed decisions. The use of IoT in control systems has the potential to enhance
efficiency and productivity in various industries. Furthermore, integrating IoT into
control systems also brings challenges related to cybersecurity. With more devices
connected to the internet, there is an increased risk of unauthorized access or hacking
attempts that could compromise the security and safety of industrial operations.
Therefore, it is essential for organizations to implement robust security measures when
adopting IoT technologies.

Conclusion
Cloud-based control systems
Cloud-based control systems are an emerging trend in automation. With these systems,
you can remotely monitor and control processes from anywhere using the internet. This
means you don’t have to be physically present at a plant or facility to make adjustments
or gather data. Cloud-based control systems offer greater scalability and flexibility, as
they can easily accommodate changes and updates without requiring expensive
hardware upgrades. They also allow for real-time collaboration and data sharing among
team members. Plus, with cloud storage, your important data is securely stored and
accessible whenever you need it. As technology continues to advance, we can expect
cloud-based control systems to become even more prevalent in the future of automation.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are emerging technologies that are
revolutionizing control systems in automation. AI refers to computer systems that can
perform tasks that would typically require human intelligence, such as problem-solving
and decision-making.
Machine learning is a subset of AI where computer systems learn from data without
being explicitly programmed. In the context of control systems, AI and machine
learning can enhance efficiency and productivity by analyzing vast amounts of data to
optimize processes. For example, through predictive maintenance, AI algorithms can
identify potential equipment failures before they occur, reducing downtime and
increasing overall system reliability. Additionally, AI-powered control systems have the
capability to adapt and self-optimize based on changing conditions. This ability to
continuously learn from real-time data enables more accurate process control and
improved performance. However, it is important to note that with the use of AI comes
potential challenges. Data privacy and security must be carefully addressed to prevent
unauthorized access or manipulation of sensitive information.

Conclusion
In conclusion, various control systems are used in automation to improve efficiency and
productivity in industrial processes. Distributed Control Systems (DCS), Industrial
Automation and Control Systems (IACS), Human-Machine Interface (HMI),
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), and Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLC) are some of the common control systems utilized. It is important to
consider expertise, compatibility, security features, communication capabilities,
scalability, and flexibility when selecting a control system. While there are advantages
to using these systems such as increased control and monitoring capabilities, it’s also
crucial to be aware of potential vulnerabilities and dependencies that may arise.