O.P.

O CONTENT Teacher`s Learner`s Didactic Evaluat time

activity activity material ion
MODULE I: MATTER PROPERTIES AND TRANSFORMATION
Competence:
TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Everything existing on this earth consist of particles. These particles constitute matter. A science
subject specialized in studying these particles is known as chemistry. Chemistry is the study
of the universe or it is a science subject that studies the composition, properties and
changes that matter will undergo.
1.1 Chemistry and its importance in everyday life
1.1.1 Definitions
a) chemistry is a science subject that studies the composition, properties and changes
that matter will undergo. A person who studies chemistry is called a chemist.
Chemistry helps us to understand
-what substances are made up of?
-how and why materials behave as they do?
-how new materials might behave?
-how to make new materials?
-how to extract and use materials from the earth and plants?
b) Matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupy space.
c) Composition. Is the way in which some things are made up?
d) Science. It is the systematic study of nature. A person specialized in the study of science
is called a scientist. Other science subjects include biology, physics, and geology
1.1.2 Importance of chemistry
The importance of chemistry in everyday life is enormous, some of which are
I) Hygiene: soap and other chemicals have been manufactured to help wash our bodies,
dresses, and house hold utensils. Soap is made from chemicals such as vegetable oil
and caustic soda.
II) Pharmacy and medicine: chemistry is important in the manufacture of drugs to cure
diseases. E.g. antibiotics and antileptics which can save and prolongs life.

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

1
 III) Building and construction: the construction of houses, bridges, damps and roads
owes a lot to chemical industry. Cement, iron, tiles, zinc sheet, electric cables,
glasses, etc. comes from chemical industry.
IV) Agriculture: the study of chemistry provides means of disposing waste materials.
Chemical wastes, gases and hot water are being recycled recycled in chemistry
industry to keep our environment clean.
V) Clothes: can you Imagine yourself attending a lesson naked! Intensive chemical
research has produced man made textile fibres which greatly improve our range of
clothing.
VI) Plastics: drinking cups, buckets, are made of robber, nylon, and other polymers.
1.1.3 Career opportunities for a science student
A science student who is serious with studies will have many job opportunities in and out of
Cameroon.
-textile industry -food chemistry
-medicine -hazardous waste management
-teaching -forensic science
-environmental chemistry -government police
-military system -biochemistry
-biotechnology -chemical engineering
-ceramic industries -astrochemistry

1.2 Some basic equipment used in the study of chemistry

1.2.1 Definition of laboratory: a laboratory is a scientist workshop. It is a room with an
assembly of useful tools and materials that are needed to conduct experiments.
How a chemist work
Observation………. hypothesis……. experiments………theory
Hypothesis: suggest possible explanation, why and how things happen.
Theory: draw conclusion from experimental observation.
1.2.2 Lab equipment
These are instruments used in the lab to carry out experiments.
no Diagram Name Uses

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

2
 01 Volumetric To prepare solutions
flask

02 Conical flask Used for holding liquids

03 Beaker To store chemicals and transferring solutions

04 Test tube To perform experiments

For heating

05 Measuring To measure out appropriate volume of liquids

cylinder

06 Bunsen burner For heating

07 Filter funnel Used for filtration

08 Burette To measure out small volumes of liquid
accurately

09 Pipette To measure small accurate volume of liquids

10 Separating To separate immiscible liquids

funnel
11 Tripod stand To support solutions as they are being heated
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
3
 12 Wire gauze Placed on a tripod stand to spread out heat

13 Thermometer Measure temperature

14 Spatula To pick up small quantities of solids
15 Clamp and stand To hold lab equipment in position

1.2.3 The Bunsen Burner and its flame

1.2.3.1 Diagram
The Bunsen burner is a simple burner that was invented by Bunsen and it is used for heating.

1.2.3.2 Procedure to light a Bunsen burner

-close the air holes
-turn the gas on fully
-light the gas
-turn down the gas until the flame is about 7cm high
-open the air holes slowly until the flame is non-luminous but not noisy.
1.2.3.3 Luminous and non-luminous flame

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

4
 To produce a luminous flame, the metal collar should be turned so that the air-hole should be
closed. This flame is quiet and is not very hot and deposits soot on a cold article held in it. To
produce a non-luminous flame, the air-hole should be opened.
Differences between luminous and non-luminous flame
Property Luminous flame Non-luminous flame
Production Produced when the air- Produced when the air-hole of a Bunsen burner is
hole of a Bunsen burner is Opened
closed
Colour Consist of four zones with Consist of three zones namely. unburnt gas zone,
a small blue zone near the much smaller luminous zone and a pale blue
chimney, unburnt gas, non-luminous zone which has an increased size.
luminous zone and a large
wavy yellow zone above
Hotness and Not a very hot flame and Much hotter flame which does not deposit soot
production deposits soot on cold on cold objects held in it.
of soot objects held in it.

1.3 Safety rules for working in a chemistry lab, signs and symbols on reagent bottles.
1.3.1 Safety rules for working in a chemistry lab
we need to observe some simple rules in order to ensure safety in the lab.
1) Do not eat or drink in the lab
2) Do not smoke in the lab
3) Put on a lab jacket before entering the lab
4) Do not play with chemicals or run in the lab
5) Do not carry out experiments without permission of the teacher
6) Do not taste chemicals in the lab
7) Do not point the boiling tube towards other persons
8) Always put on cover shoes working in the lab
9) Wear gloves and eye glasses for protection
10) Keep lab equipment clean before and after use
11) Wash your hand with soap and apply Vaseline before living the lab.
1.3.2 Signs and symbols on reagent bottles
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
5
 these signs tell you about chemicals that are in the bottles.
No signs and symbols on Meaning
reagent bottles

01 Explosive The substance in the bottle carring this label may

explode when ignited or heated.

02 Toxic Substance having toxic effects. Eg ammonia

03 Corrosive Can destroy living tissues. Eg. Concentrated acids and bases

04 Flammable Can easily catch fire under normal lab conditions.

05 Radioactive Emits radioactive radiation and care should be taken

06 Irritant Causes irritation to living tissues

07 Oxidizing Can cause fire if it comes into contact with

combustible materials

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

6
 Revision questions
1) define the following terms
a) chemistry
b) science
c) laboratory
2) list four importance of chemistry
3) name the equipment used to measure volume
4) state five rules to be obeyed in chemistry lab
5) differentiate between luminous and non-luminous flame

TOPIC TWO: ACTION OF HEAT ON SUBSTANCES

PROBLEM SITUATION
Water is to be transported to a village where there is acute draught from the city. The road to
the village is so bad and the container found are open containers with no lids how can the exact
quantity of water be transported to the village with no loss?
2.1 Physical and chemical change
2.1.1 Physical change
A physical change is a change in which new no new substances are formed. It occurs when a
substance changes its states but does not change its chemical composition. E.g. water freezing
into ice, cutting a piece of wood into pieces.
2.1.2 Chemical change

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

7
 It is a change in which new substances are formed. A chemical change can be identified by
colour change, production of gas, production of solid, temperature change and light. E.g. burning
a paper, heating lead nitrate.
2.1.3 Differences between physical and chemical change
Physical change Chemical change
No new substances are formed New substances are formed
Easily reversible Not easily reversible
Not accompanied by heat change except latent heat Accompanied by considerable heat change
e.g cases of melting, vaporization Burning piece of paper and magnesium ribbon
Similarities: both involves change of state.
2.1.4 Action of heat on ice.
When heat is applied to ice, the ice witnesses the following changes:
-melting: it is a change of state from solid to liquid
-evaporation or vaporization: this is a change of state from liquid to gas or steam.
-condensation: it is a change of state from gas to liquid.
-freezing or solidification or fusion: this is a change of state from liquid to solid.
-sublimation: it is a change of state from solid to gas without passing through the liquid state.
-deposition: it is a change of state from gas to solid.
Diagrammatically

2.1.5 Action of heat on copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate.

Copper(II) sulphate crystals are heated in a test tube. The substance changes colour from blue
to white and the liquid given off is collected in another test tube.
Hydrated copper(II) sulphate → anhydrous copper(II) sulphate + water.
The sign “→” means “changed to”

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

8
 2.1.6 Action of heat on lead nitrate.
When lead nitrate crystals (white crystals) is heated in a test tube, nitrogen dioxide (brown gas)
is evolved or given off and a yellow will be formed. This yellow solid is lead oxide.
Lead nitrate → lead oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
(white crystals) (yellow solid) (brown gas)
Problem situation
Didjatou spread perfume on her uniform before coming to school. When she arrived class,
her bench mates complained because of the scent from her. Soon later, the whole class was
complaining on her scent. How and why did the scent reached the whole class?
2.2 States of matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Some examples include: water, chalk, air,
desk and books. Due to the numerous variety of matter, scientist decided to classify them so as
to ease study. Classification is the arrangement of a number of objects into groups with similar
characteristics. So, in the entire universe, matter is classified into three forms called states. These
states are: solid, liquid and gas.
2.2.1 Solid states
The properties of matter in its solid states are:
-they have fixed shape.
- they have fixed volume.
-they have high density.
- particles of solid vibrate about fixed position
-they are incompressible.
-examples: stone, book, sand.
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
9
 2.2.2 Liquid state
In the liquid state, matter has the following properties.
-they have fixed volume
- they have no fixed shape i.e they take the shape of their container.
-they are incompressible.
- particles are partially spaced out hence gives them the state of free flow.
2.2.3 Gaseous state
-they have no fixed shape
-No fixed volume
-particles are free to move about
-they are compressible
Features Solid Liquid Gas
Movement of Limited particles vibrate Particles move randomly Particles are in
particles within their pitted exchanging position with complete random motion
position each other
Force of attraction Very strong Weak Very weak
between particles
Spacing between Very small Small Very large
particles
Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

2.3 Simple kinetic theory

2.3.1 The theory
The kinetic theory of matter is a theory put forward by scientists to explain the position to explain
the composition and behavior of matter. The theory is based on three main assumptions:
-all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules.
-the tiny particles are in continuous motion
-the particles attract and repel each other.
2.3.2 Using the kinetic theory to explain the states of matter
SOLID: the kinetics theory views that the particles in solid are very closely packed together and
the spacing between the particles is very small. There is a strong force of attraction between the

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

10
 particles in a solid and the particles can only vibrate about their position. All these enables solids
to have a regular shape and fixed volume.
LIQUID: liquid particles are closely packed but are in random motion. The space between the
particles in liquid are slightly greater than that in a solid but the force of attraction between the
particles are weaker. The force is weak enough that the liquid molecules move about randomly
and as such have no fixed shape. However, the force is strong enough to keep the liquid in fixed
volume. Liquids takes the shape of their containers.
GASES: the particles in gas are in complete random motion with little or no force of attraction
between the particles. The particles are colliding with each other and with the walls of the
container. A gas has no fixed shape and no free volumes. It will expand to fill any volume
available. The pressure of the gas is due to the bombardment of its molecules with the walls of
the container. Due to the large spacing between the gas molecules, gases can easily be
compressed into smaller volumes.
Revision question
1) differentiate between physical and chemical change
2) what is observed when lead nitrate is heated
3) differentiate solid, liquid and gases as states of matter
4) state the kinetic theory of matter

TOPIC THREE: SIMPLE CLASSSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES

3.O INTRODUCTION
Substances are made up of one or more compounds which may be chemically combined together
or not. Compounds are made up of elements.
- Definition of compound: a compound is a substance which consist of two or more
elements chemically combined together. E.g. water, salt, methane.
- Definition of element: an element is a substance which cannot be split up into simpler
substance by any chemical means. E.g. hydrogen, carbon, oxygen.
3.1 Mixture and pure substances
3.1.1. Definition of mixture
It is a substance made up of two or more substances (elements or compounds) not chemically
combined together. E.g. rice and beans, kerosene and water.
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
11
 3.1.2. Pure substance
It is a substance made up of only one type of atoms or one type of molecules. It does not contain
any impurity. Pure substance cannot be separated into two or more components by physical
methods. E.g. sodium, carbon, calcium.
3.1.3. Classification of matter as a pure substances or mixture
Mixture Pure substance
Blood Iron
Air Copper
Crude oil (petrol, gas oil, kerosene) Sodium
Urine (urea, water, mineral salt) Potassium
Coca cola (water, sugar, cola, carbon dioxide) Hydrogen

3.2 Types of mixtures

There exist six types of mixtures which include: solid/solid mixture, solid/liquid mixture,
solid/gas mixture, liquid/liquid mixture, liquid/gas mixture and gas/gas mixture.
3.2.1 Solid/solid mixture
This is two or more solids are mixed together. E.g. rice and beans, sand and Garri, beans and
corn.
3.2.2 Solid/liquid mixture
This is when a solid is being mixed with a liquid. E.g. sand and water, salt and water, garri and
water.
3.2.3. Solid/gas mixture
It is obtained by mixing solids and gases. E.g. dust particles in air.
3.2.4. Liquid/liquid
This is obtained by mixing two liquids together. E.g. water and kerosene, oil and water.
3.2.5. Liquid/gas
This is when a gas and a liquid are mixed together. E.g. water and air, coca cola.
3.2.6. Gas/gas mixture
This is a mixture of two or more gases. E.g. air is a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen
and rare gases.
3.3 Methods of separating mixtures
3.3.1. Solid-solid mixtures
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
12
 3.3.1.i. Sieving
Solid/solid mixtures can be separated by sieving when one of the particles is small enough to
pass through the holes of a sieve. E.g. coarser particles of maize in corn flour, dust from
groundnut, sand and gravel.
3.3.1. ii. Winnowing
Solid/solid mixtures particles can be separated by winnowing depending on the weight of the
particles. One of the particles must be light enough to be blown away by wind. E.g. groundnut
and its peeling, rice and its peeling (husk).
3.3.1.iii. Hand picking
Mixtures can be separated by hand picking depending on the size of the solid. E.g. corn and
beans
3.3.1. iv. Magnetic attraction
This is done when one component part of a solid/solid mixture can be attracted by a magnet.
E.g. iron filings and Sulphur powder.

3.3.2. Solid/liquid mixture

3.3.2.i. Decantation
This method is used to separate solid/liquid mixture. The solid is allowed to settle at the bottom
of the container and the water is poured out. E.g. sand and water, muddy water.
3.3.2. ii. Evaporation to dryness
This method is used to separate solid/liquid mixture. The solid is soluble in the liquid. The
mixture is heated until the liquid evaporates leaving behind the solid. E.g. kitchen salt and water,
obtaining salt from sea water, sugar and water.

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

13
 3.3.2.iii. Filtration
Filtration is used to separate solid/liquid mixture in which the solid is insoluble. The mixture is
poured into a filter funnel which allows only the water to pass through the filter paper in the
funnel. The liquid is called the filtrate while the solid is called the residue. E.g. chalk and water,
muddy water.

3.3.3 Liquid/liquid mixture

3.3.3.i. Separating funnel

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

14
 The separating funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids. The mixture is placed in a
separating funnel with the tap closed. The denser liquid sinks while the less dense rises above.
When the tap is opened, the liquid (water) comes out first and the tap is closed. E.g. water and
kerosene.

3.3.3. ii. Simple distillation

This technique is used to separate two miscible liquids of different boiling points. As heat is
applied to the mixture, the liquid having the lower boiling point will boil first and vaporizes.
When the vapour reaches the condenser (delivery tube), it will condense. The liquid with lower
boiling point is collected in a beaker. E.g. propanone (56oC) and water (100oC).

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

15
 3.4 Pure substances: differences between mixture and pure substances
Mixture Pure substances
Consist of two or more substances not chemically Consist of only single type of substances
joint together
Components can be separated by physical means Cannot be separated by physical means
Examples include: rice and sand, water and kerosene, Examples include: iron, pure water (containing
air, blood hydrogen and oxygen only)

3.5. Matter and its constituents

Matter may be classified into elements, compounds or mixture.
3.5.1. An element
An element is a single or pure substance that cannot be split into simpler substance by chemical
means. It is made up of only one kind of atoms. E.g. hydrogen, oxygen, carbon. Elements are
divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
-examples of metals: iron, copper, silver, gold, and tin.
-examples of non-metals: carbon, oxygen, Sulphur and chlorine.
-examples of metalloids: silicon, germanium.
3.5.2. Compounds

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

16
 A compound is a pure substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined.
Examples of compounds and the elements from which they are made include:
Compound Element present in the compound
Sugar Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Soap Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sodium.
Water Hydrogen and oxygen
Table salt Sodium chloride

3.5.3 Definition of an atom

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction.
3.6. Differences between compounds and mixtures
Compounds Mixtures
The constituent elements cannot be separated by Constituents can be separated from one another by
physical methods physical means
It is always homogenous Mixture can be homogenous or heterogenous
The elements in compounds are present in fixed Constituents of mixture may vary widely in
proportion by mass composition
A compound can be represented by a chemical Cannot be represented by chemical formula
formula (H2O for water)

Revision question
1) Define
a) Element
b) Atom
c) Molecule
d) compound
2) fill the table below
Example of mixture Method of separation
Chalk in water
Common salt in water
Ethanol in water

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

17
 Decantation
Wheat from chaffs

MODULE II ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

TOPIC FOUR: WATER
Water is life. It is a universal solvent. It is made up mainly of oxygen and hydrogen in its pure
state having a chemical formula H2O. water is used by both plants and animals
4.1. Natural sources of water and the water cycle
4.1.1 Natural sources of water
Natural water is a gift of nature not made by man. The natural sources of water are:
-rain water
-spring water
-seas, oceans water
-well water
-water from rivers and streams
4.1.2. Water cycle
Water cycle is the circulation of water in nature. The processes involved in the water cycle
includes: evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

18
 -sun rays heat the surfaces of large water bodies such as; streams, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans
and the water evaporate into the atmosphere as water vapour.
- plants absorbs water from the ground using their roots and lose the water from their leaves
through the process known as transpiration.
-animals drink water, eat food that contain water. The water is lost to the atmosphere during
sweating and breathing (respiration).
-water vapour from evaporation, transpiration, sweating and breathing is cooled to form water
droplets. These water droplets collect to form clouds.
-heavier clouds then further condenses and falls as rain, snow in a process known as
precipitation.
4.2 Methods of purification of water for domestic use and laboratory use
4.2.0 Characteristics of good drinking water
Portable or good drinking water should have;
-no smell,
-no taste,
-no color,
-free from germs and
-suspended particles
4.2.1 Purification method for domestic use
4.2.1.i. Boiling and filtration
Water from streams, springs, well, rivers, is boiled for some time to kill germs or bacteria. The
water is allowing to cool for some time. Filter the cool water to remove suspended particle if
any.
4.2.1. ii. Chlorination
Clean water may still contain germs. These germs can be killed by adding appropriate amount
of chlorine to the water. Add 3 to 5 drops for 20 litres. Avoid adding too much drops of chlorine
water because it will damage your organs.
4.2.1.iii. Purification of water for domestic use (town water supply)
Pipe borne water comes from streams and rivers collected in dams. The stream or river water is
trapped on dams or reservoirs generally called catchment Centre. Heavy particles like sand and
sticks settle while floating particles are filtered out by passing the water through a metal grid.
Calcium hydroxide is added to reduce the acidity. Alum is also added to make small particles
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
19
 stick together and fall at the bottom of the tank. The water is then passed through filter beds
made of sand and gravel. Chlorine is added to kill germs. Fluorine and iodine may be added to
prevent tooth decay and goiter. The water is kept in storage tanks or reservoir ready for
distribution.
NB: water is treated before drinking to prevent water borne diseases like; Cholera, amoebic,
dysentery, typhoid fever, cancer, nerves and brain damage. Treatment of water in Cameroon is
done by CAMWATER.
4.2.2. Purification of water for laboratory use
Water used in the laboratory is called distilled water. This water is purified by a process called
simple distillation.

4.3 Test for water

4.3.1 Test for the presence of water
The presence of water is tested using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate which is a white solid.
Add the unknown liquid to anhydrous copper (II)sulphate, if its colour changes from white to
blue, then the liquid is water.
Conclusion: water turns anhydrous copper(II)sulphate from white to blue.
4.3 2. How to test for the purity of water
Pure water boils at 100OC and freezes at 0OC. If water is boiled several times and its boiling
point is constant at 100C, then the water is pure. Impure water boils at a temperature greater
than 100OC.

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

20
 4.4. Uses of water in the home and in the laboratory.
1) Domestic uses
-we use water to drink
-we use water to cook food
-we use water for laundry
2) we use water for agriculture
3) water is used to cool down engine.
4) water is used in the laboratory for chemical analysis.
5) we use water in hospitals to manufacture drugs.
4.5 Water pollution
4.5.1 Definitions
-pollution: it is the release of substances into the environment.
-Water pollution: it is the contamination of water with impurities. These impurities or harmful
materials dropped into water body are called pollutants.
4.5.2. Sources of pollution
Sources Pollutant
Industry Oil, papers, grease, acids
Sewage Urine, human feases
Agriculture Herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers

4.5.3. Effects of water pollution

1) sewage increases bacterial pollution and affects aquatic life.
2) oil spillage floats on water surface and kills most marine organisms.
3) chemical pollutants cause diseases like cancer, typhoid, and goiter.
4.5.4. Preventing and controlling water pollution.
1) sewage should be treated before been emptied into water.
2) excessive use of fertilizers should be discouraged
3) Chemical waste should be made harmless before dispersing into water.
Revision question
1) Define pollution, water pollution.
2) Explain the process of water cycle
3) How can we test for the presence of water?
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
21
 4) State any three sources of water pollution.
TOPIC FIVE: AIR
5.1 Composition of air
Air is a mixture of gases that are surrounding the earth. It is made up of the active part (oxygen)
and the inactive part (nitrogen).
5.1.1 Experiment to demonstrate that air is made up of active and inactive part.
Requirements: two beakers, box of matches, water, candle, plastic lid, ruler.
Procedure
-melt the base of the candle and attach it to the plastic lid.
-float the candle and plastic lid in a beaker of water.
-cover the candle and lid with another beaker of water.
-remove the beaker and light the candle.
-cover the candle again with the same beaker and observe.
Observation
-the candle will go off.
-the air inside the beaker will decrease.
Conclusion
Air is made up of active and inactive part. The active part being oxygen.
5.2. Active part of air: oxygen
5.2.1 Properties
-it is a colorless, odourless gas.
-it is slightly soluble in water.
-it supports combustion.
-it supports plant and animal life.
-it relights a glowing splint.
5.2.2 Rusting
It is a reddish-brown powder of hydrated iron (III) oxide formed when iron is exposed go water
and air. For rusting to occur, there must be the presence of water and air. Rusting can be
prevented by; painting, greasing, electroplating and galvanizing.
5.3. Inactive part of air: Nitrogen

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

22
 It constitutes about 78% of air. It is a colorless gas, less dense than air. Atmospheric nitrogen is
used in the manufacture of ammonia by the Harber process which is then used to prepare
fertilizers. Nitrogen is therefore not important for plant only but also for our own lives.
5.4. Air as a mixture
Composition of air Percentage by volume
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Noble gases Variable
Water vapour Variable
Dust particle Variable
5.5 Air pollution
5.5.1. Definition
It is the act of discharging harmful substances into the atmosphere. These harmful substances
are called pollutants.
5.5.2. Causes of air pollution
1) Burning plastic materials releases gases into the atmosphere.
2) Carbon dioxide produced from burning of fossils.
3) small particles when suspended in air causes air pollution.
4) Nitrogen monoxide produced from automobile industry.
5) burning of Sulphur leads to production of toxic gases like Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur
trioxide.
5.5.3 Effect of air pollution
1) suspended particles damage the lungs.
2) Air pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbon sun burn and cancer.
3) Lead poisoning causes injury to the nervous system.
4) Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form acid rain.
5.5.4 prevention of air pollution
1) people should educate on the effects of air pollution.
2) Machinery should be improved to so that efficient combustion of fuel should occur.

MODULE III: MATTER PROPERTIES AND TRANSFORMATION

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
23
 TOPIC SIX: ACIDS AND BASES (ALKALIS)
6.O. Definition
An acid is a substance with a sour or sharp taste. It can also be defined as a substance which
dissolves in water to produce hydrogenous ion.
6.1. Acids in everyday life.
Naturally occurring substances like an unripe orange, unripe pawpaw, mango, and guava, you
will notice that these fruits will taste sour.
6.1.1 Types of acids
Two main types of acid do exist: organic and mineral acid.
i) Organic acids: these are found in fruits
Organic acid Sources
Fatty acid Fats, oil
Acetic acids Vinegar
Palmitic acids Palm oil
Citric acid Limes, lemon,
Ascorbic acid Orange, tomatoes
Tartaric acid Grapes
ii) Mineral acids: these are man-made acids like: hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and
Sulphuric acid.
6.1.2 Properties of acids
1) they have a sour taste
2) concentrated acids are corrosive
3) it turns moist blue litmus paper red
4) they react with metals to produce hydrogen
6.2 Bases in everyday life
6.2.1 Definition
A base is a substance with a bitter taste and soapy feelings.
6.2.2 Common bases, source and uses
Bases are found in Chemical name Uses
Baking powder Sodium hydrogen carbonate To reduce stomach acidity

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

24
 Sea water produced in industry Sodium hydrogen carbonate (caustic For making soap
soda)
Wood ash or burnt plantain Potassium hydrogen carbonate For making “Ashu” soap
peelings
Limestone, Calcium hydroxide Used as white ash for painting
6.2.3 Properties of bases
-it has a bitter taste
-it Has a soapy feel
-it turns moist red litmus paper blue.
6.3 Test for acids and bases with similar indicator
Acids and bases can be identified using substances called indicator. An indicator is a substance
that change colour when an acid or a base is added to it. Examples of indicators are: litmus
paper, methyl orange.
Indicator Colour of indicator Color in acid medium Colour in basic medium
Litmus paper Purple Red Blue
Methyl orange Orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
6.4 Extraction of indicators and Use of indicator to classify solutions
6.4.1 Extraction of indicators
Crush 4 leaves of cabbage in a mortar and ground it with equal volume of methylated spirit and
water. The mixture is transferred into a round-bottomed flask and boiled gently. After some few
minutes, the solid material is filtered and a bluish-purplish filtrate is obtained which is an
indicator.
6.4.2. Use of indicator to classify solutions
-three test tubes say A, B, C are half filled with distilled water, vinegar and household ammonia
respectively.
- add three drops of red cabbage indicator into each test tube using a dropper.
Observation: colour of A does not change, B changes to deep pink, C changes to green.
Conclusion: we can therefore conclude that the substances tested in:
-A are neutral i.e. neither acid nor base.
-B is acids
-C is alkalis
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
25
 6.5 pH scale
It is a scale used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of solution. It contains range of numbers
from 0 to 14. Acid solutions have pH value less than 7, neutral solution has pH of 7 and alkaline
solution has pH greater than 7. Strong acids have pH less than 3 while strong base has pH
greater than 12.
6.6. Reaction of acids with bases (neutralization) and acids with carbonates
Neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water only.
Such a solution has no effect on litmus paper. E.g. reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide.
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide→ sodium chloride + water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2O
Acid base salt water

TOPIC SEVEN: WATER AND SOLUTION

7.1 Basic definitions
a) solute: it is a substance (solid, liquid or gas) that dissolves in a solvent (liquid). E.g. sugar,
salt, lime juice.
b) solvent: it is a substance (liquid) that dissolves a solute. E.g. oil, water, petrol, diesel,
kerosene.
c) solution: it is a uniform or homogenous mixture of a solute and solvent. E.g. salt and water,
sugar and water.
There are two types of solution: saturated solution and un saturated solution.
-Saturated solution: it is a solution that cannot dissolve more of solute at that particular
temperature.
-Unsaturated solution: it is a solution that can dissolve more of the solute at that particular
temperature.
7.1.2. Preparation of an unsaturated and saturated solution.
Aim: to prepare a saturated solution.
Requirements: water, test tube, spatula, common salt, stirrer and beaker.
Procedure:
-pour some water into a beaker.
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
26
 -transfer 100cm3 of the water into two test tubes A and B
- add some few amounts of salt into water and stirrer. Add few quantities of salt again and stir.
Observation: the salt dissolves completely. This is an unsaturated solution.
-continue adding the salt while stirring until some samples of the salt settles at the bottom of the
container. This is a saturated solution because it cannot dissolve any further solute.
7.2 Solubility in water
It is the maximum amount of solute in grams that will dissolve and saturate 100cm3 of water at
a particular temperature.
7.2.1 Some basic definitions
-soluble substance: a substance which can dissolve in a solvent. E.g. salt, sugar, soap.
-insoluble substance: these are substances that do not dissolve in water. E.g. sand, chalk, dust.
-homogenous solution: it is a solution in which the solute and the solvent are completely or
uniformly mixed. E.g. salt and water, water and sugar.
-heterogenous solution: it is a solution in which the solute and solvent are not completely mixed.
E.g. powdered milk and water, flour and water form a suspension.
7.2.2. Factors affecting solubility in water.
To investigate the factors that affect the solubility, we need to prepare two sets of saturated
solution of salt in two test tubes of equal quantities. Do not filter the excess.
-add more water into the first test tube and observe
-warm the solution in the second test tube and observe.
Observation: in both cases, the excess salt dissolves.
Conclusion: solubility increases with increase in temperature and increase in solvent.
7.3. Crystallization
It is the cooling of a saturated solution to form crystals.
Crystals: these are solids with regular shapes, flat surface and sharp edges.
7.3.1 The procedure of crystallization
-place a saturated salt solution into an evaporating dish.
-heat the solution for some of the water to evaporate.
-cool the water under the tap.
-crystals start forming.
-pass the crystals on a filter paper for you to dry them.
7.3.2 Crystallization as a method of purifying solids.
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
27
 It is used to separate two or more solid solutes which are present in the same solution in roughly
equal amounts.
The solubility of these solids in a given solvent must differ at different temperature.
During the process of cooling, at a particular temperature, crystals of relevant solute will come
out of solution, leaving behind the others which are still within their limits of solubility.

TOPIC EIGHT: CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

8.1 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
8.1.1 Definitions
-Definition of element: an element is a substance which cannot be split up into simpler substance
by any chemical means. E.g. hydrogen, carbon, oxygen
-Definition of compound: a compound is a substance which consist of two or more elements
chemically combined together. E.g. water, salt, methane.
8.1.2 Examples of compounds and the constituent elements
Compound Element present in the compound
Sugar Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Soap Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sodium.
Water Hydrogen and oxygen
Table salt Sodium chloride
8.2. Metals and non-metals
8.2.1. Metals
A metal is a hard-solid material that conduct heat and electricity. Examples include: iron, zinc,
sodium.
Properties of metals
-they are solid matter that are strong, hard with high density.
-they are shiny in nature.
-they are good conductors of heat and electricity.
-they are ductile: they can be drawn into wires.
-they are malleable: they can be hammered into sheets.
Uses of metals
-metals are used in conducting wire. E.g. copper
-iron is used in the construction of bridges, dams and houses.
BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)
28
 -Gold, silver and copper are used in making coins because of their durability and beautiful
appearance.
-metals are used in making vehicles, jewelries, ships and aircraft.
8.2.2 Non-metals
These are substances that do not conduct heat and electricity. E.g. nitrogen, oxygen, carbon,
sulphure.
Properties of non-metals
-they are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
-they are not malleable.
-they are not sonorous.
-they are soft with low density.
Uses of non-metals
-oxygen is used for breathing.
-they are used as insulators
8.2.3 Differences between metals and non-metals.
Property Metals Non-metals
State at room temperature Solid except mercury and francium They are solid or gases except
which are liquids bromine which is a liquid
Appearance of solid Shiny Usually dull
Malleability Malleable Not malleable
Ductility They are ductile Not ductile
Density Have high density Low density
Conduction of heat and electricity Good conductors Non-conductors except graphite
Melting and boiling point High Low
Sonority Sonorous Not sonorous
Hardness Metals are hard except sodium and All soft except diamond a form of
calcium carbon

BY Mr. BOUBA ETIENNE (BSc in CHEMISTRY)

29