OPERATING SYSTEM

Definition:
Is a group of programs that manage all activities on the computer.
Main program that controls the execution of user applications and enables the user to access the hardware
and software resources of a computer.
A program that controls the execution of an application programs and acts as an interface between the user
of a computer and the computer hardware.
The operating system provides a software platform on top of which other programs (application programs), can
run. Examples of Operating Systems: Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT, Macintosh OS, OS/2,
CP/M, VMS, UNIX, MS-DOS
Devices under the control of an operating system
i). The processor
The CPU can only execute one program at any one time and several tasks may require processing hence creating
competition. The OS decide which program will be performed and for how long. It has also the ability to stop a
particular task to allow the processor to service another one.
ii). Main memory
The OS must keep track of what parts of memory are in use and by who and what parts are free. The OS
determines which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be sent back to
secondary storage to wait.
iii). Secondary storage devices
The OS keeps track of the information on the storage devices and controls how the information is written to and
read from the storage device. It also utilizes the free space on hard disk by temporarily holding tasks on it that
were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some time.
iv). Input / output devices
Since the input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS will control allocation of I/O devices and
attempt to resolve any conflicts which arise. It will too monitor the state of each I/O device and signal any faults
detected.
v). Communication devices and ports
The OS controls the overall communication process between various tasks and computers. These devices include
modems, network interface cards, etc, which connect via ports.
Functions of Operating System
i). Job scheduling
The processor can only handle one task at a time. A job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer
which may include one or more computer programs, files and instructions to the Operating System. The
scheduler decides which of the jobs is allocated to the CPU for processing.
ii). Resource control and allocation
Includes controlling the use of computer resources by other system software and application programs being
executed. The resources include I/O devices, CPU and processing time. The OS strives to avoid deadlocks by
allocating resources wisely to tasks or programs that are competing for them. Each device has unique
identification number called an interrupt number. So when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time,
the one with higher4 priority interrupt is granted control. Deadlock a situation where a particular task holds a
needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other tasks.
Analogy: John has a pen but needs a book to write on while Mary has a book but needs a pen to write with.
Neither of the two wants to release whatever they have for the other to use first. Hence a deadlock occurs
because neither is able to write.
iii). Input / Output Handling
The OS coordinates between I/O devices and other peripheral devices making sure that data flows properly
between them and sorting out any possible confusion. It will also monitor the state of I/o devices and signal any
faults detected. It also governs the input/Output of data and their location, storage and retrieval.
iv). Memory management
The OS organize the main memory into partitions and ensures that each program and the data it requires are
allocated adequate space in memory To access data or instruction, the OS knows where to find each piece of data
as long as the correct address of the partition is used.
v). Error handling
The OS deals with errors produced during program execution by expressing what the error is and provides the
error correction routines to ensure smooth operations within the CPU.
vi). Security
 Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorized users cannot get access to a
computer or network resource. Creates user accounts, has a firewall, has an inbuilt antivirus- windows defender.
vii). Job sequencing
The OS keeps a list of tasks currently being run and arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the
processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch instructions and data for each task. i.e. clocks
them in and out of the processor.
v). Interrupt handling
An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. The OS determines
the cause of the interrupt and transfer the control to the most appropriate program.
An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task, and do something else before
returning the control back to the program that was interrupted. Each hardware device communicates to the
processor using Interrupt Request Number (IRQ number) which is a special number.
Types of Operating Systems
Operating system can be classified according to:
a) Number of users
i). Single user OS
Used only by one person and runs one user application at a time.
ii). Multi-user OS (multiprogramming)
Enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously. Examples are UNIX, Linux , Windows XP, Novell,
OS/2, Windows 3.11, Windows NT & Windows 2000.
b) Number of tasks
i). Single program/tasking OS
Allows processing of only one program in the main memory at a time e.g Ms – DOS.
ii). Multitasking OS
The OS allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at a time e.g. Windows Vista, XP, etc.
c) Interface
i). Command line
User interacts with a computer by typing a command at the dot prompt found on a command line. The computer
reads the typed command at the command line and executes it. Examples of command line OS are Ms-Dos,
UNIX and OS/2. To apply: Click Start menu>All Programs>Accessories>Command Prompt.
For example you can copy a file called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy disk A type the following at the
command prompt:
COPY C:\ FRUITS.DatA:\
This interface is hard to learn or remember the commands, they cannot process complex graphics and they hardly
make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.
Advantages
 Speed: CLI enables you to execute commands quickly. ...
 Resources: CLI requires fewer computing resources to execute commands than a graphical interface.
 Repetitive Tasks: CLI is effective in automating repetitive tasks and ou can create a batch file to
automate tasks at any given time.
Disadvantages
 GUI is more user friendly;
 steeper learning curve associated with memorizing commands and complex syntax/arguments; and.
 different commands used in different shells.
ii). Menu driven
Allows the user to select commands / options from a list or menu using keyboard or pointing device e.g. mouse.
The use needs not to remember commands since is represented with choices.

iii). Graphical user interface- WIMP(windows, Menus, Icons and Pointing device)
Enables the user to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and other options by pointing and
clicking at objects icons or pictures that appear on the screen. Besides menus, GUI make use of rectangular
frames called windows, graphical objects called icons, most commands are executed using a pointing device.
These features are given an acronym WIMP which stands for windows, icons, menus and pointer. Examples GUI
operating systems include Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP/Vista, MacOS and Linux.
Disadvantages
 Speed: GUIs are slower and require more power than text-based interfaces.
 Memory usage: GUIs require more computer memory than text-based interfaces.
  Lack of flexibility: Usually, a user has to work within the restrictions of a GUI and can't change its
functionality.
Advantages
 Easy to use. Since data is represented by symbols, shapes and icons, users can easily recognize, classify
and navigate options. ...
 Easy to communicate. Visual representation of data is recognized faster than text. ...
 Attractive. ...
 Provides shortcuts. ...
 Allows for multitasking.
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system
Hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and hard disk
capacity
The type of computer in terms of size and make.
Basic design of the computer is it IBM Compatible or Apple Computer.
Applications intended for the computer
User friendliness of the operating system, GUI will be preferred.
Cost of the operating system
The documentation available
Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based OSs are very common.
Reliability and security provided by the OS– can it run without crashing or hanging. Hanging is to stop
responding to commands.
The number of users it can support
How an Operating System Organises Information using
Introduction:
Some of the OSs from Microsoft Corporation which is a software company are: Windows
95/98/2000/NT/Me/XP/FD/VISTA. Others which are not from Ms Corporation are Linux, UNIX, Mac OS and
OS/2.
The following factors dictate how an Operating system organizes information:
 Rapid acces - the organization should allow quick access of stored data.
 Ease of update - the method should allow ease of update and the operating system should be able to keep
a record of the date of modification.
 Economy of storage – the method should use the least storage possible because memory is a scarce
resource.
 Simplicity of maintenance – the method should enable quick navigation through the file system and make
it easy for it to be maintained.
 Reliability - the file organization method should be reliable.
Windows organize information in terms of ;
 Files
 Folders and subfolders
 Drives.
1. File
It’s a collection of related data or information given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and storage
on a backing storage and stored in one location a. A file has details that indicate:
- A unique name and an optional extension
- Its size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of files
There are there are types namely; system, application and data files.
 System files : contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
 Application files: these files hold programs or application files that are executable.
 Data files contain user specific data.
The are some file extension;
Extension File type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft Word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad or DOS editor.
.exe Application file The file that launches a particular application e.g. PM
7.0 .exe, Winword.exe, etc
.bat System files File containing a series of commands loaded during
 boot up.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operation in a
computer.
Function of file
- Storage of data
- Organization of information
2. Folder / Directory
It’s a named storage area where the user can store related files for easy access.
Sub-folder is a folder or directory within another folder/directory. In Windows folders and sub-folders icon
appear in yellow colour while file icons are mostly white with a fold at the top right hand corner.

File icon

Folder icon

All folders or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The root directory
is represented by a back slash ( \ ).
3. Drives
The Operating System views storage media or devices as drives. When creating folder or saving a file identify a
storage location which is more reliable e.g Floppy disk, Compact Disk, Hard disk, Flash disk etc. Drives may be
given labels such as letters A-Z to identify them.

Storage location Drive Remarks

Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two drives, one will be assigned letter A
the other B.
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they may be assigned letters
C – F.
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD
drives, may take any number between D and Z
Other D, E, …Z If a computer does not have an optional drive, any
Removables removable drive attached to the computer can take any letter
between D and Z.
Network drive Logical Network drives takes D – Z depending on the number of
physical drives installed or attached.
Getting started with Microsoft Windows
Windows Desktop
Desktop is mostly an empty screen that appears when windows starts, and has some standard icons that show that
the computer is ready for use.
Desktop features
Icons – are small images representing objects such as files, application programs, peripheral devices, operator
tools in programs, etc. Are manipulated using pointing devices. Examples icons on the desktop are My
Computer, Recycle bin, Internet Explorer, My Documents, Antivirus, etc.
The task bar
A long bar that runs across the desktop. Enables the user to switch between programs and documents (tasks) that
are currently running.
It has three main parts:
 Start button: Left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start menu.
 Task manager: Plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running tasks.
 System tray: Right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of the tasks running in the background but are
not displayed on the screen e.g. Time and Calendar etc. To display the task simply double click its icon.

Task Manager System Tray

Start Menu
The Start Menu
When you click the Start button, a Start Menu appears which a list of choices is. When you click any choice in
the Start Menu, the list of choices displayed is called Sidekick Menu.

Sidekick
menu

Common Start Menu Items:

All Programs – which displays a list of all programs installed in the computer.
My Recent Documents – which lists the last 15 recently accessed files.
Control Panel – provides
Start Menutools which user can use to maintain and make changes to the computer setup.
Control panel – provides options for you to customize the appearance and functionality of your computer, add or
remove programs, and setup network connections and user accounts.
My computer – give access to, and information about, the disk drives, cameras, scanners and other hardware
connected to your computer.
Search –opens a window where you can pick search options and work with search results incase the user forgets
file or folder name or its location.
Help and support – opens a central location for help topics, tutorials, troubleshooting and other support services..
Run – enables the user to: Install programs on the hard disk, open files and folders from a storage location, and
Run programs from removable media. It also opens a program, folder document or a web site.
Log on / log off: Log on is a security measure that restricts unauthorized users from accessing computer
resources. It prompts the user for a User name and Password in order to gain access. After using the computer
Log off the computer before leaving.
Managing Files and Folders
Windows Explorer
Lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or trees structure. The explorer divides the window
into two panes.
The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of files and subfolders
contained in a particular open drive or folder.
 Fig. above shows the Windows Explorer window

To display Windows Explorer, Right click Start button then click Explore from short cut menu or Right click My
Computer icon then select Explore.

Creating a folder
1. Display the Explorer window
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new folder e.g
Local C
3. From File menu, click New then select Folder. A new folder with a temporary name Newfolder appears
on the right pane.
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press enter key.
Note: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the location.
The application window

Title bar

Menu bar

Toolbar

Work area

Parts of an application window

Title bar – displays the name of the current application program or task.
Menu bar – provides a drop down list of commands that can used to manipulate tasks.
Toolbars – are buttons of commands arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu commands.
Work area – is the working area where you can create your documents.
Creating a new file
To create a file for a specific application program installed in your computer proceed as follows:
a. Display the Explorer Window
b. From the From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new folder
e.g. Local C, 3 ½ etc
c. From File menu, click New then select the Application Program e.g Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel
Worksheet etc. . A new file with a temporary name of the application appears on the right pane.
d. Type a new name for the file to replace the temporary name then press enter. To work in the file double click
and the application program opens, as shown in the figure below.

NB: A file can be contained in a folder or subfolder and subfolder and a file can be contained in the same folder.
 Renaming Files and folders
Renaming is changing the original name to a new name.
To rename right click the file or folder icon then select rename. Type a new name to replace the existing.
 Sorting files and folders
Refers to organizing files and folders in a particular way. To sort select the location, or folder then in the View
menu select Arrange Icon by option to choose either by name, size, type or date modified.
 Deleting files and folders
When you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporary held in the recycle bin. Recycle bin is a special
folder which temporarily holds items deleted from the hard disk.
NB: Items deleted from removable storage devices are not held in the recycle bin and are completely lost. Don’t
attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
To delete file or folder
In the folder tree, right click the file or folder and then select delete from the shortcut menu.
NB: Holding down Shift key as you command delete, the deleted file or folder is completely discarded bypassing
the Recyclebin folder.
Restoring deleted files and folders
 double click the Recycle bin icon
 select the deleted items to be restored
 Click File then Restore or right click each item individually then select restore in the shortcut menu.
 The restored items are automatically restored in their location and application programs.
Emptying the recycle bin
This is completely discarding files and folders deleted to free up disk space occupied. To empty right click the
recycle bin and select empty option.
 To empty the recycle bin
- In the folder tree or on the desktop select the Recycle Bin icon
- Right click then select empty option from the shortcut menu
- click Yes if prompted to confirm deletion of the files
Copying and moving files and folders
Copy or cut commands are used to create a duplicate of an item or move it respectively. Copying is duplication
of files and folders tom another location. Cut or Copied items are temporarily held in temporary storage called
Clipboard.
To copy/ move a file or folder
 Display the Explorer Window
 From the From the folder tree right click the file or folder and select copy / cut then on the left pane right
click the location in which you want to copy or move the file / folder.
 Right click the location then select paste
Manipulating files and folders by Drag and Drop
 To copy file/folder – Hold down Ctrl key while you drag the icon to the new location.
 To move file/folder from one location to another just press down the mouse button and drag
 To delete any file or folder drag it into the Recycle Bin.
Searching for specific files and folders
Incase you are not sure where you stored or the name you gave a file or folder, use the search menu.
(i). Right click Start, point to Search then click For Files or Folders.
(ii). In the Search dialog box, specify the search criteria
(iii). Click the Search button.
Disk Management
 Formatting a disk
It is the creation of tracks and sectors in a new disk in preparation for use. It can also be referred to as writing
tracks and sectors on a disk to make it ready for data storage. Other devices which are not disks can also be
formatted to create a file system. Formatting a new disk enables the OS to recognize it for reading and writing
data.
Formatting process of 3 ½ floppy
- Insert the unformatted disk into floppy drive
- Double click my computer icon
- Right click the icon 3 ½ floppy
- Select the capacity 1.44MB
- Give label and click start to begin formatting
- Click close once the process is over
 Partitioning
Process of dividing the physical disk into two or more logical drives. Each partition is treated as a separate drive
installed on its own partition.
Reasons: to install more than one Operating System and for the purpose of backup. Windows 2000/XP allow up
to 4 partitions on a single physical drive while Ms Windows 98/Me Operating System allows a maximum of one
primary and one extended partition .
Choosing a file system
Before partitioning a disk, you need to decide how files are stored on each partition. The following file systems
are used on Windows operating systems:
 File Allocation Table (FAT) is primarily used in MS DOS and Windows 95.
 File Allocation Table 32 bit (FAT32) is primarily used in Windows 98 and Me.
 New Technology File System (NTFS) is primarily used in Windows NT, 2000, XP, 2003 and Vista.
Partitioning a disk using NTFS
Ms Windows 98/Me startup disk has an FDISK utility that lets the user partition andformat a disk using FAT or
FAT32 file systems.
To partition a disk:
(i). Reboot the computer using a start up disk
(ii). Type FDISK at the command prompt. Select yes to partition the drive using the FAT32. the FDISK screen
is displayed.
(iii). Choose ‘create a DOS Partition or logical DOS Drive.”
(iv). Restart the computer once more using the startup disk
(v). Format each partition by typing Format <drive letter>
Note: partitioning a disk in Windows 2000, XP, 2003 and Vista is done during installation process.
 Compressing files, folders or a drive
Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they occupy on a drive; compressing a drive decreases
the amount of space used by all of the files and folders stored on that drive (i.e creates more space on a disk by
squeezing files into a smaller storage location on the disk). This results to reduced performance and therefore it
is not recommended unless your computer cannot accommodate a large capacity disk.
To compress a disk:
 In My Computer window, right-click the drive
 Click Properties, then the General Tab
 Check “Compress drive to save disk space”.
 Click OK. Another dialog box is displayed.
 Click OK to apply changes.
 Defragmentation
Arranging of scattered folders and files on a storage media for easy access. Disk Defragmentation can also be
referred as the process removing the unused spaces on the disk caused by repeated deletion of small file or
insertion of large files onto the disk.
To defragment a disk:
 In My Computer window, right click the drive
 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties.
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools Tab
 Click Defragment Now. Disk defragmenter window is displayed
 Select the volume to defragment
Fragmentation is the condition of a disk in which the files and folders are scattered.
 Disk clean up
Is the process of detecting and removing files on the hard disk drive that may no longer be needed. Disk cleanup
frees and improve the system performance.
 Backing up data
Creating copies of data and programs on separate storage areas to avoid losing of data and programs incase the
storage device fails, gets lost or crashes (permanent destroyed).
To back up data from Hard disk:
 In My Computer window, right click the hard drive
 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools tab
 Click Backup Now.
 The backup wizard guides you through the process
 Scanning storage media
This tool helps the user to check up and repair minor storage problems like damaged storage.
To scan a drive
 Right click the device icon in My Computer window then select Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, select the Tools Tab
 Under the Tools Tab, click Check Now
 In dialog box, select a fix disk option then click Start.
 Scanning for viruses (malware)
Malware are harmful programs deliberately intended to make a computer fail or malfunction. Three common
types of malicious programs are Viruses, Trojan horses and Worms. Scanning is checking your system for
viruses and removing them. A computer must be installed with the latest antivirus program such as Norton,
McAfee, Kaspersky and AVG.
To scan for viruses right click the storage media then select Scan for Viruses option if an antivirus software is
installed.
 Startup (boot up) disk
Is a floppy disk that was created using the operating system and it has booting instructions. It is used for minimal
bootup in case a computer fails to load an operating system
To create a Startup Disk Using Windows XP
- insert the floppy right click My computer icon then select format. In the dialog box displayed select Create an
Ms – DOS Startup Disk option then click start.
Installing Windows Operating System
Before installing an operating system, read the manual, Readme or html file provided in the disk that comes with
the operating system. The documentation contains details of the minimum hardware requirements a computer
must meet.
 The OS must be installed into the computers hard disk before installing any other program.
Definition of installation: Process of copying program files onto the hard disk.
Installation differs from copy paste process in that it is specifically meant to copy executable files in a format that
allows the computer to run the program.
Installation Process of Windows XP
Most of the Windows operating system comes on CD-ROM, were you must boot the computer with CD-ROM
support in order for the computer to recognize the CD-ROM Drive. The computer BIOS should be setup so that
the computer boots from a CD/DVD first.
To start the installation process:
1. Insert the CD/DVD ROM into the CD/DVD drive
2. Turn on the computer. The installation process proceeds from the booting steps to the CD/DVD installation
phase.
3. Partition and format the drive into either FAT32 or NTFS file system
4. Windows XP copies all the files into the hard disk
5. Windows XP will reboot and take you through the installation process.
6. Accept the End User Licence Agreement (EULA) then product key. Invalid key activation may display
unauthorized product key message.
7. Configure network settings if the computer is on a network. Windows XP will successfully beinstall4ed
and you may be required to setup user accounts and connect to the Internet for updates.
Trouble Shooting Windows Related Problems
Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing and trying to fix (resolve) hardware or software related problems.
Some problems may crop up after installing Windows Operating system like failure to boot or function properly
due to hardware, malware, improper installation or missing system files, computer hangs now and then, abnormal
restarting, etc.p
pThe problem may be due to one of the following:
1. Invalid system disk: this error may occur if the drive configured as the active partition no longer contains
essential systems files required to load the operating system.
2. Missing operating system files such as CONFIG.SYS, HIMEM.SYS AND Autoexec.bat may result in boot
failure. If the files have been deleted reinstall the OS or start up a computer using startup disk.
3. Corrupted system registry – registry is the Windows database that keeps details about all system and
application programs installed in the computer. If the registry is corrupted, the computer may fail to boot.
Repair the registry using emergency repair disk or restore the registry backup if you created one or reinstall
the OS.
4. Failure to load the GUI desktop – may be due to infection by malware, missing or corrupted display
drivers. If the system can start in Safe Mode, scan for viruses or locate the malfunctioning device in the
Device Manager and disable it.
5. Windows protection error – is displayed during startup before GUI is loaded. It occurs when the 32-bit
virtual driver fails to load. Restart the computer in safe mode. If the OS loads properly, use the Device
Manager to reinstall corrupted or missing drivers.
6. Runtime problems – may be characterized by the system’s failure to respond to command, behaviour
commonly referred to as hanging. Use the restart keys Ctrl + Alt + Del to display the Task Manager and try
to close the non-responding applications. If this fails, shutdown the computer and turn it on again.
7. Insufficient system memory
8. Problem with hard disk boot sector, may be due to virus attack/infection. Scan with the latest antivirus
software

NB:- You can read more information on troubleshooting and fixing an operating system related problems by
reading the online help and support utility.