OCR Computer Science AS Level

1.3.2 Network
Advanced Notes

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Specification
1.3.3 a)
● Characteristics of a Network
● Importance of Protocols and Standards

1.3.3 b)
● The internet Structure:
○ The TCP/IP stack
○ Protocol Layering
○ LANs and WANs
○ DNS
○ Packet and Circuit Switching

1.3.3 c)
● Client-server
● Peer-to-peer

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 Networks and Protocols

Characteristics of a network
A ​network​ is the name given to ​two or more​ computers connected together with the ability
to ​transmit data​ between each other. There are two main types of networks: ​local area
networks​ and ​wide area networks.

Local area network (or LAN) is the name given to a network which is spread over a ​small
geographical area​ or a ​single site​, for example: a school. A wide area network (or WAN)
is the name given to a network which is spread over a ​large geographical area.​ Large
corporations with offices in multiple locations will often have a WAN allowing them to
communicate between different sites.

Protocols
A protocol is a ​set of rules​ defining how two computers ​communicate​ with each other.
Protocols are standard so that all devices have a designated method of communicating
with each other, regardless of manufacturer.

Examples of commonly used protocols are:

● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)​ – Used for web page rendering, an encrypted
version, ​HTTPS (Secure)​, is becoming more common
● TCP/IP​ ​(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) ​– This is a networking
protocol used in the routing of packets through networks
● POP3 (Post Office Protocol)​ and ​IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)​ –
Mailing protocols, used for email access.
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol)​ – Used for the transmission of files over networks.

The Internet Structure

The Internet is a ​network of networks​ which allows computers on opposite sides of the
globe to communicate with each other. Continents are connected to each other using ​large
international backbone cables​. Many of these pass ​underwater​, linking continents to one
another.

The TCP/IP Stack and protocol layering

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. A ​stack of networking
protocols​ that work together passing packets during communication, they work as follows:

● Application Layer
○ The application layer is based at the top of the stack. It specifies ​what
protocol​ needs to be used in order to ​relate the application that’s being sent​.
○ For example, if the application is a browser then it would select the
appropriate protocol such as HTTP, POP3, FTP.

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 ● Transport Layer
○ The transport layer uses TCP, to establish an ​end-to-end connection
between the source and recipient computer.
○ The transport layer ​splits data up into packets​ and labels these packets with
their packet number, the total number of packets the original data was split
up into and the port number being used for communication.
○ If any packets get lost, the transport layer ​requests retransmissions of these
lost packets.
● Network Layer
○ The network layer adds the source and destination ​IP addresses​. (The
combination of the IP address and the port number is called a s​ ocket
address​.)
○ Routers​ operate on the network layer and the router is what uses the IP
addresses to forward the packets.
○ The sockets are then used to specify which device the packets must be sent
to and the application being used on that device.
● Link Layer
○ The link layer is the ​connection between the network devices​, it adds the
MAC address​ identifying the ​Network Interface Cards​ of the source and
destination computers.
○ For devices on the same network, the destination MAC address is the
address of the ​recipient ​computer, otherwise, it will be the MAC address of
the ​router.

It’s important to realise that this is

a ​stack​. On the recipient’s
computer these layers are looked
at from bottom to top. Once the
destination has been reached, the
MAC address is removed by the
link layer, then the IP addresses
are removed by the Network
Layer, then the transport layers
remove the port number and
reassemble the packets. Finally,
the application layer presents the
data to the recipient in the form it
was requested in.

On the next page is a diagram showing exactly what happens in the process of sending a
file.

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LANs and WANs
As specified earlier, a LAN is a local area network and a WAN is a wide area network. A
LAN is a network spread over a ​small geographical area​ while a WAN is typically spread
over a ​large geographical area​. Usually, a WAN will require extra ​telecommunication
hardware​. Infrastructure used in WANs is owned by third-parties. The largest WAN is the
Internet, and is made up of a series of smaller networks.

DNS
The ​domain name system​ (DNS) is the system used to​ name ​and ​organise internet
resources​. It is a hierarchy, in which each smaller domain is separated from the larger
domain by a full stop. For example, ‘leeds.gov.uk’. ​TLD​ stands for Top Level Domain, and
2LD​ stands for 2nd Level Domain.

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Domain names are much easier to remember than IP addresses, which is why they are
used to link to servers across the world. The role of the domain name system server (DNS
server) is to translate these domain names into IP addresses when we wish to access a
website.

Network Communication

Data Packets
Packets are ​segments of data​. They contain various information:
● Header:
○ Sender and recipient ​IP addresses
The sender and the recipient’s IP addresses act like a postcode,
allowing the packet to be delivered to the correct destination and
enabling the recipient device to trace ​where the packet came from​.
○ Protocol ​being used
The protocol allows the recipient computer to understand how to
interpret the packet.
○ Order ​of the packets
Upon arriving at the recipient device, packets are reconstructed in the
appropriate order as specified in the header.
○ Time To Live ​/ Hop Limit
The Time To Live (TTL), tells the packet ​when to expire​ so that it does
not travel forever.
● Payload
○ Raw ​data ​to be transmitted
● Trailer
○ Checksum​, or ​cyclic redundancy check
The trailer contains a code used to detect whether any errors have
occurred during transmission.

Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

There are two techniques using which networks exchange data: ​circuit switching​ and
packet switching​.

Packet switching is a method of communication in which data is communicated using

packets​ across a network. In this method of communication, packets are sent across the
most efficient route, which can vary for each packet.

Advantages Disadvantages
Multiple methods to ensure data arrives Time is spent deconstructing and
intact eg. ​checksums​ and ​cyclic reconstructing the data packets
redundancy checks

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 Multiple routes can be used between Must wait for all packets to arrive before
devices, so if one path breaks, another data can be received.
can be used.
Packets can be transferred over ​very
large networks​ to allow communication
globally.

Circuit switching is a method of communication where a ​direct link​ is created between two
devices. This direct link is maintained for the duration of the ​entire conversation​ between
devices. Circuit switching requires the two devices to transfer and receive data at the
same rate​.

Advantages Disadvantages
Data arrives in a logical order which Bandwidth is wasted ​during periods of
results in a ​quicker reconstruction​ of the time in which no data is being sent.
data.
Enables two users to hold a call ​without Devices must transfer and receive data at
delay​ in speech. the ​same rate​.
Using switches means electrical
interference may be produced which can
corrupt​ or ​destroy ​data.
Ties up sections of the network which
cannot be used by others data until
transmission has been completed

Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer

Client-server
Client-server networks consist of ​terminals​ known as clients connected to a ​server​. The
server is a​ powerful, central computer​. The server holds all of the ​important information
and resources​ and has ​greater processing power​ than the terminals. Clients can request
to use the server.

Advantages of Client-server Disadvantages of Client-server

● More ​secure ​as data is stored in one ● Relatively expensive​ to set up

location ● Functionality of terminals depends
● Central backups​ are carried out so on the server; if this fails,
there is no need for individual performance falls
backups ● Trained staff are required to
● Data and resources can be ​shared maintain the server
between clients

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Peer-to-Peer
A network in which​ computers are connected to each other​ so that they can share files.
Each device effectively acts as both a server and client, as it can both provide and request
resources. Peer-to-peer networks are used in ​piracy​, since it’s almost ​impossible to trace
the origin of files.

Advantages of Peer-to-peer Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer

● Cheaper to set up ● Impossible to trace the origin of files

● Allows users to share resources ● Backups must be performed
● Easy to maintain separately
● Not dependent on a central server ● Poorer security
● Specialist staff are not required ● May be difficult to locate resources

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