COURSE CODE: SPH 3406

Course Title: Microprocessor Applications

Department: Physical sciences
Lecturer: Phyllis Mwenda

COURSE CONTENT
1. History of microprocessors
2. Micro computer system
3. Microprocessor unit registers ( flag registers in details)
4. Internal architecture of a microprocessor ( 80,85,80,86)
5. Memory mapping
6. F10 data transfer techniques
7. Programming models
8. Instruction set/Addressing modes
9. Assembly language Programming

References
1. Digital electronics by James Bignell & Robert Donovan
2. Modern digital electronics by R.P Jain

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CHAPTER 1: MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM
Terminologies

Word Size: The number of bits that a µP or a computer is capable of processing at a time. It
is also known as data bus width.

Program; A sequence of instructions that directs a µP-based system to perform a specific

task.

Microprocessor Architecture: The specific interconnections of registers and logic blocks

that define the design of a µP.

Compiler; A computer program that translates commands in high level language into
machine code.

Assembler: A computer program that converts assembly language program into executable
binary codes, i.e machine language.
1/o port: The circuit used to interface 1/0 devices with the µP. The data from µP or i/0 device
comes into or goes out to 1/0 device or µp respectively through the I/0 port.
Machine language The programming language that a µp can directly understand

Instruction: A group of statements that tells the µP what to do

Instruction set: The instructions which are allowed in a µP. It is specified by its
manufacturer

Interrupt: A µp input (signal ) that causes the temporary suspension of the normal sequence
of operations and transfers control to a special routine meant to service the interrupt.

High level language:

A programming language in which statements represents procedures rather than single
instructions e.g pascal, Basic c++ etc.

Mnemmic: Symbolic names on abbreviation for Instructions, data, registers, addresses.

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Peripheral: same as 1/0 device.

Addressing modes: The methods used for specifying the address of hardware, register and or
memory to be used in an instructor.

History of Microprocessor
A microprocessor is the heart, the soul as well as the brain of a computer. In fact, it is a
computer in itself. The evolution of the microprocessor has been one of the greatest
achievements of our civilization.
A microprocessor is a single chip integrating all the functions of a central processing unit
(CPU) of a computer. It includes all the logical functions, data storage, timing functions and
interaction with other peripheral devices. In some cases, the terms 'CPU' and
'microprocessor' are used interchangeably to denote the same device. Like every genuine
engineering marvel, the microprocessor too has evolved through a series of improvements
throughout the 20th century. A brief history of the device along with its functioning is
described below.

Working of a Microprocessor
It is the central processing unit which coordinates all the functions of a computer. It generates
timing signals, sends and receives data to and from every peripheral used outside the
computer. The commands required to do this are fed into the device in the form of current
variations which are converted into meaningful instructions by the use of a Boolean Logic
System. It divides its functions in two categories, logical functions and processing functions.
The arithmetic and logical unit and the control unit handle these functions respectively. The
information is communicated through a bunch of wires called buses. The address bus carries
the 'address' of the location with which communication is desired while the data bus carries
the data that is being exchanged.
Types of Microprocessors
There are different ways in which microprocessors are categorized. They are

1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers)

2. RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computers)
3. VLlW(Very Long Instruction Word Computers)
4. Super scalar processors

Other types of specialized processors are

5. General Purpose Processor (GPP)

6. Special Purpose Processor (SPP)
7. Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)

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 8. Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

History and Evolution of Microprocessors

The invention of the transistor in 1947 was a significant development in the world of
technology. It could perform the function of a large component used in a computer in the
early years. Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen are credited with this invention and were
awarded the Nobel Prize for the same. Soon it was found that the function this large
component was easily performed by a group of transistors arranged on a single platform. This
platform, known as the integrated chip (IC), turned out to be a very crucial
achievement and brought along a revolution in the use of computers. A person named Jack
Kilby of Texas Instruments was honored with the Nobel Prize for the invention of IC, which
laid the foundation on which microprocessors were developed. At the same time, Robert
Noyce of Fairchild made a parallel development in IC technology for which he was awarded
the patent.
ICs proved beyond doubt that complex functions could be integrated on a single chip with a
highly developed speed and storage capacity. Both Fairchild and Texas Instruments began
the manufacture of commercial’s in 1961. Later, complex developments in the IC led to the
addition of more complex functions on a single chip. The stage was set for a single
controlling circuit for all the computer functions.
Finally, Intel corporation's Ted Hoff and Frederico Fagin were credited with the design of
the first microprocessor.

The work on this project began with an order from a Japanese calculator company
Busicom to Intel, for building some chips for it. Hoff felt that the design could
integrate a number of functions on a single chip making it feasible for providing the
required functionality. This led to the design of Intel 4004, the world's first
microprocessor. The next in line was the 8 bit 8008 microprocessor. It was developed
by Intel in 1972 to perform complex functions in harmony with the 4004.
This was the beginning of a new era in computer applications. The use of
mainframes and huge computers was scaled down to a much smaller device that was
affordable to many. Earlier, their use was limited to large organizations and
universities. With the advent of microprocessors, the use of computers trickled down
to the common man. The next processor in line was Intel's 8080 with an 8 bjt data
bus and a 16 bit address bus. This was amongst the most popular microprocessors of
all time. Within a few years, Intel 8085 microprocessor was developed as an
improvement of the 8080.

Very soon, the Motorola corporation developed its own 6800 in competition with the Intel's
8080. Fagin left Intel and formed his own firm Zilog. It launched a new microprocessor Z80
in 1980 that was far superior to the previous two versions. Similarly, a break off from
Motorola prompted the design of 6502, a derivative of the 6800. Such attempts continued
with some modifications in the base structure.

The use of microprocessors was limited to task-based operations specifically

required for company projects such as the automobile sector. The concept of a
'personal computer' was still a distant dream for the world and microprocessors

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were yet to come into personal use. The 16 bit microprocessors started becoming a
commercial sell-out in the 1980s with the first popular one being the TMS9900 of
Texas Instruments.

Intel developed the 8086 which still serves as the base model for all latest
advancements in the microprocessor family. It was largely a complete processor
integrating all the required features in it. 68000 by Motorola was one of the first
microprocessors to develop the concept of micro coding in its instruction set. They
were further developed to 32 bit architectures. Similarly, many players like Zilog,
IBM and Apple were successful in getting their own products in the market.
However, Intel had a commanding position in the market right through the
microprocessor era.
The 1990s saw a large scale application of microprocessors in the personal computer
applications developed by the newly formed Apple, IBM and Microsoft corporation.
It witnessed a revolution in the use of computers, which by then was a household
entity.

This growth was complemented by a highly sophisticated development in the

commercial use of microprocessors. In 1993, Intel brought out its 'Pentium
Processor' which is one of the most popular processors in use till date. It was’
followed by a series of excellent processors of the Pentium family, leading into the
21 st century. The latest one in commercial use is the Pentium Dual Core technology
and the Xeon processor. They have opened up a whole new world of diverse
applications. Supercomputers have become common, owing to this amazing
development in microprocessors.

Certainly, these little chips will go down as history but will continue to reign in the
future as an ingenious creation of the human mind.

BY Prashant Magar
POPULAR INTEL MICROPORCESSORS

MICROPROCESSORS DATA BUS WIDTH

MEMORY SIZE
8085A 8
64K
8086 16 1M
8088 8 1M
80186 16 1M
80188 8 1M
80286 16
16M
803865X 16
16M

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80386SL 16
32M
80386DX 32 4G
80486SX 32 4G
80486DX 32 4G
Pentium 64 4G

Exercise

1. What is the size of the memory address space for the following
microprocessors?

Microprocessor Data bus width Address – bus width

8080 8 bit 16 bit

6800 8 bit 16 bit
8086 16 bit 20 bit
9900 16 bit 16 bit
Z8000 16 bit 23bit

2. Distinguish between
(i) Assembler and Compiler
(ii) High Level and Low level programming languages