Thermodynamics I - Chapter 2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
Lecture 1: Conservation of Energy, Non-Flow and Flow Energy Equations
• To understand and perform any sort of thermodynamic calculation,
we must first understand the fundamental laws and concepts of
thermodynamics.
• Work and heat are interrelated concepts.
• Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are
at different temperatures.
• Heat is not equal to thermal energy.
• Work is the force used to transfer energy between a system and its
surroundings.
• Both work and heat together allow systems to exchange energy.
• The relationship between work and heat can be analysed through
thermodynamics, which is the scientific study of the interaction of
heat and other types of energy.
• To understand the relationship between work and heat, we need a
third factor: the change in internal energy.
• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, but it can be converted or transferred.
• With the interactions of heat, work, and internal energy, energy
transfers and conversions occur whenever there is a change in the
system.
• No net energy is created or lost during these transfers.
• Famous equation of conservation of energy: E = m * C^2
o E: energy (scalar quantity)
o m: mass
o C: velocity of light
Types of Energy:
• Kinetic Energy (KE): the energy of motion.
• Potential Energy (PE): energy stored due to placement or
configuration.
• Internal Energy (U): energy associated with electronic and
intramolecular forces.
• Total Energy of a system: Etotal = KE + PE + U
• In isolated systems where there is no net change in internal energy:
Etotal = KE + PE
First Law of Thermodynamics:
• States that heat is a form of energy.
• Thermodynamic processes obey the principle of conservation of
energy.
• Heat energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• It can be transferred and converted into other forms.
• General equation: Q + W
• For infinitesimal changes: du = dq + dw
• U is a state function (independent of the path).
• q and w are path functions (depend on the process path).
Sign Conventions:
• Heat (Q):
o Positive (+) if heat is added to the system.
o Negative (−) if heat is rejected by the system.
• Work (W):
o Positive (+) if work is done by the system.
o Negative (−) if work is done on the system.
Non-Flow Equation (Closed System):
• Applied to a thermodynamic cycle:
o When a system undergoes a cycle, net heat supplied = net
work done.
o Internal energy change over a complete cycle is zero (ΔU = 0).
o Thus: ∮ dQ = ∮ dW
o No device can continuously produce work without absorbing
energy from surroundings.
• Applied to a thermodynamic process:
o For different initial and final states: Q = W + ΔU
Internal Energy (U):
• Internal energy includes kinetic energy of molecules and chemical
bond energy.
• It depends only on temperature.
• At constant volume:
o No work is done: W = 0
o ΔU = Q
o Q = m * Cv * ΔT
• At constant pressure:
o Q = m * Cp * (T2 - T1) = ΔU + P * (V2 - V1)
o Enthalpy change: ΔH = ΔU + P * ΔV
Lecture 2: Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E.)
Conditions of Steady Flow System:
• A certain mass of fluid flows through the system.
• Mass flow rate in = mass flow rate out (no accumulation).
• Control Volume (CV): fixed volume in space.
• Control Surface (CS): boundary of the control volume.
• Energy at entrance = energy at exit (no time variation).
• Heat and work transfer rates remain constant with time.
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE):
• Thermodynamic properties do not change with time.
• Constant mass flow through system.
• Flow work: energy to push fluid into and out of system.
• Flow work depends on initial and final states → a property.
• Other work forms are path functions.
SFEE on Mass Basis (per 1 kg/sec):
• Q - W = Δh + Δ(KE) + Δ(PE)
• If kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible:
o W = -∫ v dp
Examples Summary:
Example 1:
• Turbine develops 1000 kW.
• Heat supplied = 2800 kJ/kg
• Heat rejected = 2100 kJ/kg
• Feed-pump work = 5 kW
• Find steam flow rate.
Example 2:
• Compression stroke: heat rejected = 45 kJ/kg
• Work input = 90 kJ/kg
• Find change in specific internal energy.
Example 3:
• U1 = 420 kJ/kg, U2 = 200 kJ/kg
• Work done = 100 kJ/kg
• Find heat flow.
Example 4:
• Flow = 17 kg/s, Power = 14000 kW
• Inlet h = 1200, Outlet h = 360 kJ/kg
• Inlet v = 60 m/s, Outlet v = 150 m/s
• Find heat rejected + inlet pipe area (v_spec = 0.5 m³/kg)
Example 5:
• Air flow = 0.4 kg/s
• Inlet: v = 6 m/s, P = 1 bar, v_spec = 0.85 m³/kg
• Outlet: v = 4.5 m/s, P = 6.9 bar, v_spec = 0.16 m³/kg
• ΔU = 88 kJ/kg, Heat loss = 59 kW
• Find power input + inlet/outlet pipe areas
Homework Summary (Chapter 2)
2.1: Constant U, Q = −50 kJ/kg → W = +50 kJ/kg
2.2: W = 70 kJ/kg, Q = −42 kJ/kg → ΔU = +28 kJ/kg (gain)
2.3:
• Initial P = 28 bar, U = 1500 kJ
• Final U = 1400 kJ
• V1 = 0.06 m³, Expansion law: pv² = const
• Find: Work done, Final Volume, Final Pressure
2.4:
• U1 = 800 kJ/kg, U2 = 230 kJ/kg
• v1 = 0.06 m³/kg
• Expansion law: pv^1.5 = const
• P1 = 55 bar, P2 = 14 bar
• Find: Heat rejected per kg
2.5:
• Steam flow = 1.35 kg/s, Power = 500 kW
• Heat loss = negligible
• Case 1: velocity negligible → find Δh
• Case 2: v1 = 60 m/s, v2 = 360 m/s, inlet pipe 3 m above outlet
2.6:
• Inlet h = 2300, v = 350 m/s
• Exit h = 160, v = 70 m/s
• Find Q per kg of steam = −2199 kJ/kg
2.7:
• Steam turbine: P1 = 13.8 bar, v1 = 0.143 m³/kg, u1 = 2590 kJ/kg, v = 30
m/s
• Exit: P2 = 0.35 bar, v2 = 4.37 m³/kg, u2 = 2360 kJ/kg, v = 90 m/s
• Heat rejected = 0.25 kW, m = 0.38 kg/s
• Find turbine power output
2.8:
• Nozzle: h1 = 3025, v1 = 60 m/s, h2 = 2790 kJ/kg
• Horizontal, no heat loss
• Inlet area = 0.1 m², v1_spec = 0.19, v2_spec = 0.5 m³/kg
• Find:
o (i) Exit velocity
o (ii) Mass flow rate
o (iii) Exit area
