Sensor and Instrumentation

Practice
Dr. Rohini. P
Department of ECE,
IIITDM Kancheepuram

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Books
Alan S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, 3rd Edition, Elsevier,
ISBN-9780080496481, 2001.
A. K. Sawhney, Course in Electrical & Electronics Measurement & Instrumentation,
Dhanpat Rai, 2012.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other
environmental phenomena.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Sensor vs Transducer
Sensors
•Detect physical changes, such as light, pressure, temperature, or motion
•Convert physical changes into a measurable output, such as a voltage, current, or charge
•Relay the information to other electronics, such as a computer processor
•Used in mobile phones, smartwatches, and smart home systems
Transducers
•Convert one form of energy into another, such as mechanical energy into electrical signals
•Used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals
•Used in devices like microphones and speakers
Examples
•Thermocouples - A popular industrial measuring device that provides a temperature reading
•Pressure transducers - A device used to take accurate pressure measurement in gases, liquids, and solids
•LVDT - A type of position sensor that takes accurate position measurements using non-contacting technology
Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
 Handheld/ Wearable Wearable Attachable Implantable Ingestible
Lab
portable devices devices devices devices devices
devices
devices (Rigid electronics) (Flexible, e-textile) (E-tattoos) (under skin)

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Heart Rate /
Cardiac Function

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Measurement
Measurement is the process by which one convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.

Measuring process is the one in which the property of an object or system under
consideration is compared to an accepted standard unit.

Requirement of Measurement

The standard used for comparison must be accurately defined and commonly accepted.

Eg. Heavy or light weight doesn't have sense until its compared with a standard.

The apparatus used and method adopted must be provable.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

History of Measurement

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

History of Measurement

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

History of Measurement

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Metric System
The first improved measurement unit was a unit of length (the meter)
defined as 10^-7 times the polar quadrant of the earth.
A platinum bar made to this length was established as a standard of length
in the early part of the 19th century.
First, in 1960, a standard meter was redefined in terms of 1.65076373 x
10^6 wavelengths of the radiation from krypton-86 in vacuum.
In 1983, the meter was redefined yet again as the length of path traveled
by light in an interval of 1/299,792,458 seconds.

Several sets of units emerged for measuring the same physical variable - lead
to confusion

Agreed set of standard units (SI units or Syste`mes internationales d’unite´s) has
been defined.
Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
Measurement and its significance
Measurement play a significant role in achieving goals and objective of engineering
because of feedback information supplied by them. e.g. Each branch of engineering have
two functions :
Design of equipment and process,

Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and process.

All these process require measurements.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Elements of a Measuring system

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Measurement system applications

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Choosing appropriate measuring instrument

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Types of Instruments
Active and Passive Instruments

 Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments

 Analog and Digital Instruments

 Indicating Instruments and Instruments with a Signal Output

 Smart and Nonsmart Instruments

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Active and Passive instrument
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether
instrument output is produced entirely by the quantity being measured or whether
the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external
power source.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Example of an active instrument
Float-type petrol tank level indicator

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Null and Deflection type instrument
Deflection-Type Instruments:

The value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a pointer.

Example: The passive pressure gauge

Null-Type Instruments:

Example: The Dead-weight pressure gauge

Weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure.

Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point.

Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null position.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Null and Deflection type instrument
Null-type instruments are more accurate than deflection types.

Deflection-type instrument depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring,

whereas for the null-type instrument relies on calibration of the weights.

In terms of usage, a deflection-type instrument is clearly more convenient.

It is far simpler to read the position of a pointer against a scale than to add and subtract
weights until a null point is reached.

For calibration duties, a null-type instrument is preferable because of its superior

accuracy

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Analog and Digital Instruments
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being
measured changes.
Example : deflection-type of pressure gauge
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a
finite number of values.
Example: Rev counter

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Indicating Instruments and Instruments with a Signal Output
Indicating Instruments - an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical
quantity measured

Example: all null-type instruments and most passive ones

A common analogue indicator is the liquid-in-glass thermometer, bathroom scale

Instruments with a Signal Output - output in the form of a measurement signal whose
magnitude is proportional to the measured quantity.

They are part of automatic control system

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
1. Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)

 Measure of how close the output reading of the instrument is to the correct value

Inaccuracy or measurement uncertainty is the extent to which a reading might be wrong,

and is often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale reading of an instrument.

A pressure gauge with a measurement range of 0e10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0%
of the full-scale reading.

(a) What is the maximum measurement error expected for this instrument?

(b) What is the likely measurement error expressed as a percentage of the output reading
if this pressure gauge is measuring a pressure of 1 bar?

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
The maximum measurement error - related to the full-scale reading of the instrument,

Measuring quantities that are substantially less than the full-scale reading - the possible
measurement error is amplified.

It is an important system design rule that instruments are chosen - their range is
appropriate to the spread of values being measured, so that the best possible accuracy is
maintained in instrument readings.

If we are measuring pressures with expected values between 0 and 1 bar, we would not
use an instrument with a measurement range of 0e10 bar.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
2. Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility

Precision - describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors.

If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high-precision
instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small.

A high-precision instrument may have a low accuracy.

Low accuracy measurements from a high-precision instrument are normally caused by a

bias in the measurements, which is removable by recalibration.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Repeatability - closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively
over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location, and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument,
location, conditions of use, and time of measurement.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Problem
The width of a room is measured 10 times by an ultrasonic rule and the following
measurements are obtained (units of meters): 5.381 5.379 5.378 5.382 5.380 5.383 5.379
5.377 5.380 5.381.
The width of the same room is then measured by a calibrated steel tape that gives a
reading of 5.374 m, which can be taken as the correct value for the width of the room.
(a) What is the measurement precision of the ultrasonic rule?
(b) What is the maximum measurement inaccuracy of the ultrasonic rule?

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Tolerance
Closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in
some value.
The accuracy of instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance value.
When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured
component from some specified value.
Problem:
A packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop gives the nominal
resistance value as 1000 U and the manufacturing tolerance as 5%. If one resistor is
chosen at random from the packet, what is the minimum and maximum resistance value
that this particular resistor is likely to have?

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Range or span
The minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.

Problem:
A particular micrometer is designed to measure dimensions between 50 and 75 mm. What
is its measurement range?

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Threshold:

If the input is gradually increased from zero, the input will have to reach a certain minimum level
before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable.

This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the instrument.

Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote threshold as a percentage of full-scale
readings.

As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 miles/h. This means
that if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the
speedometer until the speed reaches 15 miles/h.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Resolution

Lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input measured quantity that
produces an observable change in the instrument output.

A major factor influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale
is divided into subdivisions.

Using a car speedometer, this has subdivisions of typically 10 miles/h. This means that
when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more
accurately than to the nearest 5 miles/h. This value of 5 miles/h thus represents the
resolution of the instrument.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Linearity

It is normally desirable for the output reading of an

instrument to be linearly proportional to the quantity being
measured.

A plot of the typical output readings of an instrument when a

sequence of input quantities are applied

The nonlinearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of

any output reading marked X from this straight line.

Nonlinearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-

scale reading.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Problem
Suppose the instrument characteristic shown in Fig.
is that of a pressure sensor, in which the input units
are expressed in bars from 1 to 9 bars and the output
units are expressed in volts from 1 to 13 V.
(a) What is the maximum nonlinearity expressed as a
percentage of the full-scale deflection?
(b) What is the resolution of the sensor as determined
by the instrument characteristic given?

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Sensitivity of measurement
A measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a
given amount.

For example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity
of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar
Problem:
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/C.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
Sensitivity to disturbance:

 All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are valid only under controlled conditions
of temperature, pressure, and so on.

 These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification.

 Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift and
sensitivity drift.

Zero drift or bias

 Effect in which the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient

conditions.

 This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument.

 Mechanical weight scale - Example

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Static Characteristics of Instruments
 The typical unit by which such zero drift is measured is volts/C.

 This is often called the zero drift coefficient related to temperature changes.

 If the characteristic of an instrument is sensitive to several environmental parameters, it will have several zero drift
coefficients, one for each environmental parameter.

Problem:

 This table shows the output measurements of a voltmeter under two sets of conditions: (a) use in an environment kept at
20C, which is the temperature at which it was calibrated; and (b) use in an environment at 50C. Determine the zero drift
when it is used in the 50C environment, assuming that the measurement values when it was used in the 20C environment
are correct. Also calculate the zero drift coefficient.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensitivity drift
Amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient
conditions change.
Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form (angular degree/bar)/C.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at 20C and has the following
deflection/load characteristic.

It is then used in an environment at 30C and the following deflection/load characteristic
is measured. Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per degrees Celsius change in
ambient temperature.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Hysteresis effects

If the input-measured quantity to the instrument is steadily

increased from a negative value, the output reading varies
in the manner shown in curve (a)

If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output

varies in the manner shown in curve (b).

The noncoincidence between these loading and unloading

curves is known as hysteresis.

Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and

maximum output hysteresis as a percentage of the full-scale
input or output reading

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dead space:
The range of different input values over which there is no change in output value

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Capacitive sensors

Two parallel metal plates in which the dielectric between the plates is either air or some other medium

The capacitance C is given by C = ε0εrA/d, where ε0 is the absolute permittivity, εr is the relative
permittivity of the dielectric medium between the plates, A is the area of the plates and d is the distance
between them.

Used as displacement sensors - moveable capacitive plate relative to a fixed one changes the
capacitance

Fixed plate capacitors can also be used as sensors, in which the capacitance value is changed by
causing the measured variable to change the dielectric constant of the material between the plates –
moisture sensor

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
Sensor technologies
Resistive sensors

Variation of the resistance of a material

when the measured variable is applied to it

Most commonly applied in temperature

measurement using resistance
thermometers or thermistors

Also used in displacement measurement

using strain gauges or piezoresistive
sensors

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
Sensor technologies
Magnetic sensors
Utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance, reluctance, and eddy currents to
indicate the value of the measured quantity
Magnetic sensors- Inductive
Translate movement into a change in the mutual inductance between magnetically
coupled parts.
Example: Inductive displacement transducer

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Variable reluctance sensors
 A coil is wound on a permanent magnet
Measure rotational velocities
As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves toward and away from the pickup unit,
the changing magnetic flux in the pickup coil causes a voltage to be induced in the coil
whose magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Output is a sequence of positive and negative pulses whose frequency is proportional to
the rotational velocity of the gearwheel

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Eddy current sensors
Consist of a probe containing a coil that is excited at a high frequency, typically 1 MHz
Used to measure the displacement of the probe relative to a moving metal target
Eddy currents are induced only in the surface of the target, and the current magnitude
reduces to almost zero a short distance inside the target

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Hall-effect sensors

Device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic

field

Consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned

orthogonally with the magnetic field

Produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that

is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength.

For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the

output voltage is given by V = KIB, where K is known as the
Hall constant.

Common use of the device as a proximity sensor

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Piezoelectric transducers
Produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them
Can also operate in the reverse mode where an applied voltage produces an output force
Frequently used as ultrasonic transmitters and receivers
Materials exhibiting piezoelectric behavior include natural ones such as quartz, synthetic ones
such as lithium sulfate, and ferroelectric ceramics such as barium titanate

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Strain gauges
Devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched or strained
Able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range of 0-50 micron
The input-output relationship of a strain gauge is expressed by the gauge factor, which is defined
as the change in resistance (R) for a given value of strain (S)
Gauge factor = dR/dS.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Piezoresistive sensors
Made from semiconductor material in which a p-type region has been diffused into an n-
type base
The resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor is compressed or stretched. This is
frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces a significantly higher gauge factor
than that given by metal wire or foil gauges.
Also, measurement uncertainty can be reduced down to 0.1%

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Sensor technologies
Optical sensors
Based on transmission of light between a light source and a light detector
Optical sensors (Air-path) - commonly used to measure proximity, translational motion,
rotational motion, and gas concentration
Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament lamps,
laser diodes, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
Light detectors – photoconductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells),
phototransistors, and photodiodes.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Optical sensors (Fiber-optic)
Instead of using air as the transmission
medium, optical sensors can use fiber-optic
cable to transmit light between a source and
a detector
Can be made from either plastic or glass
fibers or a combination of the two
The modulated light parameters are one or
more of the following:
Intensity
Phase
Polarization
Wavelength
Transit time

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Optical sensors (Fiber-optic)
Instead of using air as the transmission
medium, optical sensors can use fiber-optic
cable to transmit light between a source and
a detector
Can be made from either plastic or glass
fibers or a combination of the two
The modulated light parameters are one or
more of the following:
Intensity
Phase
Polarization
Wavelength
Transit time

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Ultrasonic transducers
Ultrasonic transducers
Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 KHz, above the sonic range that
humans can usually hear
One device that transmits an ultrasound wave and another device that receives the wave
Changes in the measured variable - change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel
between the transmitter and receiver, or alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or
frequency of the transmitted wave

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission
The Doppler effect is evident in all types of wave motion and describes the apparent
change in frequency of the wave when there is relative motion between the transmitter
and receiver
Continuous ultrasound wave with velocity is v and frequency f takes t seconds to travel
from a source S to a receiver R, then R will receive ft cycles of sound during time t
R moves towards S at velocity r
R will receive rt/λ extra cycles of sound during time t
The apparent frequency f’ is given by

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Temperature Measurement
Temperature measurement poses theoretical difficulties because of its rather abstract
nature
If two bodies at the same temperature are connected, the joined body has the same
temperature as each of the original bodies.
International Practical Temperature Scale defines a number of fixed points for
reference temperatures
Examples:
the triple point of hydrogen: -259.35C
the freezing point of zinc: 419.53C
the freezing point of gold: 1064.18C

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Principle of measurement
(i) The thermoelectric effect
(ii) Resistance change
(iii) Sensitivity of semiconductor device
(iv) Radiative heat emission
(v) Thermography
(vi) Thermal expansion
(vii) Sensitivity of fiber-optic devices
(viii) Color change
(ix) Change of state of material (pyrometric cones)

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 THERMOCOUPLES
Most common temperature sensing device.
Accurate temperature measurements can be made with thermocouples sensors
at low cost with shop-built probes and ordinary low-level voltmeters.
Thermocouples can measure temperature at a point in a range of -250C to
+3500C.

Typical Industrial Thermocouple General Thermocouple

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
 THERMOCOUPLES
When any two different metals are connected, an electromagnetic field (emf), which is a function of the
temperature, is generated at the junction between the metals

where e is the emf generated and T is the absolute temperature.

For certain pairs of materials, the terms involving squared and higher powers of T are approximately 0
and the emf-temperature relationship is approximately linear

Wires of such pairs of materials are connected at one end, and in this form they are known as
thermocouples

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 THERMOCOUPLES
Principle of operation is based on the Seebeck effect, discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1822,
Electrons flow from one wire to other, due to different energy potentials of alloys

As temperature changes, current flows

Voltage is measured between the two alloys (Small voltage, less than 10 mV)

Seebeck effect: when any conductor subjected to thermal gradient, generates a voltage.

A temperature gradient along a conductor creates an EMF.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 THERMOCOUPLES
If two conductors of different materials are joined at one point, an EMF is created
between the open ends which is dependent upon the temperature of the junction.
As T1 increases, so does Voltage (V).
EMF also depends on the temperature of the open ends T2.
The junction is placed in the process, the other end is in iced water at 0C. This is called
the reference junction.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 THERMOCOUPLES
To measure this thermal gradient–
connect another conductor.-

voltage depends on type of metal used.

Difference –1 – 70 micro volts per

degree C

Thermocouple gives difference in

temperature not the absolute value

Current continues to flow as long as

T2>T1

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
 Thermistors: THERMal resISTORS
Thermistor is a combination of the words thermal and resistor.
Thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930
A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on the change in its
resistance with changing temperature.
Typically have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC),
Resistance decreases with increasing temperature
Thermistor can measures across the range of -40~150 ±0.35 °C

Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
 Relationship b/w resistance & temperature

Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and

temperature for the following discussion:
ΔR = k ΔT
Where
 ΔR = change in resistance
 ΔT = change in temperature
 k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Thermistors Classification
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k.

If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and device is
called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, some time also known as
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device
is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have the smallest possible k, so
that their resistance remains almost constant over a wide temperature range.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Thermistor construction
NTC Thermistors
NTC Thermistors are made from the oxides of metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel
and copper.
The metals are oxidized through a chemical reaction, ground to a fine powder, then
compressed and subject to very high heat.
Some NTC thermistors are crystallized from semiconducting material such as silicon
and germanium.
PTC Thermistors
PTC Thermistors are made by introducing small quantities of semiconducting material
into a polycrystalline ceramic.
When temperature reaches a critical point, the semiconducting material forms a barrier to
the flow of electricity and resistance climbs very quickly.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 PTC working principle
Resistance of these types of thermistors
increases with the rise in temperature.

Due to the special Resistance- Temperature-

characteristic, there is no additional
temperature regulation or safety device
necessary while reaching high heat-power
level when using the low resistance area .

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 NTC working principle
Resistance of NTC thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature.
Thermistor resistance-temperature relationship can be approximated by,

where:
• T is temperature (in Kelvin),
• TRef is the reference temperature, usually
at room temp (25°C;77°F; 298.5 K),
• R is the resistance of the thermistor (W),
• RRef is the resistance at TRef,
• b is a calibration constant depending on
the thermistor material, usually between
3,000 and 5,000 K.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Resistance temperature device (resistance thermometer or RTD)

RTD is a temperature sensitive resistor, It is a positive temperature

coefficient device, which means that the resistance increases with
temperature.

This type of sensors is based on the observation that different materials

can have different resistive profiles at different temperatures.
Properties are mainly electrical in nature.

Industrial RTDs are very accurate: the accuracy can be as high as ±0.1°C.

The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum

Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])
 Platinum Wire RTDs (PRTs)
PRTs have established themselves as the de-facto industry standard for temperature
measurement, and for many reasons:
 linear temperature sensors
 linear positive temperature coefficient (-200 to 800 °C)
 Resistance vs. temperature characteristics are stable and reproducible
 very accurate and suitable for use as a secondary standard

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Platinum Wire RTDs (PRTs)
Platinum Scale ( 0 to 100 °C )

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 RTD: small resistance change measurement
Bridge circuit:
Can detect small resistance changes

“Supply” R1 R2
Voltage
Vo
Vs
R4 RRTD

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Basics of pressure

 Pressure is defined as a force per unit area, and can be measured in units such as psi (pounds per
square inch), inches of water, millimeters of mercury, Pascal (Pa, or N/m²) or bar. Until the
introduction of SI units, the 'bar' was quite common.

 Static Pressure: In the atmosphere at any point, static pressure is exerted equally in all
directions. Static pressure is the result of the weight of all the air molecules above that point
pressing down.
 Static pressure does not involve the relative movement of the air

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Basics of pressure

Dynamic Pressure: The dynamic pressure is due to relative

movement. Dynamic pressure occurs when a body is moving
through the air, or the air is flowing past the body.

Dynamic pressure is dependent on two factors: a) The speed of the

body relative to the flow stream. The faster the car moves or the
stronger the wind blows, then the stronger the dynamic pressure that
you feel on your hand. This is because of the greater number of air
molecules that impact upon it per second

b) The density of the air. The dynamic pressure depends also on the
density of the air. If the flow rate was the same, and the air was less
dense, then there would be less force and consequently a lower
dynamic pressure

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Absolute and gauge pressure
The absolute pressure - pabs - is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure that would occur at
absolute vacuum. All calculation involving the gas laws requires pressure (and temperature) to be in absolute units.
A Gauge Pressure is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the surrounding
atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure and can be expressed as
pg = ps - patm
where
pg = gauge pressure
ps = system pressure
patm = atmospheric pressure
Due to varying atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure measurement is not precise, while absolute pressure is always
definite.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Pressure transducers and elements
Bourdon tube
Helix and spiral tubes
Spring and bellows
Diaphragm
Manometer

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Manometers
Manometers are good examples of pressure measuring
instruments.
U-tube manometers consist of “U” shaped glass tubes
partially filled with a liquid.
When there are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid
levels will correspond to the zero point on a scale.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 C-Bourdon Tube
 The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that a bent tube will change its shape
when exposed to variations of internal and external pressure.
 As pressure is applied internally, the tube straightens and returns to its original form
when the pressure is released.
 Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Wide operating range
- Fast response
- Good sensitivity
- Direct pressure measurement
 Disadvantages
- Primarily intended for indication only
- Non linear transducer,
- Hysteresis on cycling
- Sensitive to temperature variations
- Limited life when subject to shock and vibration

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Helix and spiral tubes
Helix and spiral tubes are fabricated from tubing into shapes as
per their naming. With one end sealed, the pressure exerted on the
tube causes the tube to straighten out. The amount of straightening
or uncoiling is determined by the pressure applied.

Advantages

- Increased accuracy and sensitivity

- Higher over range protection

Disadvantages

- Very expensive

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Spring and Bellows

A bellows is an expandable element and is made up of a series of folds

which allow expansion. One end of the Bellows is fixed and the other
moves in response to the applied pressure. A spring is used to oppose the
applied force and a linkage connects the end of the bellows to a pointer
for indication.

This type of pressure measurement is primarily used for ON/OFF control

providing clean contacts for opening and closing electrical circuits. This
form of sensing responds to changes in pneumatic or hydraulic pressure.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Pressure Transducers and Elements - Electrical

The typical range of transducers here is:

- Strain gauge
- Vibrating wire
- Piezoelectric
- Capacitance
- Linear Variable Differential Transformer
- Optical

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Strain gauge
Strain gauge sensing uses a metal wire or semiconductor
chip to measure changes in pressure. A change in pressure
causes a change in resistance as the metal is deformed. This
deformation is not permanent as the pressure (applied force)
does not exceed the elastic limit of the metal. If the elastic
limit is exceeded than permanent deformation will occur.

This is commonly used in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement

where the change in pressure is detected as a change in the
measured voltage.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Piezoelectric
When pressure is applied to crystals, they are elastically
deformed. Piezoelectric pressure sensing involves the
measurement of such deformation. When a crystal is
deformed, an electric charge is generated for only a few
seconds. The electrical signal is proportional to the applied
force.

Quartz is commonly used as the sensing crystal as it is

inexpensive, stable and insensitive to temperature variations.

 Tourmaline is an alternative which gives faster response

speeds, typically in the order of microseconds.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Capacitance

Capacitive pressure measurement involves sensing the

change in capacitance that results from the movement of a
diaphragm. The sensor is energized electrically with a high
frequency oscillator.

This type of pressure measurement is quite accurate and

has a wide operating range.

Capacitive pressure measurement is also quite common for

determining the level in a tank or vessel.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

This type of pressure measurement relies on the movement of a

high permeability core within transformer coils. The movement is
transferred from the process medium to the core by use of a
diaphragm, bellows or bourdon tube

The LVDT operates on the inductance ratio between the coils.

Three coils are wound onto the same insulating tube containing the
high permeability iron core.

The primary coil is located between the two secondary coils and is
energized with an alternating current.

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])

Dr Rohini P, Department of ECE, IIITDM Kancheepuram. (Email: [email protected])