PowerFactory 2021

User Manual
F2021

POWER SYSTEM SOLUTIONS

MADE IN GERMANY
DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Version 2021

User Manual

Online Edition

DIgSILENT GmbH

Gomaringen, Germany

January 2021
 Publisher:
DIgSILENT GmbH
Heinrich-Hertz-Straße 9
72810 Gomaringen / Germany
Tel.: +49 (0) 7072-9168-0
Fax: +49 (0) 7072-9168-88

Please visit our homepage at:

https://www.digsilent.de

Copyright DIgSILENT GmbH

All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form without written
permission of the publisher.

January 2021
r7466
Contents

I General Information 1

1 About this Guide 2

1.1 Contents of the User Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Used Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Contact 3

2.1 Direct Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1.1 PowerFactory Support Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1.2 Licence Support Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2 Knowledge Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.3 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Documentation and Help System 6

4 PowerFactory Overview 8

4.1 General Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.2 PowerFactory Simulation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.3 General Design of PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.4 Type and Element Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.5 Data Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.5.1 DIgSILENT Global Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.5.2 Custom Global Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.5.3 Project Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.5.4 Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.5.5 Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.5.6 Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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4.5.7 Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.5.8 Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.5.9 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.6 Project Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.6.1 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.6.2 Edge elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.6.3 Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.6.4 Cubicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.6.5 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6.6 Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6.7 Secondary Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6.8 Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6.9 Branch Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.7 User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.7.2 Menu Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.7.3 Main Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.7.4 The Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4.8 Scripting in PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.8.1 DIgSILENT Programming Language (DPL) Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.8.2 Python Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

II Administration 33

5 Program Administration 34

5.1 Program Installation and Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5.2 PowerFactory Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2.1 General Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2.2 Database Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2.3 Workspace Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2.4 External Applications Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2.5 Network Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5.2.6 Geographic Maps Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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5.2.7 Advanced Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.3 Licence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.3.1 Select Licence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.3.2 Activate / Update / Deactivate / Move Licence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5.3.3 Licence and Maintenance Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5.4 Workspace Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.4.1 Show Workspace Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.4.2 Import and Export Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.4.3 Show Default Export Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.5 Offline Mode User Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.5.1 Functionality in Offline Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.5.2 Functionality in Online Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.5.3 Terminate Offline Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.6 Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.6.2 Configuring Permanently Logged-On Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.6.3 Configuring Housekeeping Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.6.4 Project Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.6.5 Configuring Deletion of Old Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.6.6 Configuring Purging of Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.6.7 Configuring Emptying of Recycle Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.6.8 Monitoring Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.6.9 Summary of Housekeeping Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 User Accounts, User Groups, and Profiles 47

6.1 PowerFactory Database Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.2 The Database Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6.3 Administration Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.3.1 User Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.3.2 Security and Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.3.3 Calculation Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.3.4 Housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6.4 Security and Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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6.4.1 Audit Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6.4.2 Login Policy Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6.4.3 Idle Session Timeout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.4.4 External Data Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.4.5 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.5 Creating and Managing User Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.6 Creating User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6.7 User Interface Customisation (Profiles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6.7.1 Tool Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6.7.2 Configuration of Toolbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6.7.3 Configuration of Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.7.4 Configuration of Dialog Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.7.5 Configuration of Dialog Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6.7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

7 User Settings 59

7.1 Data/Network Model Manager Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7.2 Window Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7.3 Graphic Windows Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7.3.1 General tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7.3.2 Advanced tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7.4 Output Window Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7.5 Profile Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.6 Functions Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.7 Editor Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.8 Colours Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7.9 StationWare Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

7.10 Offline Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

7.11 Parallel Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

7.12 Miscellaneous Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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III Handling 67

8 Basic Project Definition 68

8.1 Defining and Configuring a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.1.1 Project Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.1.2 Project Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

8.1.3 Activating and Deactivating Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

8.1.4 Exporting and Importing Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

8.1.5 External References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8.1.6 Including Additional Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8.2 Creating New Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

8.3 Project Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

9 Network Graphics 81

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9.2 Graphic Windows and Database Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9.2.1 Network Diagrams and other graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9.2.2 Active Graphics, Graphics Board and Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

9.2.3 Single Line Graphics and Data Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

9.2.4 Creating New Graphic Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

9.2.5 Page Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

9.2.6 Drawing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.2.7 Active Grid Folder (Target Folder) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9.3 Graphic Commands, Options, and Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9.3.1 Freeze Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9.3.2 Rebuild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9.3.3 View commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9.3.4 Select commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

9.3.5 Graphic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

9.3.6 Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

9.3.7 Colouring Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

9.3.8 Graphic Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

9.3.9 Node Default Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

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9.3.10 Page, Print and Export Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

9.3.11 Diagram Layout Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.3.12 Insert New Graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.3.13 Element Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

9.4 Editing and Changing Symbols of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

9.5 Result Boxes, Text Boxes and Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

9.5.1 Result Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9.5.2 Text Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.5.3 Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.5.4 Free Text Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.6 Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.7 Annotation of Protection Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

9.8 Navigation Pane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

9.9 Graphic search facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.10 Geographic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.10.1 Using an External Map Provider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.10.2 Using Local Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

10 Data Manager 115

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

10.2 Using the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

10.2.1 Using the Data Manager address bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

10.2.2 Navigating the Database Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

10.2.3 Adding New Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

10.2.4 Deleting an Item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

10.2.5 Cut, Copy, Paste and Move Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

10.2.6 Display of multidimensional attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

10.2.7 The Data Manager Status Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

10.2.8 Additional Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

10.3 Searching for Objects in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

10.3.1 Sorting Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

10.3.2 Searching by Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

10.3.3 Using Filters for Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

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10.4 Auto-Filter functions in Data Manager and browser windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10.5 Editing Data Objects in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

10.5.1 Editing in Object Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

10.5.2 Editing in “Detail” Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

10.5.3 Copy and Paste while Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

10.6 The Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

10.6.1 Customising the Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

10.7 The Input Window in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

10.7.1 Input Window Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

10.8 Save and Restore Parts of the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

10.8.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

10.9 Spreadsheet Format Data Import/Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

10.9.1 Export to Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

10.9.2 Import from Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

11 Building Networks 140

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

11.2 Defining Network Models using the Graphical Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

11.2.1 Adding New Power System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

11.2.2 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

11.2.3 Edge Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

11.2.4 Cubicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

11.2.5 Marking and Editing Power System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

11.2.6 Interconnecting Power Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

11.2.7 Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

11.2.8 Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

11.2.9 Composite Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

11.2.10 Single and Two Phase Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

11.3 Lines and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

11.3.1 Defining a Line (ElmLne) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

11.3.2 Defining Line Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

11.3.3 Defining Line Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

11.3.4 Defining Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

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11.4 Neutral Winding Connection in Network Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

11.5 Defining Network Models using the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

11.5.1 Defining New Network Components in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

11.5.2 Connecting Network Components in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

11.5.3 Defining Substations in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

11.5.4 Defining Composite Branches in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

11.5.5 Defining Sites in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

11.6 Drawing Existing Elements using the Diagram Layout Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

11.6.1 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

11.6.2 Node Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

11.6.3 Edge Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

11.6.4 Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

11.6.5 Bays and Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

11.6.6 Interchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

11.7 Drawing Existing Elements using Drag & Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

12 Network Model Manager 174

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

12.2 Using the Network Model Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

13 Study Cases 177

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

13.2 Creating and Using Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

13.2.1 The Study Case Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

13.3 Summary Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

13.4 Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

13.5 The Study Case Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

13.6 Variation Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

13.7 Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

13.8 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

13.9 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

13.9.1 Broken Conductor Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

13.9.2 Dispatch Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

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13.9.3 External Measurement Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

13.9.4 Inter-Circuit Fault Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

13.9.5 Events of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

13.9.6 Message Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

13.9.7 Outage of Element (EvtOutage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

13.9.8 Parameter Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

13.9.9 Save Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.9.10 Save Snapshot event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.9.11 Short-Circuit Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.9.12 Stop Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.9.13 Switch Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

13.9.14 Synchronous Machine Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

13.9.15 Tap Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

13.9.16 Power Transfer Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

13.10 Simulation Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

13.11 Results Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

13.12 Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

13.13 Graphics Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

14 Project Library 189

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

14.2 Equipment Type Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

14.3 Operational Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

14.3.1 Circuit Breaker Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

14.3.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.3.3 Demand Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.3.4 Fault Cases and Fault Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.3.5 Capability Curves (Mvar Limit Curves) for Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

14.3.6 Planned Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

14.3.7 Planned Outages IntOutage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

14.3.8 QP-Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

14.3.9 Remedial Action Schemes (RAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

14.3.10 Running Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

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14.3.11 Thermal Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

14.3.12 V-Control-Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

14.4 Templates Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

14.4.1 General Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

14.4.2 Substation Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.4.3 Busbar Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.4.4 Composite Branch Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.4.5 Example Power Plant Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.4.6 Wind Turbine Templates according to IEC 61400-27-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

15 Grouping Objects 206

15.1 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

15.2 Virtual Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

15.2.1 Defining and Editing a New Virtual Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

15.2.2 Applying a Virtual Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

15.2.3 Inserting a Generator into a Virtual Power Plant and Defining its Virtual Power
Plant Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

15.3 Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

15.3.1 Boundary Definition Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

15.3.2 Element Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

15.4 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

15.5 Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

15.5.1 Feeder Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

15.6 Meteo Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

15.7 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

15.8 Owners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

15.9 Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

15.10 Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

15.11 Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

16 Operation Scenarios 222

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

16.2 Operation Scenarios Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

16.3 How to use Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

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16.3.1 How to create an Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

16.3.2 How to save an Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

16.3.3 How to activate an existing Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

16.3.4 How to deactivate an Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

16.3.5 How to identify operational data parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

16.4 The Operation Scenario Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

16.4.1 Accessing the Operation Scenario Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

16.4.2 Selecting scenarios and setting up variable configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

16.4.3 Viewing and editing data within the Operation Scenario Manager . . . . . . . . . 229

16.5 Working with Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

16.5.1 How to view objects missing from the Operation Scenario data . . . . . . . . . . 230

16.5.2 How to compare the data in two operation scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

16.5.3 How to view the non-default Running Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

16.5.4 How to transfer data from one Operation Scenario to another . . . . . . . . . . . 231

16.5.5 How to update the default data with operation scenario data . . . . . . . . . . . 232

16.5.6 How exclude a grid from the Operation Scenario data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

16.5.7 How to create a time-based Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

16.6 Advanced Configuration of Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

16.6.1 How to change the automatic save settings for Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . 234

16.6.2 How to modify the data stored in Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

17 Network Variations and Expansion Stages 236

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

17.2 Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

17.3 Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

17.4 The Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

17.5 The Recording Expansion Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

17.6 The Variation Scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

17.7 Variation and Expansion Stage Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

17.8 The Variation Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

17.8.1 Selecting the Variations to be shown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

17.8.2 Timeframe and resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

17.8.3 Study case time and recording stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

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17.8.4 Looking at the Variations in detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

17.9 Variation and Expansion Stage Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

17.9.1 Applying Changes from Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

17.9.2 Consolidating Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

17.9.3 Splitting Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

17.9.4 Comparing Variations and Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

17.9.5 Colouring Variations the Single Line Graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

17.9.6 Variation Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

17.9.7 Error Correction Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

17.10 Compatibility with Previous Releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

17.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

17.10.2 Converting System Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

18 Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs 251

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

18.2 Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

18.2.1 Time Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

18.2.2 Profile Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

18.2.3 Scaling Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

18.2.4 Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

18.2.5 Vector Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

18.2.6 Matrix Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

18.2.7 Parameter Characteristics from Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

18.2.8 Characteristic References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

18.2.9 Edit Characteristic Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

18.2.10 Characteristics Tab in Data Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

18.2.11 Example Application of Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

18.3 Load States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

18.3.1 Creating Load States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

18.3.2 Viewing Existing Load States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

18.3.3 Load State Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

18.3.4 Example Load States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

18.4 Load Distribution States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

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18.4.1 Creating Load Distribution States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

18.4.2 Viewing Existing Load Distribution States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

18.4.3 Load Distribution State Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

18.4.4 Example Load Distribution States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

18.5 Tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

18.5.1 Defining Time Tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

18.5.2 Defining Energy Tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

19 Reporting and Visualising Results 274

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

19.2 Result Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

19.2.1 Editing Result Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

19.3 Variable Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

19.3.1 Variable Selection Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

19.4 Output Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

19.4.1 Documentation of Device Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

19.4.2 Output of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

19.5 Comparisons Between Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

19.6 Results Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

19.6.1 Exporting Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

19.7 Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

19.7.1 Plot Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

19.7.2 Data Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

19.7.3 Axes and Gridlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

19.7.4 Plot Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

19.7.5 Plots Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

19.7.6 Context Sensitive Menu Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

19.7.7 User-Defined Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

19.7.8 Plot Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

20 Data Extensions 314

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

20.2 Data Extension Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

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20.2.1 Creating Data Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

20.2.2 User Defined Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

20.3 Using Data Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

20.4 Sharing Data Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

21 Data Management 317

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

21.2 Project Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

21.2.1 What is a Version? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

21.2.2 How to Create a Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

21.2.3 How to Rollback a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

21.2.4 How to Check if a Version is the Base for a Derived Project . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

21.2.5 How to Delete a Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

21.3 Derived Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

21.3.1 Derived Projects Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

21.3.2 How to Create a Derived Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

21.4 Comparing and Merging Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

21.4.1 Compare and Merge Tool Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

21.4.2 How to Merge or Compare Two Projects Using the Compare and Merge Tool . . 323

21.4.3 How to Merge or Compare Three Projects Using the Compare and Merge Tool 324

21.4.4 Compare and Merge Tool Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

21.4.5 Compare and Merge Tool ’diff browser’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

21.5 How to Update a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

21.5.1 Updating a Derived Project from a new Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

21.5.2 Updating a Base Project from a Derived Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

21.5.3 Tips for Working with the Compare and Merge Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

21.6 Sharing Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

21.7 Combining Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

21.7.1 Project Combination Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

21.7.2 Project Connection Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

21.7.3 Final Project State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

21.7.4 Project Normalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

21.8 Database Archiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

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22 Task Automation 339

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

22.2 Configuration of Task Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

22.2.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

22.2.2 Parallel Computing Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

22.2.3 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

22.3 Task Automation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

22.4 Parallel Computing Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

22.4.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

22.4.2 Communication page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

23 Scripting 345

23.1 The DIgSILENT Programming Language - DPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

23.1.1 The Principle Structure of a DPL Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

23.1.2 The DPL Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

23.1.3 The DPL Script Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

23.1.4 The DPL Script Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

23.1.5 Access to Other Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

23.1.6 Access to Locally Stored Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

23.1.7 Accessing the General Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

23.1.8 Accessing External Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

23.1.9 Remote Scripts and DPL Command Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

23.1.10 DPL Functions and Subroutines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

23.2 Tabular Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

23.2.1 Basic Structure of a Tabular Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

23.2.2 The Table Report Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

23.2.3 A minimal Tabular Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

23.2.4 Handling different kinds of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

23.2.5 Advanced Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

23.2.6 Table Report Callback Script Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

23.3 Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

23.3.1 Installation of a Python Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

23.3.2 The Python PowerFactory Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

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23.3.3 The Python Command (ComPython) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

23.3.4 Running PowerFactory in Non-interactive Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

23.3.5 Performance of Python Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

23.3.6 Debugging Python Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

23.3.7 Example of a Python Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

23.4 Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

23.5 Add On Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

23.5.1 Add On Module framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

23.5.2 Creating a new Add-on Module command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

23.5.3 Executing an Add-on Module command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

23.5.4 Adding Add On Modules to the User-Defined Tools toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

24 Interfaces 383

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

24.2 DGS Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

24.2.1 DGS Interface Typical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

24.2.2 DGS Structure (Database Schemas and File Formats) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

24.2.3 DGS Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

24.2.4 DGS Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

24.3 PSS/E File Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

24.3.1 PSS/E File Types and Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

24.3.2 Importing PSS/E Steady-State Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

24.3.3 Import of PSS/E file (Dynamic Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

24.3.4 Exporting a project to a PSS/E file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

24.4 ELEKTRA Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

24.4.1 Import of Elektra Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

24.4.2 General Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

24.4.3 Advanced Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

24.4.4 Importing Elektra Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

24.4.5 Importing Elektra Type Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

24.4.6 Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

24.5 NEPLAN Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

24.5.1 Importing NEPLAN Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

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24.6 INTEGRAL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

24.6.1 Importing Integral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

24.6.2 Export Integral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

24.7 PSS SINCAL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

24.7.1 Importing PSS SINCAL Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

24.8 ETAP Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

24.8.1 Importing ETAP Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

24.9 UCTE-DEF Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

24.9.1 Importing UCTE-DEF Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

24.9.2 Exporting UCTE-DEF Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

24.10 CIM Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

24.10.1 Importing CIM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

24.10.2 General Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

24.10.3 Exporting CIM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

24.11 CGMES Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

24.11.1 CIM Data Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

24.11.2 CIM Data Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

24.11.3 CIM to Grid Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

24.11.4 Grid to CIM Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

24.11.5 CIM Data Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

24.11.6 Import and Export of the EIC as additional parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

24.12 MATLAB Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

24.13 OPC Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

24.13.1 OPC Interface Typical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

24.14 StationWare Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

24.14.1 About StationWare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

24.14.2 Component Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

24.14.3 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

24.14.4 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

24.14.5 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

24.14.6 Description of the Menu and Dialogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

24.15 API (Application Programming Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

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IV Power System Analysis Functions 430

25 Load Flow Analysis 431

25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

25.2 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

25.2.1 Network Representation and Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

25.3 Executing Load Flow Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

25.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

25.3.2 Active Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

25.3.3 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

25.3.4 Calculation Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

25.3.5 Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

25.3.6 Load/Generation Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

25.3.7 Low Voltage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

25.4 Detailed Description of Load Flow Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

25.4.1 Active and Reactive Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

25.4.2 Voltage Dependency of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

25.4.3 Feeder Load Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

25.4.4 Coincidence of Low Voltage Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

25.4.5 Temperature Dependency of Lines and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

25.5 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

25.5.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

25.5.2 Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

25.5.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

25.5.4 Diagram Colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

25.5.5 Load Flow Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

25.5.6 Results for Unbalanced Load Flow Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

25.5.7 Update Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

25.6 Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

25.6.1 General Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

25.6.2 Data Model Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

25.6.3 Some Load Flow Calculation Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

25.6.4 Too many Inner Loop Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

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25.6.5 Too Many Outer Loop Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

26 Short-Circuit Analysis 473

26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

26.2 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

26.2.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Part 0/DIN EN 60909-0 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

26.2.2 The ANSI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

26.2.3 The Complete Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

26.2.4 The IEC 61363 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

26.2.5 The IEC 61660 (DC)/VDE0102 part 10(DC)/DIN EN 61660 Method . . . . . . . 484

26.2.6 The ANSI/IEEE 946 (DC) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

26.3 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

26.3.1 Toolbar/Main Menu Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

26.3.2 Context-Sensitive Menu Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

26.3.3 Faults on Busbars/Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

26.3.4 Faults on Lines and Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

26.3.5 Multiple Faults Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

26.4 Short-Circuit Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

26.4.1 Basic Options (All Methods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

26.4.2 Verification (Except for IEC 61363, IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946) . . . . . . . 493

26.4.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

26.4.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

26.4.5 Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

26.4.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

26.4.7 Basic Options (Complete Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

26.4.8 Advanced Options (Complete Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

26.4.9 Basic Options (IEC 61363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

26.4.10 Advanced Options (IEC 61363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

26.4.11 Basic Options (IEC 61660 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

26.4.12 Advanced Options (IEC 61660 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

26.4.13 Basic Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

26.4.14 Advanced Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

26.5 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

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26.5.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

26.5.2 Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

26.5.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

26.5.4 Diagram Colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

26.6 Capacitive Earth-Fault Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

27 Contingency Analysis 507

27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

27.2 Short Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

27.2.1 Contingency Analysis Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

27.2.2 Results Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

27.2.3 Configuring Network Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

27.2.4 Visualisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

27.3 Contingency Analysis Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

27.3.1 Contingency Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

27.3.2 Contingency Analysis Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

27.3.3 Contingency Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

27.3.4 Show Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.5 Show Fault Cases / Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.6 Remedial Action Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.7 Edit Results Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.8 Tracing Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.9 Contingency Analysis Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.3.10 Load Contingency Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.4 Command dialog and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.4.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

27.4.2 Recording of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

27.4.3 Time Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

27.4.4 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

27.4.5 Time Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

27.4.6 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

27.4.7 Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

27.4.8 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

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27.4.9 Linearised Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

27.4.10 Parallel Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

27.4.11 Calculating an Individual Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

27.4.12 Representing Contingency Situations

Contingency Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

27.5 Reporting Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

27.5.1 Predefined Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

27.5.2 Customised reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

27.6 Trace Function for Multiple Time Phase and/or RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

27.7 Creating Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

27.7.1 Creating Contingencies Using the Contingency Definition Command . . . . . . . 527

27.7.2 Creating Contingencies Using Fault

Cases and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

27.7.3 Creating Dynamic Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

27.8 Fault Cases and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

27.8.1 Browsing Fault Cases and Fault Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

27.8.2 Defining a Fault Case from Network Element(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

27.8.3 Defining Fault Cases using the Contingency Definition Command . . . . . . . . 531

27.8.4 Representing Contingency Situations with Post-Fault Actions . . . . . . . . . . . 532

27.8.5 Defining a Fault Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

27.9 Comparing Contingency Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

27.10 Managing variables to be recorded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

27.10.1 Using filters to enable selective results recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

27.11 Remedial Action Schemes (RAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

27.11.1 Creating a RAS object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

27.11.2 Trigger Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536

27.11.3 Logical combinations of triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536

27.11.4 Remedial actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536

27.11.5 RAS groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

27.11.6 Using Remedial Action Schemes in Contingency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

27.11.7 Results and reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

27.11.8 Visualising RAS using the Trace Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

27.12 Load Contingency Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

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27.12.1 Load Individual Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

28 Quasi-Dynamic Simulation 541

28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

28.2 Technical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

28.3 How to execute a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

28.3.1 Defining the variables for monitoring in the Quasi-Dynamic simulation . . . . . . 544

28.3.2 Considering maintenance outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544

28.3.3 Considering simulation events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

28.3.4 Running the Quasi-Dynamic simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

28.3.5 Configuring the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation for parallel computation . . . . . . . 548

28.3.6 Configure the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation for real time simulation . . . . . . . . . 548

28.4 Analysing the QDS results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

28.4.1 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

28.4.2 Quasi-Dynamic simulation reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

28.4.3 Statistical summary of monitored variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

28.4.4 Loading Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

28.5 Developing QDSL models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

28.5.1 PowerFactory objects for implementing user defined models . . . . . . . . . . . 551

28.5.2 Overview of modelling approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

28.5.3 Algorithm flow of user defined Quasi-Dynamic Simulation models . . . . . . . . 555

28.5.4 Scripting Functions for Quasi-Dynamic Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

28.5.5 Example: Modelling a battery as a Quasi-Dynamic user defined model . . . . . 563

28.5.6 QDSL Model Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

29 RMS/EMT Simulations 571

29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

29.2 Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

29.2.1 Balanced RMS Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

29.2.2 Three-Phase RMS Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

29.2.3 Three-Phase EMT Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

29.3 Calculation of Initial Conditions command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

29.3.1 Initial Conditions - Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

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29.3.2 Initial Conditions - Step Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

29.3.3 Initial Conditions - Solver Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

29.3.4 Initial Conditions - Simulation Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

29.3.5 Initial Conditions - Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

29.3.6 Initial Conditions - Snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

29.3.7 Advanced Simulation Options - Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

29.4 Results Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

29.4.1 Saving Results from Previous Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

29.5 Simulation Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

29.6 Executing the Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

29.7 Creating Simulation Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

29.8 Simulation Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

29.8.1 Fault Ride Through Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

29.8.2 Frequency Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

29.8.3 Loss of Synchronism Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593

29.8.4 Synchronous Machine Speed Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

29.8.5 Variable Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

29.8.6 Voltage Scan Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

29.9 Save/Load Snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

29.9.1 Saving a snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

29.9.2 Loading a snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

29.10 Single/Multiple Domain Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

29.10.1 Terms and Definitions for Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

29.10.2 Overview of the Single/Multiple Domain Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

29.10.3 Configuring the Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600

29.10.4 Performing a Co-simulation and Retrieving Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

29.10.5 The “Initial conditions for co-simulation” (ComCosim) Command . . . . . . . . . 603

29.11 Co-simulation with External Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

29.11.1 Overview of the External Solver Co-simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605

29.11.2 Prepare Case for Co-simulation with External Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

29.11.3 Performing a Co-simulation and Retrieving Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

29.11.4 The “Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver ” (ComCosimsetup) Command . . . 611

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29.11.5 The “Initial conditions for co-simulation” (ComCosim) Command . . . . . . . . . 611

29.12 Frequency Response Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

29.12.1 Basic Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

29.12.2 Basic Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

29.12.3 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

29.12.4 Advanced Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

29.12.5 Output Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

29.12.6 Output Results Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

29.12.7 Application notes and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617

29.13 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

29.13.1 Prony Analysis Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

29.13.2 Basic Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

29.13.3 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

29.13.4 FFT Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

29.13.5 Prony Analysis Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

29.13.6 Recalculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

29.13.7 Output Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

29.13.8 Output Results Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

29.13.9 General Recommendations on the Use of Prony Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

29.13.10 Quick Overview of Used Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

30 Models for Dynamic Simulations 634

30.1 System Modelling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

30.1.1 The Composite Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

30.1.2 The Composite Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642

30.1.3 The Common Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644

30.2 The Composite Block Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

30.2.1 Drawing Composite Block Diagrams and Composite Frames . . . . . . . . . . . 651

30.3 User Defined (DSL) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656

30.3.1 Modelling and Simulation Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

30.3.2 DSL Implementation: an Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

30.3.3 Defining DSL Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

30.4 The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668

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30.4.1 Terms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668

30.4.2 General DSL Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

30.4.3 DSL Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

30.4.4 DSL Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

30.4.5 Definition Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

30.4.6 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

30.4.7 Equation Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

30.4.8 Equation Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

30.4.9 DSL Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

30.4.10 Events and Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678

30.4.11 DSL Modelling Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

30.4.12 Example of a Complete DSL Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

30.5 DSL Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

30.5.1 DSL Standard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

30.5.2 DSL Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682

30.5.3 DSL Global Library Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

30.6 Interfaces for Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

30.6.1 C Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

30.6.2 External C Interface acc. to IEC 61400-27-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702

30.6.3 MATLAB Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704

30.7 Developing User Defined Power Electronics Models for EMT-Simulation . . . . . . . . . . 712

30.7.1 Model development as a submodel of a built-in element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

30.7.2 Model development as an independent EMT model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715

31 System Parameter Identification 721

31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721

31.2 Performing a Parameter Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722

31.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722

31.2.2 Controls / Compared Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

31.2.3 PSO (Particle Swarm Optimisation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

31.2.4 Nelder Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

31.2.5 DIRECT (DIviding RECTangle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

31.2.6 Random Number Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

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31.2.7 Gradient Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

31.2.8 Stopping Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

31.2.9 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

31.3 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727

31.3.1 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727

31.3.2 Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727

31.3.3 Nelder Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

31.3.4 DIRECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731

31.3.5 BFGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

31.3.6 Legacy (Quasi-Newton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

31.4 What solver should I pick? (Pros and Cons of the different solvers) . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

31.4.1 PSO - Particle Swarm Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

31.4.2 Nelder-Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

31.4.3 DIRECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.4.4 BFGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.4.5 Legacy (Quasi-Newton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.5 What can I do if a solver has difficulties in finding good parameters? . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.5.1 PSO - Particle Swarm Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.5.2 Nelder Mead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

31.5.3 DIRECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734

31.5.4 BFGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734

31.5.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734

32 Modal Analysis / Eigenvalue Calculation 735

32.1 Theory of Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735

32.2 How to Execute a Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738

32.3 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738

32.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738

32.3.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740

32.3.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741

32.3.4 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741

32.4 Viewing Modal Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

32.4.1 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Results Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

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32.4.2 Modal Analysis Results in Built-in Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747

32.4.3 Eigenvalues Results in Single Line Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752

32.4.4 Modal Analysis Results in the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752

32.4.5 Modal Analysis Results in the Data Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

33 Protection 755

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755

33.1.1 The modelling structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

33.1.2 The relay frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757

33.1.3 The relay type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757

33.1.4 The relay element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758

33.2 How to define a protection scheme in PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

33.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

33.2.2 Adding protective devices to the network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760

33.2.3 Graphical representations of protection devices in single line diagrams . . . . . 763

33.2.4 Locating protection devices within the network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

33.3 Basics of an overcurrent protection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

33.3.1 Overcurrent relay model setup - basic data page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

33.3.2 Overcurrent relay model setup - max/min fault

currents tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

33.3.3 Configuring the current transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

33.3.4 Configuring the voltage transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

33.3.5 Configuring a combined Instrument transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

33.3.6 How to add a fuse to the network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

33.3.7 Basic relay blocks for overcurrent relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775

33.4 The time-overcurrent plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780

33.4.1 How to create a time-overcurrent plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

33.4.2 Understanding the time-overcurrent plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

33.4.3 Showing the calculation results on the time-overcurrent plot . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

33.4.4 Displaying the grading margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783

33.4.5 Adding a user defined permanent current line to the time-overcurrent plot . . . . 784

33.4.6 Configuring the auto generated protection diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784

33.4.7 Overcurrent plot options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784

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33.4.8 Altering protection device characteristic settings from the time-overcurrent plot . 786

33.4.9 How to split the relay/fuse characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787

33.4.10 Equipment damage curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790

33.5 Basics of a distance protection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800

33.5.1 Distance relay model setup - basic data page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801

33.5.2 Primary or secondary Ohm selection for distance relay parameters . . . . . . . 801

33.5.3 Basic relay blocks used for distance protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801

33.6 The impedance plot (R-X diagram) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808

33.6.1 How to create an R-X diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808

33.6.2 Understanding the R-X diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

33.6.3 Configuring the R-X plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

33.6.4 Modifying the relay settings and branch elements from the R-X plot . . . . . . . 812

33.7 The relay operational limits plot (P-Q diagram) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

33.7.1 How to create a P-Q diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

33.7.2 Understanding the P-Q diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

33.7.3 Configuring the P-Q plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814

33.7.4 Modifying the starting element settings from the R-X plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816

33.8 The time-distance plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816

33.8.1 Forward and reverse plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817

33.8.2 The path axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818

33.8.3 Methods of calculating tripping times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818

33.8.4 Short-circuit calculation settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

33.8.5 The distance axis units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819

33.8.6 The reference relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

33.8.7 Capture relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

33.8.8 Double-click positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

33.8.9 The context sensitive menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

33.9 Basics of a differential protection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

33.9.1 Differential relay model setup-basic data page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

33.9.2 Basic relay blocks used for differential protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

33.10 Differential Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822

33.10.1 Magnitude biased differential diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822

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33.10.2 Phase comparison differential diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823

33.11 The Short-Circuit Sweep command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824

33.12 Short-Circuit Sweep Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

33.12.1 Configuration of Short-Circuit Sweep plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

33.13 Protection coordination assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

33.13.1 Protection coordination assistant - technical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

33.13.2 Protection coordination assistant - General Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

33.13.3 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . 832

33.13.4 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Distance Protection . . . . . . . . 833

33.13.5 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Advanced Options . . . . . . . . 845

33.13.6 Prerequisites for using the distance protection coordination tool . . . . . . . . . 845

33.13.7 How to run the distance protection coordination calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . 846

33.13.8 How to output results from the protection coordination assistant . . . . . . . . . 846

33.14 Accessing results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849

33.14.1 Quick access to protection plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849

33.14.2 Tabular protection setting report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

33.14.3 Results in single line graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

33.15 Protection Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

33.15.1 Protection Audit Command Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

33.15.2 Protection Audit Results Command Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855

33.15.3 Report Handling and interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858

33.16 Short circuit trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

33.16.1 Short Circuit Trace Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

33.17 Protection Graphic Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866

33.17.1 Reach Colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866

33.17.2 Short-Circuit Sweep Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868

33.17.3 Diagram Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870

33.18 Building a basic overcurrent relay model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871

33.19 Appendix - other commonly used relay blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874

33.19.1 The frequency measurement block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875

33.19.2 The frequency block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875

33.19.3 The under-/overvoltage block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875

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33.20 Relay block technical references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875

34 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis 876

34.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876

34.2 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876

34.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876

34.2.2 Data Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877

34.3 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

34.3.1 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

34.3.2 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

34.4 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

34.4.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880

34.4.2 Arc-Flash Reports Dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

34.4.3 Arc-Flash Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

34.5 Example Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882

35 Cable Analysis 885

35.1 Cable Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886

35.2 Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886

35.2.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886

35.2.2 Constraints Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887

35.2.3 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889

35.2.4 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890

35.3 Cable Ampacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892

35.3.1 Cable Ampacity calculation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892

35.4 Reporting command (ComCablereport) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893

35.5 Model Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893

35.5.1 Line Type Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893

35.5.2 Line Element Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

35.5.3 Single Core and multicore/pipe cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

35.5.4 Cable Layout object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

36 Power Quality and Harmonics Analysis 898

36.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898

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36.2 Harmonic Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

36.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

36.2.2 IEC 61000-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

36.2.3 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

36.2.4 Harmonics Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902

36.3 Frequency Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904

36.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904

36.3.2 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

36.4 Filter Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

36.5 Modelling Harmonic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

36.5.1 Definition of Harmonic Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907

36.5.2 Assignment of Harmonic Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912

36.5.3 Frequency Dependent Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912

36.5.4 Waveform Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914

36.6 Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916

36.6.1 Continuous Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916

36.6.2 Switching Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917

36.6.3 Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbine Generator Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918

36.6.4 Definition of Flicker Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918

36.6.5 Assignment of Flicker Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

36.6.6 Flicker Results Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

36.7 Short-Circuit Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

36.7.1 Balanced Harmonic Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

36.7.2 Unbalanced Harmonic Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920

36.7.3 Sk Result Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920

36.7.4 Short-Circuit Power of the External Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

36.8 Connection Request Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

36.8.1 Connection Request Assessment: D-A-CH-CZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

36.8.2 Connection Request Assessment: BDEW, 4th Supplement . . . . . . . . . . . . 923

36.8.3 Connection Request Assessment: VDE-AR-N 4105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925

36.8.4 Connection Request Assessment: VDE-AR-N 4110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927

36.8.5 Connection Request Assessment Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929

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36.9 Definition of Result Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930

36.9.1 Definition of Variable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931

36.9.2 Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932

37 Flickermeter 933

37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933

37.2 Flickermeter (IEC 61000-4-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933

37.2.1 Calculation of Short-Term Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933

37.2.2 Calculation of Long-Term Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

37.3 Flickermeter Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

37.3.1 Flickermeter Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

37.3.2 Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

37.3.3 Signal Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935

37.3.4 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936

37.3.5 Input File Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937

38 Optimal Power Flow 940

38.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940

38.2 AC Optimisation (Interior Point Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940

38.2.1 AC Optimisation - Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940

38.2.2 AC Optimisation - Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947

38.2.3 AC Optimisation - Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948

38.2.4 AC Optimisation - Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948

38.2.5 AC Optimisation - Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950

38.3 DC Optimisation (Linear Programming) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951

38.3.1 DC Optimisation - Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952

38.3.2 DC Optimisation - Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954

38.3.3 DC Optimisation - Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955

38.3.4 DC Optimisation - Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956

38.4 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation (LP Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957

38.4.1 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . 957

38.4.2 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959

38.4.3 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . 959

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38.4.4 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . 960

38.4.5 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960

38.5 Troubleshooting Optimal Power Flow Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

38.5.1 Verification of Load Flow Options and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

38.5.2 Verifications of OPF Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

38.5.3 Verification of the OPF Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962

38.5.4 Step-by-Step Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962

39 Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation 964

39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964

39.2 Application Cases for the Unit Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964

39.2.1 Full Unit Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964

39.2.2 Market Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

39.2.3 Redispatch Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

39.3 Unit Commitment Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

39.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

39.3.2 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966

39.3.3 Controls/Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967

39.3.4 Results/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969

39.3.5 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970

39.3.6 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970

39.3.7 Constraint Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971

39.3.8 Parallel Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972

39.4 Handling of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

39.4.1 Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

39.4.2 Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

39.4.3 Colouring Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

39.4.4 Load Unit Commitment Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

39.4.5 Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974

39.5 Generating Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974

39.5.1 Controls and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974

39.5.2 Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975

39.5.3 Redispatch Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976

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39.5.4 Start-Up/Shut-down Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976

39.5.5 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

39.6 Storage Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

39.6.1 Efficiency curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

39.7 Virtual Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978

39.8 Other Network Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978

39.8.1 Advanced constraint settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978

39.8.2 Transformers, voltage regulators and shunts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979

39.8.3 Tap Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979

39.8.4 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979

39.8.5 Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979

39.8.6 Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.8.7 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.8.8 Regions: Grids, Zones and Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.8.9 HVDC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.9 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.9.1 Solver Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.9.2 Soft Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.9.3 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

39.9.4 Voltage Controlling Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981

39.9.5 Reference Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981

39.9.6 Not Regarded Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981

39.9.7 Rolling horizon and time dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981

39.10 Redundant Constraint Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982

39.10.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982

39.10.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982

39.10.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983

40 Transmission Network Tools 984

40.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984

40.2 PV Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985

40.2.1 PV Curves Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985

40.2.2 PV Curves Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

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40.2.3 Outputs and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

40.3 QV Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988

40.3.1 QV Curves Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

40.3.2 QV Curves Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991

40.4 Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992

40.4.1 Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992

40.5 Transfer Capacity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994

40.5.1 Basic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994

40.5.2 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

40.5.3 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

40.5.4 Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

40.5.5 Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

41 Distribution Network Tools 998

41.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

41.2 Hosting Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999

41.2.1 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000

41.2.2 Hosting Capacity Analysis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001

41.2.3 Results of the Hosting Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005

41.3 Backbone Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007

41.3.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008

41.3.2 Scoring Settings Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009

41.3.3 Tracing Backbones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010

41.3.4 Example Backbone Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010

41.4 Voltage Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010

41.4.1 Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011

41.4.2 How to Perform a Voltage Sag Table Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011

41.4.3 Voltage Sag Table Assessment Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012

41.5 Tie Open Point Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

41.5.1 Tie Open Point Optimisation Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014

41.5.2 How to run a Tie Open Point Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014

41.6 Phase Balance Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017

41.6.1 Objective functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018

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41.6.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018

41.6.3 Eléments considérés . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019

41.6.4 Representation of solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019

41.6.5 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019

41.7 Voltage Profile Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020

41.7.1 Optimisation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

41.7.2 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024

41.7.3 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024

41.7.4 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025

41.7.5 Results of Voltage Profile Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025

41.8 Optimal Equipment Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026

41.8.1 Optimal Equipment Placement Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027

41.8.2 Results of the Optimal Equipment Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034

41.8.3 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035

41.9 Optimal Capacitor Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036

41.9.1 OCP Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037

41.9.2 OCP Optimisation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038

41.9.3 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039

41.9.4 Available Capacitors Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040

41.9.5 Load Characteristics Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041

41.9.6 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041

41.9.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042

41.10 Optimisation Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043

41.10.1 Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043

41.10.2 Simulated Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044

42 Outage Planning 1046

42.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

42.2 Creating Planned Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

42.2.1 Creating Planned Outages from Graphic or Network Model Manager . . . . . . 1046

42.2.2 Creating Planned Outages in Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047

42.2.3 Recurrent Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047

42.2.4 Adding Additional Events to an Outage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047

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42.3 Handling Planned Outages using the Outage Planning toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

42.3.1 Show Planned Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

42.3.2 Apply Planned Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

42.3.3 Reset All Planned Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

42.3.4 Start Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

42.3.5 Outage Schedule Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048

43 Economic Analysis Tools 1049

43.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

43.2 Techno-Economical Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

43.2.1 Requirements for Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

43.2.2 Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050

43.2.3 Example Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052

43.3 Power Park Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055

43.3.1 Power Park Energy Analysis Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055

43.3.2 Power Park Energy Analysis Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059

43.3.3 Visualisation of Power Park Energy Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060

44 Probabilistic Analysis 1061

44.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061

44.2 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062

44.2.1 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062

44.2.2 Modelling Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065

44.2.3 Probabilistic Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066

44.2.4 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068

44.2.5 Distribution Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070

44.2.6 Distribution Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071

44.3 Object Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072

44.3.1 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072

44.3.2 Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074

44.3.3 Distribution Estimation Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075

44.3.4 Probabilistic Analysis Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077

44.3.5 Continue Probabilistic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078

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44.3.6 Probabilistic Analysis Player . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078

44.3.7 Results File Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078

44.3.8 Representation of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079

45 Reliability Analysis 1083

45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083

45.2 Probabilistic Reliability Assessment

Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085

45.2.1 Reliability Assessment Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086

45.2.2 Stochastic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087

45.2.3 Calculated Results for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088

45.2.4 System State Enumeration in Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093

45.3 Setting up the Network Model for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094

45.3.1 How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095

45.3.2 How to Create Feeders for Reliability Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100

45.3.3 Configuring Switches for the Reliability Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101

45.3.4 Load Modelling for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103

45.3.5 Modelling Load Interruption Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104

45.3.6 System Demand and Load States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105

45.3.7 Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105

45.3.8 How to Consider Planned Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105

45.3.9 Specifying Individual Component Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106

45.3.10 Consider switching rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106

45.4 Running The Reliability Assessment Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106

45.4.1 How to run the Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106

45.5 Results of the Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113

45.5.1 Contribution to Reliability Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113

45.5.2 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114

45.5.3 Viewing Results in the Data Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116

45.5.4 Reliability Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117

46 Optimal Power Restoration 1118

46.1 Failure Effect Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118

46.2 Animated Tracing of Individual Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123

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46.3 Optimal RCS Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124

46.3.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124

46.3.2 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125

46.3.3 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125

46.3.4 Example Optimal RCS Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126

46.4 Optimal Manual Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126

46.4.1 OMR Calculation Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127

46.4.2 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127

46.4.3 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128

46.4.4 Definition of the objective function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129

46.4.5 Example of an Optimal Manual Restoration Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130

47 Generation Adequacy Analysis 1132

47.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132

47.2 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132

47.3 Database Objects and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135

47.3.1 Stochastic Model for Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135

47.3.2 Power Curve Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136

47.3.3 Meteorological station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136

47.4 Assignment of Stochastic Model for Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137

47.4.1 Definition of a Stochastic Multi-State Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137

47.4.2 Stochastic Wind Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138

47.4.3 Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138

47.4.4 Demand definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1140

47.5 Generation Adequacy Analysis toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1140

47.5.1 Generation Adequacy Initialisation command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1140

47.5.2 Run Generation Adequacy command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141

47.6 Generation Adequacy results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143

47.6.1 Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143

47.6.2 Monte-Carlo Draws (Iterations) Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145

47.6.3 Convergence Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146

47.6.4 Summary of variables calculated during the Generation Adequacy Analysis . . . 1148

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48 Sensitivities / Distribution Factors 1149

48.1 Overview of Sensitivity / Distribution Factors Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149

48.1.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149

48.1.2 Result Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150

48.2 Sensitivities / Distribution Factors Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150

48.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150

48.2.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151

48.2.3 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152

48.2.4 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154

48.2.5 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154

48.3 Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155

48.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155

48.3.2 Thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155

48.3.3 Used Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155

48.3.4 Report output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155

48.4 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156

49 Network Reduction 1157

49.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157

49.2 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157

49.2.1 Network Reduction for Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158

49.2.2 Network Reduction for Short-Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158

49.2.3 Network Reduction using REI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158

49.2.4 Network Reduction using Regional Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158

49.2.5 Network Reduction for Dynamic Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

49.3 How to Carry Out a Network Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

49.3.1 How to Backup the Project (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

49.3.2 How to run the Network Reduction tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160

49.3.3 Expected Output of the Network Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160

49.4 Network Reduction Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162

49.4.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162

49.4.2 Ward Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163

49.4.3 REI Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163

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49.4.4 Regional Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165

49.4.5 Dynamic Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166

49.4.6 Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167

49.4.7 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168

49.4.8 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169

49.5 Network Reduction Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169

49.6 Tips for using the Network Reduction Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171

49.6.1 Network Reduction doesn’t Reduce Isolated Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171

49.6.2 The Reference Machine is not Reduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171

50 State Estimation 1173

50.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173

50.2 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174

50.3 Components of the PowerFactory State Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174

50.3.1 Plausibility Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176

50.3.2 Observability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176

50.3.3 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimisation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177

50.4 State Estimation Data Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177

50.4.1 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178

50.4.2 Editing the Element Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181

50.5 Running SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182

50.5.1 Basic Setup Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182

50.5.2 Advanced Setup Options for the Plausibility Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

50.5.3 Advanced Setup Options for the Observability Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

50.5.4 Advanced Setup Options for Bad Data Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

50.5.5 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186

50.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188

50.6.1 Output Window Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188

50.6.2 External Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188

50.6.3 Estimated States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190

50.6.4 Colour Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190

51 Motor Starting 1192

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51.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

51.2 How to define a motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

51.2.1 How to define a motor Type and starting methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

51.2.2 How to define a motor driven machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194

51.3 How to run a Motor Starting simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194

51.3.1 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194

51.3.2 Output Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196

51.3.3 Motor Starting simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1198

51.3.4 Motor Starting Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199

V Appendix 1202

A Hotkeys Reference 1203

A.1 Calculation Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203

A.2 Graphic Windows Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203

A.3 Data Manager Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205

A.4 Dialog Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207

A.5 Output Window Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207

A.6 Editor Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208

B Standard Models in PowerFactory 1211

B.1 AVR Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211

B.2 Turbine-Governor Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219

B.3 PSS Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1224

B.4 Excitation Limiter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226

B.5 Static Compensator Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227

B.6 Frames for Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228

B.7 Typical Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229

C ENTSO-E Dynamic Models in PowerFactory 1230

C.1 Excitation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230

C.2 Governor Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233

C.3 Power System Stabiliser Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1234

C.4 Voltage Compensator Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235

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 CONTENTS

C.5 Over-Excitation Limiter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235

C.6 Under-Excitation Limiter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236

C.7 Frames for ENTSO-E Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236

D The DIgSILENT Output Language 1237

D.1 Format string, Variable names and text Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238

D.2 Placeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238

D.3 Variables, Units and Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239

D.4 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241

D.5 Advanced Syntax Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241

D.6 Line Types and Page Breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242

D.7 Predefined Text Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242

D.8 Object Iterations, Loops, Filters and Includes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243

E Element Symbol Definition 1244

E.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244

E.2 General Symbol Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244

E.3 Geometrical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245

E.4 Including Graphic Files as Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247

F Standard Functions DPL and DSL 1248

Bibliography 1250

Glossary 1252

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual xliii

 Part I

General Information
Chapter 1

About this Guide

This User Manual is intended to be a reference for users of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software.
This chapter provides general information about the contents and the used conventions of this docu-
mentation.

1.1 Contents of the User Manual

The first section of the User Manual provides General Information, including an overview of PowerFac-
tory software, a description of the basic program settings, and a description of the PowerFactory data
model.

The next sections describe PowerFactory administration, handling, and power system analysis func-
tions. In the Power System Analysis Functions section, each chapter deals with a different calculation,
presenting the most relevant theoretical aspects, the PowerFactory approach, and the corresponding
interface.

The online version of this manual includes additional sections dedicated to the mathematical description
of models and their parameters, referred to as Technical References. To facilitate their portability,
visualisation, and printing, the papers are attached to the online help as PDF documents. They are
opened by clicking on the indicated links within the manual.

It is recommended that new users commence by reading Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview), and
completing the PowerFactory Tutorials.

1.2 Used Conventions

Conventions to describe user actions are as follows:

Buttons and Keys Dialog buttons and keyboard keys are referred to with bold and underline text
formatting. For example, press the OK button in the PowerFactory dialog, or press CTRL+B
on the keyboard.
Menus and Icons Menus and icons are usually referenced using Italics. For example, press the User
Settings icon , or select Tools → User Settings. . .

Other Items “Speech marks” are used to indicate data to be entered by the user, and also to refer to
an item defined by the author. For example, consider a parameter “x”.

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 2

Chapter 2

Contact

For further information about the company DIgSILENT, our products and services please visit our web
site, or contact us at:

DIgSILENT GmbH

Heinrich-Hertz-Str. 9

72810 Gomaringen / Germany

www.digsilent.de

2.1 Direct Technical Support

DIgSILENT experts offer direct assistance to PowerFactory users with valid maintenance agreements
via telephone or online via support queries raised on the customer portal.

To register for the on-line portal, select Help → Online User Registration. . . or go to directly to the
registration page (link below). Log-in details will be provided by email shortly thereafter.

To log-in to the portal, enter the email (or Login) and Password provided. When raising a new support
query, please include the PowerFactory version and build number in your submission, which can
be found by selecting Help → About PowerFactory . . . from the main menu. Note that including
relevant *.pfd file(s) may assist with our investigation into your query. The customer portal is shown
in Figure 2.1.1.

Phone: +49-(0)7072-9168-50 (German)

+49-(0)7072-9168-51 (English)
User Registration: https://www.digsilent.de/en/user-registration.html
User Login: https://www.digsilent.de/en/user-login.html

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 3

 2.2. KNOWLEDGE BASE

Figure 2.1.1: DIgSILENT customer portal

2.1.1 PowerFactory Support Package

Sometimes as part of a ticket investigation customers are asked to provide a “PowerFactory Support
Package”. This can be generated from within PowerFactory from the top menu by doing Help → Create
support package.... The support package can be saved on the user’s computer then attached to the
ticket. The contents of the “PowerFactory Support Package” are listed in the Advanced Installation and
Configuration Manual.

2.1.2 Licence Support Package

If a customer’s problem is thought to be licence related, the customer may be asked to provide a
“Licence Support Package”. This can be generated from the Licence Manager, where a Create Licence
Support Package button is provided. The support package can then be saved on the user’s computer
then attached to the ticket.

2.2 Knowledge Base

A “Knowledge Base” database of information, based on an FAQ format, is available for any users
(whether registered or not) to look for answers to their questions. The knowledge base contains
interesting questions and answers regarding specific applications of PowerFactory.

Knowledge Base: https://www.digsilent.de/en/faq-powerfactory.html

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 4

 2.3. GENERAL INFORMATION

2.3 General Information

For general information about DIgSILENT or your PowerFactory licence, please contact us via:

Phone: +49-(0)7072-9168-0

Fax: +49-(0)7072-9168-88
E-mail: [email protected]

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 5

Chapter 3

Documentation and Help System

DIgSILENT PowerFactory is provided with a complete help package to support users at all levels of
expertise. Documents with the basic information of the program and its functionality are combined with
references to advanced simulation features, mathematical descriptions of the models and of course
application examples.

PowerFactory offers the following help resources, which can be accessed either directly from PowerFac-
tory or from the DIgSILENT download area (https://www.digsilent.de/en/downloads.html):
• Getting Started: a document describing the first steps to follow after receiving the installation DVD
or downloading the software from the DIgSILENT download area. The Getting Started document
covers the basic installation options.
• Advanced Installation and Configuration Manual: in this document, advanced installation
options e.g. multi-user database, installation on an application server, and the Offline mode
installation, are covered. The Offline mode guide is available in Section 5.5: Offline Mode User
Guide.
• Tutorials: information for new users and hands-on tutorials. Access via Help menu of PowerFac-
tory.

• User Manual: this document. Access via Help menu of PowerFactory. Current and previous
manuals (PDF files) can also be found on the in the DIgSILENT download area.
• Technical References: description of the models implemented in PowerFactory for the different
power systems components. The technical reference documents are available on the menu Help
→ Technical References.
• Additional Packages: additional information and/or examples about specific PowerFactory func-
tions are available on the menu Help → Additional Packages. The additional packages are:
– Programming Interface (API)
– DGS Data Exchange Format
– OPC Interface
– DPL Functions Extensions
– DSL models C-Interface
– DSL functions C-Interface
– Dynamic Models C Interface
• Context Sensitive Help: pressing the key F1 while working with PowerFactory will lead directly
to the related topic inside the User Manual.

• PowerFactory Examples: the window PowerFactory Examples provides a list of application

examples of PowerFactory calculation functions. Every example comes with an explanatory

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 6

 document that can be opened by clicking on the Show Documentation button ( ). Additionally,
videos demonstrating the software handling and its functionalities are available.
The PowerFactory Examples window will “pop up” automatically every time the software is open,
this could be deactivated by unchecking the Show at Startup checkbox. PowerFactory Examples
are also accessible on the main menu, by selecting File → Examples. . . .
• Release Notes: for all new versions and updates of the program Release Notes are provided,
which document the implemented changes. They are available on the menu Help → Release
Notes
• Knowledge base: see Chapter 2: Contact

• Technical Support: see Chapter 2: Contact

• Website: www.digsilent.de

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 7

Chapter 4

PowerFactory Overview

The calculation program DIgSILENT PowerFactory, is a computer-aided engineering tool for the anal-
ysis of transmission, distribution, and industrial electrical power systems. It has been designed as an
advanced integrated and interactive software package dedicated to electrical power system and control
analysis in order to achieve the main objectives of planning and operation optimisation.

“DIgSILENT ” is an acronym for “DIgital SImuLation of Electrical NeTworks”. DIgSILENT Version 7 was
the world’s first power system analysis software with an integrated graphical single-line interface. That
interactive single-line diagram included drawing functions, editing capabilities and all relevant static and
dynamic calculation features.

PowerFactory was designed and developed by qualified engineers and programmers with many years
of experience in both electrical power system analysis and computer programming. The accuracy and
validity of results obtained with PowerFactory has been confirmed in a large number of implementations,
by organisations involved in the planning and operation of power systems throughout the world.

To address users’ power system analysis requirements, PowerFactory was designed as an integrated
engineering tool to provide a comprehensive suite of power system analysis functions within a single
executable program. Key features include:

1. PowerFactory core functions: definition, modification and organisation of cases; core numerical
routines; output and documentation functions.
2. Integrated interactive single line graphic and data case handling.
3. Power system element and base case database.
4. Integrated calculation functions (e.g. line and machine parameter calculation based on geometri-
cal or nameplate information).
5. Power system network configuration with interactive or on-line SCADA access.
6. Generic interface for computer-based mapping systems.

Use of a single database, with the required data for all equipment within a power system (e.g. line
data, generator data, protection data, harmonic data, controller data), means that PowerFactory can
easily execute all power simulation functions within a single program environment - functions such as
load flow analysis, short-circuit calculation, harmonic analysis, protection coordination, stability analysis,
and modal analysis.

Although PowerFactory includes highly-sophisticated power system analysis functions, the intuitive user
interface makes it possible for new users to very quickly perform common tasks such as load flow and
short-circuit calculations.

The functionality purchased by a user is configured in a matrix-like format, where the licensed calcu-
lation functions, together with the maximum number of buses, are listed as coordinates. The user can

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 8

 4.1. GENERAL CONCEPT

then, as required, configure the interface and functions according to their requirements.

Depending on user requirements, a specific PowerFactory licence may or may not include all of the
functions described in this manual. As requirements dictate, additional functionality can be added to a
licence. These functions can be used within the same program interface with the same network data.
Only additional data, as may be required by an added calculation function, need be added.

4.1 General Concept

The general PowerFactory program design concept is summarised as follows:

Functional Integration

DIgSILENT PowerFactory software is implemented as a single executable program, and is fully compat-
ible with Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10. The programming method employed allows for fast
selection of different calculation functions. There is no need to reload modules and update or transfer
data and results between different program applications. As an example, the Load Flow, Short-Circuit,
and Harmonic Load Flow analysis tools can be executed sequentially without resetting the program,
enabling additional software modules and engines, or reading and converting external data files.

Vertical Integration

DIgSILENT PowerFactory software uses a vertically integrated model concept that allows models to
be shared for all analysis functions. Studies relating to “Generation”, “Transmission”, “Distribution”,
and “Industrial” analysis can all be completed within PowerFactory. Separate software engines are not
required to analyse separate aspects of the power system, or to complete different types of analysis,
as DIgSILENT PowerFactory can accommodate everything within one integrated program and one
integrated database.

Database Integration

One Database Concept: DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides optimal organisation of data and defini-
tions required to perform various calculations, memorisation of settings or software operation options.
The PowerFactory database environment fully integrates all data required for defining study cases,
Operation Scenarios, single line graphics, textual and graphical Results, calculation options, and user-
defined models, etc. Everything required to model and simulate the power system is integrated into a
single database which can be configured for single and/or multiple users.

Project Management: all data that defines a power system model is stored in “Project” folders within
the database. Inside a “Project” folder, “Study Cases” are used to define different studies of the system
considering the complete network, parts of the network, or Variations on its current state. This “project
and study case” approach is used to define and manage power system studies with object-oriented
software. PowerFactory uses a structure that is easy to use, avoids data redundancy, and simplifies the
task of data management and validation for users and organisations. The application of study cases
and project Variations in PowerFactory facilitates efficient and reliable reproduction of study results.

Multi-User Operation: multiple users each holding their own projects or working with data shared from
other users are supported by a “Multi-user” database operation. In this case the definition of access
rights, user accounting and groups for data sharing are managed by the PowerFactory Administrator
user.

Offline Mode: in some instances, a network connection to a server database may not be available. To
address this, PowerFactory provides functionality to work in Offline Mode. The required project data is
cached to the user’s local machine, which can then later be synchronised to the server database. Offline
Mode functionality includes the ability to lock and unlock projects and to edit projects as read-only.

User Interface Customisation

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 4.2. POWERFACTORY SIMULATION FUNCTIONS

By default, “Base Package” and “Standard” user profiles are available in PowerFactory. Profiles can
be selected from the main menu under Tools → Profiles. The “Base Package” profile limits the icons
displayed on the main toolbar to those typically used by new users, such as load flow and short-circuit
commands. The database Administrator can create and customise user profiles, in particular:
• Customise the element dialog pages that are displayed.
• Customise element dialog parameters. Parameters can be Hidden (not shown) or Disabled
(shown but not editable).
• Fully configure Main Toolbar and Drawing Toolbar menus, including definition of custom DPL
Commands and Templates with user-defined icons.
• Customise Main Menu, Data Manager, and context-sensitive menu commands.
Chapter 6: User Accounts, User Groups, and Profiles (Section 6.7 Creating Profiles) details the cus-
tomisation procedure.

Database, Objects, and Classes

PowerFactory uses a hierarchical, object-oriented database. All the data, which represents power sys-
tem Elements, single line graphics, study cases, system Operation Scenarios, calculation commands,
program Settings etc., are stored as objects inside a hierarchical set of folders. The folders are arranged
in order to facilitate the definition of the studies and optimise the use of the tools provided by the
program.

The objects are grouped according to the kind of element that they represent. These groups are
known as “Classes” within the PowerFactory environment. For example, an object that represents a
synchronous generator in a power system is of a Class called ElmSym, and an object storing the settings
for a load flow calculation is of a Class called ComLdf. Object Classes are analogous to computer file
extensions: each Class has a specific set of parameters that defines the objects it represents. As
explained in Section 4.7 (User Interface), the edit dialogs are the interfaces between the user and an
object; the parameters defining the object are accessed through this dialog. This means that there is
an edit dialog for each class of object.

The main classes that the PowerFactory user is likely to come across fall into these categories:
• *.Elm* Network elements
• *.Typ* Type objects, assigned to network element in order to configure parameters often supplied
by manufacturers.
• *.Int* Structural objects, for example *.IntFolder
• *.Set* These objects generally contain settings
• *.Com* Command objects, for example *.ComLdf for the load flow command

Note: Everything in PowerFactory is an object; an object is defined by its Class and the objects are
stored according to a hierarchical arrangement in the database tree.

4.2 PowerFactory Simulation Functions

PowerFactory incorporates a comprehensive list of simulation functions, described in detail in part

Power System Analysis Functions of the manual, including the following:

• Load Flow Analysis, allowing meshed and mixed 1-,2-, and 3-phase AC and/or DC networks
(Chapter 25)
• Short-Circuit Analysis, for meshed and mixed 1-,2-, and 3-phase AC networks (Chapter 26)

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 4.2. POWERFACTORY SIMULATION FUNCTIONS

• Sensitivities / Distribution Factors, for voltage, branch flow and transformer sensitivities (Chap-
ter 48)
• Low Voltage Network Analysis (Section 25.4.2: Advanced Load Options)
• Contingency Analysis (Chapter 27)
• Quasi-Dynamic simulation, which allows to perform several load flow calculations in a period of
time (Chapter 28)
• Network Reduction (Chapter 49)
• Protection Analysis (Chapter 33)
• Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis (Chapter 34)
• Cable Analysis, including cable sizing and cable ampacity calculation (Chapter 35)
• Power Quality and Harmonics Analysis (Chapter 36)
• Connection Request Assessment (Section 36.8)
• Transmission Network Tools (Chapter 40), including:
– PV curves calculation
– QV curves calculation
– Power Transfer Distribution Factors
– Transfer Capacity Analysis
• Distribution Network Tools (Chapter 41), including:
– Hosting Capacity Analysis
– Backbone Calculation
– Voltage Sag
– Tie Open Point Optimisation
– Phase Balance Optimisation
– Voltage Profile Optimisation
– Optimal Equipment Placement
– Optimal Capacitor Placement
• Outage Planning: tool for management of planned outages (Chapter 42)
• Probabilistic Analysis (Chapter 44)
• Reliability Analysis Functions:
– Reliability Assessment (Chapter 45)
– Optimal Power Restoration (Chapter 46)
– Optimal Remote Control Switch (RCS) Placement (Section 46.3)
– Optimal Manual Restoration (Section 46.4)
– Generation Adequacy Analysis (Chapter 47)
• Optimal Power Flow (Chapter 38)
• Unit Commitment (Chapter 39)
• Economic Analysis Tools (Chapter 43), including:
– Techno-Economical Calculation (Section 43.2)
– Power Park Energy Analysis (Section 43.3)
• State Estimation (Chapter 50)
• RMS Simulation: time-domain simulation for electromechanical transients (Chapter 29)

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 4.3. GENERAL DESIGN OF POWERFACTORY

• EMT Simulation: time-domain simulation of electromagnetic transients (Chapter 29)

• Motor Starting Functions (Chapter 51)

• Modal / Eigenvalue Analysis (Chapter 32)

• Model Parameter Identification (Chapter 31)

4.3 General Design of PowerFactory

PowerFactory is primarily intended to be used and operated in a graphical environment. That is, data is
entered by drawing the network elements, and then editing and assigning data to these objects. Data is
accessed from the graphics page by double-clicking on an object. An input dialog is displayed and the
user may then edit the data for that object.

Figure 4.3.1 shows the PowerFactory Graphical User Interface (GUI) when a project is active. The GUI
is discussed in further detail in Section 4.7

Figure 4.3.1: PowerFactory Main Window

All data entered for objects is hierarchically structured in folders for ease of navigation. To view the data

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 12

 4.4. TYPE AND ELEMENT DATA

and its organisation, a “Data Manager” is used. Figure 4.3.2 shows the Data Manager window. The
Data Manager is similar in appearance and functionality to a Windows Explorer window.

Within the Data Manager, information is grouped based on two main criteria:

1. Data that pertains directly to the system under study, that is, electrical data.
2. Study management data, for example, which graphics should be displayed, what options have
been chosen for a Load Flow Calculation command, which Areas of the network should be
considered for calculation, etc.

Figure 4.3.2: PowerFactory Data Manager

Note that most user-actions can be performed in both the single line graphic and the Data Manager.
For example, a new terminal can be added directly to the single line graphic, or alternatively created in
the Data Manager. In the latter case, the terminal could be shown in the single line graphic by using
the Diagram Layout Tool, by “dragging and dropping” from the Data Manager, or by creating a new
Graphical Net Object in the Data Manager (advanced).

4.4 Type and Element Data

Since power systems are constructed using standardised materials and components, it is convenient to
divide electrical data into two sets, namely “Type” data and “Element” data sets.

• Characteristic electrical parameters, such as the reactance per km of a line, or the rated voltage
of a transformer are referred to as Type data. Type objects are generally stored in a global library
(either the DIgSILENT Library or a Custom Library) or Project Library, and are shown in red. For
instance, a Line Type object, TypLne ( ).
• Data relating to a particular instance of equipment, such as the length of a line, the derating
factor of a cable, the name of a load, the connecting node of a generator, or the tap position of a
transformer are referred to as Element data. Element objects are generally stored in the Network
Data folder, and are shown in green. For instance, a Line Element object, ElmLne ( ).

Consider the following example:

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 4.5. DATA ARRANGEMENT

• A cable has a Type reactance of “X” Ohms/km, say 0.1 Ohms/km.

• A cable section of length “L” is used for a particular installation, say 600 m, or 0.6 km.

• This section (Element) therefore has an reactance of X * L Ohms, or 0.06 Ohms.

Note that Element parameters can be modified using Operation Scenarios (which store sets of network
operational data), and Parameter Characteristics (which can be used to modify parameters based on
the study case Time, or other user-defined trigger).

4.5 Data Arrangement

The PowerFactory database supports multiple users (as mentioned in 4.1) and each user can manage
multiple projects. “User Account” folders with access privileges only for their owners (and other users
with shared rights) must then be used. User accounts are of course in a higher level than projects.

Figure 4.5.1 shows a snapshot from a database as seen by the user in a Data Manager window, where
there is a user account for “User”, and one project titled “Project”. The main folders used to arrange
data in PowerFactory are summarised below:

Figure 4.5.1: Structure of a PowerFactory project in the Data Manager

4.5.1 DIgSILENT Global Library

A global library (called “DIgSILENT Library”) is supplied with PowerFactory and should not be edited by
the customer. When a database is migrated to a new version, the DIgSILENT Library will be refreshed
with all the new and updated information and if a user were to have made changes and additions, all
that information would be lost. If the user wants to include user-specific models etc, a custom global
library can be created (see section 4.5.2)

The DIgSILENT Library contains a wide range of pre-defined models, including:

• Type data for standard components such as conductors, motors, generators, and transformers.

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 4.5. DATA ARRANGEMENT

• Standard control system frames, models, and macros (i.e. transfer functions and logic blocks,
etc).
• Standard protection devices models.

• Pre-defined model templates, including:

– Battery Systems
– Distributed Energy Resources
– FACTS
– Grid-forming Converters
– HVDC
– Loads
– Photovoltaic
– Plant Controllers
– Steam/Gas/Diesel Power Plants
– Variable Speed Drives
– Wind Turbines (including DFIG, Fully Rated, IEC and WECC)
• Standard DPL scripts.

Documentation about the various elements and types in the DIgSILENT Library can be found directly
in the description page of the elements, in the Appendix B: Standard Models in PowerFactory and in
Technical References Document (Templates).

4.5.1.1 Versioning in the Global Library

All the main objects (types, models etc.) in the DIgSILENT Library are managed using versions, for
example a type object might be at v002.1, where the main version number (002 in this example) is
incremented when a material change to the object is made, and the minor version number (.1 in this
example) is incremented when a small change that will not affect calculation results is made.

A version page shows the version number and a Change Log to show the modification history.

The distinction between the two types of change is important because when the DIgSILENT global
library is updated due to the installation of a new version of PowerFactory by the user, all minor
version changes will be implemented automatically, whereas main version updates will not be done
automatically. Instead, users can decide whether to use the updated models, or continue using the
older versions, which will be automatically retained in subfolders.

4.5.2 Custom Global Library

When several users work for the same company, there is often a need to share a custom library between
these users. Instead of copying the library from user to user, a better approach is to create an additional
library in the global area which will be visible for all the users.

The custom library should be defined by the Administrator as follows:

• Right-click on the “Database” folder

• Select New → Library from the context menu
• Chose a library name and click OK

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 4.5. DATA ARRANGEMENT

The new library is now created at the same level of the hierarchy as the DIgSILENT global library.

The user groups with access to the library, and their level of access, are defined in the Sharing page of
the edit dialog of the library.

Several libraries can be created, but only one can be edited by a user at a time. In order to edit the
library, it has to be active; the library is activated using Right click → Activate.

Once an additional global library is added, it should be set in the User Settings as Used Library (see
chapter User Settings, Section 7.1).

The versioning of the Custom Global Library works in exactly the same way as for the DIgSILENT
Library, described in Section 4.5.1.1

4.5.3 Project Library

The Project Library contains the equipment types, network operational information, scripts, templates,
and user-defined models (generally) only used within a particular project. A particular project may have
references to the project library and / or global library. The Project Library folder and sub-folders are
discussed in detail in Chapter 14 (Project Library).

4.5.4 Diagrams

Single line graphics are defined in PowerFactory by means of graphic folders of class IntGrfNet ( ).
Each diagram corresponds to a IntGrfNet folder. They are stored in the Diagrams folder ( ) of the
Network Model. Single line diagrams are composed of graphical objects, which represent components
of the networks under study. Graphical components reference network components and symbol objects
(IntSym).

The relation between graphical objects and network components allows the definition and modification
of the studied networks directly from the single line graphics. Network components can be represented
by more than one graphical object (many IntGrf objects can refer to the same network component).
Therefore, one component can appear in several diagrams.

These diagrams are managed by the active study case, and specifically by an object called the Graphics
Board. If a reference to a network diagram is stored in a study case’s Graphics Board, when the study
case is activated, the diagram is automatically opened. Diagrams can be easily added and deleted from
the Graphics Boards.

Each diagram is related to a specific Grid (ElmNet). When a grid is added to an active study case, the
user is asked to select (among the diagrams pointing to that grid) the diagrams to display. References
to the selected diagrams are then automatically created in the corresponding Graphics Board.

Chapter 9 (Network Graphics), explains how to define and work with single line graphics.

4.5.5 Network Data

The Network Data folder holds network data (Element data) in “Grid” folders and object Grouping
information.

Grids

In PowerFactory, electrical network information is stored in “Grid” folders (ElmNet, ). A power system
may have as many grids as defined by the user. These grids may or may not be interconnected. As long

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 4.5. DATA ARRANGEMENT

as they are active, they are considered by the calculations. Data may be sorted according to logical,
organisational and/or geographical areas (discussed further in Section 4.6: Project Structure).

Note: A Grid (and in general any object comprising the data model) is active when it is referred to by
the current study case. Only objects referred in the current (active) study case are considered for
calculation. In the Data Manager, the icon of an active Grid is shown in red, to distinguish it from
inactive Grids.

For details of how to define grids refer to Chapter 8.Basic Project Definition, Section 8.2 (Creating New
Grids).

Grouping Objects

In addition to Grid folders, the Network Data folder contains a set of objects that allow further grouping
of network components. By default, when a new project is created, new empty folders to store these
grouping objects is created inside the Network Model folder.

For details of how to define grouping objects, refer to Chapter 15: Grouping Objects.

4.5.6 Variations

During the planning and assessment of a power system, it is often necessary to analyse different vari-
ations and expansion alternatives of the base network. In PowerFactory these variations are modelled
by means of “Variations”. These are objects that store and implement required changes to a network,
and can be easily activated and deactivated. The use of Variations allows the user to conduct studies
under different network configurations in an organised and simple way.

Variation objects (IntScheme, ) are stored inside the Variations folder ( ) which resides in the
Network Model folder. Variations are composed of “Expansion Stages” (IntStage), which store the
changes made to the original network(s). The application of these changes depends on the current
study time and the activation time of the Expansion Stages.

The study time is a parameter of the active study case, and is used to situate the current study within a
time frame. The activation time is a parameter given to the Expansion Stages, to determine whether or
not, according to the study time, the changes contained within the Expansion Stages are applied to the
network. If the activation time precedes the study time, the changes are applied to the original network.
The changes of a subsequent expansion stage add to the changes of its predecessors.

In order that changes to the network configuration are applied and can be viewed, a Variation must be
activated. These changes are contained in the expansion stage(s) of this active Variation. Once the
Variation is deactivated, the network returns to its original state. Changes contained in an Expansion
Stage can be classified as:

• Modifications to network components.

• Components added to the network.
• Components deleted from the network.

Note: If there is no active Operation Scenario, modifications to operational data will be stored in the
active Variation.

4.5.7 Operation Scenarios

Operation Scenarios may be used to store operational settings, a subset of Element data. Operational
data includes data that relates to the operational point of a device but not to the device itself e.g. the tap

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position of a transformer or the active power dispatch of a generator. Operation Scenarios are stored in
the Operation Scenarios folder.

4.5.8 Study Cases

The Study Cases folder holds study management information. Study cases are used to store information
such as command settings, active Variations and Operations Scenarios, graphics to be displayed, and
study results. See Chapter 13 (Study Cases) for details.

4.5.9 Settings

Project settings such as user-defined diagram styles for example, which differ from global settings, are
stored inside the Settings folder. See section 8.1.2 (Project Settings)

4.6 Project Structure

Most of the data referred to in the previous section 4.5 is project data. The default high-level arrange-
ment of this data in the project is as shown here:

Figure 4.6.1: Basic Project Hierarchy

The structure of project data depends on the complexity of the network, use of the model, and user
preferences. The user has the flexibility to define network components directly within the Grid, or to
organise and group components in a way that simplifies management of project data.

Consider the example network data arrangement shown in Figure 4.6.2 In this case, two busbar systems
(ElmSubstat in PowerFactory ) have been defined, one at 132 kV, and one at 66 kV. The two busbar
systems are grouped within a Site, which includes the 132 kV / 66 kV transformers (not shown in
Figure 4.6.2). A Branch composed of two line sections and a node connects “132 kV Busbar” to
“HV terminal”. Grouping of components in this way simplifies the arrangement of data within the
Data Manager, facilitates the drawing overview diagrams, and facilitates storing of Substation switching
configurations.

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Figure 4.6.2: Example Project Structure

The following subsections provide further information regarding the PowerFactory representation of key
network topological components.

4.6.1 Nodes

In PowerFactory, nodes connecting lines, generators, loads, etc. to the network are generally called
“Terminals” (ElmTerm). Depending on their usage within the power system, Terminals can be used to
represent Busbars, Junctions, or Internal Nodes (their usage is defined by a drop down menu found
in the Basic Data page of the terminal dialog). According to the selected usage, different calculation
functions are enabled; for example the short-circuit calculation can be performed only for busbars, or
for busbars and internal nodes, and so on.

4.6.2 Edge elements

The term “Edge Element” refers to an element connected to a node or to more than one node. Includes
single-port elements such as loads, and multi-port elements such as transformers.

4.6.3 Branches

Elements with multiple connections are referred to “branches” (as distinct from a Branch Element
(ElmBranch), which is a grouping of elements, discussed in Section 4.6.9). Branches include two-
connection elements such as transmission lines and transformers, and three-connection elements such
as three-winding transformers, AC/DC converters with two DC terminals, etc.

For information about how to define transmission lines (and cables) and sections refer to Chapter 11:
Building Networks. Technical information about transmission line and cable models is provided in
Technical References Document (Line (ElmLne)).

4.6.4 Cubicles

When any edge element is directly connected to a Terminal, PowerFactory uses a “Cubicle” (StaCubic)
to define the connection. Cubicles can be visualised as the panels on a switchgear board, or bays
in a high voltage yard, to which the branch elements are connected. A Cubicle is generally created
automatically when an element is connected to a node (note that Cubicles are not shown on the single
line graphic).

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4.6.5 Switches

To model complex busbar-substation configurations, switches (ElmCoup) can be used. Their usage
can be set to Circuit-Breaker, Disconnector, Switch Disconnector, or Load Switch. The connection of
an ElmCoup to a Terminal is carried out by means of an automatically generated Cubicle without any
additional switch (StaSwitch) object.

4.6.6 Substations

Detailed busbar configurations are represented in PowerFactory as Substations (ElmSubstat). Sep-

arate single line diagrams of individual substations can be created. Substation objects allow the use
of running arrangements to store/set station circuit breaker statuses (see Chapter 14: Project Library,
Section 14.3: Operational Library).

For information about how to define substations refer to Chapter 11: Building Networks.

4.6.7 Secondary Substations

Secondary Substations (ElmTrfstat) are smaller, simpler substations, typically used for single-transformer
connections.

4.6.8 Sites

Network components including Substations and Branches can be grouped together within a “Site”
(ElmSite). This may include Elements such as substations / busbars at different voltage levels. For
information about how to define sites refer to Chapter 11: Building Networks.

4.6.9 Branch Elements

Similar to Substations, Terminal Elements and Line Elements can be stored within an object called a
Branch Element (ElmBranch). Branches are “composite” two-port elements that may be connected to
a Terminal at each end. They may contain multiple Terminals, Line sections (possible including various
line types), and Loads etc, but be represented as a single Branch on the single line graphic. As for
Substations, separate diagrams for the detailed branch can be created with the graphical editor.

For information about how to define branches refer to Chapter 11: Building Networks, sections 11.2 and
11.5.

4.7 User Interface

An overview of the PowerFactory user interface is provided in this section, including general discussion
of the functionality available to enter and manipulate data and graphics.

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4.7.1 Overview

4.7.1.1 General handling

The PowerFactory user interface consists of a number of tool windows and tool bars, which can be
freely moved around or docked, as the user chooses, together with the graphics board.

Tool windows and tool bars

The tool windows are:

• Project Overview
• Drawing Tools

• Output Window

By default, these are “docked” into position, but can be resized or moved around as required. A window
is moved by clicking on the top portion of the window and dragging to the required position. This can
simply be an “undocked” location, but if the tool window approaches a position where it can be docked,
this will be indicated by a blue background as shown here:

Figure 4.7.1: Docking a tool window

Toolbars can also be moved around. The icons are divided into sets separated by a barrier , and a
set of icons can be moved by clicking on the barrier and dragging it to the required location.

A useful option to be aware of is Reset windows layout, which is found in the main Window menu. This
will restore the various tool windows to their default positions. Note that this does not affect the graphic
board layout, split etc., as this is a study-case specific configuration.

Graphics board

The graphics board, sometimes called the graphical editor, uses a tabbed view concept, enabling a
number of graphics to be open at any one time. The currently-selected graphic is often referred to as
the active graphic.

If the user wishes to see more than one graphic at the same time, split-screen working can be used.
The screen can be split either vertically or horizontally at any one time, and graphical pages moved

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between the splits (or new splits created) by right-clicking on the graphic tab and choosing the relevant
option. The options available are listed in the Network Graphics chapter, in section 9.2.5.

4.7.1.2 Key Features of the user interface

The main PowerFactory window is shown in Figure 4.7.2

Figure 4.7.2: PowerFactory user interface

Key features of the main window are as follows:

1. The main window includes a description of the PowerFactory version, and standard icons to
Minimise, Maximise/Restore, Resize, and Close the window.
2. The main menu bar includes drop-down menu selections. The main menu is discussed further in
Section 4.7.2 (Menu Bar).
3. The Main Toolbar includes commands and other icons. The Main Toolbar is discussed in further
detail in Section 4.7.3 (Main Toolbar).
4. The Graphical Editor displays single line diagrams, block diagrams and/or simulation plots of the
active project. Studied networks and simulation models can be directly modified from the graphical
editor by placing and connecting elements.

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5. When an object is right clicked (in the graphical editor or in the Data Manager) a context sensitive
menu with several possible actions appears.
6. When an object is double clicked its edit dialog will be displayed. The edit dialog is the interface
between an object and the user. The parameters defining the object are accessed through this edit
dialog. Normally an edit dialog is composed of several “pages”. Each page groups parameters
that are relevant to a certain function. In Figure 4.7.2 the Load Flow page of a generator is shown,
where only generator parameters relevant to load flow calculations are shown.
7. The Data Manager is the direct interface with the database. It is similar in appearance and
functionality to a Windows Explorer window. The left pane displays a symbolic tree representation
of the complete database. The right pane is a data browser that shows the content of the currently
selected folder. The Data Manager can be accessed by pressing the Data Manager icon ( )
on the left of the main toolbar. It is always ’floating’, and more than one can be active at a
time. Depending on how the user navigates to the Database Manager, it may only show the
database tree for selecting a database folder, or it may show the full database tree. The primary
functionality of the Data Manager is to provide access to power system components/objects. The
Data Manager can be used to edit a group of selected objects within the Data Manager in tabular
format. Alternatively, objects may be individually edited by double clicking on an object (or right-
click → Edit).
8. The output window is shown at the bottom of the PowerFactory window. The output window is
discussed in further detail in Section 4.7.4 (The Output Window).
9. The Project Overview window is displayed by default on the left side of the main application window
between the main toolbar and the output window. It displays an overview of the project allowing
the user to assess the state of the project at a glance and facilitating easy interaction with the
project data.
10. The Drawing Tools window is by default also on the left-hand side of the user interface. In Fig-
ure4.7.2 it is behind the Project Overview, but it can be selected via the tab, and will automatically
come to the front if “freeze mode” is removed (see section 9.2.6 for more information.)
11. PowerFactory has a very flexible window moving and docking concept that aims to optimise work
when using more than one monitor, allowing the user to:
• create as many groups of tabs rightward or downward in the Main Window as required and
freely move the tabs between these groups
• create a new floating window by moving a tab from the Main Window or from an already
existing floating window
• move tabs from a floating window to the Main Window (docking) or to another already existing
floating window
Moving and docking options apply to both tabs displaying single-line diagrams and those con-
taining plots. Even tabular reports can be moved or docked freely as described above. The
different moving and docking options can be accessed by right-clicking on the tab. Another
method, perhaps more intuitive, is to simply drag the tab to the centre of the screen to create
a new floating window or to an existing window to add the tab to it.
12. PowerFactory dynamically adapts to any screen resolution and DPI scaling setting. The appli-
cation perfectly respects DPI scaling when moving windows between two screens of different
resolution settings, e.g. when working with a laptop and an additional monitor, or two monitors of
different resolution settings.

4.7.2 Menu Bar

The menu bar contains the main PowerFactory menus. Each menu entry has a drop down list of menu
options and each menu option performs a specific action. To open a drop down list, either click on the
menu entry with the left mouse button, or press the Alt key together with the underlined letter in the
menu. Menu options that are shown in grey are not available, and only become available as the user
activates projects or calculation modes, as required.

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Figure 4.7.3: The help menu on the Menu bar

For example as show in Figure 4.7.3:

• To access PowerFactory tutorial: Press Alt-H to open the help menu. Use the keyboard to select
Tutorial. . . .
• To access the User Manual: Left click the Help menu. Left-click the option User Manual to open
the electronic User Manual.

4.7.3 Main Toolbar

The main PowerFactory toolbar provides the user with quick access to the main commands available
in the program (see Figure 4.7.2). Buttons that appear in grey are only active when appropriate. All
command icons are equipped with balloon help text which are displayed when the cursor is held still
over the icon for a moment, and no key is pressed.

Note that the visibility of buttons to an individual user may depend on the User Profile. See section 6.7
for more details about this.

To use a command icon, click on it with the left mouse button. Those icons that perform a task will
automatically return to a non-depressed state when that task is finished. Some command icons will
remain depressed, such as the button to Maximise Output Window. When pressed again, the button
will return to the original (non-depressed) state.

This section provides a brief explanation of the purpose of the icons found on the upper part of the
toolbar. Icons from the lower part of the toolbar are discussed in Chapter 9 (Network Graphics (Single
Line Diagrams)). Detailed explanations for each of the functions that the icons command are provided
in the other sections of the manual.

Open Data Manager

Opens a new instance of the Data Manager. When the option “Use multiple Data Manager” is
enabled in the user settings menu (User Settings → Data/Network Model Manager ) the user
will be able to open as many instances of the Data Manager as required. If “Use multiple
Data Manager” is disabled, the first instance of the Data Manager will be re-opened. For more
information on the Data Manager refer to Chapter 10.

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Open Network Model Manager

Opens the Network Model Manager, which is a browser for all calculation relevant objects. It
provides a list of all elements (coloured in green) and types (coloured in red) that are in an active
Grid: e.g. transformer types, line elements, composite models, etc. For more information, see
Chapter 12: Network Model Manager.

Study Case Manager

Deactivates the currently-active study case and opens the Study Case Manager window. See
section 13.2.1 for more details.

Date/Time of Calculation Case

Displays the date and time for the case calculation. This option is used when parameter charac-
teristics of specific elements (e.g. active and reactive power of loads) are set to change according
to the study time, or a Variation status is set to change with the study time.

Edit Trigger

Displays a list of all Triggers that are in the active study case. These Triggers can be edited in
order to change the values for which one or more characteristics are defined. These values will
be modified with reference to the new Trigger value. All Triggers for all relevant characteristics
are automatically listed. If required, new Triggers will be created in the study case. For more
information, see Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs. Section 18.2.

Network Data Assessment

Activates the Network Data Assessment command dialog to generate selected reports on net-
work data or to perform model data verification. For more information see Section 26.6: Capaci-
tive Earth-Fault Current or Section 25.6: Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems.

Calculate Load Flow

Activates the Load Flow Calculation command dialog. For more information about the specific
settings, refer to Chapter 25: Load Flow Analysis.

Calculate Short-Circuit

Activates the short-circuit calculation command dialog. For more information, refer to Chapter 26:
Short-Circuit Analysis.

Edit Short-Circuits

Edits Short-Circuit events. Events are used when a calculation requires more than one action or
considers more than one object for the calculation. Multiple fault analysis is an example of this. If,
for instance, the user multi-selects two busbars (using the cursor) and then clicks the right mouse
button Calculate → Multiple Faults a Short-circuit event list will be created with these two busbars
in it.

Execute Scripts

Displays a list of scripts that are available. See Section 4.8.1 for a general description of DPL
scripts, and Chapter 23: Scripting for detailed information.

Output Calculation Analysis

Presents calculation results in various formats. The output is printed to the output window
and can be viewed, or copied for use in external reports. Several different reports, depending
on the calculation, can be created. For more information about the output of results refer to
Chapter 19:Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.4.2.

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Insert Plot

Opens the Insert Plot dialog, where different types of plot can be selected. For more information
refer to Chapter 19:Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.7.

Documentation of Device Data

Presents a listing of device data (a device is the model of any physical object that has been
entered into the project for study). This output may be used in reports, and for checking data that
has been entered. Depending on the element chosen for the report, the user has two options;
generate a short listing, or a detailed report. For more information refer to Chapter 19: Reporting
and Visualising Results, Section 19.4.1.

Comparing of Results On/Off

Turns on/off comparing of calculation results. Used to compare results where certain settings
or designs options of a power system have been changed from one calculation to the next. For
more information refer to Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.5.

Edit Comparing of Results

Enables the user to select the cases/ calculation results that are to be compared to one another,
or to set the colouring mode for the difference reporting. For more information refer to Chap-
ter 19:Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.5.

Update Database

Utilises the current calculations results (i.e. the calculation ’output’ data) to change input param-
eters (i.e. data the user has entered). An example is the transformer tap positions, where these
have been calculated by the Load Flow command option “Automatic Tap Adjust of Tap Changers.”
For more information refer to Chapter 25: Load Flow Analysis, Section 25.5.7.

Save Operation Scenario

Saves the current operational data to an Operation Scenario (e.g. load values, switch statuses,
etc.). See Chapter 16: Operation Scenarios.

Break

Stops a transient simulation or DPL script that is running.

Reset Calculation

Resets any calculation performed previously. This icon is only enabled after a calculation has
been carried out.

Note: If Retention of results after network change is set to Show last results (User Settings, Miscella-
neous page), results will appear in grey on the single line diagram and on the Flexible Data tab
until the calculation is reset, or a new calculation performed.

Undo

This is used to undo the last action which caused information to be written to the database.

User Settings

User options for many global features of PowerFactory may be set from the dialog accessed by
this icon. For more information refer to Chapter 7: User Settings.

Maximise Graphic Window

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Maximises the graphic window. Pressing this icon again will return the graphic window to its
original state.

Maximise Output Window

Maximises the output window. Pressing this icon again will return the output window to its original
state.

Change Toolbox

In order to minimise the number of icons displayed on the taskbar, some icons are grouped based
on the type of analysis, and are only displayed when the relevant category is selected from the
Change Toolbox icon. In Figure 4.7.4, the user has selected Simulation RMS/EMT, and therefore
only icons relevant for RMS and EMT studies are displayed to the right of the Change Toolbox
icon. If, for example, Reliability Analysis were selected then icons to the right of the Change
Toolbox icon would change to those suitable for a reliability analysis.

Figure 4.7.4: Change Toolbox selection

4.7.4 The Output Window

In addition to results presented in the single line graphics and / or Data Manager, the output window
displays other textual output, such as error messages, warnings, command messages, device docu-
mentation, results of calculations, and generated reports, etc. This section describes output window
use and functionality.

4.7.4.1 Sizing and Positioning the Output Window

The default location of the output window is “docked” (fixed) at the bottom of the main window, but like
the other tool windows it can be moved around or resized.

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Two additional options for the output window are:

• Pressing the Maximise Graphic Window icon ( ) on the main toolbar to enlarge the graphics
board by hiding the output window.

• Pressing the Maximise Output Window icon ( ) icons on the main toolbar to enlarge the output
window.

4.7.4.2 Output Window Options

The contents of the output window may be stored, edited, printed, etc., using the icons shown on the
right-hand pane of the output window. Some commands are also available from the context sensitive
menu by right-clicking the mouse in the output window pane.

Opens the User Settings on the Output Window page.

Saves the selected text, or the complete contents of the output window if no selection was made, to
a text, html or csv file.
Copies the selected text to the Windows Clipboard. Text may then be pasted in other programs.

The contents of the output window are displayed and immediately saved in a file.

Redirects the output window to be printed directly.

Searches the text in the output window for the occurrences of a given text.

Clears the output window by deleting all messages. Note that when the user scrolls back and clicks
on previous messages in the output window, the output window will no longer automatically scroll
with new output messages. The Clear All icon will “reset” scrolling of the output window. Ctrl\End
can also be used to “reset” scrolling.

4.7.4.3 Using the Output Window

The output window facilitates preparation of data for calculations, and identification of network data
errors. Objects which appear blue in the output window generally have a hyperlink so that they can be
double-clicked with the left mouse button to open an edit dialog for the object. Alternatively, the object
can be right-clicked and then Edit, Edit and Browse Object, or Mark in Graphic selected. This simplifies
the task of locating objects in the single line graphic.

Additionally, options to jump between message types are available when selecting the option Go to →
Next/previous message

4.7.4.4 Output Window Filters

In the output window, shown in figure 4.7.5, the messages are not only coloured, but icons are also
used to indicate the category (error, warning, info, events,...); these categories can be filtered using the
predefined filtering tabs. There is also a text filter, to find specific text strings in the output messages.

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 4.7. USER INTERFACE

Figure 4.7.5: Output window

The messages in the output window are classified as following:

Error message: red.

Warning message: dark yellow.

Information messages: black.

Events messages: blue.

Output text: black.

The button Clear all filters can be used to remove all the selected filters.

4.7.4.5 Output Window Graphical Results

Reports of calculation results may contain bar graphical information. The “voltage profiles” report after a
load flow calculation, for instance, produces bar graphs of the per-unit voltages of busbars. These bars
will be coloured blue, green or red if the option Show Verification Report in the Load Flow Calculation
command has been enabled. They will be cross-hatched if the bars are too large to display.

Part of a bar graph output is shown in Figure 4.7.6 The following formatting is visible:

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Figure 4.7.6: Output window bar diagram

• Green Solid Bar: Used when the value is in the tolerated range.
• Blue Solid Bar: Used when the value is below a limit.
• Red Solid Bar: Used when the value is above a limit.
• Cross-hatched Bar: Used when the value is outside the range.

4.7.4.6 Copying from the Output Window

The contents of the output window, or parts of its contents, may be copied to the built-in editor of
PowerFactory, or to other programs. The lines that are to be copied are determined by the output
window settings; by default what is shown in the output window is copied. The filters can be used to
show only the messages of interest.

4.8 Scripting in PowerFactory

For automating tasks in PowerFactory, two scripting options are available: use of the inbuilt DIgSILENT
Programming Language DPL, or scripting using Python.

4.8.1 DIgSILENT Programming Language (DPL) Scripts

DPL offers an interface to the user for the automation of tasks in PowerFactory. By means of a
simple programming language and in-built editor, the user can define automation commands (scripts)
to perform iterative or repetitive calculations on target networks, and post-process the results.

To find the name of an object parameter to be used in a DPL script, simply hover the mouse pointer over
the relevant field in an object dialog. For example, for a general load, on the Load Flow page, hover the
mouse pointer over the Active Power field to show the parameter name plini.

User-defined DPL scripts can be used in all areas of power system analysis, for example:

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• Network optimisation
• Cable-sizing
• Protection coordination
• Stability analysis
• Parametric sweep analysis
• Contingency analysis

DPL scripts may include the following:

• Program flow commands such as ’if-else’ and ’do-while’
• PowerFactory commands (i.e. load-flow or short-circuit commands: ComLdf, ComShc)
• Input and output routines
• Mathematical expressions
• PowerFactory object procedure calls
• Subroutine calls
DPL command objects provide an interface for the configuration, preparation, and use of DPL scripts.
These objects may take input parameters, variables and/or objects, pass these to functions or subrou-
tines, and then output results.

By default, DPL commands are stored inside the Scripts folder of the project.

Consider the following simple example shown in Figure 4.8.1 to illustrate the DPL interface, and the
versatility of DPL scripts to take a user-selection from the single line graphic. The example DPL script
takes a load selection from the single line graphic, and implements a while loop to output the Load
name(s) to the output window. Note that there is also a check to see if any loads have been selected by
the user.

Figure 4.8.1: Example DPL Script

For further information about DPL commands and how to write and execute DPL scripts refer to Chap-
ter 23 (Scripting), and the DPL Reference.

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4.8.2 Python Scripts

In addition to DPL it is also possible to use the Python language to write scripts to be executed in
PowerFactory.

This can be done in one of two ways:

• The script can be written directly in a Python object (ComPython) in PowerFactory, or

• For more complex scripts, a Python script can written in an external editor and linked to the Python
command (ComPython) inside PowerFactory.

For further information about the Python command and how to write and execute Python scripts refer to
Chapter 23 (Scripting), and the Python Reference.

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 Part II

Administration
Chapter 5

Program Administration

This chapter provides information on how to configure PowerFactory, and how to log on. More de-
tailed descriptions of the installation, database settings and additional information can be found in the
Advanced Installation and Configuration Manual.

5.1 Program Installation and Configuration

In general there are 3 primary questions to consider before installing PowerFactory software, which will
determine the installation settings:

• Licence: Where should the licence key(s) reside?

• Installation: Where should PowerFactory be installed?
• Database: Where should the database reside?

Once PowerFactory has been installed, it can be started by clicking either on the Desktop or by selecting
PowerFactory in the Windows Start menu. PowerFactory will then start and create a user account upon
the initial user log-in. If the user is working in a single-user-database environment, PowerFactory will
take the username from Windows by default.

The user will then be automatically logged on. If more user accounts are subsequently created, the
user can switch to other users, or the Administrator account can be used to change the login policy so
that a dialog is presented when the user starts to log in. See section 6.4.2 for more information.

In a multi-user-database installation (see Chapter 6: User Accounts, User Groups, and Profiles) new
accounts and passwords are created by the administrator. The ’Administrator’ account is created when
installing PowerFactory and is used to create and manage users’ accounts in a multi-user environment
(see Chapter 6: User Accounts, User Groups, and Profiles). To log on as Administrator, the shortcut
from the Windows Start Menu can be used. When already running a PowerFactory session, the user
can select Tools → Switch User in the main menu to log-on as Administrator.

For further information about the role of the database administrator refer to Section 6.2: The Database
Administrator. Many of the activities carried out by the Administrator are easily accessed using the
Administration menu; this is found on the main toolbar but is only visible if the user is logged on as
Administrator. See Section 6.3 for further details.

Changes to the application settings can be made using the PowerFactory Configuration dialog. Once
PowerFactory is started, the Configuration dialog can be accessed via Tools → Configuration in Pow-
erFactory ’s main menu. Administrator rights are necessary to perform changes to these settings.

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5.2 PowerFactory Configuration

The configuration of the application is stored in an “ini” file located with the executable.These settings
can be changed within PowerFactory via the Configuration (SetConfig) dialog, which is available via
Tools → Configuration. Depending on where the file is stored, Windows administrator rights might be
required to change these settings.

5.2.1 General Page

On this page the user can select the application language for the session.

5.2.2 Database Page

This page allows the user to specify what kind of database will be used. The options are:

• A single-user database which resides locally on each computer

• A multi-user database (used in conjunction with the appropriate licence) which resides on a remote
server. Here all users have access to the same data simultaneously. In this case, user accounts
are created and administrated exclusively by the Administrator.

DIgSILENT PowerFactory provides drivers for the following multi-user database systems:

• Oracle
• Microsoft SQL Server

For further information regarding the database configuration refer to the Advanced Installation and
Configuration Manual.

5.2.3 Workspace Page

The Workspace page allows the user to set the workspace directory and the workspace backup direc-
tory. The workspace is used to store the local database, results files and log files. For further information
regarding options for configuring and using the workspace, refer to Chapter 5.4.

5.2.4 External Applications Page

The External Applications page is used to configure the external programs.

Python

• Interpreter: The Python Interpreter to be used can either be selected by version or by directory.

• Interpreter: A number of Python versions are supported

• Used Editor: There are three options to set the Python editor:
– internal: uses the internal editor provided by PowerFactory. This editor is the same used
when writing DPL scripts. More information about this editor can be found in section 23.1.3.
– system default: uses the system’s default editor for Python files (*.py); if no editor is defined
as default for Python files, then the default editor for text files (*.txt) is used. This is the default
option.
– custom: here the user can customise which editor should be used to open Python files.

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 5.2. POWERFACTORY CONFIGURATION

Visual Studio

Here the Version and Shell Extension of Visual Studio can be set. Visual Studio is used for the
compilation of DSL models.

PDF Viewer

Here the User can select which program should be used to open “.pdf” files. The are three options to
set the PDF viewer:
• system viewer: uses the system’s default editor for pdf files (*.pdf). This is the default option.
• Sumatra PDF: uses “Sumatra PDF” which is included in the PowerFactory installation.
• custom: here the user can customise which viewer should be used to open pdf files (*.pdf).

5.2.5 Network Page

The Network page is used to specify an HTTP proxy in the case where the user’s computer connects
to the internet via a proxy server.

Proxy configuration

Three options are available for specifying the proxy configuration, including options to change the proxy
settings externally to PowerFactory if required.
• Use the system proxy settings.
• Configure the proxy manually, supplying the host name and port number.
• Provide a path to a proxy auto-configuration file (PAC).
Proxy authentication

If it is necessary to provide authentication details to the proxy, this option is also checked, and the
relevant protocol selected from the drop-down list. Unless the username and password are to be taken
from the Windows user authentication details, they are entered here.

There is also a “Check internet Connection” button to check whether the configuration has been set up
successfully.

5.2.6 Geographic Maps Page

On the Geographic Maps page, the default settings for background maps can be changed. The following
parameters can be set:

• Map Tile Cache

– Directory: Map cache directory where downloaded map tiles are stored (default: workspace
directory). A custom directory can be specified if the cache should be shared across different
PowerFactory installations.
– RAM cache limit: This setting can be used to limit the amount of application memory that
should be used.
• Network Settings
– Preferred tile size [pixels]: Pixel dimensions of map tiles.
– Max server connections: Maximum number of map tiles that are downloaded simultane-
ously.
– Download time-out: Timespan after which a non-finished tile download is cancelled. This
value may need to be increased for slow/unstable internet connections.

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• Google Maps for Business account

If Google Maps is to be used as the map provider, the “Google Maps for Business account” data
must be set on this page as well. To acquire a licence, please contact Google sales: (http:
//www.google.com/enterprise/mapsearth).

Similarly, the licence keys for other map providers can be entered.

5.2.7 Advanced Page

General tab

• Paths in the Additional Directories in PATH field are used to extend the Windows path search.
Typically this is required for the Oracle client.
• Directories for external digex* libraries (DLL): The digex* libraries contain the compiled dy-
namic models.

Advanced tab

Settings on the Advanced tab should only be changed under the guidance of the DIgSILENT Power-
Factory support (see Chapter 2 Contact).

5.3 Licence

5.3.1 Select Licence

In order to run PowerFactory, the user is required to define licence settings in theDIgSILENT Power-
Factory Licence Manager, its dialog can be accessed via Tools → Licence→ Select Licence. . .

Note: The DIgSILENT PowerFactory Licence Manager can be started externally using the correspond-
ing shortcut in the main installation folder of PowerFactory or in the Windows start menu.

The Licence Access defines the type of licence, which can be a local licence (either a licence file or a
USB dongle) or a network licence.

Automatic search

This option searches automatically local and network licences via a broadcast and chooses the first one
found without further input.

Local Softkey / USB dongle

If local softkey / USB dongle is chosen, the Local Licence Settings require the selection of a Licence
Container. The locally found containers are available in the drop-down-list.

Network licence

If network licence is chosen, the server name has to be selected from the drop-down-list or entered
manually in the Network Licence Settings. Pressing will refresh the list of available licence servers
in the network. For the specified server the Licence container can be chosen from a drop-down-list or
entered manually.

Selected Licence:

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The field on the right side of the dialog shows various details relating to the selected licence. This
includes the order ID (useful for any contact with the sales department), the customer ID (useful for
contact with technical support), the maximum number of concurrent users for a multi user environment
and a list of the licensed additional modules. Note that the expiry date of the maintenance period for
the licence is also shown.

If problems with the licence occur, the button Create Licence Support Package creates a zipped file with
the needed information for the support to identify the cause of the problems.

5.3.2 Activate / Update / Deactivate / Move Licence

These options are relevant for local licences, where the user has to manage the licence. In a network
licence environment, this is done by the network administrator.

For the activation, the update and the deactivation process the licence related Activation Key has to be
entered into the upcoming dialog.

A PowerFactory software licence softkey can be moved between computers a limited number of times
per year. The licence move is a two-stage process:
1. An activated licence needs to be transferred back to the DIgSILENT server via the Deactivate
Licence feature of the Licence Manager.

2. The deactivated licence can be activated again on any computer.

More information regarding licence types and their management is available in the Advanced Installation
and Configuration Manual.

5.3.3 Licence and Maintenance Status

Via Help → About PowerFactory, users can get a summary of their PowerFactory installation, including
version number, available calculation functions, and licence and maintenance information.

Left-clicking on the traffic light icon located in the lower right corner of the main window status bar gives
quick access to this Help/About dialog, in which detailed information about licence and maintenance
status can be found, as shown in Figure 5.3.1.

Figure 5.3.1: Licence and Maintenance Status

Two states are monitored and categorised according to a traffic light colour system.

State of time-limited licences

• Green: licence can be used for at least 6 days

• Yellow: licence expires in less than 6 days

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 5.4. WORKSPACE OPTIONS

• If the licence has expired, PowerFactory will not start

State of maintenance contract

• Green: maintenance contract is valid for at least 46 days

• Yellow: maintenance contract expires in less than 46 days
• Red: maintenance contract has expired

Note: The traffic light icon shows the more severe of the two states with the time-limited licence state
having priority if both states have equal severity.

5.4 Workspace Options

By selecting Tools → Workspace from the main menu, the options described below are available.

5.4.1 Show Workspace Directory

The workspace directory can be seen by clicking Tools → Workspace→ Show workspace directory.

5.4.2 Import and Export Workspace

The ability to export and import the workspace can be a convenient way of transferring settings and
local databases from one installation to another. The location of the directory can be configured via the
PowerFactory Configuration menu.

To import the workspace, select Tools → Workspace→ Import Workspace. . . . This is a convenient way
to import the entire workspace after a new installation.

To export the workspace, select Tools → Workspace→ Export Workspace. . . . The package will be
saved as a .zip file.

5.4.3 Show Default Export Directory

The selection Tools → Workspace→ Show Default Export Directory from the main menu shows the user
the directory that is used for the export. In particular, this directory is used for automated backups, e.g.
before migration. The location of the directory can be configured via the PowerFactory Configuration
menu.

5.4.3.1 Migration Types

Complete: the database structure and all projects will be altered and migrated immediately upon
pressing the OK button.
Minimal: the database structure will be altered immediately, but the project migration will occur upon
activation.

Minimal migration is recommended for the migration of large databases.

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 5.5. OFFLINE MODE USER GUIDE

5.5 Offline Mode User Guide

This section describes working in offline mode. Installation of the offline mode is described in the
Advanced Installation and Configuration Manual.

The Offline Mode concept was introduced with users of multi-user databases in mind. Users who have
a Team Edition licence make use of a multi-user database because of the benefits it brings in terms of
sharing data. Sometimes, however, users wish to work detached from the main database. The following
terms are used in this section:

• Online: Connected to, and working in, the multi-user database

• Offline: Disconnected from the multi-user database and working in a local database cache.

5.5.1 Functionality in Offline Mode

5.5.1.1 Start Offline Session

Preconditions:
• A PowerFactory user account must already exist in the online database. The PowerFactory
“Administrator” user is able to create user accounts.
• A user can only start an offline session if he/she is not currently logged on.

Note: the Administrator user is only allowed to work in online mode (not in offline mode).

To create an offline session, follow these steps:

• Start PowerFactory. In the Log-on dialog enter the user name and password.
• On the Database page, enter the Offline Proxy Server settings (see Figure 5.5.1)

Figure 5.5.1: Log-on dialog, Database page

Note: Using a floating licence with the offline mode allows working with PowerFactory without
connection to the licence server. Please note, that the usage of floating licences has to be
included in the network licence and activated in the user settings.

• Press OK

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 5.5. OFFLINE MODE USER GUIDE

• If the usage of a floating licence is configured, PowerFactory will generate the floating licence and
adapt the licence settings. PowerFactory has to be started again afterwards.
• An information dialog appears, saying “Offline database isn’t initialised yet. The initialisation
process may take several minutes”.
• Press OK
• Following initialisation, the usual PowerFactory application window is shown.

5.5.1.2 Release Offline Session

• From the main menu, select File → Offline→ Terminate Offline session
• A warning message is shown to confirm the synchronisation
• Press Yes
• All unsynchronised local changes will then be transferred to the server and the local offline
database is removed.
• If a floating licence has been used in offline mode, this licence will be returned to the licence
server.

5.5.1.3 Synchronise All

Synchronises global data (new users, projects added, projects removed, projects moved) and all sub-
scribed projects.

• Open the main menu File → Offline→ Synchronise all

5.5.1.4 Subscribe Project for Reading Only

• Open the Data Manager and navigate to the project.

• Right-click on the project stub. A context menu is shown.
• Select Subscribe project in offline mode for reading only.

The project will then be retrieved from the Offline Proxy Server and stored in the local Offline DB cache.

5.5.1.5 Subscribe Project for Reading and Writing

Write access to the project is required.

• Open the Data Manager and navigate to the project.

• Right-click on the project stub. A context menu is shown.
• Select Subscribe project in Offline mode for reading and writing.

5.5.1.6 Unsubscribe Project

• Open the Data Manager and navigate to the project.

• Right-click on the project. A context menu is shown.
• Select Unsubscribe project in Offline mode.

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 5.6. HOUSEKEEPING

5.5.1.7 Add a New Project

A new project is created in offline mode. It is available only in this offline session. Later this project
should be published to other users and synchronised to the online database.

• Create a new project or import a PFD project file.

• Open the Data Manager and navigate to the project.
• Right-click on the project stub. A context menu is shown.
• Select Subscribe project in Offline mode for reading and writing.

5.5.1.8 Synchronise Project

Synchronises a subscribed project. If the project is subscribed for reading only, the local project will be
updated from the online database. If the project is subscribed for reading and writing, the changes from
the local offline database will be transferred to the online database.

• Open the Data Manager and navigate to the project

• Right-click on the project stub. A context menu is shown.
• Select Synchronise

5.5.2 Functionality in Online Mode

5.5.2.1 Show Current Online/Offline Sessions

The session status for each user is shown in the Data Manager.

Users who are working online appear like this , and those working offline like this .

5.5.3 Terminate Offline Session

There may occasionally be cases which require that an offline session be terminated by the Adminis-
trator; e.g. if the computer on which the offline session was initialised has been damaged and can no
longer be used, and the user wants to start a new offline session on a different computer.

The Administrator is able terminate a session as follows:

• Right-click on the user; the context menu is shown.
• Select Terminate session
• A warning message is shown to confirm the synchronisation.
• Press Yes

5.6 Housekeeping

5.6.1 Introduction

Housekeeping automates the administration of certain aspects of the database; in particular purging
projects, emptying user recycle bins and the deletion of old projects. Housekeeping is triggered by the

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 5.6. HOUSEKEEPING

execution of a Windows Scheduled Task; this can be set up to run at night, thus improving performance
during the day by moving regular data processing to off-peak times. An additional benefit to housekeep-
ing is that users will need to spend less time purging projects and emptying recycle bins, something that
can slow down the process of exiting PowerFactory.

Housekeeping is only available for multi-user databases (e.g. Oracle, SQL Server). For details on
scheduling housekeeping, see the PowerFactory Advanced Installation and Configuration Manual.

5.6.2 Configuring Permanently Logged-On Users

Normally, housekeeping will not process data belonging to logged-on users; however, some user
accounts (e.g. those for a control room) may be connected to PowerFactory permanently. These
users can be configured to allow housekeeping to process their data while they are logged on.

This is done from the User Settings dialog, Miscellaneous page, by selecting Allow housekeeping task
to operate when user is connected.

Regardless of this setting, housekeeping will not operate on a user’s active project.

5.6.3 Configuring Housekeeping Tasks

The Housekeeping command (SetHousekeeping) is used to control which housekeeping tasks are
enabled.

It is recommended that the user move this object from Database \System\Configuration\Housekeeping
to Database∖Configuration∖Housekeeping, in order to preserve the user’s configuration throughout
database upgrades.

The following sections discuss the different housekeeping tasks available in the Housekeeping dialog.

5.6.4 Project Archiving

Project archiving provides the following options:

• Disable: Archiving is not used.

• Immediate archiving by the user: by selecting “Archive” from the context menu, the project will
be immediately archived and placed in the vault directory.
• Deferred archiving by Housekeeping job: by selecting “Archive” from the context menu, the
project will be immediately archived, but not placed in the vault directory. This will happen
automatically depending on the Housekeeping settings.
Important: The vault directory can be defined under “Tools\Configuration\Database \Vault Directory”

A project cannot be archived unless it is deactivated. By right-clicking on the project a context menu
will appear. By selecting “Archive”, the project will be moved to the Archived Projects folder of the user
(IntUser ). If specified in the Housekeeping archiving options, the project will be immediately placed in
the vault directory.

Conversely, archived projects may also be restored. To restore an archived project, the user must select
“Restore” from the context menu which appears after right-clicking on a deactivated project.

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 5.6. HOUSEKEEPING

5.6.5 Configuring Deletion of Old Projects

If the option Remove projects based on last activation date has been selected in the Housekeeping
dialog, when the Housekeeping is executed, for each user, each project will be handled according to
the selected Action.

The Action options are:

• Delete project: deletes the project
• Archive project: archives the project
The project properties determine whether a project can be automatically deleted or archived.

The settings are found on the Storage page of the project dialog, and by default the option “Housekeep-
ing project deletion” is not selected. If it is selected, a retention period can be specified, by default 60
days.

These defaults can be changed for new projects by using a template project (under Configuration/De-
fault in the Data Manager tree).

The settings for multiple projects can be changed in a data manager on the Storage tab, as shown below
in Figure 5.6.1. A value of ’1’ is equivalent to the Housekeeping option Delete project being selected.

Figure 5.6.1: Setting parameters for multiple projects

A project will be deleted/archived by the housekeeping task if it meets the following criteria:

1. The project is configured for automatic deletion/archiving on the Storage page of the project
properties.
2. The last activation of the project is older than the retention setting on the project.
3. It is not a base project with existing derived projects.
4. It is not a special project (e.g. User Settings, or anything under the System or Configuration trees).
5. The project is not locked (e.g. active).
6. The owner of the project is not connected, unless that user is configured to allow concurrent
housekeeping (see Section 5.6.2).

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 5.6. HOUSEKEEPING

5.6.6 Configuring Purging of Projects

A PowerFactory project contains records of changes to data, which makes it possible to roll back the
project to an earlier state using versions (see section 21.2). However, as the user works with the project
and makes changes to it, the number of records increases and it is useful to remove older, unwanted
records in a process known as “purging”.

If Purge projects has been ticked in the Housekeeping dialog, when the Housekeeping is executed,
each project will be considered for purging. A project that is already locked (e.g. an active project) will
not be purged.

The criteria used by Housekeeping to purge a project are:

• If the project has been activated since its last purge.

• If it is now more than a day past the object retention period since last activation, and the project
has not been purged since then.
• If the project is considered to have invalid metadata (e.g. is a pre-14.0 legacy project, or a PFD
import without undo information).
Once housekeeping has been configured to purge projects, the automatic purging of projects on acti-
vation may be disabled by the user, thus preventing the confirmation dialog popping up. To do this, the
option Automatic Purging should be to Off on the Storage page in the Project Properties dialog. This
parameter can also be set to Off for multiple projects (see Section 5.6.5 for details).

5.6.7 Configuring Emptying of Recycle Bins

If Delete recycle bin objects is set in the Housekeeping dialog, when Housekeeping is executed, each
user’s recycle bin will be examined.

Entries older than the number of days specified in the Housekeeping dialog will be deleted.

5.6.8 Monitoring Housekeeping

In order to ensure that housekeeping is working correctly, it should be regularly verified by an adminis-
trator. This is done by inspecting the HOUSEKEEPING_LOG table via SQL or the data browsing tools of
the multi-user database. For each run, housekeeping will insert a new row to this table showing the start
and end date/time and the completion status (success or failure). Other statistics such as the number
of deleted projects are kept. Note that absence of a row in this table for a given scheduled day indicates
that the task failed before it could connect to the database. In addition to the HOUSEKEEPING_LOG
table, a detailed log of each housekeeping run is stored in the log file of the housekeeping user.

5.6.9 Summary of Housekeeping Deployment

The basic steps to implement housekeeping are:

1. Set up a Windows Scheduled Task, as described in the PowerFactory Advanced Installation and
Configuration Manual.
2. Configure those users expected to be active during housekeeping, as described in Section 5.6.2.
3. Configure the Housekeeping dialog as described in Section 5.6.3.

4. If using the project deletion/archiving task, configure automatic deletion/archiving properties for
new projects, as described in Section 5.6.5.

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 5.6. HOUSEKEEPING

5. If using the project deletion/archiving task, configure automatic deletion/archiving properties for
existing projects, as described in Section 5.6.5.
6. Regularly monitor the HOUSEKEEPING_LOG table to verify the status of housekeeping runs, as
described in Section 5.6.8.

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Chapter 6

User Accounts, User Groups, and

Profiles

This chapter provides details of how to create and manage user accounts, user groups, and profiles.
The information in this chapter is particularly relevant for a multi-user database (i.e. Team Edition), and
will not generally be of so much interest to a user with a single-use installation.

Key objectives of the user account managing system are to:

• Protect the ’system’ parts of the database from changes by normal (non-administrator) users.
• Configure and manage access to the database, via options for the authentication mode to be used
and options for password management.
• Manage settings relating to data security and privacy.
• Facilitate both the sharing of user data and the restriction of data visibility between one user group
and another.

The user account managing system provides each user with their own “private” database space. The
user is nevertheless able to use shared data, either from the common system database or from other
users, and may enable other users to use data from their private database.

The user account managing system manages this whilst using only one single database in the back-
ground, which allows for simple backup and management of the overall database.

The default name for a PowerFactory user (unless using Team Edition) is the Windows user name,
which is automatically created when PowerFactory is started for the first time.

6.1 PowerFactory Database Overview

A brief introduction to the top level structure of the PowerFactory database is convenient before pre-
senting the user accounts and their functionality.

The data in PowerFactory is stored inside a set of hierarchical directories. The top level structure is
constituted by the following folders:

• Configuration: contains company specific customising for user groups, user default settings,
project templates and class templates for objects. The configuration folder can only be edited by
the administrator and is read only for normal users.
• System: contains all objects that are used internally by PowerFactory. The system folder contains

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 6.2. THE DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR

default settings provided by DIgSILENT and these should not be changed. They are automatically
updated upon migration to a new PowerFactory version.
• DIgSILENT Library: contains all standard types and models provided with PowerFactory. The
main library folder is read only for normal users.
• User accounts: contain user project folders and associated objects and settings.

The structure described above is illustrated in Figure 6.1.1

Figure 6.1.1: Basic database structure

6.2 The Database Administrator

A database administrator account is created with the PowerFactory installation. The main functions of
the administrator are:

• Creation and management of user accounts.

• System database maintenance under the guidance of the DIgSILENT customer support.

Under a multiuser database environment, the administrator is the only user with permissions to:

• Add and delete users.

• Define users groups.

• Set individual user rights.
• Restrict or allow calculation functions.
• Set/reset user passwords.

• Create and edit Profiles (see Section 6.6 for details).

• Configure various settings such as housekeeping processes, parallel processing configuration,
password security options etc.

The administrator is also the only user that can modify the main library and the system folders. Although
the administrator has access to all the projects of all the users, it does not have the right to perform any
calculations.

To log on as administrator, there are two options:

• Select the Shortcut in the Windows Start Menu PowerFactory 20nn (Administrator).

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 6.3. ADMINISTRATION MENU

• Log into PowerFactory as a normal User and select via the Main menu Tools → Switch User.
Select Administrator and enter the corresponding password.

For further information about the administrator role, refer to the Advanced Installation and Configuration
Manual.

6.3 Administration Menu

To assist the administrator, an Administration menu is provided to give easy access to the more impor-
tant settings; this is found on the main toolbar but is only visible if the user is logged on as Administrator.
These are the options available from this menu:

6.3.1 User Management

The options available here are:

• Show Users...
• Show Groups...
• User Manager...

These are used to manage User accounts and User Groups as described in Sections 6.5 and 6.6.

6.3.2 Security and Privacy

The options available here are:

• Audit Log...
• Login Policy...

• Idle Session Timeout...

• External Data Access...
• Privacy...

These are described in Section 6.4 below.

6.3.3 Calculation Settings

The options available here are:

• Parallelisation...This allows the administrator to configure the Parallel Computing Manager.
• Linear Programming...This brings up a dialog which enables the administrator to configure which
internal and external linear programming solvers should be made available to users who are using
the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation module. See Section 39.3.6.2.

6.3.4 Housekeeping

This gives access to the dialog for setting up Housekeeping tasks. Details can be found in Section 5.6.

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 6.4. SECURITY AND PRIVACY

6.4 Security and Privacy

This section gives an overview of the security and privacy features which can be managed by the
administrator. Note that more detail is provided in the Advanced Installation and Configuration Manual.

6.4.1 Audit Log

The Audit Log is a log of key activities on the database, and is useful for the administrator of a multi-user
database.

6.4.1.1 Enabling the Audit Log

The log can be enabled by the administrator via the Administration Menu (Administration → Security
and Privacy → Audit Log...), where a retention period is also set. By default the log is not enabled, and
it should be noted that if the log is enabled then later disabled, all records will be lost. The information
in the Audit log is securely held in the database itself.

6.4.1.2 Using the Audit Log

An Audit Log command ComAuditlog can be created by the Administrator user and used to access the
information in the log. The command options are:

• Report, to generate a high-level report to the Output Window

• Export, to export a detailed report
• Check Integrity As an additional assurance, it is possible to carry out a data integrity check on
the Audit Log data to detect any data manipulation.

A more detailed description of the Audit Log and what it contains can be found in the Advanced
Installation and Configuration Manual.

6.4.2 Login Policy Options

6.4.2.1 Authentication Mode

Here the administrator determines what authentication (username and password) mode will be used.
The options are:
• PowerFactory authentication provides built-in user management, where the users must enter
their PowerFactory usernames and passwords
• Active Directory authentication uses the external Windows Active Directory for user authenti-
cation
• No authentication
If the Active Directory authentication is selected, then the user can click on the “...” to the right of each
group to select the Active Directory group, then give it an appropriate name within PowerFactory. All
groups must be within the same domain. It should be noted that only one user in the second group
(Administrators) may be logged in at any one time.

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 6.5. CREATING AND MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS

6.4.2.2 Password Policy

If the authentication mode Powerfactory authentication is selected, further options appear, allowing
the administrator to impose rules to enforce regular password changes and/or put in place rules on
password quality, such as length and character diversity.

6.4.3 Idle Session Timeout

In this option, the administrator can set a time-limit after which any idle PowerFactory session will
be terminated. Such a session will be closed down in an ordered way, but it should be noted that
unsaved scenario changes will be lost. A session will only be considered as idle if there has been no
activity for the prescribed time, where “activity” means user activity such as mouse-clicks or keyboard
actions. However, if a command is being executed (for example a long-running simulation, or a script),
PowerFactory will wait until the command has been completed before terminating the session.

As well as being a good security measure, setting an Idle Session Timeout is useful in a multi-user
environment because the licences are released back to the licence server.

6.4.4 External Data Access

The External Data Access dialog allows the administrator to specify permitted addresses in order to
manage access to data outside PowerFactory. This control is related to IntUrl and IntDocument objects
which are being used to access external data.

6.4.5 Privacy

This feature is available to allow database administrators to manage the visibility of user names. There
are two options, which by default are not enabled:
• Enable recording of modifying user in object, which if checked will mean that the “Object
modified by” information will include the PowerFactory user name.
• Display system account in user object, which if checked will mean that the Windows username
will appear in the IntUser object when the user has an active session.

6.5 Creating and Managing User Accounts

In the case of an installation with a local database, the default name for a PowerFactory user is the
Windows user name, which is automatically created when PowerFactory is started for the first time. (see
Chapter 5: Program Administration). In this case the program will automatically create and activate the
new account, without administrator intervention. In order to create other PowerFactory users if required,
the ’User Manager’ object can be used as described below:

In multi-user database installations, the administrator creates new user accounts by means of a tool
called the ’User Manager’, which is found in the Configuration folder.

To create a new user:

• Log on as Administrator. You can do so by starting the PowerFactory Administrator shortcut in the
Windows Start menu or by switching the user via Tools → Switch User in the main tool bar.
• The User Manager can be accessed from the Administration menu on the main toolbar: Adminis-
tration → User Management→ User Manager...

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• Press the Add User. . . button.

The User edit dialog will be displayed. The settings are the following:

• General page
– User Name: user Name that will be used for login to PowerFactory at startup
– Full Name: full Name of the appropriate user. In case, that the parameter User Name is set
to be an abbreviation.
– Change Password: the administrator can change the user password here, without knowing
the previous password. If this button is clicked by the user itself, the current password has to
be entered as well.
– Force password change: can be selected by the administrator.
– User sharing: by adding different users into the list of permitted users, access for these users
can be granted to login to the appropriate user account. If User A is in the list of permitted
user, User A can access the user account without entering the user password.
• Account page:
– Publishing user: by setting this flag, the user can be defined to be a publishing user. This
means, that the user is visible to other users within the database and marked with a different
symbol within the data manager. This option can be used to provide an user within the
multiuser database, who publishes projects.
– User account enabled: this setting can be used to enable/disable the user Account
– User account is time-limited: this option will set the account to be time limited and therefore
can be used for temporary users within the database.
– Force Authentication server usage: setting this option also requires the definition of an
authentication server within the PowerFactory configuration as explained in the manual.
• Password Policy page: On this page, the default Password policy (see section 6.4.2) can be
customised by the administrator for the user.
• Licence page: if a licensed version with a restricted number of functions is used (i.e. you may
have 4 licences with basic functionality, but only 2 stability licences), the Licence tab may be used
to define the functions that a user can access. The Multi-User Database option should be checked
for all users that will access the multi user database.
As an alternative to allocating access to certain licence functions to individual users, it is possible
to allocate access via User Groups instead. See section 6.6 below.
• Parallel Computing: here it can be defined whether the user is allowed to use parallel processing
possibilities within PowerFactory. The “User defined” setting allows the individual user to cus-
tomise the globally-defined allowed processes number to a lower number if required, for example
to free up resources for other applications.
• Optimisation: the Unit Commitment module (see Chapter 39) offers the possibility to use in-built
or external linear problem solvers, the latter requiring an additional licence module. Here, the
administrator enables access to the preferred solver(s).

Existing users can be viewed via the Administration menu on the main toolbar: Administration → User
Management→ Show Users.... The administrator can edit any user account to change the user name,
set new calculation rights or change the password. To edit an existing user account:

• Right-click on the desired user and select Edit from the context sensitive menu. The User edit
dialog will be displayed.

Any user can edit her/his own account by means of the User edit dialog. In this case only the full name
and the password can be changed.

Note: The administrator is the only one who may delete a user account. Although users can delete
all projects inside their account folder, they cannot delete the account folder itself or the standard
folders that belong to it (i.e. the Recycle Bin or the Settings folder).

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6.6 Creating User Groups

User groups are a useful way for managing various access rights and permissions within a multi-user
database environment. For example, any project or folder in a user account may be shared, either with
everybody or with specific user groups. User groups can also be used in conjunction with Profiles (see
section 6.7) and for controlling access to licence modules.

User groups are created by the administrator via the User Manager. To create a new user group:

• Log on as Administrator.
• The User Manager can be accessed from the Administration menu on the main toolbar: Adminis-
tration → User Management→ User Manager...
• Press the Add Group. . . button.

• Enter the name of the new group, optionally a description and press Ok.
• The new group is automatically created in the User Groups directory of the Configuration folder.

Existing groups can be viewed via the Administration menu on the main toolbar: Administration → User
Management→ Show Groups.... The administrator can change the name of an existing group by means
of the corresponding edit dialog (right clicking on it and selecting Edit from the context sensitive menu).
Via the context sensitive menu, groups can also be deleted.

The administrator can add users to a group by:

• Copying the user in the Data Manager (right click on the user and select Copy from the context
sensitive menu).

• Selecting a user group in the left pane of the Data Manager.

• Pasting a shortcut of the copied user inside the group (right-click the user group and select Paste
Shortcut from the context sensitive menu).

Users are taken out of a group by deleting their shortcut from the corresponding group.

The administrator can also set the Groups Available Profiles on the Profile tab of the Group dialog.

In addition, the Licence page of the User Group can be used to configure which licence modules
members of the group will have access to. For any individual user, the licence modules available to
that user will be all those selected in that individual user’s account set-up, plus any additional licence
modules made available to the group(s) to which the user belongs.

For information about sharing projects, refer to Section 21.6 (Sharing Projects).

6.7 User Interface Customisation (Profiles)

Profiles can be used to configure aspects of the Graphical User Interface, such as toolbars, menus, di-
alog pages, and dialog parameters. By default, PowerFactory includes “Base Package” and “Standard”
profiles, selectable from the main menu under Tools → Profiles. Selecting the “Base Package” profile
limits icons shown on the Main Toolbar to those that are used with the Base Package of the software.
The “Standard” profile includes all available PowerFactory icons.

Profiles are created in the Configuration → Profiles folder by selecting the New Object icon and then
Others → Settings→ Profile. An administrator can create and customise profiles, and control User/User
Group selection of profiles from the Profile tab of each group.

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Figure 6.7.1 shows the Profile dialog for a new profile, CustomProfile, and Figure 6.7.2 illustrates
aspects of the GUI that may be customised using this profile. This section describes the customisation
procedure.

Figure 6.7.1: Profile dialog

Figure 6.7.2: GUI Customisation using Profiles

6.7.1 Tool Configuration

Definition of Icons

Icons can be defined in the Configuration → Icons folder by selecting the New Object icon and then

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Others → Other Elements→ Icon (IntIcon). From the Icon dialog, icon images can be imported and
exported. Icons should be 24 pixels by 24 pixels in Bitmap format (recommended to be 24-bit format).

Command Configuration

The User-defined Tools toolbar can be used to make commonly-used tools such as scripts and Add
On Modules available to users. Changes and additions to the User-defined Tools toolbar can only be
made by the administrator; from the top menu, Tools → Tool Configuration. . . is selected and the fields
described below can be edited.

• Command: in this field, the relevant command or script is selected from the location where it has
been stored.
– Scripts: scripts may be stored within the Tool Configuration itself or in the Configuration,
Scripts folder
– Com* objects: generally, commands Com* are stored within the Tool Configuration itself.
– Add On Modules: add on module commands can be stored in the Configuration, Add On
folder.

• Edit: if selected, the DPL command dialog will appear when a Command is executed. If de-
selected, the DPL command dialog will not appear when a Command is executed.
• Icon: previously created icons can be selected, which will be shown on the menu where the
command is placed. If no icon is selected, a default icon will appear (a Hammer, DPL symbol, or
default Com* icon, depending on the Class type).

Template Configuration

• Template: the name of the template. The name may be for a unique template, or include
wildcards (such as *.ElmLne) for selection of a group of templates. Templates should be in
’System/Library/Busbar Systems’ folder, or in the ’Templates’ folder of the active project.

• Drawing mode: the drawing mode can be set where there are multiple diagrammatic representa-
tions for a template (such as for a substation). Three options are available:
– Blank will place the default (detailed) graphic of the template.
– Simplified will place the simplified graphic of the template.
– Composite will place a composite representation of the template.
• Symbol name: sets the representation of templates with a composite drawing mode (e.g. Gen-
eralCompCirc or GeneralCompRect).

• Icon: previously created icons can be selected, which will be shown on the menu where the
template is placed. If no icon is selected, a default icon will appear (a Template symbol or custom
icon).
• Description: this description will be displayed when a user hovers the mouse pointer over the
icon. If left blank, the template name will be displayed.

6.7.2 Configuration of Toolbars

The Main Toolbar and Drawing Toolbars can be customised using the Toolbar Configuration. The field
Toolboxes may either refer to a Toolbox Configuration (SetTboxconfig) or a Toolbox Group Configuration
(SetTboxgrconfig), which may in-turn refer to one or more Toolbox Configurations.

Figure 6.7.3 shows an example where there is a main toolbox, and a toolbox group. The toolbox group
adds a Change Toolbox icon to the menu, which allows selection of Basic Commands and Custom
Commands groups of commands.

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Figure 6.7.3: Toolbar Configuration

Each toolbox can be customised to display the desired icons, such as illustrated in Figure 6.7.4

Figure 6.7.4: Toolbox Configuration

Prior to customising the displayed buttons and menu items etc, the user should first define any required
custom Commands and Templates. A Tool Configuration object can be created in the Configuration →
Profiles folder, or within a user-defined Profile, by selecting the New Object icon and then Others →
Settings→ Tool Configuration. If created in the Profiles folder, the commands will be available from the
“Standard” profile. Conversely, if the Tool Configuration object is created within a profile (SetProfile) the
commands and templates will only be available for use in this profile. If there is a Tool Configuration
within a user-defined profile, as well as in the Profiles folder, the Tool Configuration in the user-defined

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profile will take precedence. Optionally, customised icons can be associated with the Commands and
Templates.

6.7.3 Configuration of Menus

The Main Menu, Data Manager, Graphic, Plots, and Output Window menus can be customised from
the Menu Configuration dialog. The Change to Configuration View button of the Profile dialog is used
to display description identifiers for configurable items, such as illustrated in the context-sensitive menu
shown in Figure 6.7.5. The Menu Configuration includes a list of entries to be removed from the specified
menu. Note that a Profile may include multiple menu configurations (e.g. one for each type of menu to
be customised).

Figure 6.7.5: Menu Configuration

6.7.4 Configuration of Dialog Pages

The Dialog Page Configuration may be used to specify the Available and Unavailable dialog pages
shown when editing elements, such as illustrated in Figure 6.7.6. Note that Users can further customise
the displayed dialog pages from the Functions tab of their User Settings.

Figure 6.7.6: Dialog Page Configuration

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6.7.5 Configuration of Dialog Parameters

The Dialog Configuration may be used to customise element dialog pages, such as illustrated for a
Synchronous Machine element in Figure 6.7.7. “Hidden Parameters” are removed from the element
dialog page, whereas “Disabled Parameters” are shown but cannot be modified by the user. A Profile
may include multiple dialog configurations (e.g. one for each class to be customised).

Note that if a there is a Dialog Configuration for say, Elm* (or similarly for ElmLne,ElmLod), as well as
a dialog Configuration for ElmLne (for example), the configuration settings will be merged.

Figure 6.7.7: Dialog Configuration

Note: Configuration of Dialog parameters is an advanced feature of PowerFactory, and the user should
be cautious not to hide or disable dependent parameters. Seek assistance from DIgSILENT
support if required.

6.7.6 References

Profiles can also contain references to configurations. This allows several profiles to use the same
configurations. These referenced configurations can either be stored in another profile or in a subfolder
of the “Profiles” folder (e.g. a user-defined profile can use configurations from a pre-defined profile).

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Chapter 7

User Settings

The User Settings dialog offers general settings which can be configured by the user individually. The
dialog may be opened either by clicking the User Settings button ( ) on the main tool bar, or by
selecting the Tools → User Settings. . . menu item from the main menu.

7.1 Data/Network Model Manager Settings

The Data/Network Model Manager settings include:

Browser

• Save Data Automatically. The Data Manager and the Network Model Manager will not ask for
confirmation every time a value is changed in the data browser when this option is selected.
• Confirm Delete Action. Causes a confirmation dialog to appear whenever something is about to
be deleted.

Data Manager

• Sort Automatically. Specifies that objects are automatically sorted (by name) in the data browser.
• Remember last selected object. The last selected object will be remember when a new Data
Manager window is opened.

• Use multiple Data Manager. When enabled, more than one Data Manager dialog can be opened
at a time. When disabled only one Data Manager may be opened at a time and pressing the New
Data Manager button will pop up the minimised Data Manager.

Operation Scenario

• If Save active Operation Scenario automatically is enabled, the period for automatic saving
must be defined.
• Automatically migrate to current configuration during activation. The default is for this option
to be selected. This means that after migration to a new version of PowerFactory, the operation
scenarios will be migrated when a project is activated, and any new scenario data attributes will
be assigned values based on the current status of the object. If the option is not selected, the
scenario will not be migrated (and values will not be assigned) until that scenario is saved, and
this may be the user preference. Note however that the scenarios have to be migrated to the
current PowerFactory version if the Operation Scenario Manager (see Section 16.4) is used.

Export/Import Data (DZ/DZS)

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Configures the export and import as follows:

- Binary Data. Saves binary data, such as results in the result folders, to the ’DZ’ export
files according to selection.
- Export References to Deleted Objects. Will also export references to objects which
reside in the recycle bin. Normally, connections to these objects are deleted on export.
- Export ’Modified by’. Enables the export of information about who last changed an
object (attribute ’modified by’). This information could conflict with data privacy rules and
is therefore configurable.

Custom Library

In the Used Library field, the user can specify the additional global library to be displayed when
assigning a type.

More information about creating a custom global library is available in section 4.5.2: Custom
Global Library.

7.2 Window Layout

Here the user has some options for customising the default appearance and layout of the windows.

Tabbed Document Interface

The graphical pages are displayed as tabbed documents, with the tabs by default at the top of each
page.
• Show tab icons: icons can be shown on the tabs, to help the user distinguish between different
pages. With the option turned off, the tabs take up less space.
• Show confirmation dialog when closing diagrams: Users may prefer not to have the confirma-
tion dialog. Closed (but not deleted) diagrams can of course be re-opened.
• Tab position: If the user prefers, the tabs can be shown at the bottom of the graphics.

Drawing Toolbox

Here the user can select whether group headers and/or element labels in the drawing toolbox should
be shown or not. These options can also be changed within the toolbox itself.

7.3 Graphic Windows Settings

7.3.1 General tab

Open graphics board on study case activation

Causes the graphics windows to re-appear automatically when a study case is activated. When
not checked, the graphics window must be opened manually via Window → Graphic Board.

Mark in Graphic

• The colour and opacity used when the objects are marked in the graphics can be defined.
• Highlight small elements using additional markers. Sometimes small objects such as termi-
nals are hard to spot even when highlighted. If this option is selected, the position of such objects
will be indicated using a marker.

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• Zoom in on marked elements. If this is selected, the graphic where the object is to be shown will
be zoomed in so that the object can be more easily seen. The level of zoom for both schematic
and geographic diagrams can be configured by the user.

Use custom background colour

If the option is enabled, the user can define the background colour for graphics, selecting from a
drop-down menu.

General Options

• Diagram window margin: The graphical pages are by default shown against a grey background,
with a small margin. The size of that margin can be adjusted here.
• Show Grid only if step size will be least: Grid points smaller than the selected size will not be
shown.
• Show Text only if height will be least: Text smaller than the selected size will not be shown.

7.3.2 Advanced tab

Cursor

Defines the cursor shape:

- Arrow. A normal, arrow shaped cursor.

- Tracking Cross. A small cross.

Default Font for New Graphic

When the Use custom font. is enabled, a customised font can be defined.

Acceleration of Zooming

The higher the Acceleration factor, the more zoom there will be for a given mouse operation.

Update Graphic while Simulation is running

The graphic will be updated during the simulation.

Allow resizing of branch objects

If the option is enabled, the user can left click an edge element within the single line graphic and
then resize it.

Show “Edit Graphic Object” in context sensitive menu

If the option is enabled, when the user right-clicks on an element within the single line graphic,
the option “Edit Graphic Object” will be offered.

Snap Textboxes

By default, this option is not enabled, allowing the user to position text-boxes precisely. However,
selecting the option makes it easier to align text boxes with each other.

7.4 Output Window Settings

Enable Message filter

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When un-checking this box, the filter buttons are removed from the output window.

Displayed Messages

This is where the filters used in the output window are defined. This, however, can be directly done in
the output window.

Message format

• No date and time: the messages in the output window will be printed without a time stamp.
• Date and time to the second: the date and time of the system up to the second will be shown in
every line of the output window.
• Date and time to the millisecond: the date and time of the system up to the millisecond will be
shown in every line of the output window.
• Full object names: when an object is printed, the complete name (including the location path) is
printed.

Font

The font used in the output window is set by clicking the button Font...

Page Setup

If the user wishes to print out the contents of the output window, the button Page Setup... offers a range
of settings which can be used to configure the output.

Show confirmation dialog before clearing messages

This option is normally checked, to avoid users accidentally losing messages that they need, but
deselecting it allows users to clear the output more quickly.

7.5 Profile Settings

PowerFactory provides standard profiles which define the configurations of the toolbars seen by the
users. It is also possible for the Administrator to set up additional profiles, in order to provide customi-
sation for different users (see Section 6.7) for details.

Here, the user can select the required profile and see the configuration details.

7.6 Functions Settings

The functions settings page provides check boxes for the function modules that are accessible from the
Data Manager or from the object edit dialogs. The user may choose to see only certain modules in
order to “unclutter” dialogs.

This may also be used to protect data by allowing only certain calculation functionality to be seen by
certain users. This is particularly useful in a multi-user environment or when inexperienced users utilise
PowerFactory.

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7.7 Editor Settings

The editor used for DPL scripts, DSL equations and, if selected, Python scripts, can be configured on
this page.

Options

• Enable Auto Indent. Automatically indents the next line.

• Enable Backspace at Start of Line. Will not stop the backspace at the left-most position, but will
continue at the end of the previous line.
• View blanks and Tabs. Shows these spaces.
• Show Selection Margin. Provides a column on the left side where bookmarks and other markings
are shown.

• Show line Numbers. Shows line numbers.

• Enable Autocomplete. A list of possible functions will be shown when writing a word inside the
editor.
• Tab Size. Defines the width of a single tab.

Tabs

Toggles between the use of standard tabs, or to insert spaces when the tab-key is used.

Font... and Colours...

Here the user can customise the text used inside the editor.

7.8 Colours Settings

To make it easier for users to identify the different sources of data easily, background colouring of the
data fields is used, both in the network model manager and in the element dialogs.

As can be seen in Figure 7.8.1, the user can select different colours. In addition, because data
might belong to more than one category (e.g. operation scenario data which also has associated
characteristics), the user can set priorities according to which information is considered more important.

Figure 7.8.1: Data colouring options

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7.9 StationWare Settings

When working with DIgSILENT ś StationWare connection options are stored in the user settings.The
connection options are as follows:

Service Endpoint

Denotes the StationWare server name. This name resembles a web page URL and must have
the form:

• https://the.server.name/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx or
• https://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx

https denotes the protocol, the.server.name is the computer name (or DNS) of the server
computer and psmsws/PSMSService.asmx is the name of the StationWare application.

Note: The default StationWare configuration requires SSL for the StationWare applications (web GUI
and web services). Please use http instead of https, if SSL is not enabled for your StationWare
applications.

Username/Password

Username and Password have to be valid user account in StationWare. A StationWare user
account has nothing to do with the StationFactory user account. The very same StationWare
account can be used by two different PowerFactory users.The privileges of the StationWare
account actually restrict the functionality. For device import the user requires read-access rights.
For exporting additionally write-access rights are required.

7.10 Offline Settings

These settings are only relevant if the installation has been configured to enable Offline mode to be
used (see Section 5.5). Users will normally leave these settings at their default values.

• Id contingent size. It is necessary, when starting an Offline session, to reserve object ids in the
main database so as to avoid any conflicts. This parameter specifies the number of ids to be
reserved, and therefore the number of objects that could be created.
• Id contingent warning threshold. Once the user reaches this percentage of the above number
of ids, a warning is issued. This can act as a prompt for timely resynchronisation of the user’s
changes.

7.11 Parallel Computing

The settings for parallel computing are centrally defined by the Administrator, as described in Sec-
tion 22.4.

However, an individual user may wish to modify the settings and it is possible to do so on this page. A
typical reason for this would be that the user wishes to make use of parallel computation but does not
want to use the maximum allowed number of cores, because of a need to work on other applications
outside PowerFactory at the same time. Here the user can opt to use fewer (but not more) cores than
the maximum set by the Administrator.

On the Advanced tab, there are two more options:

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• Max. waiting time for process response: The default setting here is 50s. A shorter time risks
stopping processes which are still executing tasks, and a longer time could slow down the overall
execution time. This setting should be changed only with care.

• Transfer complete project to all processes: The default is for this not to be selected. This is
because normally PowerFactory transfers all data required. Only in exceptional circumstances
should it be set, and the user should be aware that there is likely to be an adverse effect on
performance.

7.12 Miscellaneous Settings

Localisation

• Decimal Symbol. Selects the symbol selected to be used for the decimal point.

• Use operating system Format for Date and Time. The operating system date and time settings
are used when this is checked.

Retention of results after network change

When the option Show last results is selected, modifications to network data or switch status etc.
will retained the results, these will be shown on the single line diagram and on flexible data pages
in grey until the user reset the results (e.g. by selecting Reset Calculation, or conducting a new
calculation).

Check for application updates

PowerFactory will remind the User if there are new updates available for the software. In this field
is defined how often PowerFactory shall check for available updates. By default there will be a
reminder every 14 days. The possible options are:

• Manually: the User will check for updates manually, no reminder will be shown.
• On each application start: a reminder will be shown every time PowerFactory is started.
• According to interval: a reminder will be shown according to the time defined in this field.

System Stage Profile

This setting relates to the old system stage system used before the current Variations were introduced.
The options define the extent to which the user can create or modify the “old” stages.

Edit Filter before Execute

If this is selected, when the user uses a filter, a dialog box appears and the user may first change
something or immediately press Apply; if this option is not checked then filters are just applied
straightaway.

Allow housekeeping task to operate when user is connected

This option is only active if housekeeping is enabled.

Show ’Remove Contingencies’ confirmation dialog in Contingency Analysis

When existing contingencies will be removed because they will be overwritten by new ones (e.g.
when using the Contingency Definition tool), the default behaviour is to ask the user to confirm,
in case of error. If the user prefers not to be asked, this option should be deselected.

Show ’Reset Calculation’ confirmation dialog

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This option can be deselected if the user does not want to be asked for confirmation when using
the “Reset Calculation” button.

Show ’Example’ dialog at startup

This option can be deselected if the user does not want to see the Example dialog at each log-on.
It can also be deselected directly from the dialog itself.

Show ’Exit’ dialog

When the user closes PowerFactory a confirmation dialog normally appears. In addition to
confirming that the user wishes to exit, it offers options relating to project purging and recycle
bin emptying. There is also a “Don’t ask again” option which can be checked. This user setting
is another way of disabling the confirmation dialog, or of course re-enabling it.

Show backup reminder dialog

If this option is set, the user will receive a reminder about making a database backup when
logging in.

Confirm Delete Action

If this option is set, a confirmation dialog will appear whenever something is about to be deleted.

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 Part III

Handling
Chapter 8

Basic Project Definition

The basic database structure in PowerFactory and the data model used to define and study a power
system is explained in Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview). It is recommended that users become
familiar with this chapter before commencing project definition and analysis in PowerFactory. This
chapter describes how to define and configure projects, and how to create grids.

8.1 Defining and Configuring a Project

There are three methods to create a new project. Two of them employ the Data Manager window and
the third employs the main menu. Whichever method is used the end result will be the same: a new
project in the database.

Method 1: Using the main menu:

• On the main menu choose File → New→ Project.

• Enter the name of the project. Make sure that the Target Folder is set to the folder in which the
project should be created. By default it is set to the active user account folder.
• Press Execute.

Method 2: Using the element selection dialog from the Data Manager:

• In the Data Manager click on the New Object button ( )

• In the field at the bottom of the Element Selection window (IntPrj) (after selecting option Others in
the Elements field). Note that names in PowerFactory are case-sensitive.
• Press Ok. The project folder dialog will then open. Press Ok.

Method 3: Directly via the Data Manager:

• Locate the active user in the left-hand pane of the Data Manager.
• Place the cursor on the active user’s icon or a folder within the active user account and right-click.
• From the context-sensitive menu choose New → Project. Press Ok. The project folder dialog will
then open. Press Ok.

Note: The ComNew command is used to create objects of several classes. To create a new project it
must be ensured that the Project option is selected.

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In order to define and analyse a power system, a project must contain at least one grid and one
study case. After the new project is created (by any of the methods described), a new study case
is automatically created and activated. A dialog used to specify the name and nominal frequency of a
new, automatically-created grid pops up. When the button OK is pressed in the grid dialog:

• The new grid folder is created in the newly-created project folder.

• An empty single line diagram associated with the grid is opened.

The newly-created project has the default folder structure shown in Figure 8.1.1. Although a grid folder
and a study case are enough to define a system and perform calculations, the new project may be
expanded by creating library folders, extra grids, Variations, Operation Scenarios, Operational Data
objects, extra study cases, graphic windows, etc.

Projects can be deleted by right-clicking on the project name in the Data Manager and selecting Delete
from the context-sensitive menu. Only inactive projects can be deleted.

Note: The default structure of the project folder is arranged to take advantage of the data model
structure and the user is therefore advised to adhere to it. Experienced users may prefer to
create, within certain limits, their own project structure for specific advanced studies.
If the user wishes to change the default structure of the project, it can be modified from the
Administrator account. The default structure is defined in a project held the folder: System,
Configuration, Default.

Figure 8.1.1: Default project structure

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8.1.1 Project Dialog

The project (IntPrj) dialog can be accessed by selecting Edit → Project Data→ Project. . . on the main
menu or by right-clicking the project folder in the Data Manager and selecting Edit from the context-
sensitive menu.

The Basic Data page contains basic project settings and allows the creation of new study cases and
grids:

• Pressing the button in the Project Settings field opens the Project Settings dialog (SetProj).
See section 8.1.2 for more information regarding the settings of the project.
• Pressing the New Grid button will create a new grid and will open the grid edit dialog. A second
dialog will ask for the study case to which the new grid folder should be added. For additional
information about creating a new grid refer to Section 8.2 (Creating New Grids)
• The New Study Case button will create a new study case and will open its dialog. The new study
case will not be activated automatically. For further information about creating study cases refer
to Chapter 13: Study Cases, Section 13.2 (Creating and Using Study Cases).
• When a project is created, its settings (i.e. result box definitions, report definitions, flexible page
selectors, etc.) are defined by the default settings from the system library. If these settings are
changed, the changes are stored in the folder “Settings” of the project. The settings from another
project or the original (default) ones can be taken by using the buttons Take from existing project
or Set to default in the Changed Settings field of the dialog. The settings can only be changed
when a project is inactive.
• The button Calculate in the Licence Relevant Nodes field, calculates the number of nodes relevant
to the PowerFactory licence, this number is the number of equipotential nodes on the network.
• The name of the active study case is shown in the lower part of the dialog window under Active
Study Case. Its dialog can be opened by pressing the button.

• Pressing the Contents button on the dialog will open a new data browser displaying all the folders
included in the current project directory.

The Sharing page of the dialog allows the definition of the project sharing rules. These rules are
particularly useful when working in a multi-user database environment. Further information is given in
Chapter 21 (Data Management).

The Derived Project page provides information if the project is derived from a master project.

The Combined Project panel enables the user to combine additional projects with the current project if
it is active. See section 21.7.1.3 for more details.

The Storage page provides information about the records stored in the project. A PowerFactory project
contains records of changes to data, which makes it possible to roll back the project to an earlier state
using versions (see section 21.2). However, as the user works with the project and makes changes to it,
the number of records increases and it is useful to remove older, unwanted records in a process known
as “purging”. By default all changes within the last 7 days will be retained.

The Migration page provides information about the migration status of the project. The migration priority
of the project is also set in this page, this priority is used when using the Minimal migration option
described in section 5.4.3.1.

The basic project structure was changed from PowerFactory version 2020, the Variations folder and
Operation Scenarios folder being moved to sit directly under the Network Model folder. Existing projects
are not migrated to the new structure by default when databases are migrated to the new structure,
as this could cause problems with user-defined scripts, for example. Instead, an option to “Migrate
Variations and Operational Scenario folder” is provided on the Migration page.

The Description page is used to add user comments and the approval status.

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8.1.2 Project Settings

The project settings dialog (SetPrj)can be accessed by selecting Edit → Project Data→ Project set-
tings. . . on the main menu or by pressing the button in the Project Settings field of the project’s
dialog.

8.1.2.1 Validity Period

PowerFactory projects may span a period of months or even years, taking into account network expan-
sions, planned outages and other system events. The period of validity of a project specifies the time
span the network model is valid for.

The validity period is defined by the Start Time and End Time of the project. The study case has study
time, which must fall inside the validity period of the project.

Start Time: Start of validity period.

End Time: End of validity period.

Status: This flag enables the user to label a project as Draft or Issued. It does not have any effect on
functionality.

8.1.2.2 Input

On this page, units for the data entry and display of variables can be selected.

Units: this parameter is used to change the system of measurement used when displaying element
parameters. By default, results are entered and displayed in metric (SI) units. British Imperial units
can be used instead, by selecting one of the options English-Transmission or English-Industry. The
Transmission option uses larger units where appropriate (i.e. miles rather than feet for line length).

Lines/Cables Length unit, m: for metric length units, this parameter allows the user to select the
preferred prefix (such as k to use kilometers rather than meters).

Loads/Asyn. Machines P,Q, S unit VA, W, var: this parameter allows the user to select the preferred
prefix (such as M to use megawatts rather than watts).

Currency Unit: for displaying values relevant for cost-related calculations, this parameter allows selec-
tion from a range of currency units (abbreviated in accordance with ISO 4217).

8.1.2.3 Advanced Calculation Parameters

On the Advanced Calculation Parameters page, additional parameters used during the calculation are
defined.

Base Apparent Power: this is the value used during the calculation; the base power of each element
is defined by its nominal value.

Min. voltage for HV voltage level: this describes the voltages threshold for network elements to be
considered as high voltage elements. This information is used in various commands when defining
acceptable load flow errors.

Min. voltage for MV voltage level: this describes the voltages threshold for network elements to be
considered as medium voltage elements. The upper range is defined by the threshold given in Min.
voltage for HV voltage level. This information is used in various commands when defining acceptable
load flow errors.

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Minimum Resistance, Minimum Conductance: the minimum resistance and conductance that will be
assigned to the elements if none is defined.

Threshold Impedance for Z-model: this parameter is used to control the modelling of currents (Y- and
Z-models are used internally and this parameter controls the small-impedance threshold for swopping
from one to the other). This control is designed to enhance the robustness of the algorithm and the user
is recommended to leave the parameter at its default setting.

Settings for slack assignment: this option only influences the automatic slack assignment (e.g. if no
machine, or more than one machine, is marked as “Reference Machine”)

• Auto slack assignment:

– Method 1: all synchronous machines can be selected as slack (reference machine);
– Method 2: a synchronous machine is not automatically selected as slack if, for that machine,
the option on its Load Flow page: Spinning if circuit-breaker is open is disabled.
– Off: auto slack assignment is switched off; the grid will be considered as de-energised if no
reference machine is defined.

• Priority for Reference Machine: The criteria used for automatic selection of a reference machine
are described under the Load Flow options, in section 25.3.2. However, the way in which the
machines are prioritised for selection can be influenced using this setting. The options are:
– Rated Power: Snom is used as the criterion, as described in page 442
– Active Power Capability: Pmax-Pmin is used instead of Snom
– Active Power Reserve: Pmax-Pgini is used instead of Snom
• Auto slack assignment for areas without connection to fictitious border grid: For large
network models covering multiples systems connected by so-called “fictitious border grids”, this
option can be used in conjunction with a Fictitious border grid flag on the ElmNet object, to have
more control over which areas will be considered in the calculation, so that remote parts of the
network that are not of interest for a particular study can be excluded. The default is for this option
to be selected.
Calculation of symmetrical components for untransposed lines: the selection of one of these
methods defines how the sequence components of lines in PowerFactory will be calculated:
• Method 1: apply the 012-transformation (irrespective of line transposition). This is the standard
method used;
• Method 2: first calculate a symmetrical transposition for untransposed lines, and then apply the
012-transformation.
Earth wire reduction of towers: when overhead lines are modelled using towers, the earth-wires are
reduced before matrix transposition is carried out. In older versions the matrix was transposed first, so
this setting allows users to use the older method if this is required for compatibility reasons.

Automatic Out of Service Detection: when calculations are executed, if the Automatic Out of Service
Detection parameter is selected, the calculation will treat de-energised elements as though they have
been made Out of Service (using the Out of Service flag). This means that they will not be considered
in the calculations and no results will be displayed for them. It should be noted that this parameter does
not affect elements which are isolated only by open circuit breakers (as opposed to other switch types).
These are retained in the calculation because they could be energised via switch close actions at some
point.

Determination of supplying transformers: for a distribution network, this flag alters the way in which
calculations determine which elements are supplied by which substations. If only voltage control
transformers are considered, step-up transformers will not be considered as supplying transformers.
This affects some calculations such as reliability analysis and the colouring mode Topology, Supplied
by Substation.

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8.1.2.4 Single Line Graphics

Geographic data

• Coordinate system: the geographic coordinate system setting determines in which coordinate
space the geographic coordinates of net elements in the project are stored/interpreted. The user
can select from a range of coordinate systems (identified by their EPSG codes).
• WGS-84 bounds: these fields show the bounds of the selected system in WGS-84 coordinates.
When connecting component to busbar

• Create Circuit-Breakers: when a component is connected to a busbar in a single line graphic, a

switch (class StaSwitch) is automatically created. By default this switch will be a circuit breaker.
• Create Load-Break-Switch or Circuit-Breaker dep. on nominal voltage: if this option is
selected instead, there is the option to have Load-Break switches for lower voltages, with the
threshold customised by the user.

Variations
• Show inactive elements from other variations: by default, inactive elements (for example
elements created in a variation stage which is not yet active) are shown on graphics which are
not in freeze mode. They are shown in the colour selected on the first option of the colouring
scheme, Energising Status, even if that option is deselected. If the Show inactive elements from
other variations project setting is deselected, inactive elements will not be visible.
Insertion of new substations

• Insert substations with bays: when new substations are created, it is possible to include
Bay elements (ElmBay ). These group together the network elements that normally constitute
a standard bay connection of a circuit to a busbar within the substation. This grouping is useful
for visualisation but is also used by the Load Flow Calculation option Calculate max. current at
busbars: see section 25.3.3.

8.1.2.5 Miscellaneous

Switching Actions
• Isolate with earthing: if this option is selected, when a planned outage is applied, the equipment
will not only be isolated but earths will be applied, for example on the terminals at either end of a
line. Similarly, when using the “right-click, isolate” option, earths will be applied.
• Isolate opens circuit breakers only: when equipment is isolated using a planned outage or
“right-click, isolate”, this option determines whether it is switched out using just circuit breakers or
whether isolators adjacent to the breakers are also opened.
Planned Outages
• Consider Automatically upon study case activation: if this option is selected, relevant Int-
Plannedout outages are automatically applied when a study case is activated.
• Creation of Planned Outages: outages can be represented using IntPlannedout objects (see
chapter 42), and the default is that any new planned outage created will be of this class. If the
user wishes instead to create the older IntOutage objects, this project setting should be changed
to “Create IntOutage (obsolete)”.

8.1.2.6 External Data

External Data Directory: this is a folder on the user’s hard disk, in which data files related to the
PowerFactory project, such as images or Python scripts, are stored. The filepath has to be absolute,

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but can contain the placeholders shown below on the dialog box:

• “$(InstallationDir)” for the installation directory of PowerFactory ;

• “$(WorkspaceDir)” for the workspace directory.

Once defined, the external Data Directory can be used to link files to PowerFactory objects by the
following abbreviation:

• “$(ExtDataDir)”
Check existence of referenced files: if this button is clicked, PowerFactory checks to see that all
external files referenced in the project exist, and reports those not found.

Display reminder after file selection: for certain file reference parameters, it is expected that the file
will be in the External Data area and, if this check box is enabled, a dialog box will come up if a different
location is specified. Note that it is permitted to select files outside the External Data directory; the
dialog is just a reminder that the External Data directory is recommended.

8.1.2.7 Plots

Names in plot legends: for element names shown in plot legends, the user has the option to include
additional information to show where the element is located, e.g. site or substation (short name).

8.1.2.8 Data Verification

Nominal Voltage Check

Max. allowed differences over Lines/Switches: these are the maximum permitted percentage
differences between the nominal voltages at the two ends of a line or the two sides of a switch (as
a percentage of the higher voltage). With differences above these thresholds, a load flow will fail with
an error message; for smaller differences (but >0.5%) a warning is given.

Max. allowed deviation from Terminal Voltage, for transformers and for other elements: there is
a check when running a load flow that the nominal voltage of a transformer or other element is not too
low compared with the terminal to which it is attached. With differences above these thresholds, a load
flow will fail with an error message; for smaller differences (but >10%) a warning is given.

8.1.2.9 Substation Types

This list of substation types, configurable by the user, can be used in geographic diagrams to distinguish
graphically between different types of substation by assigning different symbols to each type in the list.
In a substation itself, the Substation Type is selected from the same list, in the Description page.

8.1.3 Activating and Deactivating Projects

To activate a project use the option File → Activate Project from the main menu. This shows a tree with
all the projects in the current user’s account. Select the project that should be activated. Alternatively,
a project may be activated by right-clicking on it in the Data Manager and using the context-sensitive
menu.

The last 5 active projects are listed under File in the main menu. The currently active project is the first
entry in this list. To deactivate the currently active project, select it in the list. Alternatively, you may
choose the option File → Deactivate Project from the main menu. To activate another project, select it
in the list of the 5 last active projects.

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Upon project activation, the user may see a message about project purging. The purge function is
described above in section 8.1.1, Storage page.

Note: Only one project can be activated at a time.

8.1.4 Exporting and Importing Projects

Projects (or any folder in the database) can be exported using the *.pfd (PowerFactory Data) file format,
or by exception for older applications by using the *.dz format. It is recommended to use the PFD
format (*.pfd) whenever possible when exporting projects: the consumption of memory resources is
significantly lower than with the old file format (*.dz) and functions such as historic data, time stamps
and former versions are not supported by the old *.dz format.

A new project export method, the Snapshot Export, has been made available from Version 2017. This
method, described in section 8.1.4.2, creates a file in a *.dzs format.

8.1.4.1 Exporting a Project

To export a project, select File → Export. . . → Data. . . from the main menu or click on the icon of the
Data Manager. Alternatively projects can be exported by selecting the option Export. . . on the project
context-sensitive menu (only available for inactive projects). The dialog is shown in Figure 8.1.2.

• Objects to export: this table shows all top-level objects that will be exported within the *.pfd file.
• Export current state: this option is visible if the project (or, object in the Objects to export
table) has Versions defined. If enabled (default), the current state of the project will be exported.
Otherwise, only the state of the selected Version/s will be exported.

• Versions to export: this table shows all Versions of the Objects to export, if any are available. By
disabling the checkbox for specific Versions, the user can define which Version should or should
not be exported. For master projects, the corresponding Version for the derived project must be
selected. See Section 21.3.1 for further details.
• Export data in retention period: if enabled, data changes from within the retention period will
be exported. See Section 8.1.1 for further details.
• Export ’Modified by’: if enabled, the information who last changed an object is exported (attribute
’modified by’). This information could conflict with data privacy rules and is therefore configurable.
• Export external data files (e.g. results files): if enabled, calculation results (i.e. results files,
plot data, etc.) will be exported. Otherwise, the calculation must be repeated after importing.

• Export derived project as regular project: this option is only available for derived projects, see
Section 21.3.1. If enabled, a derived project will be exported as an ’adequate’ project. In this case
no master project is required. It should be noted that this project can no longer be reused as a
derived project.

• Export to former PowerFactory version: if the project is intended to be imported into a former
PowerFactory version, this flag must be activated and the version specified.
• PFD file: the path where the *.pfd file will be saved.

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Figure 8.1.2: Export dialog

8.1.4.2 Snapshot Export

The Snapshot Export function enables the currently active status of a project to be exported, such that
only the relevant objects are included. A project exported in this way is potentially a much smaller file,
which nevertheless when reimported into PowerFactory can be used to reproduce analysis carried out
in the original project study case.

Unlike the existing Project Export, where the project must first be deactivated, the Snapshot Export is
performed on an active project. This way, PowerFactory can determine exactly which objects are active
and which data are applicable as a result of an active scenario or active variations.

To carry out a snapshot export from a project, the required study case and scenario (if used) should be
activated. Then File → Export→ Project Snapshot (*.dzs). . . from the main menu is selected.

When the Snapshot Export is executed, the resulting file outside PowerFactory has the file extension
.dzs. It can be imported just like a .pfd or .dz file and when activated can be used to perform the usual
calculations such as load flow or simulations. Furthermore, it is possible for merge processes to be
carried out between it and the source project, for example if there is a need to include additional data
from the source project.

The Snapshot Export captures only the data required to reproduce the results of the active study case.
Therefore the following objects, for example, will not appear in the resultant project:

• Variations: changes in active variation stages are consolidated. The exported project will contain
therefore no variations.

• Inactive study cases, scenarios and grids: inactive study cases, scenarios and grids are not
exported. The exported project will have one study case, and no scenarios; if a scenario had been
active in the source project, the data will be represented in the network data.
• Unused library objects: only objects which are in use are exported, so unused information such

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as type data which are not referenced will not be exported.

• Characteristics: the parameters which are modified by Characteristics will be set at the values
determined by the Characteristics, but the Characteristics themselves will not be exported.
• Operational Library: operational data such as Thermal Ratings, which may contain variations,
will be reduced to just the currently active values.

8.1.4.3 Importing a Project

Projects can be imported by selecting File → Import. . . → Data. . . from the main menu or by clicking
on the icon in the Data Manager. The user can select the type of file to import from the Files of type
field in the Open dialog which pops up. Alternatively, projects can be imported by selecting Import. . .
on the project context-sensitive menu (only available for inactive projects).

The import and export of information in other data formats is described in Chapter 24.

8.1.5 External References

In order to avoid problems when exporting/importing projects, it is recommended to check for external
references before exporting the project. This can be done via the project context-sensitive menu,
selecting the External References sub-menu and then the option Check External References. The
user can then select the External Locations, such as the Global Library or the “Configuration” folder.
After pressing OK, a list of external project references is displayed in the output window.

If external references are found, these can be packed before the project is exported. This can be done
through the context-sensitive menu of the project, by accessing the External References sub-menu and
selecting the option Pack External References. Similar to the option described above, the user can
select the External Locations. By pressing OK, a new folder in the project structure called “External” is
created, which contains all formerly external objects.

The Clear Unresolvable References option allows the user to remove external references to objects that
cannot be found, for example because they have been deleted or archived. It is important to mention
that this option does not solve problems associated with incomplete data (e.g. no type found).

Note: The options described above are only selectable after the project has been deactivated.

To review the use of type objects, standard models, etc. from the DIgSILENT Library (and other external
libraries) in a particular project, the option Show External Types from the External References sub-menu
can be used. This generates a report in the Output Window, containing those types that are not stored
inside the project library. Objects from external libraries can be opened up from the list in the Output
Window. In addition, for each item listed, the number of objects using it is given. This acts as a hyperlink
which can be used to bring up a list of objects in the project referencing this item.

As explained in Section 4.5.1.1, all the main objects in the global libraries are managed using versions.
Via the option Show Updates for External Types from the External References sub-menu, the user can
check whether later versions are available, and see what has been changed in the later versions.

8.1.6 Including Additional Documents

It may be useful sometimes to provide additional information such as a detailed documentation about a
network element, to the user of a project. Such information can be provided by creating an IntDocument
object within the project, for example within the project library. This is done by using the New Object
button ( ), and selecting “Other Elements (Int*)” and then entering “IntDocument” in the Element field.

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In the IntDocument object, there is a Filename field, which is populated by selecting the file location.
This is sufficient to provide access to a document which is outside the PowerFactory database, but there
is also an Import option, which enables the user to import the document itself into the PowerFactory
database.

Such IntDocument objects (whether simply links or containing the actual document) can also be created
elsewhere in the database, for example in the Configuration area. Network elements have a field
called “Additional Data” on the description page, which is a convenient place to hold a reference to
an IntDocument object.

8.2 Creating New Grids

When defining a new project a grid is automatically created. In case additional grids are required,
various methods may be employed to add a grid folder to the current network model:

1. Open the edit dialog of the project and press the New Grid button.
2. Select Insert → Grid. . . on the main menu.

3. Right-click the Network Data folder (in the active project) in a Data Manager window and select
New → Grid from the context-sensitive menu.

The dialog to create a new grid will then pop up. There the grid name, the nominal frequency and a grid
owner (optional) may be specified. A second dialog will appear after the Ok button has been pressed.
In this dialog the study case that the grid will be linked to must be selected. Three options are given:

1. add this Grid/System Stage to active Study Case: only available when a study case is active.
2. activate a new Study Case and add this Grid/System Stage: creates and activates a new study
case for the new grid.

3. activate an existing Study Case and add this Grid/System Stage: add the new grid folder to
an existing, but not yet active study case.

After the Ok button in the second dialog has been pressed, the new grid is created in the Network Data
folder and a reference in the Summary Grid object of the selected study case is created. Normally,
the second option (from the list above) is preferred because this creates a new study case which is
dedicated to the new grid only. This means that the new grid may be tested separately using a load flow
or other calculation. To analyse the combination of two or more grids, new study cases may be created
later, or the existing ones may be altered.

As indicated in Chapter 13 (Study Cases), grids can be later added or removed from the active study
case by right-clicking and selecting Activate/Deactivate.

8.3 Project Overview

The Project Overview is illustrated in Figure 8.3.1. It is a dockable window, displayed by default on the
left side of the main application window between the main toolbar and the output window. It displays
an overview of the project allowing the user to assess the state of the project at a glance and facilitates
easy interaction with the project data. The window is docked by default, but can be undocked by the user
and displayed as a floating window that can be placed both inside and outside of the main application
window.

To dock an undocked Project Overview window, it should be moved all the way to the left border of the
main window, until the mouse reaches the border.

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If required, the window can be closed by the user. To close or reopen the window, toggle the option
Window → Project Overview from the main menu.

Figure 8.3.1: Project overview

The following objects and information can be accessed via the Project Overview.

• Study Cases
– Active Study Case
– Inactive Study Cases
– Current Study Time
• Operation Scenarios
– Active Scenario Schedulers
– Active Scenarios
– Inactive Scenarios
• Variations
– Recording Expansion Stage
– List of active Variations with active and inactive Expansion Stages as children
– List of inactive Variations with inactive Expansion Stages as children
• Grid/System Stages
– List of active Grids or System Stages

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– List of inactive Grids or System Stages

• Trigger
– Active triggers

Entries for active objects are displayed with bold text, entries for inactive objects are displayed as
disabled/grey.

A context-sensitive menu can be accessed by right-clicking on each of the tree entries. The following
actions are available for each of the entries:
• Change active item(s): Activate, Deactivate, change active
• Show all available items
• Edit (open dialog)

• Edit and Browse

• Delete
• Save (for Operation Scenario only)

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Chapter 9

Network Graphics

9.1 Introduction

PowerFactory works with three different classes of graphics which constitute the main tools used to
design new power systems, controller block diagrams and displays of results:

• Single Line Diagrams (described in this chapter)

• Block Diagrams (described in Section 30.2: Dynamic Models)

• Plots (described in Section 19.7: Plots)

Diagrams are organised in Graphic Boards for visualisation (see Section 9.2.2 for more information).

9.2 Graphic Windows and Database Objects

In the PowerFactory graphic windows, graphic objects associated with the active study case are dis-
played. Those graphics include single line diagrams, station diagrams, block diagrams and plots. Many
commands and tools are available to edit and manipulate symbols in the graphics. The underlying data
objects may also be accessed and edited from the graphics, and calculation results may be displayed
and configured.

Many of the tools and commands are found in the drop down menus or as buttons in the toolbars, but by
far the most convenient manner of accessing them is to use the right mouse button to display a “context
menu”. The menu presented is determined primarily from the cursor position.

9.2.1 Network Diagrams and other graphics

Four types of graphical pages are used in PowerFactory :

1. Single Line Diagrams (schematic and geographical network diagrams) for entering power grid
definitions and for showing calculation results.
2. Detailed graphics of sites, substations or branches (similar to network diagrams) for showing
busbar (nodes) topologies and calculation results.
3. Block Diagrams for designing logic (controller) circuits and relays.
4. Plot Pages for designing graphs, e.g. for the results of a time domain simulation.

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The icon Diagrams ( ) can be found inside the Data Manager. Grids, substations, branches, sites and
controller types (common and composite types in PowerFactory terminology) each have a graphical
page. In order to see the graphic on the screen, open a Data Manager and locate the graphic page
object you want to show, click on the icon next to it, right-click and select Show Graphic. The Show
Graphic option is also available directly by right-clicking on the object. The graphic pages of grids and
substations are to be found in the subfolder Diagrams ( ) under the Network Model folder.

Note that it is also possible to store Diagrams within the Grid, although this is generally not recom-
mended.

Figure 9.2.1: The Diagrams folder inside the Data Manager

9.2.2 Active Graphics, Graphics Board and Study Cases

The graphics that are displayed in an active project are determined by the active study case. The
study case folder contains a folder called the Graphics Board folder (SetDesktop) in which references
to the graphics to be displayed are contained. The Graphics Board folder is automatically created and
maintained and should generally not be edited by the user.

Consider the project shown in figure 9.2.2. There are several diagrams in the Diagrams folder, but
the graphics board folder in the study case has a reference to only some of them and thus only these
graphics will be shown when the study case is activated.

The page tab, which is normally at the top of the graphic, offers options for handling the graphics in the
graphics board. See section 9.2.5 for details.

The study case and graphics board folder will also contain references to any other graphics that have
been created when the study case is active, such as plot pages.

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Figure 9.2.2: Relationship between the study case, graphics board and single line diagrams

9.2.3 Single Line Graphics and Data Objects

When building a new network, it is usually recommended that this is done from a single-line diagram.
As each objects is created, the associated graphical representation is created too. For more information
about building a network, see Chapter 11.

In a simple network there may be a 1:1 relationship between data objects and their graphical repre-
sentations, i.e. every load, generator, terminal and line is represented once in the graphics. However,
PowerFactory provides additional flexibility in this regard. Data objects may be represented graphically
on more than one graphic, but only once per graphic. Thus a data object for one terminal can be
represented graphically on more than one graphic. All graphical representations contain the link to the
same data object.

Furthermore, graphical symbols may be moved without losing the link to the data object they represent.
Likewise, data objects may be moved without affecting the graphic.

The graphics themselves are saved in the database tree, by default in the Diagrams folder of the Network
Model. This simplifies finding the correct Single Line graphic representation of a particular grid, even in
the case where there are several graphic representations for one grid.

When the drawing tools are used to place a new component (i.e. a line, transformer, etc.) a new data
object is also created in the database tree. A Single Line Graphic object therefore has a reference
to a grid folder. The new data objects are stored into the ’target’ folders that the graphics page are
associated with. This information may be determined by right-clicking the graphic → Graphic Options
or using the Graphic Options button ( ).

Since data objects may have more than one graphic representation the deletion of a graphic object
should not mean that the data object will also be deleted. Hence the user may choose to delete only the
graphical object (right-click menu → Delete Graphical Object only ). In this case the user is warned that
the data object will not be deleted. This suggests that a user may delete all graphical objects related to
a data object, with the data object still residing in the database and being considered for calculations.

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When an element is deleted completely (right menu option → Delete Element) a warning message will
confirm the action. This warning may be switched off in the User Settings dialog, General page, Always
confirm deletion of Grid Data.

9.2.4 Creating New Graphic Windows

A new graphic window can be created by using Insert on the main menu. Four options relating to
graphics are offered:

• Single Line Diagram: Creates a Single Line Diagram graphic in the target folder. Before the
graphic is inserted, the user is prompted to select the relevant grid.

• Geographic Diagram: Creates a Geographic Diagram of the network.

• Block / Frame Diagram: Creates a new (empty) Block Diagram Graphic object, which is then
displayed.
• Plot: Presents a dialog box where the user selects the required plot type. Another dialog box
enables parameters to be entered. Once these are confirmed, the plot is then displayed.

Graphic pages can only be shown as pages in a so-called graphics board, so this will automatically be
created if required. Creating a new page while in a graphics board can be done by clicking on the
icon on the graphics board toolbar.

9.2.5 Page Tab

The page tab of the graphic window shows the name of the graphic. By default the tab is at the top
of the window, but a user setting (Window Layout page) enables the user to change this if required.
Another user setting allows the user to show icons on the page tab, to indicate the type of graphic. The
order of the page tabs is easily changed by using drag-and-drop, and new graphics can be added using
the icon.

A number of options are offered when right-clicking on the page tab. Some of these relate to split-screen
working and the options offered will depend on whether the screen is split horizontally or vertically, and
also on how many tabs are already open in a group. The options offered to the user also depend on the
type of graphic, but this is the complete list of options available:
• Move to group above/below or Move to left/right group: For split-screen working, move to an
existing group. (See section 4.7 for more details)
• Move rightward/downward to new group: For split-screen working, start a new group (See sec-
tion 4.7 for more details)
• Rename page... displays a dialog to rename the graphic.
• Close page closes the graphic page, removing it from the graphic board in the study case, but not
deleting the graphic object itself, if one exists.

• Delete page (for plots) will close the graphic page and delete the page from the study case.
• Delete diagram (for single-line diagrams and geographic diagrams) will close the graphic page
and delete the diagram itself.
• Duplicate page: Used for creating copies of plot pages.

• Convert to permanent diagram: If a new detailed diagram of a substation or site has been created,
this option enables the user to save it as a permanent graphic.

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The name of the active (i.e. currently-presented) graphic is shown in bold. But the above options are
available whether the graphic tab is active or not. Tabs can be multi-selected by using the CTRL key (to
select individual tabs) or the Shift key (to select a range of tabs), and the selected tabs will be coloured
blue; then appropriate options can be applied to the selected tabs.

9.2.6 Drawing Tools

The Drawing Tools tool-window appears by default on the left-hand side of the graphic window, where it
shares the space with the Project Overview. The tool icons shown in the Drawing Tools window form a
tool-box which is specific to the type of graphic that is currently selected.

See figure 9.2.3 for two examples.

The Drawing Tools are only available for use if the graphic is not in freeze-mode. A graphic may be
unlocked from freeze mode using the icon on the graphic tool bar or the similar icon at the top of the
Drawing Toolbox itself.

(a) Single Line Diagrams (b) Block Diagrams

Figure 9.2.3: Drawing Toolbox examples

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The user can customise the Drawing Tools window in several ways:
• Group headers can be shown or not.

• Element labels can be shown or not.

• A group filter allows the user to show only certain groups. Alternatively, if the group headers are
shown, the plus and minus icons can be used to expand or collapse individual groups.
• There is a text filter for filtering by element label. This is case-insensitive and will find any
occurrence of the given text string in the element labels, but only in the groups which are currently
visible.
In addition, the Drawing Tools tool-window features a dynamically generated category, called
Recently Used, which contains the most newly used icons. Once produced, it is automatically situated
on the top of the Drawing Toolbar toolbox and, as any other grouping category, can be collapsed and/or
hidden. To avoid cluttering, it only shows at most one full row of icons, i.e. the number of shown icons
depends on the width of the Drawing Tools tool-window.

Note: An icon is considered as used when it is selected and unselected by the user.

9.2.6.1 Annotations

As well as tools for adding elements to a graphic, the drawing toolbox also includes a number of
annotation options. By default, these are placed into a separate Annotation layer. See section 9.6
for more information on annotations.

9.2.7 Active Grid Folder (Target Folder)

On the status bar of PowerFactory (figure 9.2.4), the active grid folder is displayed on the left-most field,
indicating the target folder (grid) that will be modified when changes are made in the network diagram.
The active target folder can be changed double-clicking this field and then selecting the desired target
folder. This can be useful if the user intends to place new elements on a single line diagram, but have
the element stored in a different grid folder in the Data Manager.

Figure 9.2.4: The Status Bar

9.3 Graphic Commands, Options, and Settings

In this section the commands, options and settings that are available in PowerFactory to configure and
use the graphic windows are introduced. The sub-sections of this chapter are divided as illustrated in
figure 9.3.1. These commands are also available from the main menu under View.

Further commands available from the context-sensitive menus of elements are also listed towards the
end of this section (9.3.13).

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Figure 9.3.1: Categories of graphic commands, options, and settings

9.3.1 Freeze Mode

locks the diagram from graphical changes, no network elements can be added or deleted. Note that
the status of switches can still be modified when freeze mode is on.

9.3.2 Rebuild

The drawing may not be updated correctly under some circumstances. The rebuild function updates
the currently visible page by updating the drawing from the database.

9.3.3 View commands

9.3.3.1 Zoom In

Press the Zoom In to change the cursor to a magnifying glass. The mouse can then be clicked and
dragged to select a rectangular area to be zoomed. When the frame encompasses the area you wish
to zoom into release the mouse button.

Alternatively, by pressing Ctrl and using the mouse scroll wheel it can be zoomed in and out with the
mouse cursor as reference point. Using the Ctrl+- and Ctrl++ keys, zooming is also possible referenced
to the centre of the visible area. If in addition Shift is pressed, the reference changes to the mouse
cursor.

Note: The Acceleration Factor for zooming and panning can be changed on the Advanced tab of the
Graphic Window page in the User Settings dialog.

9.3.3.2 Zoom All

zooms to the page extends.

9.3.3.3 Zoom Level

Zooms to a custom or pre-defined level.

9.3.3.4 Hand Tool

Use the hand tool to pan the single line diagram (when not at the page extends). The hand tool is
activated with pressed middle mouse button, too. Alternatively, the mouse scroll wheel can be used to
scroll vertically, and Ctrl+→ / ↑ / ← / ↓ used to scroll vertically and horizontally.

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9.3.3.5 View Bookmarks

The View Bookmarks allows to save the current view and restore that view at a later date. The
bookmarks may be used with different network diagrams (single line, geographic, detailed substation
graphic) of the same or different grids. In big networks this feature allows to switch very quickly between
diagram details to check e.g. the impact of operational changes in loads/feed-in at different places in
the network.

By clicking View Bookmarks → Add Bookmark... the name will be asked, under which the current view
is stored and displayed in the list of the View Bookmarks. To edit, delete already existing or even create
manually new bookmarks, click on View Bookmarks → Manage Bookmarks.... An object browser with all
existing bookmarks appears. They can directly be changed using the object browser or by opening the
Edit-dialog for single bookmarks. The IntViewBookmark -objects contain the reference to the diagram,
the position and size of the View Area. To further accelerate the workflow Hotkeys are set automatically
for the bookmarks, which can be changed, too. If the current view should be assigned to the opened
bookmark, the button « From View may be pressed.

9.3.3.6 Search in Diagram

The icon is used to search for elements in the graphic, as described in section 9.9 below.

9.3.3.7 Navigation Pane

The icon is used to open or close the navigation pane, described in section 9.8 below.

9.3.4 Select commands

9.3.4.1 Rectangular Selection

is used to select a rectangular section of the diagram. This icon is by default pressed, however the
Hand Tool or Free-form Selection may also be used.

9.3.4.2 Free-form Selection

is used to select a custom area of the diagram.

9.3.5 Graphic Options

Each graphic window has its own settings, which may be changed using the Graphic Options button
. The available settings of the dialog are described in the following sections.

9.3.5.1 Basic Attributes page

The General-tab offers the following settings:

• Name: the name of the graphic

• Target folder for network elements: the reference to the database folder in which new power
system elements created in this graphic will be stored.

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• Default view area: when the user has zoomed into part of the graphic, the icon can be used
to zoom out again. By default, this will be to the full area of the graphic, but by selecting a book-
marked area here, as the default view area, this “zoom all” can be customised. This is useful for
users of large networks who are only interested in a specific region. (See section 9.3.3.5 for more
information about bookmarks.)
• Write protected: if enabled, the single line graphic can not be modified. The drawing toolboxes
are not displayed and the freeze icon becomes inactive.
• Line style for cables: is used to select a line style for all cables.

• Line style for overhead lines: is used to select a line style for all overhead lines.
• Node width factor: the width of points and lines for nodes and busbars.
• Offset factor when drawing one-port devices: defines the length of a connection when a one
port device (e.g. load, shunt) is drawn by clicking on the busbar/terminal. This is the default
distance from the busbar in grid points.

• Allow individual line style: permits the line style to be set for individual lines. The individual style
may be set for any line in the graphic by right-clicking the line → Set Individual Line Style. This
may also be performed for a group of selected lines/cables in one action, by first multi selecting
the elements.

• Allow individual line width: as for the individual line style, but may be used in combination with
the “Line Style for Cables/Overhead Lines” option. The individual width is defined by selecting
the corresponding option in the right mouse menu (may also be performed for a group of selected
lines/cables in one action).
• Diagram colouring: by default, changes of the active Colouring Scheme take effect on every
diagram (Default). By setting the option to Colouring scheme, the scheme of the current diagram
can be configured separately. Press Manage... to open an object browser with a list of the
available colouring scheme settings. Copy the existing or create a new one and alter it to the
wished scheme. Close the object browser and choose the new colouring scheme out of the drop
down list.

The Advanced-tab offers the following settings:

• Allow navigation pane to be shown: if checked, the Navigation Pane can be activated by
Window → Navigation Pane or the context sensitive menu in the diagram Navigation Pane.
• Show tooltip on network elements: if this is selected, information about network elements will
be shown if the user hovers the mouse over the element.

The Additional Attributes and Coordinates Space pages should generally only be configured with the
assistance of DIgSILENT support staff. Note that if Use Scaling Factor for Computation of Distances is
selected on the Coordinates Space page, it is possible to calculate the length of lines on the Single Line
Graphic by right-clicking and selecting Measure Length of Lines. In geographic diagrams, this option is
activated by default.

9.3.5.2 Schematic Diagram page

When a schematic diagram (overview, single line or detailed) is active, the Schematic Diagram page
will be available with the following options:

Drawing Tools
• Snap: snaps the mouse onto the drawing raster.

• Grid: shows the drawing raster using small points.

• Ortho-Type: defines if and how non-orthogonal lines are permitted:

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– Ortho Off: connections will be drawn exactly as their line points were set.
– Ortho: allows only right-angle connections between objects.
– Semi Ortho: the first segment of a connection that leads away from a busbar or terminal will
always be drawn orthogonally.
Size Factors for

Defines the size of the symbols in the diagram for sites, substations, edge elements and line end sym-
bols. The connection circles on simplified substations is a width factor used in single line diagrams: In
single line diagrams multiple busbar substations are only represented by their main busbars. Connected
elements may be connected to each of the busbars by changing the state of the internal switches. The
currently active connection is shown in the diagram by a filled circle, the not connected ones by hollow
circles. The width of the circles is defined in this field.

Note: The settings for the cursor type for the graphic windows (arrow or tracking cross) may be set in
the User Settings dialog, see section 7.3 (Graphic Windows Settings). This is because the cursor
shape is a global setting, valid for all graphic windows, while all graphic settings described above
are specific for each graphic window.

9.3.5.3 Text Boxes page

• Object names
– Show frame for nodes/branches: the text boxes of the according elements will show a
frame.
– Background: specifies the transparency of object names boxes:
* Opaque: means that objects behind the result box cannot be seen through the result
box.
* Transparent: means that objects behind the result box can be seen through the result
box.

• Results
– Show frame for nodes/branches: the result boxes of the according elements will show a
frame.
– Background: specifies the transparency of result boxes (as object names)
– Always show result boxes of detailed couplers: self-explanatory.
– Space saving representation of result boxes on connection lines: self-explanatory.
• Show line from general text boxes to referenced objects: may be disabled to unclutter the
graphic.
• Reset text boxes completely: textboxes and result boxes have reference points (the point on the
box at which the box will ’attach’ to its element) that may be changed by the user. If this option is:
– Enabled: the default reference will be used.
– Disabled: the user defined reference will be used.
• Show tooltip on network elements: enables or disables the balloon help dialogs.

9.3.5.4 Switches page

• Switch state symbol at connection end: selects the switch representation (see figure 9.3.2):
– Permanent box: shows a solid black square for a closed and an frame line for an open
switch (left picture).
– Old style switch: shows the switches as the more conventional switch symbol (right picture).

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Figure 9.3.2: Cubicle representations

• Display frame around switches: draws a frame around the switch itself (breakers, disconnectors,
etc.). This only applies to user-drawn breakers and disconnectors.
• Create switches when connecting to busbar: self-explanatory.
• Show connected busbars as small dots in simplified substation representation: defines how
the connection points on busbars are represented in busbar systems.

9.3.5.5 Geographic Diagram page

The settings on this page define the appearance of the graphical representation of network elements in
the geographic diagrams. This page is only visible when a geographic diagram is active.

• Size factors for: defines the size of the symbols in the diagram for sites, substations, terminals,
edge elements, text, line loads and section transitions and line end symbols.
• Scale level threshold for visibility of: in extensive networks with a high scale level, edge
elements (except lines), switch state boxes at line ends, text labels and annotation objects are
hidden at a specified scale level to improve the clarity of the diagram.

• Line width: sets the width of all the lines in the geographic diagram.
• Distance factor for one-port devices: defines the distance of all drawn one-port-devices (e.g.
load, shunt) to their connected nodes. This is the default distance from the busbar in grid points.
• Margin at full zoom: since in geographic diagrams there is no border, this value defines the
margin shown if Zoom All is pressed.
• Show coordinates in latitude/longitude: shows the coordinates of the current cursor position
in latitude and longitude in the Status Bar. Otherwise the position is displayed as X/Y values
representing UTM-coordinates. The border values of the area represented by the diagram are
listed in the tab Coordinate Space of the Basic Attributes page (9.3.5.1).
• Prefer branch coordinates: this option affects elements which are grouped to branches (Elm-
Branch). If the branch itself has geographic coordinates, they will be used in the geographic
diagram, otherwise the coordinates of the elements contained in the branch are taken into account.
• Show Scale: shows or hides the scale in the diagram.

• GPS projection: defines the projection used in the geographic diagram. This is only active when
local maps are selected.

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Substation Types tab

The settings in this tab are related to the graphical representation of substations in geographic diagrams.
The dialog offers the possibility to distinguish graphically different types of substations and improve the
clearness of the diagram by adding additional data through the substation symbol. A possible use of
this feature can be seen in the geographic diagram ’Overview Diagram’ of the Application Example ’MV
Distribution Network’ (File → Examples).

The column ’Substation Type’ of the Assignment Table is the list, of which one element may be chosen
in the drop down list Type in the Description-page of the Substation-dialog, opened by right-clicking on
a graphical substation element and choosing Edit Substation. The list contains the Substation Types
defined in the according page of the Project Settings dialog.

The column ’Symbol’ is storing the name of the symbol, which is searched by default in the subfolder
Database/System/Library/Graphic/Symbols/SGL/Composites. As additional source, the project’s sub-
folder Settings/Additional Symbols is taken into account.

9.3.6 Layers

The single line, geographic and block diagrams use transparent layers of drawing sheets on which the
graphical symbols are placed. Each of these layers may be set to be visible or not, and layer depth
functionality is built in, meaning that the user can select the order in which layers sit on top of one
another.

Which layers are visible and exactly what is shown on a layer is defined in the Graphical Layers dialog,
accessed through the graphic toolbar ( ), by right-clicking on an empty spot of the graphic area →
Layers, or selecting View → Layers from the main menu.

Figure 9.3.3: Graphical layers dialog (SetLevelvis)

As shown in Figure 9.3.3, the Graphic Layers dialog has three pages:
• Diagram Layers, where default and user-defined layers are created, modified, selected and
ordered
• Element Details, where symbols related to specific elements are selected to be visible or not

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• Switch Markers, where layers specifically to switch annotation are selected visible or not
These are described in more detail in the following subsections.

Note: Prior to PowerFactory 2019, all annotation graphical objects were held in a dedicated Annotation
Layer. Now, it is possible to mix annotation graphical objects with other graphical objects in any
user-defined layer. Nevertheless, there is still an "Annotation Layer" where such objects will by
default be placed when created. See Section 9.6 for more details.

9.3.6.1 Diagram Layers

On this page, the default and user-defined layers are listed. The visibility of any one layer is determined
by the check-box. New layers can be created using the Add layer button and deleted using the
Delete layer button. The detailed configuration of any layer can be changed using the Edit layer button,
or by double-clicking on the layer name. The order of the layers can be changed using the up and down
arrows to the right of the list (see Figure 9.3.3 above). Depending upon the type of graphic, the following
layers are available as a default:

Diagram Type:
Configuration SL Single Line,
Layer Content
Options GEO Geographic,
B Block
Title Graphic title Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
Results boxes legend and colour
Legends Text/Box Format SL/GEO
legend
Symbols for the elements of the
Net elements Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
grid
Boxes with names and addi-
Labels tional data description, if config- Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
ured
Boxes with calculation results.
Results Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
See Note below
Separate visibility
Boxes and arrows, together with and configuration
Interchanges SL/GEO
associated results boxes of boxes and
arrows
Bay representation and Site Line colour, width
Bays and Sites SL
frames and style
Additional Text explanation
Device data Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
given in the device symbol
Graphic used as the back-
Name of file with
ground (“wallpaper”) to allow
Background graphics (WMF,
easier drawing of the diagram SL/B
image DXF, BMP, JPEG,
or to show additional information
PNG, GIF, TIF)
(map information)
Map Provider (see
Geographical map used as
section 9.10), map
Geographic map the background to allow easier GEO
type and graphic
drawing of the diagram
settings
Load/generation Shows circles for load and gen- Selection of S, P or
GEO
distribution eration around substations Q, colour-settings
Additional text labels for ele-
Additional text Text/Box Format SL/GEO
ments

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Diagram Type:
Configuration SL Single Line,
Layer Content
Options GEO Geographic,
B Block
Relays Graphically represented relays Text/Box Format SL/GEO
Contains the drawn current and
CTs and VTs Text/Box Format SL/GEO
voltage transformers
Plots Plots placed in the diagrams Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
Commands Commands buttons used mostly
None SL/GEO
buttons for DPL scripts
Definition each block is based
Block Definition Text/Box Format B
on
Connection Index of each possible block
Text/Box Format B
numbers connection point
Connection Name of each unused connec-
Text/Box Format B
names tion of a block
Signals Name of the signal transmitted Text/Box Format B
Table 9.3.1: Predefined diagram layers in the layers dialog

Note: The Results layer can be easily toggled on and off without going into the Layers command by
using the icon on the graphics toolbar.

9.3.6.2 Element Details

For some elements shown on diagrams, additional details can optionally be shown, such as the vector
groups for transformers or symbols to indicate the number of phases of a line. On the Element Details
page, such details are turned on or off, with additional configuration for the Power flow direction arrows
option.

Diagram Type:
Configuration SL Single Line,
Layer Content
Options GEO Geographic,
B Block
Dots at the connections be-
Connection tween edges and buses/termi-
Text/Box Format SL/GEO/B
points nals and signal connections to
blocks
Double-Arrow at connections
Connection
where the end point is not rep- Text/Box Format SL/GEO
Arrows
resented in the current diagram.
Number of phases of a line/ca-
Phases Text/Box Format SL/GEO
ble, shown as parallel lines
Symbols at lines consisting of
Sections and Line
sections and/or where line loads Text/Box Format SL/GEO
Loads
are connected
Vector group for rotating ma-
Vector groups Text/Box Format SL/GEO
chines and transformers
Positions of taps for shunts and
Tap positions Text/Box Format SL/GEO
transformers

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Diagram Type:
Configuration SL Single Line,
Layer Content
Options GEO Geographic,
B Block
Active/Reactive
Arrows that can be configured
Power Flow Power for direct/
for active and reactive power SL/GEO
direction arrows inverse/ homopolar
flow representation
system
Table 9.3.2: Element Details in the Layers dialog

9.3.6.3 Switch Markers

On the Switch Markers page, markers specific to switch operation or status can be selected and
configured:

Remotely
controlled Remote Controlled Substations Colour SL/GEO
substations
Tie open points Tie open points in the network Colour/Size/Width SL/GEO
Normally open Normally open switches (Relia-
Colour/Size/Width SL/GEO
switches bility Analysis)
Open standby Indicating lines energised but
Colour/Size/Width SL/GEO
switches open at one end
Table 9.3.3: Switch Markers in the Layers dialog

9.3.6.4 Working with Layers

Each graphic symbol in a single line, geographic or block diagram is assigned by default to the cor-
responding layer at first. All busbar symbols, for example, are drawn on the Net elements layer by
default, their name boxes on the layer Labels. Graphic symbols may be shifted onto other layers by
right-clicking them in the single line graphic and selecting the option Shift to Layer from the context
sensitive menu, then selecting the layer from the list presented. Should an object disappear when it has
been re-assigned to a layer, the visibility of the target layer should be checked. Moving symbols from
one layer to another is normally needed when only a few symbols from a certain group should be made
visible (for instance the result boxes of one or two specific junction nodes), or when user defined layers
are used. This allows to hide some elements or text boxes to improve the clarity of the diagram, or to
show additional information for e.g. printing purposes.

Note: Certain names and result boxes are, by default, not visible. An example is the names and result
boxes for internal nodes. This is done to reduce clutter on the graphic. To display such labels,
simply right-click on the object and select text boxes → Show labels.

The default layer for annotations is called Annotations Layer, which is empty until the first annotation
object is inserted. If the user creates new layers, annotation objects can easily be shifted from one to
another by right clicking on them, selecting Shift to layer and select the destination layer from the list.
More information about annotations can be found in section 9.6.

For some layers, for example Text Boxes or Results, when the layer is edited to change the configuration,
a target may be set; this target will be the focus of the performed configuration command. Various
actions or settings may be performed, such as e.g. changing the font using the Change Font button.

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The configuration page may also be used to mark (select/highlight) the target objects in the graphic
using the Mark button.

The options available to configure a layer depend on the type of Layer. Table 9.3.1 shows for each layer
in which way its content can be changed in format.

As an example, suppose that a part of the single line graphics is to be changed, for instance, to allow
longer busbar names. To change the settings, the correct graphical layer is first selected. In this
example, it will be the Labels layer. In this layer, only the busbar names are to be changed, and
the target must therefore be set to All Nodes. When the layer and the target has been selected, the
width for object names may be set in the Settings area. The number of columns may be set using the
Visibility/Width button. Alternatively, the Adapt Width will adapt all of the object name placeholders
to the length of the name for each object. Changing a setting for all nodes or all branches at once will
overwrite the present settings.

The visibility of the layer can be selected within the edit dialog of that layer (as well as in the main
Layers dialog), and - as additional options - users can choose to set maximum and/or minimum zoom-
dependent visibility levels, so that objects are not shown outside these zoom levels. For geographic
diagrams the limits are expressed in terms of a map-scale such as 1:5000, for schematic diagrams as
a percentage zoom level.

Many layers have an option to make the objects selectable or not. This can be useful if the layer contains
annotation objects, for example.

9.3.7 Colouring Options

9.3.7.1 Diagram Colouring

The single line and geographic diagrams have an automatic colour representation mode. The Diagram
Colouring icon on the diagrams toolbar will open the diagram colouring representation dialog (alter-
natively, select View → Diagram Colouring on the main menu). This dialog is used to select different
colouring modes and is dependent if a calculation has been performed or not. If a specific calculation
is valid, then the selected colouring for that calculation is displayed.

The Diagram Colouring has a 3-priority level colouring scheme implemented, allowing colouring ele-
ments according to the following criteria: 1𝑠𝑡 Energising status, 2𝑛𝑑 Alarm and 3𝑟𝑑 “Normal” (Other)
colouring.

Energising Status: if this check box is enabled “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation” elements
are coloured according to the settings in the “Project Colour Settings”. The settings of the “De-
energised” or “Out of Calculation” mode can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Alarm: if this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes will be available. It
is important to note here that only alarm modes available for the current calculation page will be
listed. If an alarm mode is selected, elements “exceeding” the corresponding limit are coloured.
Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

“Normal” (Other) Colouring: here, two lists are displayed. The first list contains all available
colouring modes. The second list contains all sub modes of the selected colouring mode. The
settings of the different colouring modes can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion is optional
and will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all three criteria, the hierarchy
taken into account will be the following:
• “Energising Status” overrules the “Alarm” and “Normal Colouring” mode. The “Alarm” mode
overrules the “Normal Colouring” mode.

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The graphic can be coloured according to the following list. Availability of some options will depend on
the function that is selected (e.g. ’Voltage Violations’ does not appear when the ’Basic Data’ page is
selected, but does when the ’Load Flow’ page is selected) and on the licence (e.g. Connection Request
is only available if the advanced function Connection Request Assessment is part of the licence).

Energising Status:

• De-energised
• Out of Calculation
• De-energised, Planned Outage
Alarm:
• Feeder Radiality Check (Only if “Feeder is supposed to be operated radially” is selected).
• Outages
• Overloading of Thermal/Peak Short Circuit Current
• Voltage Violations/Overloadings
“Normal” (Other) Colouring:
• Results
– Fault Clearing Times
– Voltage Angle (colouring according to absolute or relative voltage angles and angle dif-
ferences along branch elements; relative voltage angles do not reflect transformer vector
groups, while absolute voltage angles include the angle shift caused by transformer vector
groups)
– Voltages / Loading
– Loading of Thermal / Peak Short-Circuit Current
– Incident Energy
– PPE-Category
– Connection Request: Approval Status
– Contribution to EIC
– Contribution to ENS
– Contribution to SAIDI
– Contribution to SAIFI
– Loads: Average Interruption Duration
– Loads: Load Point Energy Not Supplied
– Loads: Yearly interruption frequency
– Loads: Yearly interruption time
– Optimal Manual Restoration
– Probabilistic Analysis
– State Estimation
• Topology
– Boundaries (Definition)
– Boundaries (Interior Region)
– Connected Components
– Connected Components, Voltage Level
– Connected Grid Components
– Energising Status

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– Feeders
– Missing graphical connections
– Outage Check
– Station Connectivity
– Station Connectivity (Beach Balls only)
– Supplied by Secondary Substation
– Supplied by Substation
– System Type AC/DC and Phases
– Voltage Levels
• Primary Equipment
– Cross Section
– Year of Construction
– Forced Outage Duration
– Forced Outage Rate

• Secondary Equipment
– Measurement Locations
– Power Restoration
– Relays, Fuses, Current and Voltage Transformers
– Switches, Type of Usage
• Groupings (Grids, Zones, Areas...)
– Areas
– Grids
– Meteo Stations
– Operators
– Owners
– Paths
– Routes
– Zones
• Variations / System Stages
– Modifications in Recording Expansion Stage
– Modifications in Variations / System Stages
– Original Locations
• User-defined
– Individual
The list User-defined may be used to define own colouring schemes. Pressing Manage Filters... opens
an object browser with the list of all available user-defined filters, found in the subfolder Settings/Colour-
ing/Colouring Scheme. New filter sets (IntFiltset) can be created, containing several General Filter
objects (SetFilt) with an assigned colour and the conditions, under which an element is coloured. This
allows to implement very specific filters to identify graphically elements in the diagram with certain
properties or results.

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9.3.7.2 Heatmaps

In PowerFactory, heatmaps can be used to illustrate the state of a grid by colouring the area around
network elements. The colour definition is carried out as described in section 9.3.7.1.

To use the colour definition for heatmaps, click on the Heatmap button . On the General page of the
dialog, the basic settings for the creation of the heatmap can be selected. The colour settings dialog
(explained in section 9.3.7.1) is accessible from this page. The Mode shows which type of colouring is
used.

The resolution of the Heatmap can be:

• Low
• Medium

• High
• User-defined (in pixels)

Note: The amount of time required to generate each heatmap increases with the specified resolution.
Since the optimal settings for heatmaps vary for each grid, the process of finding this optimum
might take a few iterations. Therefore it is advised to start with a small or medium resolution.

A background colour for the heatmap may additionally be set.

The General page defines the general settings for the Heatmap and the Advanced page defines
specifics regarding the colouring. Five different parameters can be set; the first two being:

• Number of closest influence points: defines the number of reference points taken into account
when colouring a certain point of the Heatmap.
• Contour sharpness: defines the smoothness of the transition between differently coloured areas.

The other three parameters define the Fading Area, i.e. the orthogonal transition from the element
colouring to the background colour:

• Begin: defines how far away from the centre of the element on the lateral axis the colouring
begins to fade to the background colour.

• Extent: defines how far away from the centre of the element on the lateral axis the colouring ends
to fade to the background colour.
• Fading exponent: defines how fast the colour between Begin and Extent will fade to the back-
ground colour.

Figure 9.3.4 shows an example of a Heatmap, which is coloured according to loading, over- and under-
voltage.

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Figure 9.3.4: Example of a heatmap coloured according to loading, over- and under-voltage

9.3.8 Graphic Legends

9.3.8.1 Show Title Block

The title block can be turned on and off from the Layers dialog (see 9.3.6). The title block is placed in
the lower right corner of the drawing area by default.

The contents and size of the title mask can be changed by right-clicking the title block and selecting the
Edit Data option from the context sensitive menu. The Select Title dialog that pops up is used to scale
the size of the title block by setting the size of the block in percent of the default size. The font used will
be scaled accordingly. To edit the text in the title block press the edit button ( ) for the ’Title Text’ field.

All text fields have a fixed format in the title block. The data and time fields may be chosen as automatic
or user defined. Most text fields are limited to a certain number of characters. When opening a new
graphic the title will appear by default.

9.3.8.2 Show Legend Blocks

The legend blocks can be turned on and off from the Layers dialog (see 9.3.6), or from the single line
diagram toolbar ( ).

The results legend block describes the contents of result boxes (for information about result boxes
see 9.5).

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Because more than one type of result box is normally used in the Single line graphic, for instance, one
for node results and another one for branch results, the legend box normally shows more than one
column of legends. After changing the result box definitions, it may be necessary to manually resize the
legend box in order to show all result box legends.

The Legend Box definition dialog is opened by right-clicking the legend block and selecting Edit Data
from the context menu. The font and format shown may be configured. When opening a new graphic
the legend will appear by default.

The other block is the colour legend block, which updates automatically based on the colouring options
selected.

9.3.9 Node Default Options

Figure 9.3.5 shows the commands available for setting node default options. These are discussed in
further detail in this section.

Figure 9.3.5: Node default options

Default Voltage Levels for Terminals and Busbars:

The default voltage level for terminals can be set in this field. New terminals placed on the single line
diagram will have this voltage (e.g. 110 kV, 0.4 kV).

Default Phase Technologies for Terminals:

The default phase technology for terminals can be set in this field. New terminals placed on the single
line diagram will be of this type (e.g. three-phase ABC, single-phase, DC, etc.).

9.3.10 Page, Print and Export Options

9.3.10.1 Drawing Format

The drawing area for single line diagrams, block diagrams and plots is modified in the Drawing Format
dialog, accessed using the button. A predefined paper format can be selected as-is, edited, or a new
format can be defined. The selected paper format has ’Landscape’ orientation by default and can be
rotated by 90 degrees by selecting ’Portrait’. The format definitions, which are shown when an existing
format is edited or when a new format is defined, also show the landscape dimensions for the paper
format.

It is not possible to draw outside the selected drawing area. If a drawing no longer fits to the selected
drawing size, then a larger format should be selected. The existing graphs or diagrams are repositioned
on the new format (use Ctrl+A to mark all objects and then grab and move the entire graphic by left
clicking and holding the mouse key down on one of the marked objects; drag the graphic to a new
position if required).

9.3.10.2 Print

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This function is accessed via the button, the menu File → Print or via the hotkey Ctrl+P. It opens a
print preview, showing the diagram to be printed. The dialog offers all the options that the user would
expect, including a Print Setup dialog, accessed via the icon.

If only part of the diagram is to be printed, the selection of the area can be done within the print preview
dialog. There is also a Pages option, which allows the user to print selected graphic pages.

9.3.10.3 Exporting Graphics

Graphics can be exported in a wide range of formats, using the Export Diagram function. This is
accessed either from the main toolbar, using File → Export Diagram..., or by using the icon on the
graphic toolbar.

If only part of the diagram is to be exported, the selection of the area can be done within the preview
dialog. For PDF exports, there is also a Pages option, which allows the user to select graphic pages to
be exported.

9.3.11 Diagram Layout Tool

The Diagram Layout Tool is a powerful feature to create graphical representations of network
topologies. The tool offers a manual, semi- and fully automatic creation of nodes and branch elements,
which are not yet graphically represented in the current Network Diagram. The options and the dialog
are described in detail in section 11.6.

9.3.12 Insert New Graphic

Pressing the button opens the New command dialog decribed in section 9.2.4.

Note: The Page Tab menu is opened by right-clicking a page tab, shown just below the single line
diagram. Existing graphics can be opened by selecting Show Graphic of the context sensitive
menu of the graphic object in the subfolder Network Model/Diagrams or by choosing it from the
list, which opens after selecting Insert Page → Open Existing Page from the context sensitive
menu of the page tab.

9.3.12.1 Other Page Commands

Other page commands accessed through the page tab are as follows:

Remove Page: this function will remove the selected graphic from the Graphics Board. The graphic
itself will not be deleted and can be re-inserted to the current or any other Graphics Board at any time.

Rename Page: this function can be used to change the name of the selected graphic.

Move/Copy Page(s): this function can be used to move a page/s to modify the order of graphics. Also
accessed through:

• Mouse Click: Left-click and select a single page (optionally press control and select multiple
pages) and drag the page/s to change the order graphics are displayed.
• Data Manager: (Advanced) Modify the order field of Graphics Pages listed within the Study
Case Graphics Board. To reflect the changes, the study case should be deactivated and then
re-activated.

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9.3.13 Element Options

In addition to the options available from the graphics toolbar, there are many edit options which are
available for elements in the graphic, using the context-sensitive menu (i.e. right-click).

Edit and Browse Data: this option lets the user edit the data of the selected object. The object will be
selected in its project folder within the list of the other objects and can be double-clicked to open its edit
dialog. See chapter 10 (Data Manager) for more information.

Delete: this function deletes both the database and graphical objects for the selected element(s). A
warning message will appear first - this may be switched off in the “User Settings” dialog; see section 7.3
(Graphic Windows Settings)). Also accessed through the keyboard: Del key.

Note: To delete graphical objects only, right click the selected element/s and select Delete Graphical
Object only.

Cut: this function cuts the selected objects. Objects can then later be pasted as discussed below. Also
accessed through the keyboard:Ctrl+X key.

Copy: copies the selected objects to the clipboard. Also accessed through the keyboard: Ctrl+C key.

Paste: pastes all objects from the clipboard into the current drawing. The objects are pasted at the
current graphical mouse position. Objects that are copied and pasted create completely new graphic
and data objects in the graphic that they are pasted into. Also accessed through the keyboard: Ctrl+V
key.

Note: To copy and paste just the graphic, Paste Graphic Only should be chosen from the right-click
menu. Similar results are obtained when using the “Draw Existing Net Elements” tool (see
Section 11.6: Drawing Diagrams with Existing Network Elements).

Note: The undo command undoes the last graphic action and restores deleted elements, or deletes
created elements. The undo command is accessed through the undo icon ( ), by right-clicking
and selecting ’Undo’, or by pressing Ctrl+Z.

Rotate: rotates symbols clockwise, counter-clockwise, or 180 degrees. It is generally preferable to

disconnect an element before rotating it.

Disconnect: disconnects the selected element/s. When right-clicking at the end of a connection ele-
ment a different/reduced menu is shown which allows disconnecting just the selected side (Disconnect
Side)

Connect: right-click and select Connect Element to connect an element.

Reconnect: used to disconnect a selected element and then re-connect it. The branch to be connected
will be ’glued’ to the cursor. Left clicking a bar or terminal will connect the element. When right-clicking
at the end of a connection element a different/reduced menu is shown which allows reconnecting just
the selected side (Reconnect Side)

Redraw: right-click and select Redraw Element to redraw a selected element.

Move: marked objects can be moved by left clicking them and holding down the mouse button. The
objects can be moved when the cursor changes to an arrowed cross ( ). Hold down the mouse button
and drag the marked objects to their new position. Connections from the moved part of the drawing to
other objects will be adjusted.

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Edit Line Points: right-click and select Edit Line Points will show the black squares (’line points’) that
define the shape of the connection. Each of these squares can be moved by left clicking and dragging
them to a new position (see figure 9.3.6). New squares can be inserted by left clicking the connection in
between squares. Line points are deleted by right-clicking them and selecting the Delete Vertex option
from the case sensitive menu. This menu also presents the option to stop (end) the line point editing,
which can also be done by left clicking somewhere outside the selected lines.

Figure 9.3.6: Editing line points

9.4 Editing and Changing Symbols of Elements

You can edit or change the symbols, which are used to represent the elements in the single line graphic.
Right click with on a symbol of an element in the single line graphic, and select Change Symbol from
the context sensitive menu in order to use a different symbol for the element.

PowerFactory supports user-defined symbols as Windows-Metafile (* .wmf) and Bitmap (* .bmp) files.

For additional information refer to Appendix E (Element Symbol Definition).

9.5 Result Boxes, Text Boxes and Labels

PowerFactory uses result boxes, text boxes, and labels in the single sine diagram to display calculation
results and other useful information. Figure 9.5.1 illustrates an example of this.

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Figure 9.5.1: Results boxes, text boxes, and labels available in PowerFactory

9.5.1 Result Boxes

General

Result boxes are generally set up so that there are a series of different formats for each calculation
function, with variables appropriate to that function. In addition, the format differs for the objects class
and/or for individual objects. For example, following a load flow calculation, branch and edge elements
will have different formats compared to nodes, and an external grid will have an individual, different,
format as compared to the branch and edge elements.

Although the result boxes in the single line graphic are a very versatile and powerful way for displaying
calculation results, it is often not possible to display a large (part of a) power system without making
the result boxes too small to be read. PowerFactory solves this problem by offering balloon help on
the result boxes. Positioning the mouse over a result box will pop up a yellow text balloon with the text
displayed in a fixed size font. This is depicted in figure 9.5.1. The result box balloon always states the
name of the variable, and may thus also be used as a legend.

Reference points

A result box is connected to the graphical object for which it displays the results by a “reference point”.
Figure 9.5.1 shows the default reference points for the result box of a terminal. A reference point is a
connection between a point on the result box (which has 9 optional points), and one of the “docking”
points of the graphical object. The terminal has three docking points: on the left, in the middle and on
the right. The reference point can be changed by:
• Right-clicking the result box with the graphics cursor (freeze mode off), and selecting Change
Reference Points.

• The reference points are shown: docking points in green, reference points in red. Select one of
the reference points by left-clicking it.
• Left-click the selected reference point, and drag it to a red docking point and drop it.
• An error message will result if you drop a reference point somewhere else than on a docking point.

Result boxes can be freely moved around the diagram. They will remain attached to the docking point,
and will move along with the docking point. A result box can be positioned back to its docking point by
right-clicking it and selecting Reset Settings from the menu.

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If the option “Reset textboxes completely” is set in the graphical settings, then the default reference
and docking points will be selected again, and the result box is moved back to the default position
accordingly.

Editing Result Boxes

PowerFactory uses separate result boxes for different groups of power system objects, such as node
objects (i.e. busbars, terminals) or edge objects (i.e. lines, loads). For each type of result box, a different
result box definition is used.

A number of these predefined formats are available for display; they may be selected by right-clicking a
result box to get the Format for Edge Elements (in this example) option, which then presents a number
of formats that may be selected. The active format is ticked ( ) and applies for all the visualised edge
elements.

It is also possible to select predefined formats for a specific element class. If the edge element is for
example an asynchronous machine, in the context sensitive menu it will be also possible to get the
option Format for Asynchronous Machine, which shows the predefined formats for the element class
Asynchronous Machine (ElmAsm). The selected format will in this case apply only to the visualised
asynchronous machines.

If the user wants to create a specific format that is different from the pre-defined ones, the Edit Format
for Edge Elements (or Node Elements) option should be used. Note that the new format will be applied
to the entire group of objects (edge or node objects).

If a created format is expected to be used for just one specific element, then the Create Textbox option
should be used. An additional result box/ textbox will be created, using the current format for the object.
This may then be edited. Information about text boxes is given in 9.5.2.

When the Edit Format option has been selected, the user can modify the variables and how are they
showed as described Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.2.1: Editing Result
Boxes.

Formatting Result Boxes

Result boxes can be formatted by means of the context sensitive menu (right-clicking the desired result
box). The available options include:

• Shift to layer (see 9.3.6).

• Rotate
• Hide
• Change the font type and size of the text
• Change the width
• Change colour
• Set the text alignment
• Adapt width
• Change reference points
• Reset Settings, only available after changes have been made).
Resetting Calculation Results

When pressed, the Reset Calculation icon ( ) will clear the results shown on the Single Line Diagram.
By default, PowerFactory will also clear the calculation results when there is a change to network data
or network configuration (such as opening a switch). However, if Retention of results after network
change is set to Show last results in the User Settings (see Section 7.1: General Settings), results will

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appear in grey on the Single Line Diagram and on the Flexible Data page until the calculation is reset, or
a new calculation performed. Reset Calculation can also be accessed from the main Calculation menu
or using F12.

9.5.2 Text Boxes

As mentioned before, text boxes are used to display user defined variables from a specific referenced
object within the single line graphic. To create a text box, right-click on the desired object (one end of
the object when it is a branch element) and select Create Textbox. By default a text box with the same
format of the corresponding result box will be generated.

The created text box can be edited, to display the desired variables, following the same procedure
described in 9.5.1. In this case after right-clicking the text box, the option Edit Format should be
selected. By default the text boxes are graphically connected to the referred object by means of a
line. This “connection line” can be made invisible if the option show line from General Textboxes.... from
the Result Boxes page of the Graphic Option dialog (9.3.5) is disabled.

9.5.3 Labels

In the general case, a label showing the name of an element within the single line graphic is automat-
ically created with the graphical objects (see figure 9.5.1). The label can be visualised as a text box
showing only the variable corresponding to the name of the object. As for text boxes, the format of
labels can be set using the context sensitive menu.

9.5.4 Free Text Labels

Free Text Labels (see figure 9.5.1) can be anchored to an element on the single line diagram, and used
to display custom text. The are created by right-click and selecting ’Create Free Text Label’.

9.6 Annotations

The Annotations feature offers the user the opportunity to include additional graphical information in one
or more configurable layers in the single line, geographic or block diagrams. Examples include:

• Built-in graphical annotation elements

• Text
• Icons (bitmap files)
• Plots

Note: The Annotation Layer is the default layers for new annotation objects, but users can choose
to move such objects into their own user-defined layers, which can also contain other graphical
objects.

The annotation elements are as follows:

• Graphical annotation
– Line:
– Polyline:

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– Arrow:
– Polyline with arrow:
– Polygon:
– Rectangle:
– Circle:
– Pie:
– Arc:

• Text:

• Icons (bitmap files):

• Plots:

Except the icons and plots, all the annotation elements can be drawn directly in the diagram. Before
placing an icon in the diagram, an available icon-object has to be selected or if not yet existing, created.
To insert a plot into the diagram, an already existing plot can be selected from the list in the object
browser, which opens after pressing the button.

It is possible have multiple layers that contain annotations. To do this, the user should click on the
button and then use the Add layer button to make a user-defined layer, selecting Net elements,
annotations, text boxes from the drop-down menu for Layer Type.

Export graphical layer

To export a graphical layer the user should press the Edit layer button, then go to the Annotations page
of the dialog. Using the Export button, the user can export the layer as an *.svg file.

Import graphical layer

To import a graphical layer, the user should first create the new layer as described above, then use the
Import button on the Annotations page.

9.7 Annotation of Protection Device

Adding a protection device into the single line diagram is described in section 33.2.2.

9.8 Navigation Pane

The navigation pane provides the user an overview of the whole network in a small window. It is
available for all graphics but plots. When zooming-in on a part of the grid, the navigation pane provides
an overview of the whole network and highlights the part of the network that is currently being shown in
the diagram. This is illustrated in figure 9.8.1.

The navigation pane can be turned on or off using the icon in the graphics toolbar. The frame within
the navigation pane can be moved around in order to see different parts of the network.

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Figure 9.8.1: Navigation pane

The navigation pane is enabled for every diagram by default, but can be disabled for specific diagrams.
This is done by first clicking on the Graphic Options icon ( ), then the dialog, go to the Advanced tab
within the Basic Attributes and disable the option “Allow Navigation Pane”.

9.9 Graphic search facility

It is possible to search for network elements within a graphic, using the icon in the graphic toolbar.
This is illustrated in figure 9.8.1 above: the search facility automatically lists possible objects as the user
types.

On geographic diagrams (see section 9.10 below), it is also possible to search for places such as towns
or streets.

If the user wishes to restrict the search to geographic places rather than network elements, the prefix
“geo:” can be used.

9.10 Geographic Diagrams

In PowerFactory it is possible to specify terminal GPS coordinates, and automatically generate geo-
graphic diagrams. GPS coordinates (latitude and longitude) are entered on the Description page of
terminals and lines, on the Geographical Coordinates tab. One geographic diagram can be created per
project by either:

• Opening the Data Manager, right-clicking on the active project or active grid and selecting Show
Graphic → Geographic Diagram.
• On the main menu, under Insert → Geographic Diagram.

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The geographic diagram provides a visual representation of the network and includes all terminals and
lines for which GPS coordinates have been entered.

One port elements (e.g. loads, shunts, generators) can also be represented in the geographic diagram.
The Diagram Layout Tool can be used to automatically draw all the edge elements in the diagram (see
section 11.6.1.2).

The settings for the geographic diagram are defined in the Graphic Options, Geographic Diagram page
(see section 9.3.5.5).

An additional layer called Load/Generation Distribution is available for GPS coordinates to illustrate the
magnitude of network load and generation (apparent power), as illustrated in figure 9.10.1. Note that
the displayed size of circles does not change as the user zooms in and out of the diagram. Colour
and Scaling Factor settings can be modified on the Configuration page of Layers ( ), as described in
section 9.3.6 (Layers).

Figure 9.10.1: Load/Generation Distribution example

Maps can be used as background images and can be specified on the Configuration page of Layers
( ). Maps from the following providers are pre-configured:

• OpenStreetMap (OSM), featuring free-of-charge mapnik-style maps

• Esri ArcGIS©, including road maps, satellite, and hybrid maps

• Google Maps©1 , including road maps, satellite/aerial, hybrid, and topographic maps
• Bing Maps, including road and satellite maps
• IGN Géoportail, including road maps, satellite and special maps

• Local map files, stored in plain text-files

To use the map data of some providers, special licence keys are necessary, which can be stored in the
Geographic Maps page of the configuration dialog accessed via Tools → Configuration.

1 requires Google Maps for Business account: http://www.google.com/enterprise/mapsearth

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9.10.1 Using an External Map Provider

If an external map provider from the internet is used, the Map layer can be chosen from (depending on
which map layers the provider offers):

• Roadmap
• Satellite/Aerial

• Hybrid
• Topographic

The following parameters are available:

• Saturation adjustment
• Brightness adjustment

These parameters are valid in the range -100 % and +100 % and can be used to highlight either the
map or the network elements.

Figures 9.10.2 and 9.10.3 illustrate small distribution grids where OpenStreetMap, and Esri ArcGIS©
satellite maps, respectively, are used as the background image providers.

Figure 9.10.2: Network example with OpenStreetMap data

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Figure 9.10.3: Network example with satellite background map (ESRI ArcGIS©)

Besides usage of pre-configured built-in map services, PowerFactory supports the use of user-configured
map services based on the standardised WMS/WMTS protocol. The WMS are defined by the Adminis-
trator in the Configuration folder as shown in figure 9.10.4

Figure 9.10.4: Web Map Services folder location

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If the “Web Map Services” folder doesn’t exist, it can be created by right clicking on the Configuration
folder and selecting New → Folder. The folder should be a System (DIgSILENT) folder with the key
“MapServices” as shown in figure 9.10.5.

Figure 9.10.5: Web Map Services folder

A new Web Map Service can be created by clicking on the button New ( ) in the Data Manager and
selecting Others → Other Elements (Int*) → Hyperlink (IntUrl). In the edit dialog of the hyperlink, the
field Resource type must be set to Map Service.

Once Address, Map server protocol and the rest of the fields of the edit dialog are set, it is possible to
verify the connection to the Map Service by clicking on View.

Once a Web Map Service is defined by the Administrator, the user can select the desired map by
configuring the Background layer of the geographic diagram, as shown in figure 9.10.6

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Figure 9.10.6: Background layer configuration

9.10.2 Using Local Maps

To display background images (e.g. maps) on the geographic diagram, the map provider must be
selected as Local map files (on the Layers dialog, Configuration page). A File for reading background
images must be selected. This facilitates ’tiling’ of multiple images in the background of the GPS graphic
if required.

The File is simply a text file with semicolon delimited entries, as follows:

Image_filename; X1; Y1; X2; Y2

Where:
• Image_filename is the name of the image file. If it is not in the same directory as the File, it should
include the file path.

• X is the latitude and Y is the longitude.

• (X1,Y1) are the bottom-left coordinates of the image.
• (X2,Y2) are the top-right coordinates of the image.

• The # symbol can be used to comment-out entries.

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Data Manager

10.1 Introduction

To manage/ browse the data in PowerFactory, a Data Manager is provided. The objective of this chapter
is to provide detailed information on how this Data Management tool. Before starting, users should
ensure that they are familiar with Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview).

10.2 Using the Data Manager

The Data Manager provides the user with all the features required to manage and maintain all the data
from the projects. It gives both an overview over the complete data base as well as detailed information
about the parameters of single power system elements or other objects. New case studies can be
defined, new elements can be added, system stages can be created, activated or deleted, parameters
can be changed, copied, etc. All of these actions can be instituted and controlled from a single data
base window.

The Data Manager uses a tree representation of the whole database, in combination with a versatile
data browser.To initially open a Data Manager window press the icon from the main toolbar. The
settings of this window can be edited using the ’User Settings’ dialog (Section 10.2.7: Data Manager
Settings).

The Data Manager window has the following parts (see Figure 10.2.1):
• The Data Manager local tool bar [1].
• The address bar, which shows the name and path of the of the folder currently selected in the
database [2]. This feature is described in Section 10.2.1
• In the left upper area the database window, which shows a symbolic tree representation of the
complete database [3].
• In the left lower area the input window. It may be used by more experienced users to enter
commands directly, instead of using the interactive command buttons/dialogs. By default it is not
shown. For further information see Section 10.7 (The Input Window in the Data Manager) [4].
The input window is opened and closed by the clicking on the Input Window button ( ).
• On the right side is the database browser that shows the contents of the currently selected folder
[5].
• Below the database browser and the input window is the status bar, which shows the current
status and settings of the Data Manager (for further information see Section 10.2.7).

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There are some special features of the database browser which can be accessed at any time when the
content of a folder is shown:
• Balloon text: this is not only available for the buttons in the tool bar and the active parts of the
status bar or the browser window, but also for the data fields [a].
• Active Title buttons of each column; click on any title button to sort the items in the column; first
click- items are sorted in ascending order; second click - items are sorted in descending order [b].
• Object buttons showing the object standard icon in the first column of the database browser: each
object is represented by a button (here a line object is shown). One click selects the object and a
double-click presents the edit dialog for the object [c].

Figure 10.2.1: The Data Manager window

PowerFactory makes extensive use of the right mouse button. Each object or folder may be ’right-
clicked’ to pop up a context sensitive menu. For the same object the menu presented will differ
depending on whether the object is selected in the left or right hand side of the Data Manager (this
is known as a ’context sensitive’ menu). Generally, the left hand side of the Data Manager will show
object folders only. That is, objects that contain other objects inside them. The right hand side of the
Data Manager shows object folders as well as individual objects.

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Figure 10.2.2: Context sensitive menus in the Data Manager

Using the right mouse button to access menus is usually the most effective means of accessing features
or commands. Figure 10.2.2 shows an Illustration of a context-sensitive right mouse button menu.

The symbolic tree representation of the complete database shown in the database window may not
show all parts of the database. The user settings offer options for displaying hidden folders, or for
displaying parts that represent complete stations. Set these options as required (Section 10.2.7: Data
Manager Settings).

10.2.1 Using the Data Manager address bar

The Data Manager address bar (seen in Figure 10.2.1 and labelled [2]) displays the file-path of the
location currently selected on the left-hand side of the Data Manager, but also offers a number of
features to help the user easily navigate the data structure.

Autocomplete

If the user starts typing a location in the address bar, matching locations will be listed, from which the
user can select the one that is wanted.

Switch to. . .

On the left-hand side of the address bar there are left- and right-arrows, which can be used to switch to
the previous or next selected folder, whilst the up-arrow is used to switch to the parent folder.

Favourites

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A selected location can be added to (or removed from) the “favourites” list by clicking on the star-icon to
the right of the address bar.

Selecting common locations

On the far left-hand side of the address bar there is a down-arrow, which gives access to several
features:

• History: This lists the locations viewed since the Data Manager was opened.
• Favourites: This presents the list of favourite locations
• Current user
• Active project
• Active study case

10.2.2 Navigating the Database Tree

There are several ways to “walk” up and down the database tree:

• Use the mouse: all folders that have a “+” sign next to them may be expanded by double-clicking
on the folder, or by single clicking the “+” sign.
• Use the keyboard: the arrow keys are used to walk up and down the tree and to open or close
folders (left and right arrows). The Page Up and Page Down keys jump up and down the tree in
big steps and the “-” and “+” keys may also be used to open or close folders.
• Use the toolbar in combination with the browser window. Double-click objects (see “c” in Fig-
ure 10.2.1) in the browser to open the corresponding object. This could result in opening a folder,
in the case of a common or case folder, or editing the object dialog for an object. Once again, the
action resulting from your input depends on where the input has occurred (left or right side of the
Data Manager).

• The buttons Up Level ( ) and Down Level ( ) on the Data Manager tool bar can be used to
move up and down the database tree.

10.2.3 Adding New Items

Generally, new network components are added to the database via the graphical user interface (see
Section 11.2: Defining Network Models with the Graphical Editor), such as when a line is drawn between
two nodes creating, not only the graphical object on the graphics board, but also the corresponding
element data in the relevant grid folder. However, users may also create new objects “manually” in the
database, from the Data Manager.

Certain new folders and objects may be created by right-clicking on folders in the Data Manager. A
context sensitive menu is presented, offering a choice of objects to be created that will “fit” the selected
folder. For example, right-clicking a grid folder will allow the creation (under the New menu) of a Graphic,
a Branch, a Substation, a Site or a Folder object. The new object will be created in the folder that was
selected prior to the new object button being pressed. This folder is said to have the ’focus’ for the
commanded action. This means that some objects may not be possible to create since the focused
folder may not be suited to hold that object.

For instance: A synchronous machine should not go into a line folder. A line folder should contain
only line routes, line sections and cubicles. The cubicles in their turn should contain only switches or
protection elements.

To access the whole range of objects that may be created, the icon must be pressed (new object
icon). This is found the Data Manager toolbar and presents the dialog shown in Figure 10.2.3.

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To simplify the selection of the new objects, a filter is used to sort the object list. This filter determines
what sort of list will appear in the drop-down list of the ’Element’ field. If “Branch Net Elements” is first
selected, the selection of, for instance, a 2-winding transformer is accomplished by then scrolling down
the element list.

The Element field is a normal edit field. It is therefore possible to type the identity name of the new
element, like ElmTr3 for a three-winding transformer, or TypLne for a line type directly into the field.

The possible list of new objects is therefore context sensitive and depends on the type or class of the
originally selected folder.

Figure 10.2.3: The element selection dialog

After the selection for a new object has been confirmed, the “Element Selection” dialog will close, the
new object will be inserted into the database and the edit dialog for the new object will pop up. If this
dialog is closed by pressing the Cancel button, the whole action of inserting the new object will be
cancelled: the newly created object will be deleted from the active folder. The dialog for the new object
may now be edited and the OK button pressed to save the object to the database.

As any other object, folders can be created either by using the context sensitive menu or by using the
icon. Common folders (IntFolder objects) may have an owner name entered, for documentation or
organisational purposes. In this way it should be clear who has created the data. Descriptions may also
be added. An existing folder may be edited by using the Edit icon on the toolbar or by using the right
mouse button.

Each folder may be set to be read-only, or to be a PowerFactory system folder. The folder may be a
“Common” or “Library” folder. These attributes can be changed in the edit-folder dialog. These settings
have the following meaning:

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• Common folders are used for storing non-type objects: electric elements, command objects,
settings, projects, etc.
• Type folders are used as ’libraries’ for type objects.
• System folders, which are read only folders

The use of read-only folders is clear: they protect the data. In addition, folders containing data that is
not normally accessed may be hidden. Selecting the kind of folders that the user/administrator wants to
be hidden is done in the user settings dialog see Chapter 7 (User Settings).

10.2.4 Deleting an Item

A folder or object which is selected may be deleted by pressing the Delete key on the keyboard, or by
clicking the icon on the toolbar of the Data Manager.

When deleting an object on the Data Manager or in the Single Line diagram, this object will be deleted
immediately from the database. Only the Undo button or Ctrl-Z can restore the element and its
references to the original location.

Because most power system objects that are stored in the database are interconnected through a
network topology or through type-element relationships, deleting objects often causes anomalies in the
database consistency. Of course, PowerFactory knows at any moment which objects are used by which
others and could prevent the user from creating an inconsistency by refusing to delete an object that is
used by others.

10.2.5 Cut, Copy, Paste and Move Objects

Cut, Copy and Paste

Cutting, copying and pasting may be achieved in four different manners:

1. By using the Data Manager tool bar buttons.

2. By using the normal ’MS Windows’ shortcuts:
• Ctrl-X will cut a selection,
• Ctrl-C will copy it,
• Ctrl-V will paste the selection to the active folder.
Cutting a selection will colour the item-icons gray. The cut objects will remain in their current folder
until they are pasted. A cut-and-paste is exactly the same as moving the object, using the context
sensitive menu. All references to objects that are being moved will be updated. Cancelling a
cut-and-paste operation is performed by pressing the Ctrl-C key after the Ctrl-X key has been
pressed.
3. By using the context sensitive menu. This menu offers a Cut, a Copy and a Move item. The move
item will pop up a small second database tree in which the target folder can be selected. When
the selected objects have been Cut or Copied, the context sensitive menu will then show a Paste,
Paste Shortcut and a Paste Data item.
• Paste will paste the selection to the focused folder.
• Paste Shortcut will not paste the copied objects, but will create shortcuts to these objects. A
shortcut object acts like a normal object. Changes made to the shortcut object will change the
original object. All other shortcuts to this original object will reflect these changes immediately
• Paste Data is only be available when just one object is copied, and when the selected target
object is the same kind of object as the copied one. In that case, Paste Data will paste all
data from the copied object into the target object. This will make the two objects identical,
except for the name and the connections.

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4. By dragging selected objects to another folder. The ’Drag & Drop’ option must be enabled first by
double-clicking the ’Drag & Drop: off’ message on the Data Manager’s status bar. When the Drag
& Drop option is on, it is possible to copy or move single objects by selecting them and dragging
them to another folder. Dragging is done by holding down the left mouse button after an object
has been selected and keeping it down while moving the cursor to the target/destination folder,
either in the database tree or in the database browser window.

Note: When dragging and dropping a COPY of the object will be made (instead of moving it) if the Ctrl
key is held down when releasing the mouse button at the destination folder. To enable the ’Drag &
Drop’ option double click the ’Drag & Drop’ message at the bottom of the Data Manager window.

10.2.6 Display of multidimensional attributes

Multidimensional attributes, i.e. variables that are not defined by a single parameter but by a set
or matrix of values, can be displayed from the Data Manager (and the Network Model Manager) in
an additional window via double click on the variable. Figure 10.2.4 shows an example of such a
multidimensional attribute.

Figure 10.2.4: Displaying multidimensional attributes in the Data Manager

For the particular case of complex matrices, as depicted in Figure 10.2.5, it is also possible to select
which of the variables should be displayed in the additional window.

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Figure 10.2.5: Displaying complex matrices in the Data Manager

10.2.7 The Data Manager Status Bar

The status bar shows the current status and settings of the Data Manager. Some of the messages are
in fact buttons which may be clicked to change the settings.

The status bar contains the following messages.

• “Pause: on/off” (visible only in case of an opened input window) shows the status of the message
queue in the input window. With pause on, the command interpreter is waiting which makes it
possible to create a command queue. The message is a button: double-clicking it will toggle the
setting.
• “N object(s) of M” shows the number of elements shown in the browser window and the total
number of elements in the current folder.
• “N object(s) Selected:” shows the number of currently selected objects.

• “Drag & Drop: on/off” shows the current drag & drop mode. Double clicking this message will
toggle the setting.

10.2.8 Additional Features

Most of the Data Manager functionality is available through the context sensitive menus (right mouse
button).

The following items can also be found in the context sensitive menus:

Show Reference List (Output. . . → Reference List) Produces the list of objects that have links, or
references (plus the location of the linked object), to the selected object. The list is printed to the
output window. In this manner for example, a list of elements that all use the same type can be

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produced. The listed object names can be double- or right-clicked in the output window to open
their edit dialog.
Select All Selects all objects in the database browser.

Mark in Graphic Marks the highlighted object(s) in the single line graphic. This feature can be used to
identify an object.
Show → Station Opens a detailed graphic (displaying all the connections and switches) of the terminal
to which the selected component is connected. If the component, is connected to more than one
terminal, as might be in the case of lines or other objects, a list of possible terminals is shown first.
Goto Busbar Opens the folder in the database browser that holds the busbar to which the currently
selected element is connected. If the element is connected to more than one busbar, a list of
possible busbars is shown first.
Goto Connected Element Opens the folder in the database browser that holds the element that is
connected to the currently selected element. In the case of more than one connected element,
which is normally the case for busbars, a list of connected elements is shown first.
Calculate Opens a second menu with several calculations which can be started, based on the currently
selected objects. A short-circuit calculation, for example, will be performed with faults positioned
at the selected objects, if possible. If more than one possible fault location exists for the currently
selected object, which is normally the case for station folders, a short-circuit calculation for all
possible fault locations is made.

Other useful features:

• Relevant objects for calculations are tagged with a check-mark sign (this will only be shown
following a calculation). Editing one of these objects will reset the calculation results.

10.3 Searching for Objects in the Data Manager

There are three main methods of searching for objects in the data base: Sorting, searching by name
and filtering.

10.3.1 Sorting Objects

Objects can be sorted according to various criteria, such as object class, name, rated voltage,..., etc.
Sorting according to object class is done using the Open Network Model Manager. . . icon on the toolbar
( ). A browser window will open, in which the user may select a particular class of calculation-relevant
object (e.g. synchronous machine, terminal, general load, but not graphics, user settings etc.).

Further sorting can be done according to the data listed in a table- either in the Data Manager or in a
browser obtained using the procedure described above. This is done by clicking on the column title. For
example, clicking on the column title ’Name’ in a data browser sorts the data alphanumerically (A-Z and
1-9). Pressing it again sorts the data Z-A, and 9-1.

Tabulated data can be sorted by multiple criteria. This is done by clicking on various column titles in a
sequence. For example, terminals can be sorted alphanumerically first by name, then by rated voltage
and finally by actual voltage by pressing on the titles corresponding to these properties in reverse-
sequence (actual voltage. . . rated voltage. . . name). A more detailed example follows:

Suppose that you have executed a load flow calculation and that, for each rated voltage level in the
network, you want to find the terminal with the highest voltage. These terminals could be identified
easily in a table of terminals, sorted first by rated voltage and then by calculated voltage. Proceed as
follows:

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• Perform the load flow calculation.

• Select the ElmTerm class in the Network Model Manager .

• Include, in the Flexible Data page tab, the terminal voltage and nominal voltage (see 10.6).
• In the table (Flexible Data page tab), click on the title ’u, Magnitude p.u’ to sort all terminals from
highest to lowest calculated voltage.
• Then click on the title ’Nom.L-L Volt kV’ to sort by nominal voltage level.

• Now you will have all terminals first sorted by voltage level and then by rated terminal voltage.

10.3.2 Searching by Name

Searching for an object by name is done either in the right-hand pane of the Data Manager or in a data
browser. To understand the procedure below, notice that the first column contains the symbols of the
objects in the table. Clicking on such a symbol selects all columns of that row, i.e. for that object. The
procedure is as follows:

• Select an object in the table by clicking on any object symbol in the table (if one object was already
selected then select a different one).
• Now start typing the object name, which is case sensitive. Notice how the selection jumps as you
type, For example, typing ’T’ moves the selection to the first object whose name starts with T, etc.
• Continue typing until the selection matches the object that you are looking for

10.3.3 Using Filters for Search

Advanced filtering capability is provided with the Find function . A filter is normally defined to find a
group of objects, rather than individual objects (although the latter is also possible). Advanced search
criteria can be defined, e.g. transmission lines with a length in the range 1 km to 2.2 km, or synchronous
machines with a rating greater than 500 MW etc.

The function is available in both the Data Manager and a data browser. Clicking on the Find ( ) in the
Data Manager allows the user to apply a predefined filter or to define a new filter, called ’General filter’.
If a new filter is defined, the database folder that will be searched can be defined.

General Filters defined by the user are objects stored in the Changed Settings ∖ Filters folder.

The options in the General Filter dialog window are now explained:

Name: Name of filter.

Object filter: This field defines either the complete or a part of the search criteria, and is optional.
Examples are as follows:
• *.ElmSym: Include element objects of the class synchronous machines.
• *.TypSym: Include type objects of the class synchronous machines.
• Lahney.*: Include all objects with the name Lahney.
• Lahney.Elm*: Include all element objects with the name Lahney.
• D*.ElmLod: Include all load element objects whose names start with D.
• A drop down list providing various object classes can be accessed with .
Look in: This field is available if a filter id defined within the Data Manager. It allows the user to specify
the folder in the database that will be searched.

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Check boxes:

• Include Subfolders will search the root folder specified as well as the subfolders in the root
folder. The search can be stopped at the matching folder.
• Relevant Objects for Calculation will include only those objects considered by the active
study case (if no study case is active the search is meaningless and no search results will be
returned).
• Area Interconnecting Branches will search for branch elements that interconnect grids.

The OK button will close the search dialog, but save the filter object to the Changed Settings∖Filters
folder. This makes it available for further use. The Cancel button will close the dialog without saving
the changes. This button is useful if a search criterion (filter) will only be used once.The Apply button
starts the actual search. It will scan the relevant folders and will build a list of all objects that match the
search criteria.

Once the search is complete a list of results is returned in the form of a new data browser window. From
this browser, the returned objects can be marked, changed, deleted, copied, moved, etc. . . .

Advanced search options allow more sophisticated expressions as search criteria. These are specified
in the Advanced page of the General Filter dialog (Figure 10.3.1). The filter criterion is defined in terms
of a logical expression, making use of parameter names. Objects will be included in the data browser if,
for their parameters, the logical expression is determined to be true. An example of a logical expression
is 𝑑𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 > 0.7. The variable dline refers to the length of a transmission line, and the effect of such a
filter criterion is to limit the data in the browser to transmission lines having a length exceeding 0.7 km.
The logical expressions can be expanded to include other relations (e.g. >=), standard functions (e.g.
sin()), and logical operators (e.g. .and.).

Note: Parameter names can be object properties or results. The parameter names for object properties
are found, for example, by letting the mouse pointer hover over an input field in an object’s dialog
window. Parameter names for result variables are found from variable sets, which are described
in Section 19.3 Variable Selection.

Figure 10.3.1: Filter dialog - Advanced page

Search literally is used to search for user defined strings ’inside’ parameter fields. The user can specify
if the search is done in a specific parameter, if the field in Parameter is left blank, all parameter fields
will be searched for this string.

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As stated before, the objects matching the filter criteria are displayed in a data browser. They may also
be highlighted in the graphic using the ’Colour representation’ function described in Chapter 9: Network
Graphics (Single Line Diagrams). The colour to be used in this case can be specified under the page
Graphic of the General Filter dialog.

Note: New filters are saved to the Project∖Changed Settings∖Filters folder in the project and are
available for use directly, using the right mouse menu. If a search is to be performed in a particular
grid simply proceed as follows: right-click the grid folder → Find→ Local Filters→ Filter Name
(e.g. Lines longer than 700 m). Remember to press the Apply button to perform the search. If
you unchecked the Show Filter Settings before Application box under User Settings → General
then the filter will be applied as soon as it is selected from the menu. This is useful when you have
already defined several filters for regular use.

10.4 Auto-Filter functions in Data Manager and browser windows

Columns within the Data Manager, browser windows or the Network Model Manager can be filtered. To
add a filter for a column proceed as follows:

• Click on the down arrow in the column header of the table. A window will open.

• A list of all entries that differ from each other within that column, will be shown.
• Option: Selection
– Select/deselect desired/undesired entries from that list. Only objects, which contain marked
entries will later be shown in the table. All other ones will be hidden.
– Sometimes the list of entries can be very long. To reduce this list, the user may enter a text
into the search field. The list will be filtered with every typed character.
• Option: Custom...
– In addition to the possibility of selecting existing entries, also custom filters can be used by
choosing the radio button Custom... and confirming with OK.
– A new window will open, in which up to two filter can be combined via an AND or an OR
relation. For each of both filters one of the following criterions has to be chosen:
* None
* Equals
* Is not equal to
* Contains
* Does not contain
* Starts with
* Does not start with
* Ends with
* Does not end with
* Special
– After one criterion has been selected (except: None), a drop-down box will appear, from
which one of the entries may be chosen or an own text may be entered.

Filtered columns are indicated by a blue column heading and a filter symbol in the lower right corner of
the column header. By holding the mouse cursor still over the heading of a filtered column, a balloon
help appears and shows the applied filter settings.

The auto filters in the Data Manager and browser windows are temporary. They will be lost, if for
example another path is chosen.

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10.5 Editing Data Objects in the Data Manager

The Data Manager offers several ways to edit power system components and other objects stored in
the database, regardless they appear graphically or not.

The basic method is to double-click the object icons in the database browser. This will open the same
edit dialog window obtained, when double clicking the graphical representation of an element in the
graphic window.

An open edit dialog will disable the Data Manager window from which it was opened. The edit dialog
has to be closed first in order to open another edit dialog.

However, it is possible to activate more than one Data Manager (by pressing the icon on the main
toolbar) and to open an edit dialog from each of these Data Managers. This can be useful for comparing
objects and parameters.

Using the edit dialogs has one major drawback: it separates the edited object from the rest of the
database, making it impossible to copy data from one object to the other, or to look at other object
parameter values while editing.

PowerFactory brings the big picture back in sight by offering full scale editing capabilities in the Data
Managers browser window itself. The browser window in fact acts like a spreadsheet, where the user
can edit and browse the data at the same time. The browser window has two modes in which objects
can be edited,
• Object mode

• Detail Mode
which are described in the following sections.

10.5.1 Editing in Object Mode

In the general case the icon, the name, the type and the modification date (with its author) of the objects
are shown in the ’object’ mode. Certain objects, for example network components, show additional
fields like the “Out of Service” field.

The title buttons are used to sort the entries in the browser. The visible data fields can be double-clicked
to edit their contents, or the F2 button can be pressed. The object will show a triangle in its icon when
it is being edited.

After the data field has been changed, move to the other fields of the same object using the arrow-keys
or by clicking on these data fields, and alter them too.

The new contents of a data field are confirmed by pressing the Return key, or by moving to another
field within the same object. The triangle in the icon will change to a small star to show that the object
has been altered. The object itself however has not been updated. Updating the changes is done by
pressing Return again, or by moving to another object in the browser. By default, PowerFactory will
ask to confirm the changes. See Section 10.2.7 (Data Manager Settings) to disable these conformation
messages.

10.5.2 Editing in “Detail” Mode

If the icon on the browse window of the Data Manager is pressed, the browser changes to ’detail’
mode. It will display only the objects from the same class as the one which was selected when the
button was pressed.

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In ’detail’ mode, the browser shows all data fields for the selected calculation function data set, which
can be selected by clicking on a tab shown at the bottom of the table view.If a page tab is out of reach,
then the page tab scrollers will bring it within the browser window again. As depicted in Figure 10.5.1,
the Flexible Data, Scenarios, Characteristics and Distribution tabs are highlighted by colouring. The
colours reflect those selected in the User Settings (refer to section 7.8) for these types of data.

The list of objects may be sorted by any column by pressing the title field button. The widths of the
data fields can be adjusted by pointing the mouse on the separation line between two title fields and
dragging the field border by holding a mouse button down.

As with the browser in ’object’ mode, the data fields can be edited by double-clicking them. In the
example the active power settings are being edited, but from the star in the object icon it is clear
that another field of the same object has been edited too, but not confirmed, because this star would
otherwise be a triangle.

It is possible to change a parameter field for more than one object simultaneously. This is, for instance,
useful to raise a certain limit for a range of objects, in order to get a better load-flow result i.e. by
alleviating line overloads. An example is shown in Figure 10.5.1 where the derating factor for a range of
lines is changed at once.

Figure 10.5.1: Modify values dialog

Figure 10.5.2: Modify values dialog

The parameter fields which have to be changed have to be multi-selected first. Right-clicking the
selection will pop up a case sensitive menu from which the Modify Value(s) option opens the SetValue
dialog, see Figure 10.5.2.

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This dialog can be used to:

• increase or decrease them by multiplication with a scale factor (“Relative”).

• increase or decrease them by multiplication with a scale factor with respect to the sum of values
selected (“Relative to Sum”).
• Set all the selected parameter fields to a new fixed (“absolute”) value.
It is not possible to simultaneously alter parameter fields from more than one column, i.e. to change
nominal currents and nominal frequencies simultaneous, even if they would happen to take the same
value or would have to be raised with the same percentage.

10.5.3 Copy and Paste while Editing

One of the great advantages of editing data fields in the Data Manager’s browser window is the possi-
bility to copy data from one object to another. This is done by selecting one or more objects or object
fields, copying this selection to the clipboard, and pasting the data back in another place.

To copy one or more objects,

1. Open the Data Manager and select the grid folder where you find the objects to be copied.

2. Select the objects.

3. Press Ctrl-C to copy or use the icon on the Data Manager toolbox.

4. Press Ctrl-V to paste or use the icon on the Data Manager toolbox. The objects will be copied
with all the data. Their names will automatically be altered to unique names.
Copying data fields from one object to another is done just like for any spreadsheet software you may
be familiar with. To copy one or more data fields,

1. Select them by clicking them once. Select more data fields by holding down the Ctrl key.

2. Copy the fields to the clipboard by pressing Ctrl-C or the icon.

3. Select one or more target objects data fields. If more than one field was copied, make sure that
the target field is the same as the first copied data field.

4. Press Ctrl-V or the icon. The contents of the data fields will be copied to the target objects.

10.6 The Flexible Data Page

The data browser (this will be seen in the Data Manager when the ’Detail Mode’ has been engaged)
has page tabs for all calculation functions. These tabs are used to view or edit object parameters which
are categorised according to a calculation function and have a fixed format.

The ’Flexible Data’ tab, normally used to display calculation results, allows the user to define a custom
set of data to be displayed.

The default format for the calculation results displayed in the flexible page depends on the calculation
performed: Following a load-flow calculation, the default variables for terminals are line-to-line voltage,
per unit voltage and voltage angle. Following a short-circuit calculation the default variables are initial
short-circuit current, initial short-circuit power, peak current etc. Figure 10.6.1 shows an example of the
flexible data page tab.

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Figure 10.6.1: The Flexible Data page tab

10.6.1 Customising the Flexible Data Page

The displayed variables are organised in ’Variables Sets’ that are, in turn, organised according to the
calculation functions. For example, an object class ElmTr2 (two-winding transformer) has a variable set
for symmetrical load flow calculation, a variable set for short-circuit calculation etc. There may also be
more than one variable set for any calculation function. For example, the object ElmTr2 may have two
variable sets for symmetrical load flow calculation.

The Flexible Page Selector allows the user to specify the variable set to use, or to define new variable
sets. Furthermore, the Flexible Page Selector allows the user to access and edit the variable sets, i.e.
to specify which variables to display in the Flexible Data page.

The ’Flexible Page Selector’ dialog is shown in Figure 10.6.2. This dialog is opened by pressing the
( ) icon on the Data Manager toolbar. The Flexible Page Selector has a menu with all the different
calculation functions. It opens in the page corresponding to the most recent calculation.

The selection of variables within Variable Sets is presented in detail in Section 19.3 Variable Selection.

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Figure 10.6.2: The Flexible Page Selector

The Format/Header tab (Figure 10.6.3) allows the user to customise the formats or column headers of
the Flexible Data page.

Figure 10.6.3: Customising flexible data page formats and column headers

Note: Variable Sets are objects of class IntMon, within PowerFactory they have multiple uses. This
section only presents their use in conjunction with Flexible Data. For further information refer to
Section 19.3 Variable Selection.

The number format per column in the Flexible Data Page can also be modified by right clicking on the
column header of the variable and selecting Edit Number Format . . . . A new window will appear and
the user may define the number representation.

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The order of the columns (except: Name, In Folder and Grid) on the Flexible Data page can be changed.
Therefor, the header of a column has to be clicked and while holding the left mouse button pressed, the
column can be moved to the desired position. To illustrate, where the column will be placed, when the
mouse button is released, an arrow between the actual and the possible new position of the column is
shown during this process.

10.7 The Input Window in the Data Manager

The input window is for the more experienced users of DIgSILENT PowerFactory. It is closed by default.
Almost all commands that are available in PowerFactory through the menu bars, pop-up menus, icons,
buttons, etc., may also be entered directly into the input window, using the PowerFactory commands.

The contents of the input window can be saved to file, and commands can be read back into the window
for execution.

PowerFactory also has special command objects which carry one single command line and which are
normally used to execute commands. In this way, complex commands can be saved in the same folder
as the power system for which they were configured.

10.7.1 Input Window Commands

In principle, everything that can be done in DIgSILENT PowerFactory can be done from the command
line in the input window. This includes creating objects, setting parameters, performing load-flow or
short-circuit calculations.

Some commands that are available are typically meant for command line use or for batch commands.
These commands are rarely used in another context and are therefore listed here as “command line
commands”, although they do not principally differ from any other command.

Cd Command Moves around in the database tree by opening another folder at a relative position
from the currently open folder.
Example:
cd...∖gridB∖Load1

Cls Command Clears the output or input window.

cls/outclears output window

cls/inpclears input window completely
cls/inp/doneclears only previously executed commands
.../y asks for confirmation

Dir Command Displays the contents of a folder.

Example:
dir Study Case

Ed Command Pops up the dialog of a default command, i.e. “ldf”, “shc”, etc.
Example:
ed ldf

Exit Command Queries or sets a variable.

Example:
man/set obj=Load_1.elmlod variable=plini value=0.2

Pause Command Interrupts the execution of the command pipe until a next pause command is
executed.

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Pr Command Prints either the contents of the output window or the currently active graphics
window.

Rd Command Opens and reads a file.

Stop Command Stops the running calculation.

Wr Command Writes to a file.

10.8 Save and Restore Parts of the Database

A selected part of the database can be written to a “.pfd” file with the button Export Data. . . . This
will bring a ’File Save’ dialog where a filename must be specified.

Alternatively, the folder or object that is to be exported can be right-clicked in the database tree, after
which the option Export. . . is selected.

The exported part of the database may be a complete project, a library, or a specific object in the
browser window. Exporting a folder (i.e a project, grid, library, etc.) will export the complete content of
that folder, inclusive subfolders, models, settings, single line graphics, etc.

It is even possible to export a complete user account. However, only the administrator is able to import
an user-account. Exporting the user-account on a regular basis is a practical way to backup your data.

It is even possible to export data from another user account, or even to export another user-account
completely. However, only the shared, visible, data will be exported.

The exported data file can be imported into the database again in any desired folder by pressing the
Import Data. . . button. This will bring a ’File Open’ dialog where the “.pfd” data-file can be selected.

The “.pfd”-file will be analysed and error messages will be displayed when the file is not a genuine
PowerFactory data file, or if it is corrupted. If the file format has been found to be correct, a dialog will
appear which shows the data and version of the file. The default target folder is shown also, which is the
original folder of the saved data. If this is not desired, another target folder can be selected by pressing
the Drop Down button. This button will bring a small version of the database tree. A new target folder
can be selected from this tree.

10.8.1 Notes

By exporting a folder from the database, only the information in that folder and all its subfolders will be
stored. If the exported objects use information (e.g. power system types like line or transformer types)
that is saved somewhere else, then that information will not be stored. Make sure that the used power
system types and all other referenced information is exported too.

When importing a file that contains objects which use data outside the import-file, a search for that data
is started.

For instance, assume a project is exported. One of the line-models uses a type from a library outside
the project. When exporting, the path and name of this type is written in the export-file, but the type
itself is not exported, as is does not reside in the exported project.

At importing, the stored path and name of the ’external’ type is used to find the type again and to
restore the link. However, if the ’external’ type is not found, then it will be created, using the stored
path and name. Of course, the created object has default data, as the original data was not exported.
Additionally, an error message is written to the output window.

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Suppose that you are working with a large library, which is stored in a special user-account to make it
read-only. The library is made accessible by sharing it to all users.

When export the projects, the objects from the external library are not exported. However, a colleague
which has access to the same library may still import your projects without problems. The external
objects used in your projects will be found in the same location, and the links to these objects will be
correctly restored.

10.9 Spreadsheet Format Data Import/Export

The PowerFactory data browser in the Data Manager’s window looks and acts like a spreadsheet
program as far as creating and editing power system objects is concerned. To enable and simplify the
use of power system element data which is stored in spreadsheet programs such as the Microsoft Excel
or the Lotus 123 programs, the data browser offers ’Spreadsheet Format’ import and export facilities.

10.9.1 Export to Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL)

All data visible in the data browser may be exported as it is. The export format is such that most
common spreadsheet programs can read in the data directly (space separated ASCII). Exporting data
is performed as follows.
• Select a range of data in the data browser. Such a range may contain more than one column and
more than one row.

• Right-click the selected range.

• Now you have different options:
– If you want to copy the content of the marked cells only, simply select Copy from the context-
sensitive menu.
– If you want to copy the content of the marked cells together with a description header, select
the Spread Sheet Format option. This opens a second menu which offers the choice between
writing the Spreadsheet export to a file (Write to File), or to put it on the Windows Clipboard
(Copy (with column headers)). See Figure 10.9.1.
• The exported data can now be pasted into a spreadsheet program.

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Figure 10.9.1: Exporting a range of data

10.9.2 Import from Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL)

There are two methods available for importing data from a spreadsheet program. The first method uses
a direct import of ’anonymous’ numerical data, i. e. of the values stored in the cells of the table. This
method is used to change parameter of existing objects by importing columns of parameter values.

The second method can be used to create new objects (or replace whole objects) by importing all the
data from a spreadsheet.

Any range of parameter values can be copied from a spreadsheet program and imported into the Data
Manager. The import is performed by overwriting existing parameter values by ’anonymous’ values.
The term ’anonymous’ expresses the fact that the imported data has no parameter description. The
size of the imported value range and the required data are tested. Importing invalid values (i.e. a power
factor of 1.56) will result in an error message.

Spreadsheet Import of Values

The import of values (anonymous variables), i. e. cells of a table, is explained by the following example.

In Figure 10.9.2, a range of active and reactive power values is copied in a spreadsheet program. In
Figure 10.9.3, this range is pasted to the corresponding fields of 6 load objects by right-clicking the
upper left most field which is to be overwritten.

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In contrast to the import of whole objects, the anonymous import of data does not need a parameter
description. This would complicate the import of complete objects, as the user would have to enter all
parameters in the correct order.

Figure 10.9.2: Copying a range of spreadsheet data

Figure 10.9.3: Pasting spreadsheet data from clipboard

Spreadsheet Import of Objects and Parameters

With this kind of import, it is possible to import whole objects (in contrast to the import of pure values,
which is described above). The object import uses a header line with the parameter names (which is
necessary in addition to the cells with the pure values). This header must have the following structure:

• The first header must be the class name of the listed objects.
• The following headers must state a correct parameter name.

This is shown in Figure 10.9.4.

Figure 10.9.4: Excel required format

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Figure 10.9.5 shows an example of valid spreadsheet data of some line types and some 2-winding
transformer types.

Figure 10.9.5: Example of valid spreadsheet data

The import of the spreadsheet data into PowerFactory is performed as follows.

• Select the header line and one or more objects lines.

• Copy the selection. See Figure 10.9.6 for example.

• Right-click the folder browser in the Data Manager to which the objects are to be imported. Select
Spread Sheet Format → Import Objects from Clipboard. See Figure 10.9.7 for example.

Figure 10.9.6: Selecting object data in spreadsheet

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Figure 10.9.7: Importing objects from clipboard

The result of the object import depend on whether or not objects of the imported class and with the
imported names already exist or not in the database folder. In the example of Figure 10.9.8, none of the
imported objects existed in the database an all were created new therefore. The example shows the
database in detail mode.

Figure 10.9.8: Result of spreadsheet object import

Note: New objects are created in the PowerFactory database folder only when no object of the imported
class and with the imported name is found in that folder. If such an object is found then its data
will be overwritten by the imported data

Because new objects are only created when they do not exist already, and only the imported parameters
are overwritten when the object did exists already, the import is always a save action.

Remarks
Object Names
Object names may not contain any of the characters
*
?=",∖∼|

Default Data
When an imported object is created newly, the imported data is used to overwrite the correspond-
ing default data. All parameters that are not imported will keep their default value.

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Units
The spreadsheet values are imported without units. No conversion from MW to kW, for example,
will be possible. All spreadsheet values therefore have to be in the same units as used by
PowerFactory.

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Chapter 11

Building Networks

11.1 Introduction

This Chapter describes basic processes for setting up a network model in PowerFactory. Network
models are usually constructed via a network graphic, or the Data Manager of the project. Therefore it
is useful to have some understanding of these two concepts before starting. See Chapters 9 and 10.

11.2 Defining Network Models using the Graphical Editor

This section explains how the tools of the Graphical Editor are used to define and work with network
models. Some basic terms to understand are:

• Node: a node is another name for a terminal, which is an object of class ElmTerm. Other objects
such as loads and lines are connected to the nodes.
• Edge element: any element connected to a terminal (e.g. load, shunt, line, switch, transformer).
It can be a single-port element or have more than one port.
• Branch element: an edge element that is connected between two or more nodes (e.g. switch, line,
transformer). It has more than one port.
• Cubicle: the cubicle is not an element represented on the diagram; it is internal to a terminal and
can be thought of as the point where an object is connected to the terminal.

11.2.1 Adding New Power System Elements

When new elements are created via a diagram graphic, they will by default be stored in the folder of the
grid associated with that graphic (“Target folder for network elements”).

PowerFactory provides a Drawing Toolbox from which elements can be selected. This toolbox is only
visible to the user when a project and study case is active and the open graphic is made editable by
deselecting the Freeze Mode button ( ). The Drawing Toolbox will then be seen on the right-hand
side of the GUI. The process is that elements are first created and then their parameters subsequently
edited through the element and type dialogs. Information about the element and type parameters are
given in the Technical References Document.

To create a new power system element, left-click once on the corresponding icon in the toolbox. Then
the cursor will have this symbol “attached” to it. Then a left-click on the graphic will create a new element
of the selected class. The Esc key, or right mouse-click, can be used to stop this process.

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Power system elements are placed and connected in the single line graphic by left clicking on empty
places on the drawing surface (places a symbol), and by left clicking on nodes (makes a connection).
It is therefore recommended to start by creating at least some of the nodes (terminals) in the network
first.

The connection between edge elements and terminals is carried out by means of cubicles. When work-
ing with the graphical editor, the cubicles are automatically generated in the corresponding terminal.

Note: When connections to terminals are defined with switch elements of the class ElmCoup (circuit
breakers), cubicles without any additional switches (StaSwitch) are generated.

11.2.2 Nodes

When starting to build a network, it is usual to first place the required terminals (ElmTerm) on the
graphic. There are several representations of terminals available in the Drawing Toolbox. Note that
terminals have a parameter e:iUsage, which is set to Busbar, Internal Node or Junction Node; by
default this will be set to Busbar unless the “point” representation is selected.

Busbar. This is the most common representation of a node.

Busbar (Short). Looks the same as a Busbar but is shorter and the results box and name is placed
on the Invisible Objects layer by default. Typically used to save space or reduce clutter on the graphic.

Junction / Internal Node. Typically used to represent a junction point, say between an overhead line
and cable. The results box and name is placed on the Invisible Objects layer by default.

Busbar (rectangular). Typically used for reticulation and / or distribution networks.

Busbar (circular). Typically used for reticulation and / or distribution networks.

Busbar (polygonal). Typically used for reticulation and / or distribution networks.

Busbars (terminals) should be placed in position and then, once the cursor is reset, dragged, rotated
and sized as required. Re-positioning is performed by first left clicking on the terminal to mark it, then
clicking once more so that the cursor changes to , and then holding the mouse button down and
dragging the terminal to a new position. Re-sizing is performed by first left clicking on the terminal to
mark it. Sizing handles appear at the ends.

11.2.3 Edge Elements

Edge elements are elements which connect to nodes.

Single port elements (loads, machines, etc.) can be positioned in two ways. The simplest method is
to select the symbol from the toolbox and then left click the busbar where the element is to be placed.
This will draw the element at a default distance under the busbar. In case of multi busbar systems, only
one of the busbars need be left-clicked. The switch-over connections to the other busbars will be made
automatically.

The “free-hand” method first places the element symbol wherever desired, that is, first click wherever
you wish to place the symbol. The cursor now has a “rubber band” connected to the element (i.e. a
dashed line), left-clicking on another node will connect it to that node. To create corners in the joining
line left click on the graphic. The line will snap to grid, be drawn orthogonally, as determined by the
“Graphic Options” that have been set.

If a single port element is connected to a terminal using the first method (single left click on busbar), but

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a cubicle already exists at that position on the busbar, the load or machine symbol will be automatically
positioned on the other side of the terminal, if possible.

Note: By default all power system elements are positioned “bottom down”. If the element has already
been placed and one wishes to flip it to the other side of the terminal, it can be done by selecting
the element and the right-click → Flip At Node.

Once drawn, an element can be rotated by right-click and selecting from the Rotate commands.

Double port elements (lines, transformers, etc.) are positioned in a similar manner to single port
symbols. By left-clicking the first busbar, the first connection is made. The second connection line
is now held by the cursor. Again, left-clicking the drawing area will create corners. Double-clicking the
drawing area will position the symbol (if not a line or cable - e.g. a transformer). The second connection
is made when a node is left clicked.

Triple port elements (e.g. three-winding transformers) are positioned in the same manner as two port
symbols. Clicking the first, and directly thereafter the second node, will place the symbol centred
between the two nodes, which may be inconvenient. Better positioning will result from left clicking
the first busbar, double-clicking the drawing space to position the element, and then making the second
and third connection.

The ’free-hand’ method for two and triple port elements works the same as for one port elements.

Note: Pressing the Tab key after connecting one side will leave the second leg unconnected, or jump to
the third leg in the case of three port elements (press Tab again to leave the third leg unconnected).
Pressing Esc or right-click will stop the drawing and remove all connections. If the element being
drawn seems as if it will be positioned incorrectly or untidily there is no need to escape the drawing
process; make the required connections and then right-click the element and Redraw the element
whilst retaining the data connectivity.

It is recommended that the connections for a transformer are always made in order of voltage, starting
with the highest voltage connection.

It is possible to insert a terminal into an existing line in the single line diagram by placing the terminal on
the line itself. This splits the line into two, defaulting at 50 %. If the terminal is then moved, the adjacent
line sections will automatically be redrawn. If the terminal needs to be moved (graphically) along the
line, this can be done by holding the Ctrl+Alt keys whilst moving the terminal. Note that both these
adjustments are just graphical and do not change the actual lengths of the two lines.

Annotations are created by clicking one of the annotation drawing tools. Tools are available for drawing
lines, squares, circles, pies, polygons, etc. To draw these symbols left click at on an empty space on
the single line diagram and release the mouse at another location (e.g. circles, lines, rectangles). Other
symbols require that you first set the vertices by clicking at different positions and finishing the input
mode by double-clicking at the last position.

For further information on defining lines, see Section 11.3 (Lines and Cables).

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11.2.4 Cubicles

A cubicle (StaCubic) in PowerFactory is an object which stores information about the connection
between an edge element and a node element. Whenever an edge element is connected to a node
element it must be connected via a cubicle. However, the cubicle is created automatically when an edge
element and a node are connected and the user does not generally need to take special measures to
facilitate the creation of the cubicle.

In the data manager cubicles are stored within node elements. A node element can contain cubicles
which do not have an edge element associated with them. This can happen if for example an edge
element is connected to a node and then disconnected. A cubicle is automatically created during the
connection but is not automatically deleted upon disconnection and therefore remains in the node. If
alternatively the edge element was deleted instead of disconnected, in this case, the cubicle would also
be deleted. If an attempt is made to connect an edge element to a node containing such unassigned
cubicles then PowerFactory will give the user a choice of unassigned cubicles to which they can
connect.

In addition to storing information about the associated connection, a cubicle is also used as a storage
location for certain objects. For example, relays, switches, circuit breakers and measurement devices
can all be stored inside cubicles. Only one switching device (StaSwitch) can be stored inside a cubicle
and this device can be used to toggle the connection between the edge element and the node element.
By default a switching device is always created in a cubicle, but the user can also choose to remove the
switching device if required.

11.2.5 Marking and Editing Power System Elements

A left-click on an element selects it and it then becomes the “focus” of the next action or command.
For branch elements, the parts near their connection to nodes are treated differently and show specific
context sensitive menu options regarding the marked side of the element (e.g. to insert a new device at
the line end or to disconnect the line). To get all the menu options anyway, hold down the Ctrl-key while
clicking the right mouse button.

The element can be un-marked or de-selected by clicking on another element, by clicking onto some
free space in the graphic or just by pressing the Esc key.

There are different ways to select several objects at once:

• Pressing the Mark All Elements button ( ), or using Ctrl+A to mark all graphical elements.

• If the Rectangular Selection button ( ) is pressed (default condition), a set of elements can be
selected by clicking on a free spot in the drawing area, holding down the left mouse button, moving
the cursor to another place, and release it. All elements in the so defined rectangle will now be
marked.
• One or more objects can be marked holding down the Ctrl key whilst marking the objects.

• Holding down the Alt-key while clicking on the same object again marks all the adjacent objects.
Doing this several times marks more and more connected objects.
• If the area to be selected cannot be covered with a rectangular form, the Free-form Selection
button ( ) can be used to select a custom area of the diagram.
The data of any element (its edit dialog) may be viewed and edited by either double-clicking the graphic
symbol, or by right-clicking it and selecting Edit Data. If multiple objects are selected, right-click → Edit
Data will bring up a data browser.

The option Edit and Browse Data will show the element in a Data Manager environment. The object
itself will be selected (highlighted) in the Data Manager and can be double-clicked to open the edit
dialog. A new Data Manager will be opened if no Data Manager is presently active. The edit dialogs for

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each element may be opened from this data browser one by one, or the selected objects can be edited
in the data browser directly.

Note: The position of an object in the database tree can be found by:
• Opening the edit dialog. The full path is shown in the header of the dialog.
• Using the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+E, which opens the Data Manager with the element marked
in the folder hierarchy.
• Right-clicking the object and selecting Edit and Browse. This will open a new database
browser when required, and will focus on the selected object.

11.2.6 Interconnecting Power Subsystems

Interconnections between two different graphics can be done in one of two ways:

1. Representing a node in another diagram by copying (right-click → Copy ) the node in the first
graphic and pasting just the graphic object (right-click → Paste Graphic Only ) into the second
diagram. Both graphical objects are then associated with the same element; no new element is
created.
2. Ensure that there is a node to connect to in the graphics that are to be interconnected. Then
connect an edge element between the two graphics.

Example

In this example a line will be used to interconnect two regions using the second method. See fig-
ure 11.2.1.
1. Select a line drawing tool from the toolbox and create the first connection as normal by left clicking
a node (see figure 11.2.1a).
2. Double-click to place the symbol. Your cursor is now attached to the line by a “rubber band”.
Move the cursor to the bottom of the drawing page and click on the tab of the graphic that the
interconnection is to be made to (see figure 11.2.1b).
3. Once in the second graphic left click to place the line symbol (see figure 11.2.1c) and then left
click on the second node.
The interconnected leg is shown by a symbol.

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(a) First step

(b) Second step

(c) Third step

Figure 11.2.1: Interconnecting Power Subsystems

Note: The first method of interconnection, that of representing a node in two, or more, different graphics,
may lead to confusion at a later point as the ’inflow’ and ’outflow’ to the node will not appear correct
when just one graphic is viewed - especially if a user is not familiar with the system. The node may
be right-clicked to show all connections in what is known as the “detailed diagram” (menu option
Show Detailed Graphic of Substation). Thus, the second method may be preferred. To check for
nodes that have connections on other graphics the Topology → Missing graphical connections
diagram colouring may be employed.

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11.2.7 Substations

Substations (ElmSubstat) and Secondary Substations (ElmTrfstat) can be created from predefined
templates or from templates previously defined by the user by means of the icons located in the Drawing
Tools toolbox, as explained below.

Depending on the user’s preferences and taking into account the degree of detail required in the
graphical representation of the network, the substations can be displayed as Composite Nodes, which is
suitable for overview diagrams, or have a so-called Design View, which provides a simplified represen-
tation with additional information on connectivity. A detailed representation of the substation topology is
also offered. The different graphical representations are depicted in Figure 11.2.2.

(a) Composite Node (Beach Ball) (b) Design View

(c) Detailed Graphic

Figure 11.2.2: Substation graphical representations

Note: Before starting to create new substations, the user may wish to consider whether it would be
useful to have Bays (ElmBay ) created within the substation. If so, these can be automatically
created if the necessary project setting is selected. See section 8.1.2.3. More information about
Bays is given in section 11.2.7.3.

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11.2.7.1 Creating a Substation from predefined templates

Substation representation: Composite Node

To create a substation from a predefined template with a graphical representation as a “Composite

Node” (also “Beach Ball” or “Single Node”), the following steps should be follow:

• From the Drawing Tools toolbox, select one of the following Busbar Systems:
– Click on for a substation represented by a circle
– Click on for a substation represented by a rectangle
– Click on for secondary substation
• Select the required substation template from the browser that appears.

• Click on the drawing area to place the symbol. The substation is automatically created in the Grid
set as target folder for network elements.
• Close the window with the templates. Alternatively press Esc or right click on the mouse to get
the cursor back (browser will close automatically).

• To name the substation, right click its symbol, select Edit Substation... from the context-sensitive
menu and rename it appropriately.
• Resize the substation symbol as required, by clicking on it and dragging one of the corners or
sides.

Note: The nominal voltage of the substation can be set before drawing it, via the Node default option
on the graphics toolbar (see 9.3)

To highlight the connectivity within a substation represented by means of a composite node, the user
can use Diagram Colouring. For this, press the button to open the diagram colouring scheme dialog.
Choose the “function” for which the colouring mode is relevant (for example, the Basic Data page) and
then select Other → Topology → Station Connectivity.

Substation representation: Design View

To create a substation from a predefined template with a “Design View” representation, the following
steps should be follow:

• From the Drawing Tools toolbox, select one of the following Busbar Systems:
– Click on for a Single Busbar
– Click on for a Single Busbar with Tie Breaker
– Click on for a Double Busbar
– Click on for a Double Busbar with Tie Breaker
– Click on for a 1 1/2-Busbar
– Click on for a Single Busbar with Tie Breaker and Bypass
– Click on for a Double Busbar with Bypass
– Click on for a Double Busbar with Tie Breaker and Bypass
• Click on the drawing area to place the symbol. The substation is automatically created in the Grid
set as target folder for network elements.

• Press Esc or right click on the mouse to get the cursor back.

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• To name the substation, right click its symbol, select Edit Substation... from the context-sensitive
menu and rename it appropriately.

Note: The nominal voltage of the substation can be set before drawing it via the Node default option
on the graphics toolbar (see 9.3). Alternatively, the user can change the nominal voltage of one of
the terminals forming the busbar system and update the nominal voltage of all the terminals inside
the station.

Switching substation representation

It is possible to change the graphical representation of the substation, i.e. to switch from a composite
node representation to a design view and vice versa. To do this, select the composite node represen-
tation of the substation with a right click and choose the option Convert to design view, or select one or
more of the busbars in design view and Convert to beach ball.

Substation representation: Detailed Graphic

Predefined substation templates have a detailed graphical representation. To access it:

• If the substation is represented via a composite node, there are two ways to open its detailed
graphic page. The first is to double-click on the corresponding composite node in the overview
diagram. The second is right click its beach ball symbol and select Show Graphic... from the
context-sensitive menu.
• If the substation has a design view representation, its detailed diagram can be opened by selecting
the option Show Detailed Graphic of Substation... from the context-sensitive menu.

Note: Detailed graphics of substations can be generally accessed from the Data Manager. For this, the
user has to go to the Diagrams folder (in Network Model), find the graphic object of the substation
and open it by selecting Show Graphic from the context-sensitive menu.

11.2.7.2 Creating a Substation from templates previously defined by the user

The following steps describe the general procedure for inserting a previously defined user template:

• From the Drawing Tools tool-window select the General Busbar System symbol ( )
• Select the required substation template from the browser that appears. If the Templates folder in
the project library contains just one template, no window is opened and the user can place the
substation in the drawing area as described in the following step.
• Click on the drawing area to place the symbol. The substation is automatically created in the Grid
set as target folder for network elements.
• Close the window with the templates. Alternatively press Esc or right click on the mouse to get
the cursor back (browser will close automatically).
• To name the substation, right click its symbol, select Edit Substation... from the context-sensitive
menu and rename it appropriately.
• Resize the substation symbol as required, by clicking on it and dragging one of the corners or
sides.

Note: To make use of user-defined substation templates, such templates have to first be created.
Information about creating user-defined templates can be found in sections 14.4.2 and 14.4.3.

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11.2.7.3 Substation Bays

The Bay object ElmBay is used to group together the network elements that normally constitute a
standard bay connection of a circuit to a busbar within a substation. This grouping is useful for visu-
alisation but is also used by the Load Flow Calculation option Calculate max. current at busbars: see
section 25.3.3.

If the detailed diagram of the substation is viewed, the bays are highlighted by rectangular blocks (by
default pale grey). These blocks are not just annotation - users can move additional elements into the
area and they will also be moved into the Bay object in the project hierarchy. The Bay representation
can be manually resized but will also expand automatically to encompass all objects that form part of
the bay.

Additional bays may be added using the Bay icon in the toolbox.

Note that the bay representation on the graphic is held within a layer called “Bays and Sites”, so may be
made visible or invisible as required. The colour can also be configured.

11.2.7.4 Substation Switching Rules

Switching Rules (IntSwitching) store switching actions for a selected group of switches that are defined
inside a substation. The different switching actions (no change, open or close) are defined by the user
considering different fault locations that can occur inside a substation. By default, the number of fault
locations depends on the number of busbars and bay-ends contained inside the substation; although
the user is allowed to add (and remove) specific fault locations and switches belonging to the substation.
The switch actions will always be relative to the current switch positions of the breakers.

The selection of a Switching Rule for a substation is independent of the selection of a Running Arrange-
ment and if required, the reference to the switching rule in a substation can be stated to be operational
data; provided the user uses the Scenario Configuration object. For more information on the scenario
configuration refer to Chapter 16 (Operation Scenarios).

The typical application of Switching Rules is in contingency analysis studies or reliability analysis
studies, where the predefined switching rules could be immediately applied after a fault. For example,
a busbar fault in a double-busbar system could be followed by switching the connections to the other
healthy bus bar. The Switching Rules are composed of a matrix, which defines the required switch
actions for several fault locations in the substation. Please refer to 27.4.6.1 for the application in
contingency analysis.

Switching Rules are also considered during Reliability Analysis (see Chapter 45)

To create a switching rule

• Edit a Substation, either by right-clicking on the substation busbar from the single line graphic,
and from the context-sensitive menu choosing Edit a Substation, or by clicking on an empty place
in the substation graphic, and from the context-sensitive menu choosing Edit Substation. This will
open the substation dialog.

• Press the Select button ( ) in the Switching Rule section and select New. . .
• The new Switching Rule dialog pops up, where a name and the switching actions can be specified.
The switching actions are arranged in a matrix where the rows represent the switches and the
columns the fault locations. By default the fault locations (columns) correspond to the number of
busbars and bay-ends contained inside the substation, while the switches correspond only to the
circuit breakers. The user can nevertheless add/remove fault locations and/or switches from the
Configuration page. The switch action of every defined breaker in the matrix can be changed by
double clicking on the corresponding cell, as illustrated in figure 11.2.3. Press afterwards OK.
• The new switching rule is automatically stored inside the substation element.

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Figure 11.2.3: Switching Rule Dialog

To select a Switching Rule

A Switching Rule can be selected in the Basic Data page of a substation dialog (ElmSubstat) by:
• Opening the substation dialog.

• Pressing the Select button ( ) in the Switching Rule section. A list of all Switching Rules for the
current substation is displayed.
• Selecting the desired Switching Action.
To apply a Switching Rule

A Switching Rule can be applied to the corresponding substation by pressing the Apply button from
within the switching rule dialog. This will prompt the user to select the corresponding fault locations
(busbars) in order to copy the statuses stored in the switching rule directly in the substation switches.
Here, the user has the option to select either a single fault location, a group or all of them.

The following functional aspects must be regarded when working with switching rules:

• A switching rule can be selected for each substation. By default the selection of a switching rule
in a substation is not recorded in the operation scenario. However, this information can defined
as part of an operational scenario by using the Scenario Configuration object (see Chapter 16:
Operation Scenarios).
• If a variation is active the selection of the Switching Rule is stored in the recording expansion
stage; that is considering that the Scenario Configuration object hasn’t been properly set.
To assign a Switching Rule

The Assign button contained in the switching rule dialog allows to set it as the one currently selected
for the corresponding substation. This action is also available in the context-sensitive menu in the Data
Manager (when right-clicking on a switching rule inside the Data Manager).

To preview a Switching Rule

The Preview button contained in the switching rule dialog allows to display in a separate window the
different switch actions for the different fault locations of the corresponding substation.

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11.2.8 Sites

As noted in section 4.6.8, a site is normally used to group network components, for example, substations
of different voltage levels at the same location. Due to this particular characteristic, site elements do not
have predefined templates inside the software.

The site element can be represented in overview and/or geographic diagrams; a detailed representation
can also be defined.

11.2.8.1 Creating a New Site in Overview and Geographic Diagrams

Site elements can be represented by a square or a circle using the buttons and from the Drawing
Toolbar. For geographic diagrams, only the circular representation is available.

To draw a new site:

• Click on one of the site symbols ( )
• Click on the overview diagram to place the symbol. The site is automatically created in the active
grid folder.
• Press Esc or right click on the mouse to get the cursor back.
• Resize the site symbol as required.
• Right click on the site and select Edit Site to open the edit dialog of the element.

Once the site is defined, a detailed diagram is automatically created. It is possible then to draw all the
elements directly inside the Site diagram, using detailed substation diagram templates as explained in
section 11.2.7.1.

If the site already exists it is possible to use the Diagram Layout Tool to generate its detailed represen-
tation automatically. See section 11.6 for more information about the Diagram Layout Tool.

The resizing and colouring according to connectivity of the site can be done as explained in sec-
tion 11.2.7.1.

11.2.8.2 Site Frames

In some overview diagrams, it may not be sufficient to use site objects for all sites; and users may want
to see more detail at certain sites. This can be done by using a representation of the site as a frame
within which the substations can also be seen.

Figure 11.2.4: Substations within a site frame in an overview graphic

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The site can be introduced into the graphic using the graphic object , which draws the site as a
rectangular frame. The user can then create new substations within this frame and they will become
part of the ElmSite. The Site frame will automatically resize to accommodate the new substation
representations.

This new graphical option gives the user the flexibility to show sites as single symbols or in more detail,
as required, and the site frame representation is held within a graphical layer called “Bays and Sites”,
so may be made visible or invisible as required.

11.2.9 Composite Branches

New composite branches (ElmBranch) can be created in the Data Manager using the procedure de-
scribed in Chapter 10, Section 11.5.4 (Defining Composite Branches in the Data Manager). The
definition and connection of the branch components can then be done in the single line diagram that is
automatically generated upon creation of a new branch.

Branches are created in single line diagrams using previously defined templates. To create a new
branch from a template:

• Click on the Composite Branch symbol ( ) in the Drawing Toolbox. If there is more than one
branch template (in the Templates library), a list will appear, so that the correct one can be
selected.
• If the branch is to be connected to two terminals of the same single line graphic, simply click once
on each terminal.
• If the branch is to be connected to a terminal from another single line diagram, you have to ’Paste
graphically’ one of the terminals on the diagram where you want to represent the branch, or
connect across pages as discussed in Section 11.2.6 (Interconnecting Power Subsystems).
• If the branch is to be connected to terminals from a substation, click once on each composite
node to which the branch is to be connected. You will be automatically taken inside each of those
composite nodes to make the connections. In the substation graphic click once on an empty spot
near the terminal where you want to connect the branch end, and then on the terminal itself.
A diagram of the newly created branch can be opened by double clicking on its symbol. In the new
diagram it is possible to rearrange the branch configuration and to change the branch connections.

Details of how to define templates can be found in Chapter 14 (Project Library).

11.2.10 Single and Two Phase Elements

It is possible to define the phase technology of elements such as terminals, lines, and loads. In instances
where the number of phases of a connecting element (e.g. a circuit breaker or line) is equal to the
number of phases of the terminal to which it connects, PowerFactory will automatically assign the
connections. However, when connecting single-phase elements to a terminal with greater than one
phase, or two-phase elements to terminals with greater than three phases, it is sometimes necessary to
adjust the phase connectivity of the element to achieve the desired connections. The phase connectivity
can be modified as follows:

• Open the dialog window of the element (by double-clicking on the element).
• Press the Figure >> button to display a figure of the elements with its connections on the bottom
of the dialog window.
• Double-click on the dark-red names for the connections inside this figure.

• Specify the desired phase connection/s.

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Alternatively, click the right arrow ( ) next to the terminal entry and specify the desired phase connec-
tion/s.

Note: It is possible to colour the grid according to the phases (System Type AC/DC and Phases). For
more information about the colouring refer to Section 9.3.7.1 (Diagram Colouring).

11.3 Lines and Cables

This section describes specific features and aspects of line and cable data models used in PowerFac-
tory. Detailed technical descriptions of the models are provided in Technical References Document.

In PowerFactory, lines and cables are treated alike, they are both instances of the generalised line
element ElmLne. A line may be modelled simply as a point-to-point connection between two nodes
and will refer to a line (TypLne), tower (TypTow), a tower geometry (TypGeo), a line coupling (ElmTow),
or a cable system coupling (TypCabsys, TypCabmult) type. Alternatively, lines may be subdivided into
sections referring to different types.

Note: Anywhere that ’line’ is written in this section, ’lines and/or cables’ may be read, unless otherwise
specified.

The three basic line configurations are shown in figure 11.3.1:

1. Top line: The simplest line is a single line object (ElmLne) connected between two terminal objects
via two cubicle objects.
2. Middle Line: Line (ElmLne) objects can also be cascaded or subdivided. Again, with each ElmLne
connected between two terminal objects via two cubicle objects.

3. Bottom line: Line (ElmLne) objects can also be subdivided into line section objects (ElmLnesec).
The ElmLne object is again connected via cubicle objects between two terminal objects, but here
the line section (ElmLnesec) objects constituting the line are not specifically connected between
terminals themselves meaning the number of cubicles and terminals associated with such a
configuration could be substantially reduced.

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Figure 11.3.1: Basic line configurations

Cascading line objects together can be useful where it is necessary to explicitly represent the transpo-
sition of conductors. It is also possible to give each separate cascaded line a different conductor/cable
type or tower geometry. Further, it is possible to branch off towards loads, generators and other
substations (for example) at the intermediate terminals and include additional switching devices in the
line. It may also be a useful representation to approximate the behaviour of a distributed parameter
model using lumped parameter models.

An arrangement of ElmLnesec objects is generally used to represent circuits or parts of circuits con-
sisting of multiple conductor/cable types. Such arrangements being typical of low voltage and medium
voltage distribution networks.

In addition to the configurations described above, objects known as branch (ElmBranch) objects can be
defined to organise and simplify the handling of complex composite arrangements of lines. Handling of
these objects is described in sections 11.2.9 and 11.5.4.

11.3.1 Defining a Line (ElmLne)

The simplest line model is a point-to-point connection between two nodes. This is normally done in the
single line graphic by selecting the ( ) icon and by left clicking the first terminal, possibly clicking on
the drawing surface to draw a corner in the line and ending the line at the second terminal by left clicking
it. This will create an ElmLne object in the database. When this object is edited, the following dialog will
appear.

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Figure 11.3.2: Editing a transmission line

The dialog shows the two cubicles to which the transmission line is connected (terminal i and terminal
j). The line edit dialog shows the name of the node (in brown) in addition to the name of the cubicle (in
blue). The actual connection point to the node is the cubicle and this may be edited by pressing the edit
button ( ). The cubicle may be edited to change the name of the cubicle, add/remove the breaker, or
change phase connectivity as discussed in Section 11.2.10 (Single and Two Phase Elements).

The type of the line is selected by pressing the ( ) next to the type field. Line types for a line are:
• The TypLne object type, where electrical parameters are directly written (the user can select if the
type is defined for an overhead line or a cable).
• Tower types (TypTow and TypGeo), where geometrical coordinates and conductor parameters are
specified, and the electrical parameters are calculated from this data. Selection of the tower type
will depend on the user’s requirement to link conductor type data to the line element as in TypGeo
(for re-use of the one tower geometry with different conductors), or to link conductor type data to
the tower type as in TypTow (for re-use of one tower geometry with the same conductors).
• Cable definition types (TypCabsys), used to complete the definition of a cable system. It defines
the coupling between phases, i.e. the coupling between the single core cables in a multiphase/multi-
circuit cable system.
Once the lines (or cables) have been created it is possible to define couplings between the circuits that
they are representing by means of line coupling elements ElmTow (for overhead lines) and cable system
coupling elements ElmCabsys (for cables).

Details of how to create Line Sections, Cable Systems, and Line Couplings are provided in the follow-
ing sections, and further information about line/cable modelling is given in the Technical References
Document.

11.3.2 Defining Line Sections

To divide a line into sections:

• Press the Sections/Line Loads button in the line dialog. This will open a data browser showing

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the existing line sections (if any).

• Click on the new object icon ( ) and select the element Line Sub-Section (ElmLnesec).
• The edit dialog of the new line section will appear, and the type and length of the new section can
be entered.

11.3.3 Defining Line Couplings

The Line Couplings element (ElmTow) is used to represent electromagnetic coupling between trans-
mission lines. In order to define a line coupling, a tower type (TypTow or TypGeo) determining the
geometrical characteristics is required, along with the conductor type (TypCon) of the circuits.

Since line coupling occurs between lines on the same tower or between lines running approximately
parallel to each other, the lines should be the same length; if they are not, a warning message will be
displayed when calculations are executed and the shorter length will be considered for the coupling. To
facilitate this Line objects can divided into two objects with one of the divided parts assigned a length
as well as a coupling to other line objects of the same length. The other divided part can be assigned
the remainder of the length of the circuit and no coupling.

The line coupling can be directly defined in the Data Manager; however it is easier to do it from the
single line diagram as follows:

1. Select the lines drawn in the single line diagram, right-clicking and select Define → Line Couplings
from the context sensitive menu.
2. A dialog pointing to the Equipment Type Library will open. At this point you have to select the
tower type, either a TypTow or a TypGeo. If none of them are yet available, the button New Object
( ) can be used to define a new tower type. In this example a TypTow will be used.
3. On the edit dialog of the tower type, shown in figure 11.3.3, the number of circuits and earth wires
should be defined. Then the conductor types should be selected, by double clicking on the TypCon
field.

Figure 11.3.3: Tower Type (TypTow)

4. Once again, a dialog pointing to the Equipment Type Library will open to select the conductor type.
If no type is yet available, the button New Object ( ) can be used to define a new conductor type

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(TypCon).
5. On the edit dialog of the conductor type, shown in figure 11.3.4, the nominal voltage, number of
subconductors, model and measurements should be defined.

Figure 11.3.4: Conductor Type (TypCon)

6. Separate conductor types can be used for each circuit and earth wires. Note that earth wires are
only to be entered if the Input Mode is set to Geometrical Parameters.

7. Once the conductors are defined, the rest of the parameters of the tower type should be entered.
The transposition can be selected as:
• None
• Circuit-wise
• Symmetrical
• Perfect
More information about these options can be found in the Technical References Document (Over-
head Line Constants).
8. On the Geometry page of the tower type edit dialog, the disposition of the conductor can be
defined by inserting the coordinates in metres, on the right side of the dialog, an image of
the location of the phases is shown. The button Calculate can be used to get the matrix of
impedances; more information about the calculation and values obtained is also available in the
technical reference for the Overhead Line Constants.

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Figure 11.3.5: Geometry of the Tower Type (TypTow)

9. Once the tower type is defined, click on the OK button. A new dialog will open, where the lines
(ElmLne) are assigned to the circuits. Select the line for each circuit and click OK. Now the line
coupling element (ElmTow) is complete. Note that once a line coupling has been assigned to a
line element, the type of the line changes to line coupling.

The example above uses a TypTow tower type, but line couplings can also be defined using the tower
geometry type TypGeo. The main difference is that within the tower type (TypTow) the geometry of
the tower is associated with the corresponding conductor types of each circuit and therefore the tower
type contains all data of the overhead line transmission system as required for the calculation of the
electrical parameters. The tower geometry type (TypGeo), however, does not contain a reference to
the conductor type, so that the definition is not complete and the conductor types are added later on in
the line (ElmLne) or coupling (ElmTow) elements. This makes the tower geometry type (TypGeo) more
flexible, and it is therefore the preferred option when combining the same tower geometry with different
conductor types.

The following figure presents a comparison of line couplings using different tower types.

(a) Using Tower Type (b) Using Tower Geometry Type

Figure 11.3.6: Line Couplings Element

11.3.4 Defining Cable Systems

A cable system can be used to calculate and represent the impedance of a cable or group of cables
including the calculation of mutual impedances developed between all conductors comprising the sys-

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tem. Unlike the simple TypLne representation of a cable the input data does not include sequence
impedance data but rather includes geometrical data e.g. the relative positions of individual cables and
individual cores as well as data about the construction of the cables for example the core material, the
core cross section, the insulation type, or the presence of a sheath and armour. It is from this data
that PowerFactory calculates the impedances and admittance matrices of the arrangement, which are
subsequently used to represent the system in the various calculations.

Figure 11.3.7 illustrates that there are essentially two different kinds of cable system that can be
constructed in PowerFactory.

(a) Cable system with coupling between ElmLne objects (b) Cable system based on a single ElmLne object

Figure 11.3.7: Cable System Overview

The cable system shown on figure 11.3.7a illustrates two line objects (ElmLne) which are coupled
together using a Cable System Element object (ElmCabsys). Although only two line objects are illus-
trated it is important to realise that practically there is no limit to the number of ElmLne objects which
can be coupled. Further, the ElmLne objects being coupled can have 1,2 or 3 phases and they can
represent many different types of conductor for example a phase conductor, a neutral, a sheath or an
armour with the type of conductor they represent likely to correspond with the designation of the node
on which they are terminated. They can also be connected at different voltage levels. Each ElmLne
representing one or more phase conductor is referred to as a circuit in the ElmCabsys and TypCabsys
objects. Each circuit must be assigned a Single Core Cable type (TypCab) or a Multicore/Pipe Cable
type (TypCabmult). If sheaths or armours of the cables are to be considered then this is specified in the
TypCabor TypCabmult objects.

Since coupling generally occurs between cables sharing a route over the part of the route where the
cables run approximately parallel to each other, the cables coupled in this cable system arrangement
should be specified to have the same length; if they are not, a warning message will be displayed when
calculations are executed and the shorter length will be considered for the coupling. To facilitate this
Line objects can divided into two objects with one of the divided parts assigned a length as well as a
coupling to other line objects of the same length. The other divided part can be assigned the remainder
of the length of the circuit and no coupling.

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The line coupling can be directly defined in the Data Manager; however it is easier to do it from the
single line diagram as follows:

1. Multi-select the cables to be coupled which are drawn in the single line diagram. Right-click and
select Define → Cable System from the context sensitive menu.
2. A dialog pointing to the Equipment Type Library will open. At this point you are asked to select a
TypCabsys object. If no appropriate existing types are available, the button New Object ( ) can
be used to define a new Cable System Type.
3. On the basic data page of the dialog of the tower type, shown in figure 11.3.8, the number of
circuits should be defined. Then the cable types should be selected, by double clicking on the
TypCab, TypCabmult field.

Figure 11.3.8: Cable Definition Type (TypCabsys)

4. Once again, a dialog pointing to the Equipment Type Library will open for selection of a Single
Core or Multicore/Pipe Cable Type. If no appropriate type is yet defined, the button New Object
( ) can be used to define a new type.
5. On the Basic Data page of the dialog of the Single Core Cable type, shown in figure 11.3.9, the
nominal voltage, and details of the core construction should be defined along with the charac-
teristics of the various conducting, insulating and semi-conducting layers from which the cable
is constructed. If a sheath or armour is to be considered then the relevant checkbox should be
selected to confirm that it exists.

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Figure 11.3.9: Single Core Cable Type (TypCab)

6. On the Basic Data page of the dialog of the Multicore/Pipe Cable Type, shown in figure 11.3.10,
just as for the Single Core Cable type the nominal voltage, and details of the core construction
should be defined along with the characteristics of the various conducting, insulating and semi-
conducting layers from which the cable is constructed. Again, if a sheath or armour is to be
considered then the relevant checkbox should be selected to confirm that it exists. Note that
additionally here it is possible to select whether the Pipe Type model or the Multicore model is to
be used. Note also that depending on which model is selected, different data may be entered in the
additional tabs defining either the multicore common outer layers or the pipe. Finally the geometry
of the conductors within the arrangement should be defined using the Conductor coordinates tab.

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Figure 11.3.10: Multicore/Pipe Cable Type (TypCabmult)

7. Separate Single Core Multicore/Pipe Cable types can be used for each circuit.
8. Once the types are defined, the rest of the parameters of the Cable Definition should be entered.
9. On the Circuit Position tab of the Cable Definition Basic Data dialog, the positions of the circuits
can be defined by inserting the coordinates, on the right side of the dialog, an image of the location
of the phases is shown. The button Calculate can be used to get the matrix of impedances; more
information about the calculation and values obtained is also available in the technical reference
for Cable Systems.

Figure 11.3.11: Geometry of the Cable Definition (TypCabsys)

10. Once the Cable Definition is defined, click on the OK button. A new dialog will open, where the
lines (ElmLne) are assigned to the circuits. Select the line for each circuit and click OK. Now
the Cable System element (ElmCabsys) is complete. Note that once a line coupling has been
assigned to a line element, the type of the line changes to line coupling.

The cable system on figure 11.3.7b illustrates a more simple cable system configuration where coupling
between ElmLne objects is not to be considered. In this case a Cable definition (TypCabsys) is assigned
directly to an individual line object. This line object can also represent 1,2 or 3 phases and can also
represent many different types of conductor for example a phase conductor, a neutral, a sheath or an

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armour with the type of conductor they represent again likely to correspond with the designation of the
node on which they are terminated.

The ElmLne objects associated with this configuration can actually be used to represent multiple circuits
and for considering the coupling between them. However, there is one limitation in that each circuit
must be identical. Each circuit must be assigned the same Single Core Cable type (TypCab) or a
Multicore/Pipe Cable type (TypCabmult). If sheaths or armours of the cables are to be considered then
this is specified in the TypCab or TypCabmult objects. However, in this case these cannot be considered
explicitly by representation with their own ElmLne object as they could be with the coupled cable system.

For this configuration it is easiest to define the cable system via the associated ElmLne dialog. In this
case the type parameter of the line should be selected or defined with selection of the class TypCabsys.
The TypCabsys itself is defined exactly as described for the coupled cable system.

11.4 Neutral Winding Connection in Network Diagrams

PowerFactory offers the user the option to explicitly represent the neutral connections and interconnec-
tions of the following commonly used elements:
• Power transformers (ElmTr2, ElmTr3 and ElmTr4)
• Shunt elements (ElmShunt)

• External grids (ElmXnet)

• Synchronous (ElmSym) and asynchronous machines (ElmAsm)
• Static generators (ElmGenstat)
• PV systems (ElmPvsys)

• Neutral earthing elements (ElmNec)

• Harmonic Filter (ElmFilter )
• Step-Voltage Regulator (ElmVoltreg)

The interconnection of separate neutral wires is illustrated with the help of the Synchronous Generator.

A separate neutral connection can be activated by choosing the option N-Connection on the Zero
Sequence/Neutral Conductor tab on the basic data page of the element as shown in figure 11.4.1,
the graphical symbol of the object will change. An illustration for the Synchronous Generator element is
shown in figure 11.4.2. Please note, once the N-Connection via a separate terminal option is selected,
the Vector Groups layer can no longer be hidden in the single line diagram.

Figure 11.4.1: Zero Sequence/Neutral Connection Tab

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Figure 11.4.2: Generator with N-Connection via separate terminal

To connect the neutral of the Element to a neutral busbar, right click on the element and select Connect
Element. An example of a single line diagram with the interconnection of neutral wires is shown in figure
11.4.3. A Neutral terminal is configured by ensuring that the Phase Technology of the terminal is set to
N as shown in figure 11.4.4.

Figure 11.4.3: Grid with neutral winding connection

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Figure 11.4.4: Set neutral Terminal

11.5 Defining Network Models using the Data Manager

In this section it is explained how the tools of Data Manager are used to define network models.

11.5.1 Defining New Network Components in the Data Manager

This section deals with defining and connecting network components using the Data Manager. General
information about editing data objects in the Data Manager can be found in section 10.5.

New network components can be directly created in the Data Manager. This is done by clicking on the
target grid/expansion stage (left pane) to display its contents in the browser (right pane). Then the New
Object icon is used; the required object class is selected or the class name typed in directly.

11.5.2 Connecting Network Components in the Data Manager

To connect newly created branch elements to a node, a free cubicle must exist in the target terminal. In
the ’Terminal’ field (Terminal i and Terminal j for two port elements, etc.) of the edge element you have
to click on the ( ) arrow to select (in the data browser that appears) the cubicle where the connection
is going to take place.

To create a new cubicle in a terminal you have to open its edit dialog (double click) and press the
Cubicles button (located at the right of the dialog). A new browser with the existing cubicles will
appear, press the New Object icon and in the ’Element’ field select Cubicle (StaCubic). The edit
dialog of the new cubicle will appear; by default no internal switches will be generated. If you want a
connection between the edge element and the terminal through a circuit breaker, you have to press the
Add Breaker button. After pressing OK the new cubicle will be available for connecting new elements.

Note: New users are recommended to create and connect elements directly from the single line graph-
ics. The procedures described above are intended for advanced users.

11.5.3 Defining Substations in the Data Manager

The concept and the application context of substations is presented in Section 4.6 (Project Structure). A
description of the procedure used to define new substations with the Data Manager is given as follows.

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For information about working with substations in the graphical editor refer to Section 11.2 (Defining
Network Models using the Graphical Editor).

To define a new substation from the Data Manager:

• Display the content of the grid where you want to create the new substation.
• Right click on the right pane of the Data Manager and select New → Substation from the context
sensitive menu.
• The new substation edit dialog will appear. There you can change the name, assign running
arrangements and visualise/edit the content of the substation (directly after creation it is empty).
• After pressing OK the new substation and an associated diagram (with the same name of the
substation) will be created.
The components of the new substation can be created and connected using the associated single
line diagram or using the Data Manager; the first option is recommended. For the second option, the
Contents button is used to bring up a browser, where the new components can be created using the
New Object icon.

Components of a substation can of course be connected with components of the corresponding grid or
even with components of other networks. The connection in the Data Manager is carried out following
the same procedure discussed in the previous section.

For information about working with substations in the graphical editor refer to Section 11.2 (Defining Net-
work Models using the Graphical Editor). For information about the definition of Running Arrangements
refer to Section 14.3.10 (Running Arrangements).

11.5.4 Defining Composite Branches in the Data Manager

The concept and the application context of composite branches (ElmBranch) is discussed in Section 4.6
(Project Structure), and a description of how to define branches from within the diagram is provided in
Section 11.2 (Defining Network Models using the Graphical Editor). This section explains how to define
new branches from within the Data Manager.

Branches can be defined in the Data Manager as follows:

1. To create a Branch template, navigate to the Library → Templates folder in the Data Manager.
2. Right-click on the right pane of the Data Manager and select New → Branch from the context
sensitive menu.
3. In the branch edit dialog, define the name of the branch and press OK.
4. Now navigate back to the branch edit dialog (right-click and ’edit’, or double click), and select
Contents to add terminal and line elements etc. to the template as required. The internal
elements can be connected as discussed in Section 11.5.2.
5. Use the fields ’Connection 1’ and ’Connection 2’ to define how the branch is to be connected to
external elements.
6. To create an instance of the Branch from the created Branch template, either:
• Select the Composite Branch icon and connect the branch to existing terminals on the
Single Line Diagram.
• Select the Composite Branch icon and place the branch on the single line diagram, press
Tab twice to place the branch without making any connections. Then connect the branch to
external elements by right-clicking and selecting ’Connect’, or double-clicking the branch and
selecting external connections for the relevant internal elements (e.g. lines). Select Update
on in the Branch dialog to update the external connections.
Alternatively, for a single Branch (i.e. not using Templates) the branch can be defined in the grid folder.

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11.5.5 Defining Sites in the Data Manager

The concept and the application context of sites are presented in the Section 4.6 (Project Structure).

To define a new site from the Data Manager do the following:

• Display the content of the grid where you want to create the new site.
• Right click on the right pane of the Data Manager and select New → Site from the context sensitive
menu.
• The new Site edit dialog will appear.

• After pressing OK the new site will be created.

Note: It is possible to move objects from a grid to a Substation, Branch, Site, etc. and vice versa.

11.6 Drawing Existing Elements using the Diagram Layout Tool

This section provides information about how to draw network components from existing objects. Power-
Factory separates strictly the electrical (and therefore for calculations relevant) data of network elements
from their graphical representation in the diagrams. Calculations of networks without any graphical
representation is possible.

Designing new (extensions to) power system grids, is preferably done graphically. This means that the
new power system objects may be created in a graphical environment. After the new components are
added to the design, they can be edited, either from the graphical environment itself (by double-clicking
the objects), or by opening a Data Manager and using its editing facilities.

It is however possible, to first create objects in the Data Manager (either manually, or via data import
using e.g. the DGS format), and subsequently draw these objects in one or more single line diagrams.
If the imported data contains geographical coordinates, a geographic diagram can be created auto-
matically by right clicking on the Grid in the Project Overview window and choosing Show Graphic →
Geographic Diagram.

If no geographic coordinates are given or if a single line diagram should be created, PowerFactory
provides the Diagram Layout Tool to do that.

The following sections describe the options and possibilities of the Diagram Layout Tool , located in
the graphic icon bar. It replaces the Draw Existing Net Elements tool of previous versions and enhances
its functionality by a semi- and fully automated creation of network diagrams.

11.6.1 Action

11.6.1.1 Generate new diagram for

When this option is selected from the Action mode part of the Diagram Layout Tool dialog, it is possible
to create graphical representations of grids and network elements. It’s a quick way to get a graphical
overview of a network, offering visualisation of, for example, results or topology (colouring schemes for
feeders, zones, etc.). The options in the Generate new diagram for part of the dialog are:

• entire grid: with this option a complete new diagram of the selected grid is automatically drawn.
It is possible to select more than one grid; in this case one diagram showing all the selected grids
will be created.
Additional settings when using the option Generate new diagram → Entire grid are set in pages

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Node Layout (section 11.6.2), Edge Elements (section 11.6.3) and Protection Devices (sec-
tion 11.6.4)
• detailed representation of: this option can be used for substations, branches and sites. It creates
a detailed diagram with all the elements contained inside the original element. No additional
settings are needed.
• k-neighbourhood: if this option is used, a complete new diagram will be generated, starting with
the selected elements and extending as far as specified. The “k-neighbourhood” logic is described
below in section 11.6.1.2.

• feeder: with this option a complete new schematic feeder diagram is created. It is possible to
select more than one feeder; in this case a separate diagram will be created for each feeder.
This option replaces the previous option Show → Schematic visualisation by Distance or Bus
Index of the feeder. See Section 15.5 (Feeders) for further information on how to define feeders.
Additional settings when using the option Generate new diagram → Feeder are set in pages Node
Layout (section 11.6.2) and Edge Elements (section 11.6.3).
• area interchange type: this option generates an interchange diagram, used to show the power
flows between defined parts of the network. Grids, Areas or Zones may be selected. The diagram
will consist of summary boxes for those regions, and arrows showing power flows between the
regions, held in a separate, configurable graphic layer. The thickness of each power arrow indicate
the relative size of the power interchange.

11.6.1.2 Auto-insert elements into current diagram

When this option is selected from the Action mode part of the Diagram Layout Tool dialog, it is possible
to insert additional elements into an existing diagram. This option is only available if the diagram is not
in “freeze” mode.

The options in the Insert elements into current diagram part of the dialog are:

• K-neighbourhood expansion: this action creates graphical elements starting from a selection
of elements already graphically represented in the diagram. A selection of elements is therefore
necessary. If some or all graphic elements are selected before opening the Diagram Layout Tool,
these elements are automatically inserted into the Start elements selection. Alternatively the Start
elements can be selected directly from the dialog using Select... or in the Neighbourhood
Expansion settings.
Starting from every selected element, the connected and not yet graphically represented neigh-
bours are created and subsequently also their neighbours. The depth of this recursive algorithm
is defined by the K-factor, which can be configured in the Neighbourhood Expansion settings.
This approach offers a step-by-step creation of a diagram, where an intervention after each step
is possible to adapt the final appearance of the network diagram.
Additional settings when using the Auto-insert element into current diagram → K-neighbourhood
expansion option are set in pages Node Layout (section 11.6.2), Edge Elements (section 11.6.3)
and Protection Devices (section 11.6.4)

• Edge elements: this action automatically completes the current diagram with the branch elements
which are not yet graphically represented. It is only available for diagrams which already contain
some existing graphical node elements. Additional settings when using the option Auto-insert
element into current diagram → Edge elements are set in pages Edge Elements (section 11.6.3)
and Protection Devices (section 11.6.4)

• Protection devices: when this option is selected, protection devices are included into the current
diagram according to the options set in the Protection Devices page described in section 11.6.4.
• Bays and Sites: this option enables the graphical representation of sites and bays to be added
to existing diagrams, taking into account the options on the Bays and Sites page.

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• Area interchange type: the graphical representation of the power interchanges between network
regions (Grids, Areas or Zones) is added to currently-active graphic. This consists of summary
boxes for those regions, and arrows showing power flows between the regions, held in a separate,
configurable graphic layer. The thickness of each power arrow indicate the relative size of the
power interchange.

11.6.1.3 Assisted manual drawing

This action replaces the earlier Drawing existing Net Elements tool. Upon execution, a window will
appear, listing all the elements which are not yet graphically represented in the diagram. This option is
only available if the diagram is not in “freeze” mode.

Drawing Existing Busbars

Click on the symbol for busbars ( ) in the drawing toolbox. The symbol of the busbar (terminal) is now
attached to the cursor.

If the list is very large, press the button Adjacent Element Mode ( ). This activates the selecting of
distance (number of elements) from elements in the selection of the Neighbourhood Expansion. Select
the Distance of 1 in order to reduce the number of busbars (terminals) shown.

If the button Use drawn nodes as starting objects ( ) is also selected, the list will be filtered based on
all drawn nodes (not just a single starting node).

If Show elements part of drawn composite nodes ( ) is selected, elements internal to already drawn
composite nodes will be shown in the list. However, since they are already drawn as part of the
composite node, they should not be re-drawn.

The marked or selected element can now be visualised or drawn by clicking somewhere in the active
diagram. This element is drawn and disappears from the list.

Note that the number of elements in the list can increase or decreases depending on how many
elements are a distance away from the element lastly drawn. Scroll down the list, in case only certain
elements have to be visualised.

Close the window and press Esc to return the cursor to normal. The drawn terminals (busbars) can be
moved, rotated or manipulated in various ways.

Drawing Existing Lines, Switches, and Transformers

Similar to the busbars, elements like lines and transformers connecting the terminals in the substation
can be drawn.

Execute the Assisted manual drawing action of the Diagram Layout Tool. For lines select the line symbol
( ) from the drawing toolbox, for transformers select the transformer symbol ( ), and so on.

Similar to terminals, a list of all the lines (or transformers, or elements which have been chosen) in the
network, that are not in the active diagram, is shown.

For each selected line (or transformers...) a pair of terminals, to which the line is connected, are marked
in the diagram. Click on the first terminal and then on the second. The selected line is drawn and
removed from the list of lines.

Continue drawing all lines (or transformers...), until the list of lines is empty or all the lines to be drawn
have been drawn. If a branch cannot be completely drawn (for example, when the terminal at only one
end of a line is shown on the diagram), it is possible to draw a first line section, then press Tab or double
click on the diagram and arrows will appear to indicate that the line connects to a terminal that is not
shown.

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Note: Before placing elements onto the graphic users may find it useful to configure and display a
background layer. This will be an image of an existing single line diagram of the system. It may be
used to ’trace’ over so that the PowerFactory network looks the same as current paper depictions;
see Section 9.3.6 for more information on layers.

11.6.2 Node Layout

The settings regarding the Node Layout take effect on the following actions:
• Generate new diagram for
– entire grid
– k-neighbourhood
– feeder

• Auto-insert element into current diagram

– K-neighbourhood expansion

The following options are available for node insertion:

• Node spacing: this option defines the distance between the newly created nodes in the diagram
and can be set to low, medium or high.
• Draw each composite as single node: this check box only has an impact if the corresponding
grid contains composite elements (e.g. ElmSubstat, ElmTrfstat, ElmBranch) which graphically
combine internal nodes, switches, transformers, lines, etc. If checked, the graphical representation
of the composite elements are created, otherwise each of the internal elements of the composite
elements is created separately in the diagram.
• Consider physical line length: with this option checked, the length of the graphical representa-
tion is based on the corresponding line length. The graphic object length is not strictly proportional
to the actual line length, but nevertheless gives a good view in the diagram of the relative line
lengths.
• Adjust diagram size: The size of the diagram defined in the Drawing Format is ignored and
overwritten by the algorithm, which uses as much space as is needed. To get clearer outputs, this
option should be selected. The new drawing size is saved and can be reused in other diagrams.

If the option Generate complete diagram → Feeder is selected, the options of the Node Layout page
include:

• Layout Style: this option defines the layout of the feeder; the options are Rectangular and Tree.
Rectangular is usually recommended, since it provides the best overview of the topology of the
feeder. For very large feeders, however, the rectangular layout may become too large. In this case
the tree-like layout may be better, since it produces a narrower layout.
• Horizontal/Vertical node spacing: this option defines the distance between the feeder nodes,
can be set to low, medium or high.
• Draw each composite as single node: as explained in the options for node insertion.
• Consider backbones: if selected, backbones (if available) are emphasised by laying them out
strictly vertically (straight line from top to bottom). Otherwise, the longest path within the feeder
will be laid out vertically.

11.6.3 Edge Elements

The settings on the Edge Elements page take effect on the following actions:

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• Generate new diagram for

– entire grid
– k-neighbourhood
– feeder
• Auto-insert element into current diagram
– K-neighbourhood expansion
– Edge elements

The following options are available in the Edge Elements page:

• Insert edge elements: if this is not checked, the Diagram Layout Tool only creates graphical
representations of nodes (or composite elements, if the Draw each composite as single node
option is selected in the Node Layout page). If the option Auto-insert element into current diagram
→ Edge elements is selected, the edge elements are always inserted and so the setting of this
option is ignored in that case.
• Ortho Type: if set to Ortho, all inserted branch elements will consist of only vertical or horizontal
sections. The opposite option is Ortho Off, where the branch elements show a direct point-to-point
connection between the according start and end nodes. With the option set to Semi-Ortho, the
branches have a orthogonal part near the start and end node and in between a direct connection.

• Insertion of one-port devices connected to substations: this option should be checked if the
option Draw each composite as single node is selected from the Node Layout page, but the user
still wishes to show the one port elements (e.g. loads, shunts) connected to the composite node
of the substation in the diagram.

11.6.4 Protection Devices

The settings on the Protection Devices page take effect on the following actions:

• Generate new diagram for

– entire grid
– k-neighbourhood
• Auto-insert element into current diagram
– K-neighbourhood expansion
– Edge elements
– Protection devices
The following options are available in the Protection Devices page:

• Insert protection devices: if checked, the Diagram Layout Tool inserts graphical representations
of the protection devices. If the option Auto-insert element into current diagram → Protection
devices is selected, the protection devices are inserted anyway.
• Relays: to insert graphical representations of relays (ElmRelay ).
• CTs and VTs: to insert graphical representations of current transformers (Stat) and voltage
transformers (StaVt) .
An example of automatically inserted protection devices is shown in figure 11.6.1

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Figure 11.6.1: Protection devices in the single line diagram

11.6.5 Bays and Sites

The settings on the Bays and Sites page take effect on the following actions:
• Generate complete diagram
– Entire grid
– k-neighbourhood
• Auto-insert element into current diagram
– K-neighbourhood expansion
– Edge elements
– Bays and sites

On the Bays and Sites page, the options to show the Bay and Site representations can be selected
independently. It should be noted that if Auto-insert element into current diagram and Bays and sites
are selected on the Actions page, this will override the main Insert bays and sites option on the Bays
and Sites page; however, the two individual sub-options Bays and Sites will be observed.

11.6.6 Interchanges

The settings on the Interchanges page take effect on the following actions:

• Generate new diagram for

– area interchange type

The options on the Interchanges page give the user some control over the positioning of elements on
the graphic:

• consider positions from current diagram is typically used if an overview diagram is currently
active, for example.

• prefer geographic positions will use the Geographical Coordinates of the network elements.

If nothing is selected, the layout will be determined automatically.

11.7 Drawing Existing Elements using Drag & Drop

As an alternative to using the Diagram Layout tool, it is possible to create graphical objects for existing
network elements by using drag & drop:

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1. Enable the Drag & Drop feature in a Data Manager window by double-clicking the Drag & Drop
message in the status bar.
2. Select the data object in the Data Manager by left clicking on its icon.

3. Hold down the left mouse button and move the mouse to the graphic drawing area (drag it).
4. Position the graphical symbol and release the mouse button to drop the object.
5. A new graphical symbol is created, which is representing the selected element in the diagram. No
new data object is created.

This approach may lead to problems and should therefore be used carefully.

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Network Model Manager

12.1 Introduction

The Network Model Manager is a browser for all calculation relevant objects. The objective of this
chapter is to provide detailed information about this data management tool. Before starting, users
should ensure that they are familiar with Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview).

12.2 Using the Network Model Manager

The Network Model Manager shows all objects relevant for the calculation. It can be accessed by
clicking the button Open Network Model Manager. . . in the main icon bar.

On the left hand side of the Network Model Manager window the classes of all calculation relevant ob-
jects are displayed with their names and symbols. To give a good overview, they are sorted into groups,
such as Substations/Terminals/Switches or Lines/Series Impedances/Transformers . By double-clicking
on the group’s name, its contents can be hidden or shown. If one of the classes is selected, all
calculation relevant objects will be listed on the right side of the browser window and Detail Mode
automatically activated. This makes it easy to edit the parameters of an object, without using the
object dialog.

Figure 12.2.1 shows the Network Model Manager window, where some of the groups are collapsed and
the class Busbar is selected.

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Figure 12.2.1: The Network Model Manager window

Figure 12.2.2: Icon bar of the Network Model Manager

The functions of the buttons of the icon bar of the Network Model Manager shown in Figure 12.2.2 are:

1. The Refresh button can be used to update the Network Model Manager. This is necessary,
for example, when objects are deleted in the Data Manager or the Single line diagram while the
Network Model Manager is open. The deleted objects will still be displayed in the Network Model
Manager until the refresh button is pressed.

2. A mouse click on the Edit Object button will open the dialog window of the object selected on
the right hand side. A selected object is indicated by a marked row and an arrowhead next to the
object symbol. Another possibility to open the edit dialog of an object is to double click on the
corresponding symbol of the object.
3. One or more objects can be deleted by marking the objects to be removed and then pressing
the Delete Object button. A query window will appear to request confirmation of the deletion
(unless this has been suppressed via the relevant user setting).

4. The button Copy (with column headers) copies the data of a selection with the corresponding
column header(s) into the Windows Clipboard. The content can then, for example, be pasted into
a spreadsheet.

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5. The Detail Mode can be activated and deactivated.

• If the Detail Mode is activated (button is pressed), the table on the right will display all the
object parameters of the class (e.g. Busbars, as shown in Figure 12.2.1). The tabs at the
bottom of the table give access to the same pages that are available via the object dialog
window. The Flexible Data, Scenarios, Characteristics and Distribution tabs are highlighted
by colouring. The colours reflect those selected in the User Settings (refer to section 7.8) for
these types of data.
• If the Detail Mode is deactivated, a table will appear, in which columns with predefined
parameters are shown. This table and the Flexible Data page (available in Detail Mode)
can be extended, by pressing the Variable Selection button.

6. By clicking on Variable Selection , variables/parameters to be displayed in the table can be

chosen. For more information about how to handle the selection dialog, refer to Section 19.3
(Variable Selection).
7. Objects which are Out-of-Service or non-relevant for the calculation can be hidden by clicking the
button Hide Out-of-Service-Objects and Objects non-relevant for Calculation .
8. The Network Model Manager provides the following filter functions, which are available when at
least one column is filtered. How to filter columns is described in section 10.4 (Auto-Filter functions
in Data Manager and browser windows).
• If one or more columns are filtered, the button Edit Filter will become accessible. After
the button has been pressed, an edit dialog will open, in which a filter name can be entered.
Furthermore the filters for each parameter can be modified by double clicking the relevant
cell in the Filter column.
• The Current Working Filter is temporary. That means, if the Network Model Manager window
is closed, the applied filters will all be discarded. However, one or more column filters can be
consolidated to one common filter, which can then be saved under any name to reuse it, by
clicking the Save Filter button. A window will appear, to enable the user to name the filter.
• Unwanted filters can also be deleted from the list of saved filters, by selecting a Filter from
the drop-down list in the icon bar and clicking on the Delete Filter button.

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Chapter 13

Study Cases

13.1 Introduction

The concept of study cases was introduced in Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview). Study cases
(IntCase, ) define the studies to be performed on the system being modelled. They store everything
created by the user to perform calculations, allowing the easy reproduction of results even after deacti-
vation/reactivation of the project. By means of the objects stored inside them, the program recognises:

• Parts of the network model (grids and expansion stages) to be considered for calculation;
• Calculations (and their settings) to be performed on selected parts of the network;
• Study time;
• Active variations;
• Active operation scenario;
• Calculation results to be stored for reporting;
• Graphics to be displayed during the study.

• The last-selected function toolbox (i.e. which function toolbox was last selected using on the
main toolbar)

A study case with a reference to at least one grid or expansion stage has to be activated in order to
enable calculations. A project that contains more than one grid, which has several expansion stages for
design alternatives, or which uses different Operation Scenarios to model the various conditions under
which the system should operate, requires multiple study cases. All of the study cases in a project are
stored inside the study cases folder ( ) in the project directory.

Note: Only one study case can be active at a given time. When activating a study case, all the grids,
Variations and Operation Scenarios that it refers to will also become active.

Without study cases, it would be necessary to manually activate the relevant grid and/or expansion
stage multiple times in order to analyse the resulting power system configuration. Similarly, it would
be necessary to define over and over again the same calculation command setup used to analyse the
behaviour of the selected network.

In addition to storing the objects that define a network study, study cases set the units used for the
output of calculation results, and allow the definition of specific options for the calculation algorithms.

The following sections describe the main objects stored inside study cases.

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13.2 Creating and Using Study Cases

When a new project is created, an empty study case is automatically created and activated. This new
study case has default settings. The user can later modify these settings using the study case dialog.

The user may define several study cases to facilitate the analysis of projects containing more than one
grid, several Expansion Stages, different Operation Scenarios or simply different calculation options. To
create a new study case:
• Open the Data Manager and go to the study cases folder. Right-click on the folder and select
New → Study Case from the context-sensitive menu. Enter the name of the new study case in
the dialog that pops up and (if desired) modify the default settings.
Only one study case can be active at any given time. To activate or deactivate a study case:
• Open the Data Manager. The active study case and the folder(s) where it is stored are highlighted.
Right-click on the active study case and choose Deactivate from the context-sensitive menu. To
activate an inactive study case place the cursor on its name, right-click and choose Activate. Study
cases may also be activated via the Project Overview Window (see Figure 13.2.1).

Figure 13.2.1: Activating a study case from the Project Overview window

A study case can have more than one grid. Only the objects in the active grids will be considered by the
calculations. To add an existing grid to the active study case:
• Open the Data Manager and go to the Network Data folder. Right-click the desired grid and select
Activate from the context-sensitive menu. The grid will be activated and any relevant graphics will
be opened (following a user selection). To remove an active grid, select Deactivate.
Variations are considered by a study case when they are activated. The Expansion Stages are applied
according to the study case time, which is set by the time trigger stored inside the study case folder.
More than one variation can be active for a given study case. However there can be only one recording
stage. For further information, refer to Chapter 17 (Network Variations and Expansion Stages). To add
(activate) a Variation to the active study case:
• Right-click on the Variation and select Activate from the context-sensitive menu. The Variation will
be activated and stages will be highlighted depending on the study time.
An Operation Scenario can be activated or deactivated via the context-sensitive menu, or by using
the option File → Activate Operation Scenario/Deactivate Operation Scenario from the main menu.

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Upon activation, a completeness check is performed (i.e. a check that operational data is available
for all components). This is reported in the PowerFactory output window. If an Operation Scenario
is active, all operational data attributes in property sheets or in the Data Manager are highlighted in
blue. This indicates that changes to these values will not modify the base component (or Variation)
but are recorded by the active Operation Scenario. Upon deactivation, previous operational data is
restored. If the Operation Scenario was modified, user confirmation is requested regarding the saving
of changes. For further information about working with Operation Scenarios, refer to Chapter 16
(Operation Scenarios).

Note: Only one study case can be activated at a time. Although network components and diagrams
can be edited without an active study case, calculations cannot be performed. Variations and
Operation Scenarios used by a study case are automatically activated upon activation of the
corresponding study case.

13.2.1 The Study Case Manager

The Study Case Manager simplifies the management of study cases, by providing an overview of all
existing study cases with all active Operation Scenarios, Variations, Grids and Triggers. There is a
column for each study case, with the component objects listed on the left, as shown in Figure 13.2.2.

The Study Case Manager can be accessed by clicking on the icon on the main toolbar or from Tools
→ Study Case Manager in the main menu. Upon opening the Study Case Manager the active study
case will be deactivated, but will be reactivated when the Study Case Manager window is closed.

Figure 13.2.2: Study Case Manager

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The Study Case Manager not only provides an overview but can also be used to manage the setup of
individual study cases, as it allows the activation/deactivation of:
• Operation Scenarios
• Variations
• Grids
• Triggers
simply by double-clicking on the cell entries - without the need to activate the study cases themselves.
Since the time of the active study case defines which Expansion Stage is active, it is only possible to
activate or deactivate Variations, but not Expansion Stages. Depending on the study time, the recording
Expansion Stage will be marked in bold.

Note: When folders are used to store study cases, only the study cases in the folder selected (within
the Study Case Manager) will be shown.

13.3 Summary Grid

The primary task of a study case is to activate and deactivate a calculation target, which is a combination
of grids and optionally expansion stages from the network model. The Summary Grid object holds
references to the grids which are considered in the calculation (i.e. the active grids). Grids may be added
to or removed from the currently active study case by right-clicking on them in the database tree or the
project overview window and Activate or Deactivate them. A reference to the activated/deactivated grid
is automatically generated in or deleted from the Summary Grid.

A grid cannot be activated without an active study case. With no study case active, the Activate action
from the context-sensitive menu of a grid will show a dialog, where a new study case can be created or
an existing one can be chosen in order to activate the grid.

13.4 Study Time

Study cases have a study time which defines the point in time to analyse.

The study time must be inside the Validity Period of the project, which specifies the time span for
which the project is valid (see Chapter 8: Basic Project Definition, Section 8.1.2 (Project Settings)).
PowerFactory will use the study time in conjunction with time-dependent network expansions (see
Chapter 17: Network Variations and Expansion Stages) to determine which network data is applicable
at that point in time. The study time may be changed in order to analyse a different point in time. The
Expansion Stages will be activated/deactivated in accordance with the study time.

The status bar at the bottom of the PowerFactory program window shows the currently-set study time.

The simplest way to change the study time is:

• Double-click on the Study Time shown in the status bar of PowerFactory.

• Enter the date and time or press the Date and Time buttons in order to set the study time to the
current time of the computer on which PowerFactory is being run.
• Press OK and close the window.
There are several alternative ways to edit the study time.

Alternative 1: Edit the study time like a trigger:

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• Press the button Date/Time of Calculation Case in the main toolbar of PowerFactory.
• Enter the date and time or press the Date and Time buttons in order to set the study time to the
current time of the computer on which PowerFactory is being run.

• Press OK to accept the changes and close the window.

Alternative 2: Edit the study case from within the study case dialog:
• Activate the project and browse for the study case in the Data Manager.

• Right-click on the study case and select Edit from the context-sensitive menu.
• On the Basic Data page use the drop-down arrow to bring up a standard calendar menu.
• Set the study time.
• Press OK and close the window.

13.5 The Study Case Dialog

To edit the settings of a study case, select Edit → Study Case from the main menu, or right-click the
study case in the Data Manager and select Edit from the context-sensitive menu. A dialog will appear.
On the Basic Data page, the user can define the name and an owner of the study case. The output
units of the calculated variables are defined in the Output Variables field. The grids that are linked to a
study case may be viewed by pressing the Grids/System Stages button.

The study time can be edited by using the drop-down arrow to bring up a standard calendar menu.

Please note that the study time can also change if the recording expansion stage is set explicitly (see
Chapter 17: Network Variations and Expansion Stages).

The Calculation Options page is used to configure the basic algorithm for the study case calculations.
The following options are available:

• The Breaker reduction mode determines the internal calculation topology of the grid. In particular,
electrically equivalent areas of a detailed substation are identified and merged for an efficient
internal treatment. If the check box Calculate results for all breakers is ticked, results of reduced
elements may then be post-calculated.

• The solution of linear equation systems is an intrinsic part of most calculations in PowerFactory,
such as load flow, short-circuit or the RMS/EMT simulation. Since version 15.2, these equation
systems can either be solved by a direct factorisation method or an iterative method. The latter
method has been developed to meet the increasing demands of modern applications where
interconnected, large-scale networks must be analysed. In contrast to traditional direct methods,
the implemented iterative solver is able to solve even very large systems with controlled precision.

• The tabs Calculation matrices and Advanced offer access to additional calculation options which
tune performance and robustness of the linear system solver.
• The button Set all calculation options to default will restore all default options on the Calcula-
tion Options tab.

Please note that alteration of default options is only recommended under the supervision of the DIgSI-
LENT support experts.

The Description page is used for user comments.

Note: To edit the study time one can alternatively press on the “Date/Time of Calculation Case” button
. This will open the study case time trigger window. In addition, the time of the simulation case

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is displayed in the lower-right corner of the program window. Double-clicking on this field provides
access to the same window.

13.6 Variation Configuration

Similar to the Summary Grid, the Variation Configuration object (IntAcscheme ) contains references
to the active variations.

13.7 Operation Scenarios

A reference to the active Operation Scenario (if any) is always stored in the study case. Similar to
Variation Configurations and Summary Grids, when a study case is activated, the Operation Scenario (if
any) whose reference is contained, will be automatically activated. The reference to the active Operation
Scenario will be automatically updated by the program.

13.8 Commands

In PowerFactory a calculation (i.e load flow , short-circuit , initial conditions of a time-domain

simulation , etc.) is performed via ’Calculation Commands’, which are the objects that store the
calculation settings defined by the user. Each study case stores its own calculation commands, holding
the most recent settings. This ensures consistency between results and calculation commands and
enables the user to easily reproduce the same results at a later date. When a calculation is performed
in a study case for the first time, a calculation command is automatically created inside the active study
case. Different calculation commands of the same class (i.e different load flow calculation commands:
objects of the class ComLdf or different short-circuit calculation commands: objects of the class
ComShc ) can be stored in the same study case. This allows the user to repeat any calculation with
identical settings (such as fault location, type, fault impedance, etc.) as last performed in the study case.
The calculations are only performed on active grids (expansion stages).

Figure 13.8.1 shows a study case, ’Study 1’ which contains two load flow calculation commands ( ,
’Ldf 1’ and ’Ldf 2’), one command for an OPF calculation , one command for the calculation of
initial conditions , and one transient simulation . The dialog of each of calculation command in
PowerFactory is described in the chapter corresponding to that calculation function.

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Figure 13.8.1: Calculation commands in a study case

Actions such as generating a report of the actual calculation results or the state of the defined network
components are carried out via commands (in this case ComSh and ComDocu, respectively). For
information about reporting commands refer to Chapter 19 (Reporting and Visualising Results).

Note: As with any other object, calculation commands can be copied, pasted, renamed and edited.

13.9 Events

Simulation Event objects are used to define simulation events. For time-domain simulations, events are
stored within the Study Case → Simulation Events/Fault folder (see Chapter 29: RMS/EMT Simulations,
Section 29.5 for a general description). For short-circuit studies, they are stored in the Study Case →
Short Circuits folder. For other steady-state calculations that utilise Simulation Events, they are stored
within the Operational Library → Faults folder. PowerFactory offers several kinds of events:

• Broken Conductor Event (EvtBrkcond)

• Dispatch Event (EvtGen)
• External Measurement Event (EvtExtmea)
• Intercircuit Fault Events (EvtShcll)
• Events of Loads (EvtLod)
• Message Event (EvtMessage)
• Outage of Element (EvtOutage)
• Parameter Events (EvtParam)
• Save Results (EvtTrigger )
• Save Snapshot (EvtSave)
• Short-Circuit Events (EvtShc)
• Stop Events (EvtStop)
• Switch Events (EvtSwitch)
• Synchronous Machine Event (EvtSym)

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• Tap Event (EvtTap)

• Power Transfer Event (EvtTransfer )

13.9.1 Broken Conductor Event

This event type can be used to simulate a broken conductor in a line element. The user can specify
which phase is broken and whether specific short-circuit conditions apply on either or both sides of the
break. The broken conductor event can be used in the complete short-circuit calculation (if the multiple
faults option is enabled in the short-circuit command) and in dynamic simulations.
• Fault location: defines at which point of the line the event is applied (seen from terminal i).

• Conductor interruption: specifies the phase(s) to be interrupted. Either all phases can be
selected or, if this option is disabled, individual phases can be checked/unchecked.
• Fault at side 1: check this option to apply a fault at side 1 (towards from terminal i) and configure
it accordingly.
• Fault at side 2: check this option to apply a fault at side 2 (towards from terminal j) and configure
it accordingly.

13.9.2 Dispatch Event

The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the event to occur, and a generation element
(ElmSym, ElmXnet or ElmGenstat) or Ward-Equivalent element (ElmVac).

There is the option to define either an incremental change or a move to a specified set-point.

13.9.3 External Measurement Event

External measurement events can be used to set and reset values and statuses of external measure-
ments.

13.9.4 Inter-Circuit Fault Events

This type of event is similar to the short-circuit event described in Section 13.9.11 (Short-Circuit Events
(EvtShc)). Two different elements and their respective phases are chosen, between which the fault
occurs. As for the short-circuit event, four different elements can be chosen:
• Busbar (StaBar )
• Terminal (ElmTerm)
• Overhead line or cable (ElmLne)

13.9.5 Events of Loads

The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the event to occur, and a load or set of load
element(s) (ElmLod, ElmLodlv, ElmLodmv or ElmLodlvp). Optionally a set of loads SetSelect can be
also selected. The value of the load (s) can then be altered using the load event. The power of the
selected load(s) can be changed as follows:

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• Step Changes the current value of the power (positive or negative) by the given value (in % of the
nominal power of the load) at the time of the event.
• Ramp Changes the current value of the power by the given value (in % of the nominal power of
the load), over the time specified by the Ramp Duration (in seconds). The load ramping starts at
the time of the event.

13.9.6 Message Event

A message will be printed to the output window at the specified time in the simulation.

13.9.7 Outage of Element (EvtOutage)

The Outage of Element event can be used to take an element out of service at a specified point in
time. It is intended for use in steady-state calculations (e.g. short-circuit calculations and reliability
assessment) and dynamic simulation.

Out of service: check/uncheck this flag in order to enable/disable this event.

Execution Time: defines the simulation/calculation time when this event is to be executed.

Element: the target element of this event is to be assigned here.

Type of Outage Event:

• Take element out of service - the Element is set to out of service at the defined Execution Time;
• Bring element back into service - the Element is put back in service at the defined Execution Time
(this option is not supported in dynamic simulation);

• Reinsert all outaged elements - all elements outaged by previously executed outage events are
put back in service (this option is not supported in dynamic simulation);
• Take element and its controls out of service - the Element is set to out of service at the defined
Execution Time along with all associated controls. Associated controls are all DSL elements
(and only those ones) which are referenced into a slot of a composite model whose Main slot is
occupied by the target Element.

Note: The event can be used to take elements out of service in time-domain simulations, however it
is not possible to bring an outaged element back into service using this event during a transient
simulation. This is only possible in steady-state calculations. The following message will be
displayed if the user attempts to bring a previously-outaged element back into service using
Outage of Element:
t=000:000 ms - Outage Event in Simulation not available.
Use Switch-Event instead!

13.9.8 Parameter Events

With this type of event, an input parameter of any element or DSL model can be set or changed. First,
a time specifying when the event will occur is specified. An element or set of elements SetSelect
must then be specified/selected using the down-arrow button . Choose Select. . . from the context-
sensitive menu, and insert the name and the new value of the element parameter. In case a selection
is used all elements within the selection have to share the same element parameter.

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13.9.9 Save Results

This event is only used for PowerFactory Monitor applications. It cannot be used during time-domain
simulations.

13.9.10 Save Snapshot event

This event is used in a time-domain simulation whenever the current simulation state (a simulation
snapshot) is to be saved. Further information on how to configure, save and load a simulation snapshot
can be found in Section 29.9.

Event options:
• Out of service - Check this flag in order to disable its execution. Un-check this flag in order to
activate it.

• Execution time - define the Absolute/Relative execution time of this event. The Absolute time
reference is 0 seconds. The relative time reference is the current simulation time (if the simulation
is reset/initialised, then the relative time fields are not available).

13.9.11 Short-Circuit Events

This event applies a short-circuit on a busbar, terminal or specified point on a line. The fault type (three-
phase, two-phase or single-phase fault) can be specified, as can the fault resistance and reactance and
the phases which are affected. The duration of the fault cannot be defined. Instead, to clear the fault,
another short-circuit event has to be defined, which will clear the fault at the same location.

13.9.12 Stop Events

Stops the simulation at the specified time within the simulation time frame.

13.9.13 Switch Events

To create a new switch event, press the icon on the main menu (if this icon is available), which will
open a browser containing all defined simulation events. Click on the icon in the browser, which will
show the Element Selection dialog (IntNewobj as shown in Figure 13.9.1). This dialog can be used to
create a new switching event.

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Figure 13.9.1: Creation of a new switch event (IntNewobj)

After pressing OK, the reference to the switch (labelled Breaker or Element) must be manually set. Any
switch in the power system may be selected, thus enabling the switching of lines, generators, motors,
loads, etc. The user is free to select the switches/breakers for all phases or only those for one or two
phases.

It should be noted that more than one switching event must be created if, for instance, a line has to be
opened at both ends. These switch events should then have the same execution times.

13.9.14 Synchronous Machine Event

The Synchronous Machine Event is used to change the mechanical torque of a synchronous machine
(ElmSym) in a simple manner. The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the event to
occur, and an active synchronous machine. The user can then define the additional mechanical torque
supplied to the generator. The torque can be positive or negative and is entered in per-unit values.

13.9.15 Tap Event

The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the tap event to occur, and a shunt or transformer
element (ElmShnt, ElmTr2, etc). The Tap Action can then be specified.

13.9.16 Power Transfer Event

The Power Transfer event (EvtTransfer ) is used to transfer demand from a load object, or output from
static generator, to other load objects or static generators respectively. The user specifies the source
object (ElmLod or ElmGenstat) and the destination object or objects, which must be of the same class.
Then separate percentage figures are input for active and reactive power. If more than one Power
Transfer event is to be used, it is important to consider the order in which they will be executed, as
this could affect the final outcome. Power Transfer events may be used in RMS simulations, Outage
Planning and Faults Cases for contingency analysis.

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13.10 Simulation Scan

For details of Simulation Scan modules, refer to Chapter 29: RMS/EMT Simulations, Section 29.8.

13.11 Results Objects

The results object (ElmRes ) is used to store tables with the results obtained after the execution of a
command in PowerFactory. Results Files are described in chapter ch:ReportingResults: Reporting and
Visualising Results, section 19.6.

For Contingency Analysis, the results object can optionally contain a filter (SetFilt), to restrict the
recording of results to a specified part of the network. The use of such a filter is described in the
Contingency Analysis chapter, in section 27.10.1.

13.12 Triggers

As described in Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs), parameter charac-
teristics are used to define parameters as ranges of values instead of fixed amounts. The parameter
characteristics are set over user defined scales. The current value of the parameter is at the end
determined by a trigger object (SetTrigger, ), which sets a current value on the corresponding
scale. For example if the value of a certain parameter depends on the temperature, a characteristic
over a temperature scale is set. The current value of the temperature is defined by the trigger. The
current value of the temperature determines the current value of the parameter, according to the defined
characteristic.

Once a parameter characteristic and its corresponding scale are set, a trigger pointing to the scale is
automatically created in the active study case. The user can access the trigger and change its value as
required.

PowerFactory offers different types of characteristics and scales, and each scale points to a trigger from
the active study case. By default, scales are stored in the Scales folder within the Characteristics folder
in the Operational Library. Information regarding the use and definition of characteristics, scales and
triggers is given in Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs).

13.13 Graphics Board

The study case folder contains a folder called the Graphics Board folder (SetDesktop, ). This folder
contains references to the graphics which are to be displayed. This folder, similar to the Summary Grid
folder, is automatically created and maintained and should generally not be edited by the user.

The references in the graphics board folder are created when the user adds a grid to a study case.
PowerFactory will ask the user which graphics pertaining to the grid should be displayed. At any time,
the user may display other graphics in the grid by right-clicking the grid and selecting Show Graphic.

Graphics may be removed by right-clicking the tab at the top of the page and selecting Close Page.

The study case and graphics board folder also contain references to any other graphics that were
created when the study case was active.

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Chapter 14

Project Library

14.1 Introduction

The project library stores the following categories of data:

• Equipment Types (Section 14.2: Equipment Type Library)
• Operational Data (Section 14.3: Operational Library)

• Scripts (See Chapter 23: Scripting)

• Table Reports (See section Table Report Methods of the DPL Reference)
• Templates (Section 14.4: Templates Library).

• User Defined Models (See Section 30.3: User Defined (DSL) Models)
This chapter is describes the Equipment Type Library, Operational Library, and Templates library.

A range of pre-defined types, models, templates, and scripts are available in the DIgSILENT Global
Library, described in Section 4.5.1.

Unlike the global libraries (located directly in the Database folder), which are accessible to all users, the
local project library is used to store data that are to be used in the specific project. It can only be used
by the project owner, and users with which the project is shared.

14.2 Equipment Type Library

The Equipment Type Library is used to store and organise type data for each class of network compo-
nent. Once a new project is created, an Equipment Type Library is automatically set by the program
within the Library folder.

To create or edit a folder in the Equipment Type Library :

1. Right-click on the Equipment Type Library folder in the left pane of the Data Manager and select
New → Project Folder from the context sensitive menu (or to edit an existing folder, right-click the
folder and select Edit). The project folder edit dialog is displayed.

2. In the Name field, enter the name of the new folder.

3. In the Folder Type field, select Generic.

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4. In the Class Filter field, write the name of the type class(es) to be allowed in the folder (case
sensitive). If more than one class is to be allowed, write the class names separated by commas.
An asterisk character (* ) can be used to allow all classes.

5. In the Icon field, select Library.

To create new type objects in these folders select the New Object icon and select the appropriate
type class. Alternatively, types can be copied from other projects or the DIgSILENT library. If the type
class does not match the folder filter, an error message is displayed.

Note: By default new block definitions (used by dynamic models) created from block diagrams are also
stored in the Equipment Types Library. Chapter 30 (Models for Dynamic Simulations) provides
details related to dynamic modelling and block definitions.

Figure 14.2.1 shows the equipment library of a project containing generator, load, and transformer
types, sorted using library sub-folders.

Figure 14.2.1: The Equipment Library

There are two options available for defining the type data for network components:

1. Select Type: the Data Manager pointing to the DIgSILENT global library, shown in Figure 14.2.2,
is launched. The Project Library button can be used to quickly switch between the global and
local libraries.

Note: If an additional library is defined in the global area (see Section 4.5.2) and set in the User
Settings (see Section 7.1), an additional button will be available in the dialog

2. New Project Type: a new type will be defined and automatically stored in the local Equipment Type
Library.

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Figure 14.2.2: Libraries buttons shown when assigning a type

14.3 Operational Library

The Operational Library is used to store and organise operational data for application to a number of
elements, without the need to duplicate operational information.

To illustrate, consider an example where there are two generators, “G1” and “G2”. The units have slightly
different Type data, and thus unique Type models, “G 190M-18kV Ver-1” and “G 190M-18kV Ver-2”. The
Capability Curves for these units are identical, and so the user wishes to create only a single instance
of the capability curve. By defining a Capability Curve in the Operational Library, a single Capability
Curve can be linked to both generators.

Similarly, various circuit breakers may refer to the same short-circuit current ratings. A Circuit Breaker
Rating object can be defined in the Operational Library and linked to relevant circuit breakers

Within the Characteristics folder in the Operational Library, the Scale folder is used to store the scales
used by the parameter characteristics. Refer to Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics, Load States,
and Tariffs) for details.

This section describes the definition and application of operational data objects.

14.3.1 Circuit Breaker Ratings

Circuit Breaker Ratings objects (IntCbrating) contain information that define the rated short-circuit
currents of circuit breakers (objects of class ElmCoup). They are stored inside the CB-Rating folder
in the Operational Library. Any circuit breaker (ElmCoup) defined in the Network Model can use a
reference to a Circuit Breaker Rating object in order to change its current ratings.

The parameters defined by a circuit breaker rating are:

• Three phase initial peak short circuit current.
• Single phase initial peak short circuit current.

• Three phase peak break short circuit current.

• Single phase peak break short circuit current.

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• Three phase RMS break short circuit current.

• Single phase RMS break short circuit current.
• DC time constant.
To create a new circuit breaker rating in the operational library:

• In the Data Manager open the CB Ratings folder.

• Click on the New Object icon .

• In the Element Selection dialog select Circuit Breaker Rating (IntCbrating) and press Ok.
• The new circuit breaker rating dialog will then be displayed. Set the corresponding parameters
and press Ok.

To assign a circuit breaker rating to a circuit breaker (ElmCoup object) from the network model:
1. Go to the Complete Short-Circuit page of the element’s dialog.

2. In the Ratings field click on the button to select the desired rating from the CB Ratings folder.
The parameters defined in the circuit breaker ratings can be made to be time-dependant by means of
variations and expansion stages stored inside the CB Ratings folder.

For information regarding short-circuit calculations, refer to Chapter 26 (Short-Circuit Analysis). For
further information about variations and expansion stages, refer to Chapter 17(Network Variations and
Expansion Stages).

Note: Variations in the CB Ratings folder act ’locally’, they will only affect the circuit breaker ratings
stored within the folder. Similarly, the variations of the Network Model will only affect the network
components from the grids.

Note: Circuit breaker elements (ElmCoup) must be distinguished from Switch objects (StaSwitch); the
latter are automatically created inside cubicles when connecting an edge element (which differs
to a circuit breaker) to a terminal. Ratings can also be entered in the StaSwitch Type object.

Example Time-Dependent Circuit Breaker Rating

Consider an example where a substation circuit breaker “CB” operates with different ratings depending
on the time of the year. From 1st January to 1st June it operates according to the ratings defined in a
set of parameters called “CBR1”. From 1st June to 31st December it operates with the ratings defined
in a set of parameters called “CBR2”.

This operational procedure can be modelled by defining a circuit breaker rating “CBR” in the CB Ratings
folder, and a variation “CB_Sem_Ratings” containing two expansion stages. The first expansion stage
should activate on the 1st January and the second on the 1st June. The first task is the definition of the
time-dependant circuit breaker rating “CBR”. To set the parameters of “CBR” for the first period:

1. Set a study time before the 1st June to activate the first expansion stage (the Variation “CB_Sem_-
Ratings” must be active).
2. Edit the parameters of “CBR” (previously defined) according to the values defined in “CBR1”. The
new parameters will be stored in the active expansion stage.
3. To set the parameters of “CBR” for the second period:
4. Set a study time after the 1st June to activate the second expansion stage;
5. Edit “CBR” according to the values of “CBR2”. The new parameters will be stored in the active
expansion stage.

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Once the ratings for the two expansion stages have been set, and the circuit breaker rating “CBR” has
been assigned to the circuit breaker “CB”, the study time can be changed from one period to the other
to apply the relevant ratings for “CB” (note that the variation must be active).

14.3.2 Characteristics

Characteristics can be assigned to many element parameters. The use of Characteristics is described
in detail in Chapter 18. Such characteristics are normally held in this folder of the Operational Library.

14.3.3 Demand Transfers

Note that Demand Transfers make use of the IntOutage object, which has now been superseded by
the new IntPlannedout object described in section 14.3.7. Therefore, users wishing to create IntOutage
objects will need to enable a project setting: on the Project Settings, Miscellaneous page select Create
IntOutage (obsolete).

The active and reactive power demand defined for loads and feeders in the network model can be
transferred to another load (or feeder) within the same system by means of a Demand Transfer (objects
class IntOutage). This transfer only takes place if it is applied during a validity period defined by the
user (i.e. if the current study time lies within the validity period).

To create a new load demand transfer:

1. In the Data Manager, open the Demand Transfer folder.
2. Click on the New Object icon .
3. In the Element Selection dialog select Planned Outage (IntOutage) and press Ok.
4. Set the validity time, the source and target loads/feeders and the power transfer.

Note: If there is a demand transfer, which transfers load between two loads (ElmLod) belonging to
different feeders (ElmFeeder ), then the same MW and Mvar value is transferred from one feeder
to the other.

A demand transfer is only possible if an active operation scenario (to record the changes) is available.
The Apply all button will automatically apply all transfers that are stored in the current folder and which
fit into the current study time. Before execution, the user is asked if the current network state should
be saved in a new operation scenario. The same demand transfers can be applied as many times as
desired during the validity period.

If a non-zero power transfer has been executed and the source’s power is less than zero, a warning is
printed to the output window indicating that the power limit has been exceeded. The applied transfers
can be reverted by using the Reset all button.

When the current operation scenario is deactivated, all load transfers executed while the operation
scenario was active will be reverted.

For information about operation scenarios refer to Chapter 16 (Operation Scenarios).

14.3.4 Fault Cases and Fault Groups

This section discusses the data structure of the Faults folder, and the objects contained within it. The
functionality of Event objects is described in Section 29.5: Events (IntEvt).

The Faults folder stores two types of subfolders:

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1. Fault Cases folders, which in turn store objects that represent Simulation Events . Simulation
Events may contain a number of individual Events (Evt* ), e.g. short-circuits events, switching
events.
2. Fault Groups folders store Fault Groups (IntFaultgrp) objects, which in turn reference Fault Cases
(Simulation Events or individual Events).

Note: The use of IntEvt objects extends beyond PowerFactory ’s reliability analysis functions. Time
domain simulations (EMT/RMS) make reference to IntEvt objects, in order to include simulation
events which take place during a time-domain simulation. In this case the execution time sequence
of the events must be defined. In the case of fault representations in the Operational Library by
means of fault cases, only short-circuit and switching events are relevant.

Note that the calculation commands provided by the reliability assessment function of PowerFactory use
Contingencies objects (ComContingency and ComOutage) to simulate the outage (and subsequent
recovery) of one or more system elements. To avoid duplication of data, these objects can refer to
previously defined Simulation Events (IntEvt). For information regarding the functionality of fault cases
and fault groups in contingency analysis tools refer to Chapter 27 (Contingency Analysis). For the
use of fault cases to create outages for the contingency analysis tools refer to Chapter 45 (Reliability
Assessment).

The following sections provide a details of how to define Fault Cases and Fault Groups.

Fault Cases

A fault case can represent a fault in more than one component, with more than one event defined. There
are two types of Fault Cases:
1. Fault cases without switch events (Type 1): Independent of the current topology and only
stores the fault locations. The corresponding switch events are automatically generated by the
contingency analysis tools. For further information refer to Chapter 45 (Reliability Assessment).
2. Fault Case with at least one switch event (Type 2): A Fault Case of Type 2 predefines the
switch events that will be used to clear the fault. No automatic generation of switch events will
take place. For further information refer to Chapter 45 (Reliability Assessment).

To create new Fault Cases or new Fault Groups folders, open the Faults project folder from the Oper-
ational Library and use the New Object icon (select Fault Cases(IntFltcases) or Fault Groups (IntFlt-
groups) respectively).

To create new fault case (object of class IntEvt):

1. Multi-select the target components on a single line diagram.
2. Right-click and select Define → Fault Cases from the context-sensitive menu.

3. Select from the following options:

• Single Fault Case: This creates a single simultaneous fault case including all selected
elements. A dialog box containing the created fault case is opened to allow the user to
specify a name for the fault case. Press Ok to close the dialog and saves the new fault case.
• Multi fault Cases, n-1: This creates an n-1 fault case for each selected component. There-
fore the number of fault cases created is equal to the number of components selected.
This menu entry is only active if more than one component is selected. The fault case is
automatically created in the database after selection.
• Multi fault Cases, n-2: This creates an n-2 fault case for each unique pair among the
selected components. Therefore the number of fault cases is (𝑏 · (𝑏 − 1)/2) where ”b” is
equal to the number of selected components. This menu entry is only active if more than one
component is selected. If only one component is selected, then no fault case will be created.
The fault case is automatically created in the database after selection.

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• Mutually Coupled Lines/Cables, n-k : This creates fault cases considering the simultane-
ous outage of each coupled line in the selection.
The fault cases created will consist of short-circuit events applied to the selected components. All
breakers (except for circuit breakers, which are used to model a circuit breaker failure) will be ignored.
• If only breakers are included in the selection, an error message will be issued.
• If a simple switch (not a circuit breaker) is included in the selection, a warning message will be
issued that this switch will be ignored.

• If a circuit breaker is contained in the selection, then an Info message will be issued, that the CB
will be used for modelling a CB failure and will not be handled as a fault location.

Note: In the case that a branch is selected, the short-circuit event is generated for a (non-switch device
with more than one connection) component of the branch. The component used in the event
is: “Connection 1” if suitable, otherwise “Connection 2” if suitable, otherwise a suitable random
component of the branch (line, transformer . . . ).

Fault Groups

New Fault Groups are created in the Data Manager as follows:

1. Open the target Fault Groups folder and select the New Object icon .
2. In the edit dialog, specify the name of the Fault Group, and Add Cases (IntEvt) to the Fault Group.

14.3.5 Capability Curves (Mvar Limit Curves) for Generators

Reactive Power operating limits can be specified in PowerFactory through definition of Capability Curves
(IntQlim). They are stored in Operational Library, within the Mvar Limit Curves folder. Synchronous
generators (ElmSym) and static generators (ElmGenstat) defined in the Network Model can use a
pointer to a Capability Curve object from the Load Flow page of their edit dialog. When executing a Load
Flow (with Consider Reactive Power Limits selected on the Basic Options page) generator Reactive
Power dispatch will be limited to within the extends of the defined capability curve. For information
about the dispatch of synchronous generators, refer to the synchronous machine technical reference in
the Technical References Document. For information about Load Flow calculations and reactive power
limits, refer to Chapter 25 (Load Flow Analysis).

Note: If Consider active power limits is selected on the Basic Options page of the Load Flow Calculation
command, active power is limited to the lesser of the Max. Operational Limit and the Max. Active
Power Rating specified on the Synchronous Machine Load Flow page.

Defining Capability Curves

To define a new generator Capability Curve:

1. Open the folder Mvar Limit Curves from the Operational Library.

2. Click on the New Object icon and select Capability Curve. The new capability curve dialog will
be displayed.
3. Enter data points to define the generation limits, and Append Rows to add the required number of
rows to the table.
4. To apply a Capability Curve to a generator:

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• Locate the Reactive Power Limit section on the Load Flow page of the synchronous ma-
chine’s or static generator’s dialog.
• Press next to Capability Curve.
• Choose Select and then select the required curve in the Mvar Limit Curves folder of the
Operational Library (the required curve can also be created at this step by selecting the New
Object icon .

5. Select a capability curve and press OK.

Capability curves are included in operation scenario subsets; meaning that if a capability curve is
selected/reset from a generator when an operation scenario is active, the change will be stored in
the operation scenario. Once the operation scenario is deactivated, the assignment/reset of the curve
is reverted. For information on working with operation scenarios, refer to Chapter 16 (Operation Sce-
narios).

To enter a capability curve for information purposes only (i.e. a capability curve which is not to be
considered by the calculation), enter it on the Advanced tab of the Load Flow page. Then select User
defined Capability Curve and enter the curve as a series of points in the table. Right-click on the rows
to append, delete or insert new rows.

Defining a Variation of a Capability Curve

Similar to circuit breaker ratings (see Section 14.3.1 (Circuit Breaker Ratings), Capability Curves can
become time-dependant by means of variations and expansion stages stored inside the Mvar Limit
Curves folder.

To create a time-dependent variation for a Capability Curve, navigate to theMvar Limit Curves folder in
the left pane of a Data Manager window. Right-click on the folder and select New → Variation. Name
the variation, press OK, name the Expansion Stage, and press OK. Changes to Capability Curves are
recorded in the active expansion stage.

To activate a variation of a Capability Curve, open the Data Manager. Right-click the Variation object
in the Mvar Limit Curves folder and select Activate.

For general information about variations and expansion stages refer to Chapter 17 (Network Variations
and Expansion Stages).

14.3.6 Planned Outages

Planned Outage objects (IntPlannedout) are normally stored in the Outage folder of the Operational
Library. They can be applied to an active study case to model expected outages of network elements
for maintenance, network expansion etc. Figure 14.3.1 shows the dialog box of a Planned Outage
object, illustrating the following features:
• Start and End date of the period for which the Planned Outage is valid.

• Outaged components.
• Buttons to apply and reset the outage, view the events and record additional events.

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Figure 14.3.1: Planned Outage object dialog

Changes to switch positions and other parameters resulting from the application of Planned Outages
will be taken into account for all calculations but are only effective as long as the study case is active. A
new toolbar has been provided for the handling of Planned Outages. Please see chapter 42 for how to
create Planned Outage objects and handle them via the toolbar.

14.3.7 Planned Outages IntOutage

Note that this subsection refers to the original IntOutage object, which is now superseded by the
IntPlannedout object described in section 14.3.6. Users wishing to create IntOutage objects will need
to enable a project setting: on the Project Settings, Miscellaneous page select Create IntOutage
(obsolete).

A Planned Outage is an object used to check and/or apply an Outage of Element or Generator Derating
over a specified time period. Planned Outages are stored within the Operational Library in the Outages
folder.

• For the Outage of Element type, PowerFactory automatically isolates the referenced components.
The switches connecting the target elements with the other network components are open and the
terminals connected to the elements are earthed (if the Earthed option in the terminal (ElmTerm)
dialog is checked). Note that the target element can only be earthed if it is directly connected
(without switches in the cubicle) to terminals, which are then connected through switches to the
network terminals.

• For a Generator Derating, a reference to the generator which is to be derated and the magnitude
of the MW reductions is specified. For the Generator Derating, the maximum active power that
can be dispatched (defined on the Load Flow page of the generator element dialog, in the section
Operational Limits) is recalculated as the difference between the maximum active power (section
Active Power: Ratings) and the MW reductions.

Note: If a Planned Outage object is defined in the Outages folder of the Operational Library, only the
outage types Outage of Element and Generator Derating are enabled. Similarly if outage objects
are defined in the Demand transfer folder, only the outage type Demand Transfer is enabled.

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Defining Outages and Deratings

To create a new Element Outage or Generator Derating:

1. In the Data Manager, open the Outages folder.

2. Click on the New Object icon , select Planned Outage and press Ok.
3. The Planned Outage dialog will be displayed. In the Outage Type frame of the dialog, the options
Outage of an Element and Generator Derating will be enabled. Set the desired Outage Type,
Start Time and End Time.
4. The definition of a Planned Outage requires reference(s) to relevant network components. To
create a reference:
• Press the Contents button of the outage object.
• In the data browser that is displayed, create a reference to the target element by selecting
the New Object icon (IntRef ).
• Press the button in the Reference field to select the target element.
• Press Ok to add the reference.
5. (Generator Derating only) Specify the MW Reduction (see previous section for details) for the
generator derating.
6. To apply the Planned Outage, press the Apply button (the Apply button is only available if the
study time lies within the outage period, and an Operation Scenario is active).
Applied outages and generator deratings can be reset using the Reset button.

Checking Outages and Deratings

The Check All button in the Planned Outage dialog is used to verify if the actions defined for the
target element(s) have been performed (right-click a Planned Outage and select Check to perform an
individual check). Only the outages within a valid period are considered. Outages marked as Out of
Service are not regarded (even if the study time lies within the outage period).

For an Outage of Element, the energising state is always determined by a connectivity analysis. Any
component that is connected to an External Grid or a reference Generator is considered to be energised.
All other components are considered to be de-energised (if circuit breakers are open). A de-energised
component is earthed if a topological connection to a grounding switch or an earthed terminal exists
(terminal with the Earthed option checked).

Note: If the outaged element is a Branch Element (ElmBranch), all contained elements are checked.
If any of these elements is not correctly outaged, the whole branch is reported as not correctly
outaged.

The fulfilment of programmed outages can also be checked via the use of the colour representation
function available within the single line graphic by setting the Colouring option to Outage Check from
the colour representation dialog . The following states are coloured, according to user preferences:

• Components that are energised, but should be outaged.

• Components that are de-energised and not earthed, but should be outaged.
• Components that are de-energised and earthed, but should NOT be outaged.
• Components that are de-energised, not earthed and should be outaged.
• Generators that are not derated, but should be outaged.
• Generators that are derated, but should NOT be outaged.

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14.3.8 QP-Curves

Q(P)-curves (IntQpcurve) are used by generators (ElmSym, ElmGenstat and ElmAsm) when the Con-
troller mode Q(P)-Characteristic is selected. In this mode, the reactive power control follows a user-
specified characteristic, so that the reactive power setpoint is adapted according to the active power
output of the machine.

14.3.9 Remedial Action Schemes (RAS)

Remedial Action Schemes (IntRas) and Remedial Action Scheme groups may be used during contin-
gency analysis. If the user creates Remedial Action Schemes and groups, they will be stored here in
the Operational Library. See chapter 27, Section 27.11 for more information.

14.3.10 Running Arrangements

Running Arrangement objects store operational data (switch status) for a single substation. As
shown in Figure 14.3.2, a Running Arrangement uses a reference to the substation object (ElmSubstat)
whose switch statuses are stored. A Start Time and End Time is used to specify the validity period of
the Running Arrangement. Running arrangements are stored in the Running Arrangements folder in
the Operational Library.

Figure 14.3.2: RA object dialog

Different configurations of the same substation can be defined by storing the corresponding switch
statuses in Running Arrangements. Different Running Arrangements can then be easily selected during
a study. If a running arrangement is selected for a substation, the status of the substation switches
cannot be modified (i.e. they become read-only). If there is no setting for a switch in a Running
Arrangement (i.e. the Running Arrangement is incomplete), the switch will remain unchanged but
its status will also be set to read-only. If the current Running Arrangement is deselected, switch status
will be reverted to the status prior to application of the Running Arrangement, and write-access will be
re-enabled. Running arrangements are defined and selected in the substation object dialog Basic Data
page.

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Note: Running arrangements store only the status of switches of class ElmCoup. The status of switches
which are automatically created in a cubicle following the connection of a edge element (StaSwitch
objects) are not considered in a running arrangement.

Further details of how to create, select, apply, and assign Running Arrangements are provided in the
following sections.

Creating a Running Arrangement

To store the current status of the switches in a substation, a Running Arrangement object must be
created. To create and save a new Running Arrangement (RA):

1. Click on an empty place in the substation graphic, and from the context-sensitive menu choose
Edit Substation. Open the substation dialog.
2. Click Save as to store the switch settings of the substation as a new RA. This button is only
available if there is currently no RA selection active.
3. In the new RA dialog is displayed, specify a name and time period, and press Ok. The new RA is
automatically stored in the Running Arrangements folder in the Operational Library.
An Overwrite button is available in the substation dialog (if no RA is selected), to store current switch
statuses to an existing RA.

Selecting a Running Arrangement

A Running Arrangement (RA) can be selected in the Basic Data page of a substation dialog:
1. Open the substation dialog.

2. In the Running Arrangement frame of the Substation dialog, select from a list of previously
defined RA’s.
3. Select the desired RA. This selection is immediately reflected in the substation graphic.
While an RA is selected, the switch statuses of a substation are determined by this RA and cannot be
changed by the user (i.e. they are read-only).

If there is no setting for a switch in an RA (i.e. the RA is incomplete), such a switch will remain
unchanged but its status is also set to read-only.

Furthermore, there is a button Select by Study Time (also available via the context-sensitive menu
when right-clicking on the Data Manager), which selects a valid RA automatically according to the study
time. If there are multiple RAs valid for the current study time, or if there is no valid one, a warning is
printed to PowerFactory ’s output window (nothing is selected in this case).

Applying and Resetting a Running Arrangement

An active Running Arrangement (RA) can be applied to a substation by pressing the Apply and Reset
button from within the substation dialog. This action copies the statuses stored in the RA directly in the
substation switches. It is only available only if an RA is selected. The RA will be deselected afterwards.
An RA can be directly set as the substation’s selected RA, using the Assign button (from within the RA
dialog).

The following functional aspects must be regarded when working with running arrangements:
• An RA can be selected for each substation. If an operation scenario is active, the selection of
an RA in a substation is recorded in the operation scenario (i.e. the RA selection is part of the
operational data included in the operation scenario subset).

• If a variation is active (and there is no active operation scenario), the selection of the RA is stored
in the recording expansion stage.

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• While an RA is selected, the switch statuses of the corresponding substation are determined by
the RA and can not be modified. Any attempt to change such a switch status will be rejected
and a warning message will be printed to the output window. The switch statuses preceding the
activation of an RA remain unchanged and are restored when deselecting the RA.
• The switch statuses stored in the RA could be incomplete due to the activation of a variation or a
modification made to the network model. For example, if an RA was defined and then deactivated,
and then later new switches were added to a substation. In this case if the RA is re-activated, a
warning would be printed to the output window and the current switch statuses, which depend on
the base network, active variations and active operation scenario, remain unchanged. Missing
switch statuses will be added only when performing the Save as or Overwrite functions (available
in the substation dialog).
• Switch statuses stored in the RA, and which are currently not required (depending on expansion
stages) are ignored and remain unchanged. In this case a summary warning is printed during the
RA activation.
• It is not possible to add a new switch to a substation while a running arrangement is selected.
Additionally, it is not possible to delete an existing switch from this substation. In both cases the
action is blocked and an error message is issued.
For information regarding operation scenarios and their application refer to Chapter 16 (Operation
Scenarios).

Assigning a Running Arrangement

The Assign button contained in the Running Arrangement (RA) dialog facilitates the selection of the
RA as the one currently selected for the corresponding substation. This action is also available in the
context-sensitive menu in the Data Manager (when right-clicking on an RA inside the Data Manager). It
should be noted that assignment is executed immediately and cannot be undone by pressing the cancel
button of the dialog.

Figure 14.3.3: Running Arrangement Dialog

Marking Running Arrangements in Graphic

A Mark related substation in graphic button is provided on the Running Arrangement object. This can
be used to display the related substation diagram or find the related substation in an overview graphic.

It is also possible to do this using the Mark in Graphic option in the context-sensitive menu displayed
when right-clicking on a Running Arrangement in a Data Manager.

14.3.11 Thermal Ratings

Thermal Ratings objects (IntThrating) allow the definition of post-fault operational ratings for certain
branch elements, depending on the fault duration and the loading prior to the fault. Thermal Ratings
objects are stored in the Thermal Ratings folder in the Operational Library. They are two-dimensional

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matrices, with cells that contain the “short time” post-fault ratings (in MVA), according to the pre-fault
loading (defined in the first column) and the duration of the fault/overloading (defined in the first row).

References to Thermal Ratings are defined on the Basic Data page of the dialog of the target branch
elements. Elements that can use references to Thermal Ratings are:
• Transmission lines (ElmLne).

• 2- and 3-winding transformers (ElmTr2) and (ElmTr3).

• Series reactors (ElmSind).
• Series capacitors (ElmScap).

Note that the rating table given on the Ratings page of the Thermal Rating object (when option Consider
short term ratings is enabled) is used solely for the contingency analysis command in PowerFactory. In
this calculation, the pre-fault loading conditions of the network components are determined after a base
load flow calculation. The contingency analysis is then performed using a load flow command, where
the post-contingency duration is specified.

To create a new Thermal Ratings object:

1. Open the folder Thermal Ratings from the Operational Library.

2. Click on the New Object icon and select Thermal Ratings.

3. The new object dialog is displayed. To configure the table for the short-term ratings (only visible if
the option Consider short term ratings is checked), go to the Configuration page and:
• Introduce the increasing values for the pre-fault loading axis (Prefault %). By default, values
between 0% and 80%, with increments of 5%, up to 84% are set.
• Introduce the fault duration in minutes. Default values are: 360 min, 20 min, 10 min, 5 min,
3 min).
The pre-fault continuous rating (used as the base to calculate the loading before the fault) and the post-
fault continuous rating (assumed as the branch element post-fault rating if the fault duration is larger
than the largest duration time defined in the table) are defined on the Ratings page.

The values of a thermal rating object can be edited at any time by double-clicking on it to open the
Thermal Ratings dialog. Similar to Circuit Breaker Ratings and Capability Curves, Thermal Ratings
objects can be made to be time-dependant by means of variations and expansion stages stored inside
the Thermal Ratings folder (refer to the Circuit Breaker Ratings section for an explanation on how to
define time-dependant operational objects).

When a contingency analysis (ComSimoutage) is configured, the user can define a post-contingency
time. According to the pre-fault loading found by the load flow used to calculate the base case,
and the post-contingency time (if specified), the ratings to be used in the contingency load flow are
determined (based on the referred Thermal Ratings object). The loading of the branch elements after
the contingency load flow are calculated with respect to the new ratings.

For information about contingency analysis refer to Chapter 27 (Contingency Analysis).

14.3.12 V-Control-Curves

The curves in this folder, i.e. V-Control-Curve (IntVctrlcurve) are used by transformers, if the user wishes
to define the voltage setpoint according to the power or current flow through the transformer.

14.4 Templates Library

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The Templates folder is used to store and organise templates of network components (or groups of
components) for re-use in a power system model. Components from templates are created using the
graphical editor. Five kinds of templates are supported in PowerFactory :

1. Element template for single network elements: New single network elements with the same
parameters as the original element are created.
2. Group template for non-composite graphic objects: New groups of objects (including graphical
attributes) are created.

3. Substation template (composite node): New substations with the same configuration as the origi-
nal substation (including its diagram).
4. Secondary Substation template: New secondary substations.
5. Branch template (composite branch): New branches with the same configuration as the original
branch (including its diagram).

Templates are normally stored in the Templates folder, in the Library. When a template for a single
network element is defined, a copy of the original element is automatically created in the Templates
folder. New templates of substations and branches will copy the objects together with all of their
contents (including the diagram) to the Templates folder. New templates for groups of objects will copy
the corresponding objects, together with their graphical information to a subfolder for groups of class
IntTemplate within the Templates Library.

For further information about working with templates, refer to Section 11.2 (Defining Network Models
with the Graphical Editor).

Substation (composite node) templates ( or ), secondary substation ( ), busbar templates ( ),

branch templates ( ), and general templates ( ) can be selected from the Drawing Toolbox on the
right-hand pane of the PowerFactory GUI. To apply an element template:

• Select the symbol for a substation, secondary substation, busbar, branch, or general template as
required.
• Select the required template.

• Insert the new element in the single line graphic.

Note: The use of Substation templates is recommended for diagrams of networks, where components
are grouped in branches and substations. In this case the composite nodes can be graphically
connected with the composite branch, forming an overview diagram of the complete network.

This section explains how to create and use templates.

14.4.1 General Templates

Any kind of single network component (lines, transformers, terminals, etc.) can be used to define
an “Element” template; this is done by right clicking the desired element on a single line graphic and
selecting Define Template from the context sensitive menu, a dialog where the name of the new template
is to be written pops up. After the name is given and the Ok button is pressed, a copy of the selected
element is stored in the templates folder. Similarly, a group of network components can be used to
define a “Group” template, which will create a ’template’ folder, storing the objects from the group
together with their graphical information. If a group of elements containing substation and branches has
been selected the elements outside the substation will not be added to the template.

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14.4.2 Substation Templates

Existing substations can be used as “models” to define templates, which may be used later to create new
substations. A new substation template is created by right clicking on one of the busbars of the detailed
substation single line diagram and selecting Define substation template from the context sensitive menu.
This action will copy the substation together with all of its contents (including its diagram even if it is not
stored within this substation) in the Templates folder.

Note: In case of creating templates which contain graphical information the default settings of the
names and result boxes defining their graphical representation (font, frame, size,...) are copied
into the template diagram so that they appear as in the source object(s).

14.4.3 Busbar Templates

Similar to creating substation templates, existing busbars can be used as a “models” to create user-
defined templates, which may be used later to create new busbars. A new busbar template is created
by right clicking on the detailed single line diagram or simplified diagram of busbar and selecting ’Define
substation template’ from the context sensitive menu. This action will copy the busbar together with all
of its contents (including detailed and simplified diagrams) in the Templates folder. If the detailed busbar
configuration has been modified, it is possible to right-click the (existing) simplified representation in the
main single line diagram and select ’Update representation’.

Busbars that have been created by the user in this way can be added to the single line diagram by
selecting the ’General Busbar System’ icon ( ). Note that for a busbar to be accessible from this icon,
both detailed and simplified diagrams must be included within the busbar template, as in the previously
described method.

14.4.4 Composite Branch Templates

Composite Branch templates can be defined as follows:

1. To create a Branch template, navigate to the Library → Templates folder in the Data Manager.
2. Right-click on the right pane of the Data Manager and select New → Branch from the context
sensitive menu.
3. In the branch edit dialog, define the name of the branch and press Ok.
4. A new (empty) single line diagram will be displayed. Draw the required elements (for example, a
terminal with two lines connected, with each line connected at one end only).

5. To create an instance of the Branch from the newly created Branch template, navigate back to the
main grid diagram, then select the Composite Branch ( ) icon and connect the branch to existing
terminals on the Single Line Diagram.

Alternatively, composite branches can be defined in the Data Manager as described in Chapter 10:
Data Manager, Section 11.5.4 (Defining Composite Branches in the Data Manager).

14.4.5 Example Power Plant Template

Consider the following example, where there is a power station with multiple transformers, generators,
and control systems of the same type. The model can be created using templates as follows:

1. Firstly, define type data for the transformer, generator, and control system.

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2. Add a single instance of the generating unit (including generator transformer) to the network
model.
3. Define a Template by selecting the generator, generator bus, and transformer, then right-click and
select Define Template. Optionally include the control system model with the template.

4. To create another instance of the newly created template, select the General Templates icon ( )
and place it on the single line graphic.

14.4.6 Wind Turbine Templates according to IEC 61400-27-1

There are predefined Templates for Wind turbine models according to IEC 61400-27-1 in the Templates
Library of PowerFactory. More information is available in section Templates of the Technical References
Document.

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Grouping Objects

This chapter describes the management and functionality of the objects used to group network compo-
nents.

15.1 Areas

To facilitate the visualisation and analysis of a power system, elements may be allocated into areas (El-
mArea ). The single line graphics can then be coloured according to these areas and special reports
after load flow calculations (’Area summary report’ and ’Area interchange report’) can be generated.
Area objects are stored inside the Areas folder ( ) in the Network Data directory.

To define a new area:

• Multi select the components belonging to the new area (in the Data Manager or in a single line
diagram).

• Right click on the selection and select Define → Area from the context sensitive menu.
• After the area has been defined, terminals can be added to it by selecting Add to. . . → Area. . . in
their context sensitive menu.
In the edit dialog of the new area you must select a colour to represent the area in the single line
diagrams. Using the Edit Elements button you can have access to all the element belonging to that
area in a data browser, then you can edit them. The Mark in Graphic button may be used to locate the
components of an Area in a single line diagram.

Note: Areas that are created/deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become available/not
available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation time is
earlier than the current study time.

For information concerning the visualisation of areas within the single line Graphic refer to Chapter 9:
Network Graphics, section 9.3.5.1 (Basic Attributes). For information about reporting Area results refer
to Chapter 19 (Reporting and Visualising Results).

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15.2 Virtual Power Plants

Virtual Power Plants are used to group generators in the network, in such a way that the total dispatched
active power is set to a target value. The dispatch of each generator (the Active Power field available in
the Dispatch section of the Load Flow page in the generator element dialog) is scaled according to the
Virtual Power Plant rules (must run, merit of order, etc.), in order to achieve the total target value.

Virtual Power Plant objects (ElmBmu ) are stored inside the Virtual Power Plants folder ( ) within
the Network Data directory.

15.2.1 Defining and Editing a New Virtual Power Plant

A new Virtual Power Plant is created by:

• Multi selecting in a single line diagram or in a data browser an initial set of generators to be
included in the Virtual Power Plant;
• Then pressing the right mouse button and selecting Define → Virtual Power Plant from the context
sensitive menu.

Figure 15.2.1: Defining a Virtual Power Plant

Alternatively you can create a new empty Virtual Power Plant by using the Data Manager:

• Open a Data Manager.

• Find the Virtual Power Plant folder ( ) and click on it.

• Press the icon for defining new objects ( ).

• select Others.
• Then select Virtual Power Plant (ElmBmu) in the list box.
• Assign a suitable name to the Virtual Power Plant.

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• Press OK.
The rules which determine the dispatch of the selected generators are set in the Virtual Power Plant
dialog. The total active power to be dispatched is set in the field ’Active Power’. The dispatch of the
belonging generators (variable “pgini” from the Load Flow tab of the generator) is set by pressing the
Apply button. If the ’Maximal active power sum’ of the included generators (sum of the maximal active
power operational limit of the generators) is smaller than the active power to be dispatched, an error
message pops up. Otherwise the dispatch is set according the user defined ’Distribution Mode’:

According to merit order Distribution of the dispatched active power is done according to the
priorities given to each generator in the Merit Order column of the ’Machines’ table (this value can
also be set in the Optimisation tab of the generators dialog). Lower values have higher priority.
Generators with the option ’Must Run’ checked are dispatched even if they have low priority (high
value). It is assumed that the merit of order of all generators in the Virtual Power Plant is different.
If not an error message appears after the ’Apply’ button is pressed.

According to script The rules for the dispatch are set in user defined DPL scripts, which are
stored inside Virtual Power Plant object. To create new scripts or to edit the existing ones you
must open a data browser with the ’Scripts’ button.

Note: The Virtual Power Plant active power is part of the operation scenario subsets and therefore
is stored in the active operation scenario (if available). The active power is stored in the active
expansion stage (if available) if no active operation scenario is active. Virtual Power Plants that
are created/deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become available/non available
only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation time is earlier than
the current study time.

15.2.2 Applying a Virtual Power Plant

Check that the active power set for the Virtual Power Plant is less than or equal to the maximum power.
Press the Apply button.

15.2.3 Inserting a Generator into a Virtual Power Plant and Defining its Virtual
Power Plant Properties

Generators are added to an existing Virtual Power Plant by adding a reference in the ’Optimisation’ tab
of their edit dialog. Notice that a generator can belong to at most one Virtual Power Plant. Define the
Merit Order and must run properties as required.

You also can add a generator to a Virtual Power Plant by clicking with the right mouse button on the
element in the network graphic and choose Add to. . . → Virtual Power Plant. . . from the context
sensitive menu.

15.3 Boundaries

Boundaries are used in the definition of network reductions and to report the interchange of active and
reactive power after a load flow calculation. Boundary objects (ElmBoundary ) may define topological
regions by specifying a topological cut through the network.

Boundaries are defined by the cubicles that determine the cut through the network, these cubicles
together with the orientations define the corresponding “Interior Region”. Topologically, the interior
region is found searching through the network starting at each selected cubicles towards the given
direction. The topological search continues until either an open switch or a cubicle that is part of the

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boundary list is found. Any open switch that is found by this search is considered to be part of the
interior region.

Boundaries can be defined using the Boundary Definition Tool or directly on the branch elements by
right clicking on them and selecting Define → Boundary. . . .

The Boundaries are stored in the project folder Boundaries ( ) within the Network Data.

Note: Boundaries that are created or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become
available/not available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage acti-
vation time is earlier than the current study time.

15.3.1 Boundary Definition Tool

The Boundary Definition Tool ( ) is located within the Additional Tools toolbox as shown in figure 15.3.1.

Figure 15.3.1: Additional Tools toolbox

The following options are available when using the Boundary Definition Tool command:

15.3.1.1 Basic data

Based on regional elements

Zones, areas, grids and even existing boundaries can be used to define a boundary. The selection
supports multiple elements of the same type.

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When regional elements are used, some additional options are available for the user:

• One common boundary: single boundary containing all the interior elements of the composing
regions.
• Separate boundary for each region: a number of boundaries corresponding to the number of
regions will be defined with corresponding interior elements.
• All boundaries between neighbouring regions: each combination between selected regions is
considered and corresponding boundary is defined.

Based on branch elements

Branch elements (e.g. lines, transformers) can be used to define a boundary, PowerFactory will perform
a topological search to define the interior elements. To finishing defining the interior region, the user
can check the Assign selected branch elements to interior region checkbox on the Basic Data page of
the command dialog.

In addition the Boundary Definition Tool offers the possibility to define the boundary only if it splits the
network into two separated regions.

15.3.1.2 Advanced

The options available on this page depend on whether the boundary is based on regional elements or
branch elements.

Use fictitious border network

This option is available when the boundary is being created based on regional elements. It is intended
specifically for networks that have a “fictitious border grid”, which contains the nodes marking the
borders between adjacent grids. This is a typical configuration in European networks to facilitate CIM
(CGMES) data interchange. The option is relevant when one common boundary is to be created. If
this option is checked, the fictitious border grid must also be selected. Then, those fictitious border grid
elements which connect adjacent regions that have been selected to define the common boundary will
also be included.

Choice of the border inside a branch (*.ElmBranch)

The option Prefer the longest line modelled as distributed parameters is available when the boundary is
being created based on branch elements, and is relevant when the user is defining a boundary for the
purpose of carrying out a cosimulation calculation (see Section 29.10). It gives the user control over the
positioning of the boundary border within an ElmBranch so as to ensure that the cosimulation regions
are connected via lines of sufficient length.

15.3.2 Element Boundary

The element boundary ElmBoundary edit dialog is accessible by double clicking on the boundary
element, using either the Data Manager or the Network Model Manager.

To add cubicles to an existing Boundary:

• In the Boundary dialog, right click on the table (on the number of a row) that lists the included
cubicles.
• Select Insert rows, Append rows or Append n rows from the context sensitive menu.
• Double click on the Boundary Points cell of the new line.
• Select the target cubicle using the data browser that pops up.

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After selecting the desired cubicle, the terminal and the branch element connected to it are added to
the Busbar and Branch cells on the table. By default the Orientation (direction used to determine the
interior region) is set to the branch; you can change it in order to direct the definition of the internal
region to the connected terminal.

Cubicles can be retired from a boundary by selecting Delete rows from the context sensitive menu of
the table in the element dialog.

The selected colour underneath the boundary name is used when representing the boundary in single
line diagrams ( ). Each element in the graphic is coloured according to the following criteria:

• If it uniquely belongs to one interior region of a boundary to be drawn, its colour will be assigned
to that specific boundary colour.
• If it belongs to exactly two of the interior regions of the boundaries to be drawn, its will be
represented with dashed lines in the specific boundary colours.
• If it belongs to exactly more than two of the interior regions of the boundaries to be drawn, its will
be represented with dashed lines in black and the colour selected for multiple intersections.

15.3.2.1 Boundary object buttons

The Edit Interior Elements button can be used to list in a data browser all the components included in
the internal region. The Mark Interior Region button marks all the components of the interior region in
the selected network diagram.

Topological changes in the network that affect the defined interior regions are automatically detected by
the program.

The Check Split button can be used to check whether or not the boundary is a closed boundary which
splits the network into two parts.

Related to the Check Split is an option Topological search: stop at open breakers. Some boundaries
may only split the network because particular breakers are open, i.e. they effectively rely on these
breakers to ensure that they are “splitting” boundaries. By selecting the Topological search: stop at
open breakers option, this ensures that they are taken into account. In some cases, a boundary may be
“splitting” only if the Topological search: stop at open breakers option is selected; in such a case the user
can find out which switches are critical by using the Report open switches making boundary split
button to get a list of these switches.

The Colour graphic according to this boundary will set the colouring option of the currently active
graphic according to the Boundary Definition of the boundary in question. This is to help users visualise
large boundaries in particular, as they create or modify them. (Note that if the original colouring scheme
needs to be restored subsequently, this will have to be done manually.)

15.4 Circuits

Circuits are objects of class ElmCircuit ( ), and are used to group branches in order to clarify which
branches are connected galvanically. Each branch (ElmBranch) can have a reference to any defined
circuit object. This feature allows branches to be sorted according to the circuit to which they belong.

To create a new Circuit:

• In the Data Manager open the Circuits folder from the Network Model.
• Click on the New Object icon.
• The edit dialog of the new Circuit pops up. Give a name to the new object and press Ok.

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Branches are added to a circuit using the pointer from the ’Circuit’ field of the branch dialog. The button
Branches in the Circuit dialog opens a data browser listing the branches that refer to that circuit.

Note: Circuits that are created or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become avail-
able/not available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation
time is earlier than the current study time.

15.5 Feeders

When analysing a system it is often useful to know where the various elements are receiving their power
supply from. In PowerFactory this is achieved using Feeder Definitions (ElmFeeder ).

A feeder is defined at a line or transformer end, and then the feeder definition algorithm searches the
system from the definition point to determine the extent of the feeder. The feeder ends when:
• An open breaker is encountered; or

• The end of a line of supply is encountered; or

• ’Terminate feeder at this point’ is enabled in a cubicle (optional); or
• A higher voltage is encountered (optional).
Once a feeder has been defined it may be used to scale the loads connected along it according to a
measured current or power, to create voltage profile plots or to select particular branches and connected
objects in the network. Following load flow calculations, special reports can be created for the defined
feeders. To distinguish the different feeder definitions, they can be coloured uniquely in the single line
graphic. All feeder objects are stored in the Feeders folder ( ) in the Network Data folder.

A new feeder is created by right-clicking on a cubicle (that is, when the cursor is held just above the
breaker in the single line diagram) and selecting Define → Feeder. . . . Once the option Feeder has been
selected, the Feeder dialog pops up. There you can define the desired options for the new object. After
pressing Ok, the new Feeder is stored in the Feeders folder of the Network Model.

Any existing Feeder can be edited using its dialog (double click the target Feeder on a data browser).
The Feeder dialog presents the following fields:

Name
Cubicle Is a reference to the cubicle where the Feeder was created. It is automatically set by the
program once the Feeder is created.

Zone Reference to the Zone (if any) to which the feeder belongs. A Feeder is assigned to the zone of
the local busbar/terminal.
Colour Sets the colour be used when the Feeder Definitions colouring mode ( ) is engaged in the
single line diagram.

Terminate feeder when. . . A feeder will, by default, terminate when a higher voltage level is encoun-
tered, however, this may not always be desirous. This may be prevented by un-checking this
option. The feeder will now continue ’past’ a higher voltage level and may be terminated at
a user defined cubicle if desired. To manually terminate a feeder right-click a branch element
above the breaker (to select the desired cubicle where the feeder is going to end) and select Edit
Cubicle. The cubicle dialog will be presented, and the ’Terminate feeder at this point’ option may
be checked.
Orientation The user may select the direction towards the feeder is defined. ’Branch’ means that
the feeder starts at the cubicle and continues in the direction of the connected branch element.
’Busbar’ means that the Feeder is defined in the direction of the connected Terminal.

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Load Scaling In any system some loads values may be accurately known whilst others are estimated.
It is likely that measurement points exist for feeders in the system as well, and thus the power
that is drawn through this feeder is also known. The load scaling tool assists the user in adjusting
these estimated load values by scaling them to match a known feeder power or current that has
been measured in the real system. More information about the use of the Load Scaling Function
is given below.
Elements The Mark in Graphic button may be used to select all the elements of a Feeder in the
desired single line diagram. The Edit button is used to list all the elements belonging to a Feeder
in a data browser.

To use the Load Scaling tool first define which loads may be scaled by enabling the ’Adjusted by Load
Scaling’ option on the Load-Flow tab of the load dialog. All of the loads in a feeder may also be quickly
viewed by editing the feeder from the feeders folder. Load scaling is now performed by the load-flow
calculation function when:

• At least one feeder is defined with load scaling according to a current or power.
• The option ’Feeder Load Scaling’ is enabled in the load-flow command dialog (basic options).
• At least one load exists in the feeder area for which
– A change in operating point affects the load-flow at the feeder position
– The option ’Adjusted by Load Scaling’ has been enabled.
The load-flow calculation will then adjust the scaling of all adjustable loads in the feeder areas in such
a way that the load-flow at the feeder equals the current or power set-point.

The feeder setpoint is influenced by the zone scaling. This means that the current or power flow as
calculated by the load-flow could differ from the setpoint in the feeder dialog when the busbar where the
feeder is defined is part of a zone.

For instance, a feeder has a set-point of 1.22 MVA. The busbar is in a zone and the zone-scale is set to
0.50. The flow at the feeder position will thus be 0.61 MVA.

For information about colouring the single line graphic according to feeder definitions refer to Chapter 9:
Network Graphics. For information about voltage profile plots, refer to Chapter 19 (Reporting and
Visualising Results).

Defining Feeders from a Terminal Element

Often it is useful to be able to quickly setup a feeder or many feeders from a ’source’ bus within the
system. There is a specific methodology within PowerFactory for this purpose. The procedure is as
follows:
1. Right-click the target terminal where the feeder/s should be defined from.

2. Choose the option Define → Feeder. . . from the context sensitive menu that appears. This step
is illustrated in Figure 15.5.1.
3. PowerFactory will automatically create Feeder objects for each of the connected two terminal
elements, for example lines and transformers. The list of created feeders is displayed in a pop-up
window. The default name for each feeder is the concatenation of the terminal name and the
connected object.
4. Adjust the feeder colours and definitions as required and remove any unwanted feeders.

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Figure 15.5.1: Definition of Feeders from a terminal by right-clicking the terminal

Note: The Load Scaling options are part of the operation scenario subsets; therefore they are stored
in the active operation scenario (if available). The Load Scaling options are stored in the active
expansion stage (if available) if no active operation scenario is active. feeders that are created
or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become available/not available only if the
corresponding Variation is active and the expansion stage activation time is earlier than the current
study time.

15.5.1 Feeder Tools

Feeder Tools is a set of three tools that can be used only in radial systems to change voltage, technology
from a particular point downwards.

Note: Additional functions for feeders like Backbone Calculation or Phase Balance Optimisation are
available in the module Distribution Network Tools, described in chapter 41

15.5.1.1 Voltage Change Tool

The Voltage Change Tool automatically changes type data (for transformers, lines, loads and motors)
and element data such that the primary voltage can be changed to a specified voltage value. The tool
will change the voltage from a particular point downwards but is limited to the HV side. This will enable
the voltage level of a network to be changed for planning studies, taking into account all downstream
equipment.

15.5.1.2 Technology Change Tool

The Technology Change Tool automatically changes type data (for transformers, lines, loads, motors)
and element data such that the primary number of phases or neutrals (commonly referred to as ’tech-
nology’) can be changed to a specific number of phases/neutrals. The tool will change the technology
from a particular point downwards but is limited to the HV side.

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Note: If a device such as a transformer or shunt device is no longer compatible (number of phases
and/or phasing is not supported) then the device is set out of service and is reported to the user.

15.5.1.3 Feeder Tool Command

Feeder Tools is a built-in command (ComFeedertool) in PowerFactory and can be started via the right-
mouse context-sensitive menu, by clicking on an element of a feeder as shown in Figure 15.5.2. A radial
feeder must be defined prior to using the command.

Figure 15.5.2: Feeder Tool

The voltage, technology and balancing tools are all related and are integrated in PowerFactory as
one command having different options for enabling/disabling each individual tool. Any combination
of the three tools can be used. For example, a user may want to evaluate the alternative where an
existing 19 kV SWER line is to be changed to a 22 kV three-phase line. In this case, the line type
voltage, phasing and technology will all need to change. The transformers should then be changed to
equivalent single- or dual-phase transformers (depending on their original secondary technology) with
22 kV phase-to-phase connected primary windings.

Since Voltage and Technology Tools are more intrinsically related than the Auto Balancing Tool, the
first tools are meshed into one algorithm. The Auto Balancing Tool runs independently of Voltage and
Technology Tools but requires a convergent load flow. If the user wishes to apply all tools in one run
(Voltage, Technology and Balancing), then the algorithm of Voltage and Technology Tools is performed
followed by execution of the Auto Balancing Tool.

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15.5.1.4 How to use the Voltage and Technology Tool

When selecting the Voltage Change Tool, the user should specify the voltage level in kV (Previous
Voltage) that will be replaced, and the New Voltage. Both voltages should be specified as phase-phase
voltages, even if there is no phase-phase voltage available; for example when the previous or new
technology is 1 PH or 1 PH-N. When selecting the Technology Change Tool, the user should specify
the New Technology from the drop-down list and then proceed as follows:

1. A radial feeder must be defined.

2. A Start Element (terminal or line) must be selected:
• If the Start Element is a terminal, then this is defined as the Start Terminal.
• If the Start Element is a line, then the Start Terminal is defined as:
– For the Voltage Tool: the line terminal nearest to the feeder definition point
– For the Technology Tool: the line terminal more distant from the feeder definition point.

Note: The algorithm uses a top-down approach: working from the Start Terminal downwards to
the Stop Point

3. Definition of Stop Point for Voltage/Technology Tools: The voltage/technology changes will stop
at transformers or open points. For transformers, only the primary voltage/technology is changed.
This means that the transformer secondary voltage/technology and secondary network remains
unchanged. If the transformer technology (three phase, single phase or SWER) is not compatible
with the new primary technology, then the transformer will be disconnected. This will occur when
a three-phase primary network supplies a three-phase transformer and the primary technology
is changed to a non-three-phase technology. In this case, the transformer will be disconnected.
Likewise, three-phase machines cannot be connected to a non-three-phase technology. (Note:
Out-of-service elements are not Stop Points for Voltage/Technology Tools.)
4. Setting the new type/element voltage: If Voltage Change Tool is selected, the new voltage is equal
to the New Voltage specified by the user. A voltage change can be performed independent of a
technology change. If Technology Change is disabled, the voltage change will be associated with
the existing technology.
5. Setting the new type/element technology: If Technology Change Tool is selected, the new technol-
ogy is that of the New Technology specified by the user. A technology change can be performed
independent of the voltage (the voltage will not be changed).
6. A Linking Object must be provided.
The selection of a new Type is not automated as there may be several types that could be
compatible with a particular scenario. The solution for this is a linking database object. This
linking object stores the relationships between old and new types for different new voltage and/or
technology changes. This linking object can be saved in a project or library. It should be added to
and modified each time a technology/voltage change is performed.
If for any network element a new type that should match a specific new voltage/technology is not
found, the user can choose how the program should proceed by selecting one of the following
Linking Object options:
• Prompt for new type selection: the user should manually select which type should be used.
If the selected type is still not valid (see item 7: Validation rules for types), the program
will present new options: (i) the user can select a new type again, (ii) ignore replacing this
type, or (iii) interrupt algorithm execution. Otherwise, if the selected type is valid (see item 7:
Validation rules for types), the existing record in Linking Object is updated or in the event that
it does not exist, a new one will be created.
• Automatically creates new type: a new type that matches the required voltage/technology is
automatically created and the existing record in the Linking Object is updated, or in the event
that it does not exist, a new one will be created.
• Do not change the old Type: the old type is not replaced and the corresponding element is
put out-of-service. Changes, if necessary, should be manually performed after the command
execution.

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An example of a Linking Object is shown in Figure 15.5.3. The voltage tolerance (parameter vtol)
for comparison between type voltage and new voltage can be optionally specified. The default
value is 30 %. Records in Linking Object should be unique for each combination of Old Type, New
Voltage and New Technology. Validation rules (see item 7) are applied when the user presses the
OK button or/and automatically (i.e. within the algorithm).

Figure 15.5.3: Linking Object

7. Validation rules for types:

a. The new type voltage must be equal to the new voltage (item 4) or inside its tolerance
specified by parameter vtol in the Linking Object (item 6). If this rule fails, the message
“The Type selected voltage is incompatible with the new voltage” is shown. This rule does
not apply to the load type (TypLod).
b. For the motor type (TypAsmo, TypAsm), the number of phases must be equal to or greater
than the old number of phases. If this condition is not met the message “Cannot supply a
three-phase motor from a single or bi/dual phase” is shown.
c. For the 2-winding transformer type (TypTr2), the number of phases must be equal to or
greater than the old number of phases. If this condition is not met the message “Cannot
supply a three-phase secondary network from a single or bi/dual phase primary” is shown.
d. As stated in item 3, the voltage/technology changes will stop at the primary of a transformer
so that the secondary network remains unchanged. Despite this, the algorithm does not limit
the selected 2-winding transformer type to the same secondary voltage/technology.
e. For the line type (TypLne) the number of phases and neutrals must be equal to the one
required by the new technology specified by the user. For the 2-winding transformer type
(TypTr2), motor type (TypAsmo, TypAsm) or load type (TypLod), the number of phases and
neutrals must be less than or equal to the one required by the new technology. If this
condition is not met the message “The type selected technology is incompatible with the
new technology” is shown.
f. The algorithm will change a type object when:
• The actual type voltage/technology is not compatible with the new voltage/technology;
• The actual type voltage/technology is compatible with the new voltage/technology but
the change operation is specified in the Linking Object.
If the type is incompatible with the new voltage/technology and a new type has not yet been
specified in the Linking Object for a particular old type, New Voltage and New Technology
combination, then one of the following predefined actions will occur:

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• Prompt for new type selection: during this process the user can select or create a new
type, where the default parameters are the same as those for the old type. Once a new
type has been selected or created, it will be checked to ensure that it is compatible with
the new voltage/technology. If it is still incompatible, the user will be asked whether to
select again or to put this element out-of-service. The changes/additions are stored in
the Linking Object so that they are available for future reuse.
• Automatically creates a new type: a compatible type is created where the default param-
eters are the same as those for the old type. The changes/additions are stored in the
Linking Object so that they are available for future reuse.
• Do not change the type: no new type is selected and the element is set out-of-service.

15.6 Meteo Stations

It is often the case that groups of wind generators have a wind speed characteristic that is correlated.
PowerFactory can represent such a correlation through the Meteo Station (ElmMeteostat object.
The meteorological stations are stored within the folder Network Data.

Meteorological stations can be defined either via the element that is to be part of the meteorological
station (from any of the generator elements described in Section 47.4), or via the single line diagram
by right-clicking on an appropriate element and selecting Define → Meteo Station (or Add to → Meteo
Station) from the context-sensitive menu. Note that the ability to define a Meteo Station is dependent
upon whether at least one of the ’member’ generators has the options Generator and Wind Generator
selected on its Basic Data page. If these options are not selected, the context menu entry is not visible.

Note: A graphical colouring mode exists for Meteorological Stations, so that they can be visualised in
the single line graphic.

15.7 Operators

For descriptive purposes, it is useful to sort network components according to their operators. Addition-
ally, system operators may find it advantageous to generate summary reports of the losses, generation,
load, etc. according to their designated region(s). PowerFactory allows the definition of operators, the
assignment of network components to these operators, and the identification of operators on single line
diagrams by means of Operator objects. The Operator objects (ElmOperator, ) are stored in the
Operators folder ( ) in the Network Model directory.

To create a new operator:

• In the Data Manager open the Operators folder from the Network Model.

• Click on the ’New Object’ icon.

• The edit dialog of the new operator pops up:
– Give a name to the new object.
– Select a colour to represent the operator in the corresponding colouring mode of the single
line diagram.
– Press Ok.

Network elements (class name Elm* ) such as terminals, switches, lines, generators, transformers,
relays or composite models (ElmComp), Substations (ElmSubstat) and Branches (ElmBranch) can be
assigned to an operator by means of the reference ’Operator’ from the Description tab of their dialog.

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Note: Operators that are created or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become avail-
able/not available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation
time is earlier than the current study time

15.8 Owners

For descriptive purposes it is useful to sort network components according to their owners. Additionally,
for network owners it may prove advantageous to generate summary reports of the losses, generation,
load, etc. for their region(s). Similar to Operators, PowerFactory allows the definition of network owners,
and the assignment of network components to them, by means of Owner objects.

The Owner objects (ElmOwner, ) are stored in the ’Owners’ folder ( ) in the Network Model direc-
tory. They are created following the same procedure described for operators. Network elements (class
name Elm* ) such as terminals, switches, lines, generators, transformers, relays or composite models
(ElmComp), Substations (ElmSubstat) and Branches (ElmBranch) can be assigned to an operator by
means of the reference ’Operator’ from the Description tab of their dialog.

Note: Operators that are created or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become avail-
able/not available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation
time is earlier than the current study time

15.9 Paths

A path (SetPath, ) is a set of two or more terminals and their interconnected objects. This is used
primarily by the protection module to analyse the operation of protection devices within a network.

The defined paths can be coloured in a single line graphic using the colouring function. New paths are
stored inside the Paths folder ( ) in the Network Data directory.

To create a new Path:

• In a single line diagram select a chain of two or more terminals and their inter-connecting objects.
• Right click on the selection.
• Select the option Path → New from the context sensitive menu.
• The dialog of the new path pops up, give a name and select the desired colour for the correspond-
ing colour representation mode in the single line diagram. The references to the objects defining
the Path (First/Last Busbar First/Last Branch) are automatically created by the program, according
to the selection.
• After pressing Ok the new path is stored in the Paths folder of the Network Model.
Alternatively, the path can be created as follows:

• In the single line diagram, select the first element to be included in the path definition by pressing
left mouse button and select the last element in combination with CTRL+Shift keys. As a result,
the shortest path between the first and last element will be highlighted.
– In order to constrain the route, additional elements can also be selected in combination with
CTRL key.
– The paths with multiple end terminals can be created by selecting the multiple end terminals
using left mouse button in combination with CTRL+Shift keys.

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– In order to consider the state of switches and to define a path consisting of closed switches
only, select the last element of the path using left mouse button in combination with CTRL+Shift+A
keys.

• Next, right click on the selection.

• Select the option Path → New from the context sensitive menu.
• Consequently, a new path is created. The names of the first and the last elements are used for
defining the corresponding path name. However, the name can be further edited, if required.

By using the Elements button of the Path dialog you can have access to all the element belonging
to the path in a data browser, there you can edit them. The Select button may be used to locate the
components of the path in a single line diagram. With the Toggle button you can invert the order of the
objects limiting the path (First/Last Busbar First/Last Branch). This order is relevant when evaluating
directional protective devices.

In cases where a path forms a closed ring the First Busbar button of the SetPath dialog can be used to
specify at which busbar the path should be considered to begin and end. This can be particularly useful
when displaying the path on a time distance diagram.

New objects can be added to a path by marking them in a single line diagram (including one end of the
target path and a busbar as the new end) right clicking and selecting Path → Add to from the context
sensitive menu. Objects can be removed from a Path (regarding that the end object of a Path must
be always a busbar) by marking them in the single line diagram, right clicking and selecting Path →
Remove Partly from the context sensitive menu. The Remove option of the Path context sensitive menu
will remove the firstly found path definition of which at least one of the selected objects is a member.

For information about the colouring function refer to Chapter 9: Network Graphics. For information about
the use of the path definitions for the analysis of the protective devices, refer to Chapter 33 (Protection).

Note: Paths that are created or deleted when a recording expansion stage is active; become avail-
able/not available only if the corresponding variation is active and the expansion stage activation
time is earlier than the current study time

15.10 Routes

Routes are objects which are used to group line couplings (tower elements). Each coupling (ElmTow)
can have a reference to any defined route (ElmRoute, ). Each route has a colour that can be used to
identify it in single line diagrams, when the corresponding colouring function is enabled.

For information regarding line couplings refer to the technical reference for the transmission line model
(see Technical References Document).

15.11 Zones

Components of a network may be allocated to a zone object (ElmZone, ) in order to represent

geographical regions of the system. Each zone has a colour which can be used to identify the elements
belonging to it in the single line graphic if the colouring is set to Groupings → Zones. These elements
can be listed in a browser format for group editing; additionally all loads belonging to the zone can be
quickly scaled from the zone edit dialog. Using the ’Scaling Criteria’-Button, the total active or apparent
power demand can be set as absolute values in MVA or MW. The zone scaling factor is then calculated
accordingly. Another special scaling factor is provided for all generators, its plant category is set to
’Wind’ and which are not part of other controllers: The Wind Generation Scaling Factor.

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Reports for the defined zones can be generated following calculations.

Upon being defined, zones are by default stored inside the Zones folder ( ) in the Network Data folder.

Zones are created by selecting a node or multi-selecting elements (at least one node-element has to
be among them), right-clicking and choosing Define → Zone. . . from the context sensitive menu. The
option Add to → Zone. . . can be selected when a zone(s) have already been defined. Single-port
elements are directly assigned to the zone, its connected node is part of. For multi-port elements (like
lines or transformers) one of the available terminals has to be chosen, from which the zone assignment
is inherited.

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Chapter 16

Operation Scenarios

16.1 Introduction

Operation Scenarios are used to store operational data such as generator dispatch, load demand, and
network line/switch status. Individual Operation Scenarios are stored within the Operations Scenarios
folder, and can be easily activated and deactivated. This Chapter describes PowerFactory operation
scenarios.

Note: Parameter Characteristics can also be used to modify network operational data - see Sec-
tion 18.2 (Parameter Characteristics) for details.

16.2 Operation Scenarios Background

Operation Scenarios are used to store network component parameters that define the operational point
of a system. Examples of operational data include generator power dispatch and a load demand.
Operational data is typically distinguished from other component data because it changes frequently.
Compare for instance, how often a generator changes its power set-point, with how often the impedance
of the generator transformer changes.

Storing recurrent operation points of a network and being able to activate or deactivate them when
needed accelerates the analyses of the network under different operating conditions. PowerFactory
can store complete operational states for a network in objects called operation scenarios (IntScenario,
).

Operation scenarios are stored inside the operation scenarios folder ( ) in the project directory.
You can define as many operation scenarios as needed; each operation scenario should represent
a different operational point.

Figure 16.2.1 shows a project containing four operation scenarios, and the contents of the ’High Load -
No Infeed’ scenario (i.e. its subsets) are shown in the right pane of the Data Manager.

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Figure 16.2.1: Operation Scenarios and Subsets

A new operation scenario is defined by saving the current operational data of the active network com-
ponents. Once they have been created, operation scenarios can be activated to load the corresponding
operational data. If an operation scenario is active and certain operational data is changed, these
changes are stored in the active operation scenario (if you decide to save the changes). If the current
operation scenario is deactivated, the active network components revert to the operational data that
they had before the activation of the operation scenario (this is the ’default’ operational data). Changes
made to the ’default’ operational data do not affect data within existing operation scenarios.

Operation scenario data stored within each operation scenario is separated into subsets, with one
subset of operational data created for every grid in the network model. It is possible to ’exclude’ the
operational data for individual grids. This prevents the operation scenario from saving the operational
data for any subset where this option is active. For example, you might be working with a network model
with four grids, say North, South, East and West. Perhaps you do not wish to store operational data
for the ’West’ grid because the models in this grid have fixed output regardless of the operational state.
By excluding the operational data subset for this grid, the default data can be used in all cases, even
though the operational data is different in the other three grids.

When working with active operation scenarios and active expansion stages, modifications on the op-
erational data are stored in the operation scenario whereas the expansion stage keeps the default
operational data and all other topological changes. If no operation scenarios are active and new
components are added by the current expansion stage, the operational data of the new components
will be added to the corresponding operation scenario when activated.

Note: When an operation scenario is active, the operational data can be easily identified in network
component dialogs and in a Network Model Manager because it is shown with a blue background.
The colouring is configurable by the user: see Section 7.8

16.3 How to use Operation Scenarios

This sub-section explains how to complete the common tasks you will need when working with operation
scenarios. The most common tasks are creating a new operation scenario, saving data to an operation
scenario, Activating an existing operation scenario, Deactivating an operation scenario and identifying
parameters stored within an operation scenario.

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16.3.1 How to create an Operation Scenario

There are two ways to create an operation scenario.

Method 1

Follow these steps:

1. In the Data Manager, right-click on the operation scenarios folder in the active project.
2. Select New → Operation Scenario from the context-sensitive menu as shown in Figure 16.3.1.
The dialog of the new operation scenario pops up.

Figure 16.3.1: Creating a new operation scenario object using the Data Manager.

3. Enter the name for the operation scenario in the name field.
4. Press OK. The operation scenario will appear as a new object within the Operation Scenarios
folder.
Method 2

Follow these steps:

1. From the main PowerFactory menu go to the File menu and select File → Save Operation Sce-
nario as. . . . The dialog of the new operation scenario pops up.
2. Enter the name for the operation scenario in the name field.
3. Press OK. The new operation scenario is created within the operation scenarios’ project folder
and automatically activated and saved.

16.3.2 How to save an Operation Scenario

Why do you need to save Operation Scenarios?

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Unlike all other PowerFactory data, changes to operational data are not automatically saved to the
database if an operation scenario is active. So, after you update an operation scenario (by changing
some operational data) you must save it. If you prefer automatic save behaviour, you can activate an
automatic save option setting - see Section 16.6.1.

How to know if an Operation Scenario contains unsaved data

If any operational data (of a network component) is changed when an operation scenario is active, the
unsaved status of it is indicated by an asterisk (* ) next to the icon for the operation scenario as shown
in Figure 16.3.2. The other situation that causes an operation scenario icon to appear with an asterisk
is when new network components are added to the model. Any operational parameters from these
models are not incorporated in the active operation scenario until it is saved.

Figure 16.3.2: An asterisk indicates unsaved changes in operation scenarios

Options for saving an Operation Scenario

There are four ways to save a modified operation scenario to the database. They are:
• The menu entry Save Operation Scenario in PowerFactory ’s main file menu.
• The button Save in the dialog window of the operation scenario.

• The button Save Operation Scenario ( ) in the main icon bar.

• The context-sensitive menu (right mouse button) entry Action -> Save of the operation scenario
(see Figure 16.3.3).

Figure 16.3.3: Saving an operation scenario using the context-sensitive menu

Note: The button Save as from the operation scenario dialog (only available for active operation sce-
narios) can be used to save the current operational data as a new operation scenario. The new
operation scenario is automatically activated upon being created.

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16.3.3 How to activate an existing Operation Scenario

Switching between already available operation scenarios is a common task. There are two methods for
activating an existing operation scenario.

Method 1

Follow these steps:

1. Go to the operation scenarios’ folder within your project using the Data Manager.
2. Right-click the operation scenario that you wish to activate. The context sensitive menu will
appear.
3. Choose the option Activate from the menu. If a currently active operation scenario contains
unsaved data, you will be prompted to save or discard this information.
Method 2

Follow these steps:

1. From the main file menu choose the option Activate Operation Scenario. A pop-up dialog will
appear, showing you the available operation scenarios.
2. Select the operation scenario you wish to Activate and press OK. If a currently active operation
scenario contains unsaved data, you will be prompted to save or discard this information.

Note: The active operation scenario can be displayed in the status bar. To do this right-click the lower
right of the status bar and choose display options → operation scenario.

16.3.4 How to deactivate an Operation Scenario

There are two ways to deactivate an active operation scenario.

Method 1

Follow these steps:

1. Go to the ’operation scenarios’ folder within your project using the Data Manager.
2. Right-click the operation scenario that you wish to deactivate. The context sensitive menu will
appear.
3. Choose the option deactivate from the menu. If the operation scenario contains unsaved data,
you will be prompted to save or discard this information.

Method 2

From the main file menu choose the option Deactivate Operation Scenario. If the operation scenario
contains unsaved data, you will be prompted to save or discard this information.

Note: On deactivation of an operation scenario, previous operational data (the ’default’ operational
data) is restored.

16.3.5 How to identify operational data parameters

Because the operation scenario only stores a subset of the network data, it is useful to know exactly
what data is being stored by the operation scenario. This is relatively easy to see when you have

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an active scenario. Data that is stored in the operation scenario is shown with a blue background.
This appears in both the object dialogs and the Data Manager browser as shown in Figures 16.3.4
and 16.3.5.

The colouring is configurable by the user: see Section 7.8.

Figure 16.3.4: Blue highlighted operational data in an element dialog

Figure 16.3.5: Blue highlighted operational data in a browser window

16.4 The Operation Scenario Manager

The Operation Scenario Manager is a relatively new tool introduced to enable users who work with
operation scenarios to compare data between scenarios and easily copy data values from one scenario
to another.

It will be noted that some of the “How to” tasks covered in section 16.5 also enable the user to view
and copy data. In other words, there can be different ways of achieving the same result, but the choice
of method will in the end depend on the precise task at hand. The Operation Scenario Manager is
particularly useful for viewing the same data attributes for various scenarios together.

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16.4.1 Accessing the Operation Scenario Manager

The Operation Scenario Manager is accessed via the Network Model Manager (see Chapter 12). There
are four “special” tabs in the Network Model Manager, Scenarios being the second one. Alternatively,
the Operation Scenario Manager can be started from the context menu when right-clicking on “Oper-
ation Scenarios” in the Project Overview window. When the Scenarios tab is used for the first time in
a project, there will be little to see, because no scenarios have been selected to be viewed, and the
configuration of variables to be shown for each element class has not yet been set up.

16.4.2 Selecting scenarios and setting up variable configurations

In the descriptions below, the references such as “(1)” refer to this figure, 16.4.1:

Figure 16.4.1: The Operation Scenario Manager

16.4.2.1 Selecting scenarios

The Select Operation Scenarios button (1) is used to specify for which scenarios the data shall be
displayed. An option to see the “No Scenario” data i.e. the underlying values, is also available.

It can be seen in the Operation Scenario Selection dialog that a Short Name is listed in addition to the
full scenario name. This scenario attribute is used for the column headings, as a way of avoiding the
practical difficulties of having many scenarios with long names only differing by characters at the end of
the name. If the user has not populated this field, the full name will be used instead.

16.4.2.2 Defining variable configurations

Then the variables to be shown are selected. The concept is that the Operation Scenario Manager can
be used with customised Variable Selection configurations, which the user first sets up and then can
select from the drop-down Variable Selection menu (2).

When the Operation Scenario Manager is opened for the first time, the Variable Selection dialog will
show “- - None - -”. The user can then select an element class and click on the Edit Variable Selection

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button (3) to start setting up the configuration. Variables are selected via standard variable selection
(*.IntMon) dialogs, and the configuration can include one or more element classes. Once the user
starts setting up the configuration, this then becomes the “- - Current Working Selection - -”. When
all the required variables have been selected, the configuration can be saved (4) with a user-specified
name.

Configurations can be edited at any time, or deleted (5) as required.

16.4.2.3 Variable configurations location within the project

The user can set up a number of variable selection configurations, and these are stored within the
project Settings folder. Within this folder, there is a Scenario Manager Selection Set, and this can
contain any number of folders, each of which will then have one or more *.IntMon variable definitions,
as shown in Figure 16.4.2 below. It is these folders which are the named configurations that are selected
via the drop-down menu seen in Figure 16.4.1 (2).

Figure 16.4.2: Variable Selection configurations for the Operation Scenario Manager

16.4.3 Viewing and editing data within the Operation Scenario Manager

When scenario data is viewed in the Operation Scenario Manager, the data is grouped into blocks,
one for each data attribute selected in the configuration. Within each block, the values for each of the
selected scenarios are seen. The usual sorting and filtering options are available.

In addition to being able to view the data, the user can also modify values as expected in the Network
Model Manager, including copying and pasting from one column to another.

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Note: It is very important for users to realise that when scenario data is changed in any scenario
which is not currently active, that change will be automatically saved in the scenario. Only in the
currently-active scenario will the normal option remain, to save or discard data changes. Care
must be taken therefore, when making any changes to data in the Operation Scenario Manager.

16.5 Working with Operation Scenarios

In this section the operation scenario administrative tasks are explained. This includes reporting oper-
ational scenario data status, comparing operation scenarios, viewing the non-default running arrange-
ments, applying data from one operation scenario to another (copying), updating the base network
model, excluding grids from the operation scenario and creating a time based operation scenario.

16.5.1 How to view objects missing from the Operation Scenario data

When you add a component to a network, the data is not automatically captured in the active operation
scenario until you save the scenario. The operation scenario appears with an asterisk next to its name
in the Data Manager. If you want to get a list of all the objects that have operational data that is missing
from the active scenario, then you need to print the operation scenario report. To do this, follow these
steps:
1. Open the active operation scenario dialog by finding the operation scenario in the Data Manager
right-clicking it and selecting edit from context sensitive menu.
2. Press the Reporting button. A list of objects with data missing from the operation scenario is
printed by PowerFactory to the output window.

Note: If you double click a listed object in the output window the dialog box for that object will open
directly allowing you to edit the object. You can also right click the name in the output window and
use the function ’Mark in Graphic’ to find the object.

16.5.2 How to compare the data in two operation scenarios

It is sometimes useful to compare data in two separate operation scenarios so that key differences can
be checked. To compare two operation scenarios:
1. Deactivate all operation scenarios that you wish to compare. Only inactive operation scenarios
can be compared.
2. Open the first operation scenario dialog by finding the operation scenario in the Data Manager
right-clicking it and selecting edit from context sensitive menu.
3. Press the Compare button. A data window browser will appear.
4. Choose the second operation scenario and press OK. A report of the operation scenario differ-
ences is printed by PowerFactory to the output window.

16.5.3 How to view the non-default Running Arrangements

Any running arrangements that are assigned to substations will be stored as part of the operational
data. The operation scenario has a function that allows you to view any substations with active running
arrangements that are different from the default running arrangement for that substation. The default

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running arrangement is determined by the running arrangement that is applied to the substation when
no operation scenarios are active. To view all the non-default Running Arrangements follow these steps:
1. Open the active operation scenario dialog by finding the operation scenario in the Data Manager,
right-clicking it and selecting edit from context sensitive menu.
2. Press the Reporting RA button. PowerFactory prints a report of the non-default Running Ar-
rangements to the output window.

Note: Most of these actions are also available in context-sensitive menu when right-clicking on an
operation scenario (Action → . . . ).

16.5.4 How to transfer data from one Operation Scenario to another

As explained in the chapter introduction, within each operation scenario there is a subset of operation
scenario data for each grid in the network model. Therefore, there are two options when transferring
data from one operation scenario to another, either copying all the operation scenario data at once, or
only copying a subset of data for an individual grid. Both methods are explained within this section.
Furthermore, whether operational data is to be transferred for the whole scenario or one grid only, it is
also possible to be selective about which data is transferred, by setting up and using Scenario Apply
Configurations.

16.5.4.1 Transferring operational data from one grid only

To transfer the operational data from a single grid subset to the same grid subset of another operation
scenario follow these steps:

1. Activate the target operation scenario.

2. Right-click the source operation scenario subset.
3. From the context sensitive menu select Apply. A pop-up dialog will appear asking you if you really
want to apply the selected operational data to the active operation scenario.

4. Click OK. The data is copied automatically by PowerFactory. Warning, any data saved in the
equivalent subset in the active scenario will be overwritten. However, it will not be automatically
saved.

16.5.4.2 Transferring operational data from a complete operation scenario

To transfer the operational data from a complete operation scenario to another operation scenario follow
these steps:
1. Activate the target operation scenario.
2. Right-click the source operation scenario.

3. From the context sensitive menu select Apply. A pop-up dialog will appear asking you if you really
want to apply the selected operational data to the active operation scenario.
4. Click OK. The data is copied automatically by PowerFactory. Warning, any data saved in the
active scenario will be overwritten. However, it will not be automatically saved.

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16.5.4.3 Transferring selective operational data using Scenario Apply Configurations

If the user wants to be selective about which data is transferred, this can be done by setting up Scenario
Apply Configurations within the project, then using these in conjunction with the Apply command.

Creating Scenario Apply Configurations

If creating Scenario Apply Configurations for the first time in a project, first carry out this step in the
Settings folder of the project:

• Click on the Settings folder and use the new object icon to create an object Scenario Apply
Configurations (SetOpdselection).

Once this is created, one or more scenario apply configuration folders may be created within it. Each
will define a set of data items to be copied when that folder is selected in the Apply command. To create
and populate each folder, follow these steps:

• First use new object icon to create a folder within the Scenario Apply Configurations (SetOpdse-
lection). Give it a meaningful name such as “Generator MW”.

• Within the folder, use new object icon to create one or more Variable Selection (IntMon) objects.
These are used to specify an element class (e.g. ElmSym) and which variables (e.g. pgini) are to
be copied for this element class when this folder is selected.

Using Scenario Apply Configurations

Once the above configurations have been created, the folder names will appear as options when the
Apply command is used to copy data from one scenario to another, so instead of applying all the data,
the user would have option, using the example above, of just copying the generator MW set points by
selecting “Generator MW”.

16.5.5 How to update the default data with operation scenario data

As a user, sometimes you need to update the default operational data (the operational data parameters
that exist in the network when no operation scenario is active) with operational data from an operation
scenario within the project. To do this:

1. Deactivate any active operation scenario.

2. Right-click the operation scenario that you want to apply to the base model.
3. From the context sensitive menu select Apply. A pop-up dialog will appear asking you if you really
want to apply the selected operational data to the base network data

4. Click OK. The data is copied automatically by PowerFactory. Warning, any data saved in the base
network model will be overwritten.

16.5.6 How exclude a grid from the Operation Scenario data

Background

By default, each operation scenario contains several subsets, one for each grid in the network model.
For example, you might be working with a network model with four grids, say North, South, East and
West. In such a case each operation scenario would contain four subsets. Now it might be the case
that you do not wish to store operational data for the ’West’ grid because the models in this grid have
fixed output etc. regardless of the operational state. By excluding the operational data subset for this
grid, the default data can be used in all cases, even though the operational data is different in the other
three grids.

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How to exclude a Grid from the Operation Scenario

1. Select an operation scenario using the Data Manager.

2. Double-click the subset of the grid that you wish to exclude (you can only see the subsets in the
right panel of the Data Manager). A dialog for the subset should appear.
3. Check the ’Excluded’ option and the operational data from this grid will not be included within the
operation scenario the next time it is saved.

16.5.7 How to create a time-based Operation Scenario

Background

By default, operation scenarios do not consider the concept of time. Therefore, when you activate
a particular operation scenario, the operational parameters stored within this scenario are applied to
network model regardless of the existing time point of the network model. However, sometimes it is
useful to be able to assign a ’validity period’ for an operation scenario, such that if the model time is
outside of the validity period, then the changes stored within the operation scenario will be ignored and
the network model will revert to the default parameters.

The concept of validity periods can be enabled in PowerFactory by using the Scenario Scheduler. There
are two tasks required to use a ’Scenario Scheduler’. Firstly, it must be created, and secondly it must
be activated. These tasks are explained below.

How to create a Scenario Scheduler

To create a Scenario Scheduler follow these steps:

1. Go to the operation scenarios’ folder within your project using the Data Manager.

2. Click the New Object icon . A object selection window will appear.
3. From the Element drop down menu choose the ’Scenario Scheduler’ (IntScensched).
4. Press OK. The scenario scheduler object dialog will appear as shown in Figure 16.5.1. Give the
scheduler a name.

Figure 16.5.1: The Scenario Scheduler (IntScensched) dialog

5. Double-click on the first cell within the operation scenario. A scenario selection dialog will appear.

6. Choose an operation scenario to schedule.

7. Adjust the start time of the schedule by double clicking the cell within the Start Time column.
8. Adjust the end time of the schedule by double clicking the cell within the End Time column.

9. Optional: To add more scenarios to the scheduler, right-click an empty area of the scheduler and
Append Rows. Repeat steps 5-9 to create schedules for other operation scenarios.

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How to Activate a Scenario Scheduler

When first created, a scenario scheduler is not automatically activated. To activate it, follow these steps:
1. Go to the operation scenarios’ folder within your project using the Data Manager.
2. Right-click the scenario scheduler object that you wish to activate and choose the option Acti-
vate from the context sensitive menu. The operation scenario validity periods defined within the
scenario scheduler will now determine whether an operation scenario is activated automatically
based on the study case time.

Note: It is possible to create more than one scenario scheduler per project. However, only one may
be active. Also, if you have defined overlapping validity periods for operation scenarios within
the scenario scheduler, then the operation scenario listed first (lowest row index) in the scenario
scheduler will be activated and all other scenarios ignored.

16.6 Advanced Configuration of Operation Scenarios

This sub-section describes some advanced configuration options for the operation scenarios. This
includes adjusting the automatic save settings and modifying the data that is stored within the operation
scenarios. Note for new users, it is recommended to use the default settings.

16.6.1 How to change the automatic save settings for Operation Scenarios

As mentioned in Section 16.3.2, by default operation scenarios do not automatically save your modifi-
cations to the network data operational parameters at the time the changes are made. As a user, you
can enable automatic saving of operation scenario data and you can alter the automatic save interval. It
is also possible to change the save interval to 0 minutes so that all operational data changes are saved
as soon as the change is made. To change the save interval for operation scenarios, follow these steps:

1. Open the PowerFactory User Settings by clicking the ( icon on the main toolbar).
2. Select the Data Manager page.
3. In the operation scenario section of the page, enable the option Save active Operation Scenario
automatically.
4. Change the Save Interval time if you would like to alter the automatic save interval from the default
of 15 minutes. Setting this value to 0 minutes means that all operation scenarios will be saved
automatically as soon as operational data is modified.

Note: If an operation scenario is active any changes to the network model operational parameters
are stored within such an scenario. If no operation scenario is active, then the changes are
stored within the network model as usual, within a ’grid’ or within a ’recording expansion stage’. A
changed operation scenario is marked by a “* ” next to the operation scenario name in the status
bar. In the Data Manager the modified operation scenario and operation scenario subset are also
marked ( ).

16.6.2 How to modify the data stored in Operation Scenarios

Background

PowerFactory defines a default set of operational data for each object within the network model. This
is the information that is stored within the operation scenarios. However, it is possible to alter the

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information that is stored to a limited extent by creating a Scenario Configuration. The procedure is
divided into two tasks. Firstly, a special Scenario Configuration folder must be created and then the
object definitions can be created within this folder.

Task 1: Creating a Scenario Configuration Folder

To create a scenario configuration folder follow these steps:

1. Go to the Settings folder within the project using the Data Manager.

2. Click the New Object icon . A object selection window will appear.
3. Choose the Scenario Configuration (SetScenario). A scenario configuration dialog will appear.
You can rename it if you like.
4. Press OK.

Task 2: Defining the Operational Data Parameters

Once you have created the scenario configuration folder (task 1 above), then you can create the object
definitions that determine which parameters are defined as operational data. Follow these steps:
1. Deactivate any active operation scenario.
2. Open the Scenario Configuration folder object using the Data Manager.

3. Press the Default button. PowerFactory then automatically creates the object definitions accord-
ing to the defaults.
4. Open the object definition that you would like to change by double clicking it. The list of default
operational data parameters is shown in the Selected Variables panel of the dialog box that
appears.

5. You can remove an operational parameter of this object by double clicking the target parameter
from the Selected Variables panel. Likewise, a variable can be added to this list by clicking
the black triangle underneath the cancel button and then adding the variable name to the list
of parameters.
6. Once you have altered the defined parameters, click OK.

7. Repeat steps 4-6 for as many objects as you would like to change.
8. Open the scenario configuration folder object again (step 2) and press the Check button. Power-
Factory will notify you in the output window if your changes are accepted.

Note: Some variables cannot be removed from the default operational parameters due to internal
dependencies. If you need to remove a certain variable but the check function doesn’t allow
you to, it is suggested that you contact DIgSILENT support to discuss alternative options.

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Chapter 17

Network Variations and Expansion

Stages

17.1 Introduction

As introduced in Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview), Variations and Expansion Stages are used to
store changes to network data, such as parameter changes, object additions, and object deletions. This
Chapter describes how to define and manage Variations, and presents an example case. The term
“Variation” is used to collectively refer to Variations and Expansion Stages.

The use of Variations in PowerFactory facilitates the recording and tracking of data changes, indepen-
dent of changes made to the base Network Model. Data changes stored in Variations can easily be
activated and deactivated, and can be permanently applied to the base Network Model when required
(for example, when a project is commissioned).

The concept of having a “permanent graphic” in PowerFactory means that graphical objects related to
Variations are stored in Diagrams folders, and not within Variations. When a Variation is inactive, its
graphic (if applicable) is shown on the Single Line Graphic in yellow. Turning on Freeze Mode ( )
hides inactive variations graphics.

When a project uses Variations, and the user wants to make changes to the base network model
directly, Variations should be deactivated, or the Study Time set to be before the activation time of the
first Expansion Stage (so that there is no recording Expansion Stage).

In general there are two categories of data changes stored in Variations:

1. Changes that relate to a future project (e.g. a potential or committed project). The changes may
be stored in a Variation to be included with the Network Model at a particular date, or manually
activated and deactivated as required by the user.
2. Changes that relate to data corrections or additions based on the current (physical) network. The
changes may be stored in a Variation in order to assess the model with and without the changes,
to track changes made to the model, and to facilitate reversion to the original model in case the
changes are to be revised.
Notes regarding Variations and Expansion Stages:

• General:
– The user may define as many Variations and Expansion Stages as required.
– Variations and Expansion Stages cannot be deleted when active.
– Variations may also be used to record operational data changes, when there is no active
Operation Scenario.

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– Expansion Stages are by default sorted according to their activation time in ascending order.
– To quickly show the recording Expansion Stage, project name, active Operation Scenario,
and Study Case, hover the mouse pointer over the bottom right corner of the PowerFactory
window, where (by default) the project name is shown. To change this to display the recording
Expansion Stage, choose Display Options → ’Recording’ Expansion stage.
• Activating and deactivating Variations:
– Active Variations and Expansion Stages are shown with red icons in the Data Manager.
– The Activation Time of Expansion Stages can only be modified when the parent Variation is
inactive.
– To activate or deactivate single or multiple Variations in the Data Manager, navigate to
the “Variations” folder, select and right-click on the Variation(s) and choose to activate or
deactivate the selected Variation(s).
– In the active Study Case, the “Variation Configuration” object stores the status of project
Variations. It is automatically updated as Variations are activated and deactivated.
• Recording changes:
– Elements in PowerFactory generally include references to Type data. Changes to Type data
are not recorded in Expansion Stages. However, changes to Element Type references are
recorded.
– When there are multiple active Expansion Stages, only the ’Recording’ Expansion Stage
stores changes to Network Data (shown with a dark red icon and bold text). There can be
only one recording Expansion Stage per study case.
– With the exception of objects added in the active ’Recording’ Expansion Stage, objects
(e.g. Terminals in the base network model) cannot be renamed while there is a ’Recording’
Expansion Stage.
• DPL:
– Deleted objects are moved to the PowerFactory Recycle Bin, they are not completely deleted
until the Recycle Bin is emptied. If a DPL script is used to create an Expansion Stage,
and Expansion Stage objects are subsequently deleted, re-running the DPL script may first
require the deleting of the Expansion Stage objects from the Recycle Bin. This is to avoid
issues with references to objects stored in the Recycle Bin.

17.2 Variations

To define a new Variation (IntScheme):

1. First, either:
• From the Main Menu, select Insert → Variation.
• In a Data Manager, right-click on the Variations folder ( ) and from the context-sensitive
menu select New → Variation.
• In a Data Manager, select the Variations folder and click on the New Object icon . Ensure
that the Element field is set to Variation (IntScheme), and press Ok.

2. Define the Variation Name.

3. Optionally set the Variation Colour. This is used to highlight modifications introduced by the
Variation in the Single Line Graphic.
4. On the second page of the Basic Data tab, optionally select Restricted Validity Period for the
Variation. If a restricted validity period is defined, the variation will effectively be ignored outside
this time range. This option is not normally used, as the same effect can be achieved by having
an expansion stage which changes the network and a second which restores the original state.

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The “starting” and “completed” Activation Time are set automatically according to the Expansion Stages
stored inside the Variation. The “starting” time is the activation time of the earliest Expansion Stage,
and the “completed” time is the activation time of the latest Expansion Stage. If no Expansion Stages
are defined, the activation time is set by default to 01.01.1970.

To activate a previously defined Variation, in the Data Manager, right-click on the Variation and from
the context-sensitive menu select Activate. The Variation and associated Expansion Stages will be
activated based on their activation times and the current study case time.

In the Variation dialog, the Contents button can be used to list the Expansion Stages stored within the
Variation.

17.3 Expansion Stages

To define a new Expansion Stage (IntSstage):

1. First, either:
• Right-click on the target Variation and select New → Expansion Stage.
• Select the target Variation and click on the New Object button in the Data Manager’s icon
bar. Set the ’Element’ field to Expansion Stage (IntStage) and press Ok.
2. Define the Expansion Stage Name.
3. Set the Expansion Stage Activation Time.
4. Optionally select to Exclude from Activation to put the Expansion Stage out of service.
5. Optionally enter Economical Data on the Economical Data page (see Section 43.2 (Techno-
Economical Calculation) for details).
6. Press OK.
7. Select whether or not to set the current Study Time to the Activation Time of the defined Expansion
Stage. See Section 17.5 for details.

From the Expansion Stage dialog, the following buttons are available:
• Press Contents to view changes introduced by the Expansion Stage.
• Press Split to assign changes from the recording Expansion Stage to a target (see Section 17.9.3).
• Press Apply to apply the changes of an Expansion Stage (only available if the parent Variation is
inactive). Changes are applied to the Network Model, or to the recording Expansion Stage (see
Section 17.9.1).

17.4 The Study Time

The study case Study Time determines which Expansion Stages are active. If the Study Time is equal to
or exceeds the activation time of an Expansion Stage, it will be active (provided that the parent Variation
is active, and provided that “Exclude from Activation” is not selected in the Expansion Stage or an active
Variation Scheduler). The Study Time can be accessed from:

• The Date/Time of Calculation Case icon .

• Clicking on the lower right corner of the PowerFactory window, where the time of the active Study
Case is displayed.
• The Main Menu under Edit → Project Data→ Date/Time of Study Case, or Edit → Project Data→
Study Case and then use the drop-down arrow to open up a standard calendar dialog.

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• The Data Manager in the active Study Case folder, object “Set Study Time”.

17.5 The Recording Expansion Stage

When a Variation is activated for a study case, the active Expansion Stage with the latest activation time
is automatically set to the recording Expansion Stage. If there are multiple Expansion Stages with this
same activation time, the stage that previously set to the recording stage will remain as the recording
Expansion Stage. Changes made to the network data by the user are saved to this stage.

As discussed previously, the Study Time can be changed in order to set the active Expansion Stages,
and as a consequence, set the “recording Expansion Stage”. To simplify selection of the recording
Expansion Stage, in the Data Manager it is possible right-click an Expansion Stage, and select Set
’Recording’ Expansion stage to quickly modify the Study Time to set a particular Expansion Stage as
the recording Expansion Stage.

As noted in 17.1, unless an Operation Scenario is active, changes made to operational data are stored
in the recording Expansion Stage.

17.6 The Variation Scheduler

As an alternative to setting the activation time of Expansion Stages individually, Variation Schedulers
(IntSscheduler ) may be used to manage the activation times and service status of each Expansion
Stage stored within a Variation. Multiple Variation Schedulers can be defined within a particular Varia-
tion, but only one may be active at a time. If there is no active Variation Scheduler, the Expansion Stage
activation times will revert to the times specified within each individual Expansion Stage.

To define a Variation Scheduler:

1. Open a Data Manager, and navigate to the Variation where the Scheduler is to be defined. Then,
either:
• Right-click on the Variation and select New → Variation Scheduler.
• Click on the New Object button and select Variation Scheduler (IntScheduler).
2. Press the Contents button to open a data browser listing the included stages with their activation
times and service statuses, and modify as required.
The activation time and status of Expansion Stages referred to be a Variation Scheduler can only be
changed when the Variation is active, and the Variation Scheduler is inactive. Note that Expansion
Stage references are automatically updated in the scheduler.

Note: If the parent Variation is deactivated and reactivated, the Variation Scheduler must be re-activated
by the user, if required.

17.7 Variation and Expansion Stage Example

Figure 17.7.1 shows an example project where there are two Variations, “New Connection” and “New
Line”.

With the current study case time, some expansion stages are active and some are not. Active stages
are indicated by their icon being coloured blue. The recording stage is also indicated:

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• Expansion Stage “Ld1” is shown with a blue icon, so is active. But it also has its name shown
in bold, and this, together with the marker against the icon, shows that it is the recording
Expansion Stage.
• Expansion Stage “Ld2” has no colouring; it is inactive.
• Expansion Stage “Line and T2” is shown with a blue icon; it is active.
The Variation Scheduler “Scheduler1” within the “New Connection” Variation, shown with a blue icon
and bold text, is active.

Therefore, the activation time and service status of each Expansion Stage within the Variation “New
Connection” is determined from the activation times specified in this Variation Scheduler. The alternative
Variation Scheduler “Scheduler2” is inactive (only one Variation Scheduler can be active at a time).

Also shown in Figure 17.7.1 on the right-side pane are the modifications associated with Expansion
Stage “Ld1”. In this stage, a load and an associated switch and cubicle has been added.

Note that graphical changes are not included in the Variation.

Figure 17.7.1: Example Variations and Expansion Stages - Data Manager

Figure 17.7.2 shows the Single Line Graphic of the associated network. Since the Expansion Stage
“Ld2” is inactive, the Load “Ld2” is shown in yellow.

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Figure 17.7.2: Example Variations and Expansion Stages - Single Line Graphic

17.8 The Variation Manager

The Variation Manager is a tool which enables users to have an overview of their Network Variations
and Expansion Stages in a Gantt-chart like format. It can be accessed from the main tool bar, using
the icon. In Figure 17.8.1 below, the Variation Manager is used to show several Variations in a
project. In this project, the Network Variations have been arranged into subfolders, according to the
year. Each Variation is represented by a blue horizontal bar in the chart, and each Expansion Stage by
a short vertical bar. The sections following describe the options and features available in the tool, with
reference to this example.

Figure 17.8.1: Using the Variation Manager

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17.8.1 Selecting the Variations to be shown

By default, all the Variations will be shown in the Variation Manager, but the user can restrict what
is shown by clicking on the icon (1). Then, Variations and/or folders containing Variations can be
selected as required.

17.8.2 Timeframe and resolution

By default, the period of time covered in the Variation Manager view will be set automatically according
to the first and last Expansion Stage activation time of the selected Variations. This time period can
be adjusted using the drop-down calendar from the start and end date fields (2). If the time period is
restricted by the user such that not all selected Variations can be displayed in full, this is indicated by the
start and/or date being highlighted in bold, and by arrows within the chart indicating that not everything
is displayed.

If the time period has been restricted, the full time period is easily restored using the icon (3).

In addition to managing the time period shown, the user is able to select the time resolution from a
drop-down menu (4).

The “Scale Automatically” icon (5) will adjust the view so that everything can be seen without the
need for a scroll-bar (note that this can result in the resolution being changed). There is also a “Refresh”
icon icon. To further adjust the view, the user can change the column widths manually (in the same
way as in a spreadsheet).

17.8.3 Study case time and recording stage

If the current study case time is within the period shown in the Variation Manager, it will be shown as a
red line (6). By double-clicking on this line, the user can change the study case time, which may in turn
affect which Expansion Stage is the recording stage. Note that the current recording stage is indicated
on the left-hand side of the view, by the symbol , and highlighted in red in the chart.

17.8.4 Looking at the Variations in detail

On the right-hand side of the Variation Manager, each blue horizontal bar (8) represents a network
Variation, which can be edited by double-clicking on the bar. Likewise, each short vertical bar (9) is
linked to an Expansion Stage, and these are also editable in order to see the contents.

The amount of information shown on the left-hand side of the Variation Manager can be controlled by
the user, via the Settings icon (7), which also offers options for the format of the times and dates
shown. The Variations on the left-hand side can be expanded to show the individual Expansion Stages
(as in Figure 17.8.1) or not, as required.

Using right-click on the Variations or Expansion Stages on the left-hand side brings up a context menu.
As well as other expected options, there are two options specific to the Variation Manager:

• When only a portion of the chart is visible, Show in Chart can be used to scroll the chart
automatically so as to see the selected Variation or Expansion Stage.
• Include in displayed time period can be used on Variations or Expansion Stages which are not
shown because they lie outside the currently-specified time period. The displayed time period will
be automatically expanded so that they can be seen.

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17.9 Variation and Expansion Stage Management

17.9.1 Applying Changes from Expansion Stages

Changes stored in non-active Expansion Stages can be applied to the Network Data folder, or if there is
an active recording Expansion Stage, to the recording Expansion Stage. To apply the changes, either:

• In the Data Manager, right-click the Expansion Stage and select Apply Changes, or in the Ex-
pansion Stage dialog press Apply (only available if the Expansion Stage is within a non-active
Variation).
• In the Data Manager, select item(s) within an inactive Expansion Stage, right-click and select
Apply Changes. If required, delete the item(s) from the original Expansion Stage.

17.9.2 Consolidating Variations

Changes that are recorded in a projects active Variations can be permanently applied to the Network
Data folder by means of the Consolidation function. After the consolidation process is carried out, the
active (consolidated) Expansion Stages are deleted, as well as any empty active Variations.

To consolidate an active Variation(s):

1. Right-click on the active study case and from the context-sensitive menu select Consolidate
Network Variation.
2. A confirmation message listing the Variations to be consolidated is displayed. Press Yes to
implement the changes.
3. View the list of consolidated Variations and Expansion Stages in the Output Window

Note: Variations stored within the Operational Library must be consolidated in separate actions. To
consolidate a Variation stored in the Operational Library, right-click and from the context-sensitive
menu select Consolidate.

17.9.3 Splitting Expansion Stages

Changes stored in the recording Expansion Stage can be split into different Expansion Stages within
the same Variation using the Merge Tool.

To split an Expansion Stage:

1. Open the dialog of the recording Expansion Stage and press Split. Alternatively, right-click and
from the context-sensitive menu select Split.
2. A data browser listing the other Expansion Stages from the parent Variation is displayed. Double-
click on the target Expansion Stage.
3. The Merge Tool window is displayed, listing all the changes from the compared Expansion Stages.
Select the changes to be moved to the “Target” stage by double-clicking on the Assigned from cell
of each row and selecting Move or Ignore. Alternatively, double-click the icon shown in the “Target”
or “Source” cell of each row.

4. Press Split. All the changes marked as Move will be moved to the target Expansion Stage, and
the changes marked as Ignore will remain in the original “Base” stage. Once completed, the
Variation is automatically deactivated.

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17.9.4 Comparing Variations and Expansion Stages

Variations and Expansion Stages can be compared, as can any other kind of object in PowerFactory,
using the Merge Tool. To compare objects using the Merge Tool, a “base object” and an “object to
compare” must be selected. The comparison results are presented in a data browser window, which
facilitates the visualisation, sorting, and possible merging of the compared objects. Comparison results
symbols indicate the differences between each listed object, defined as follows:

• The object exists in the “base object” but not in the “object to compare”.

• The object exists in the “object to compare” but not in the “base object”.

• The object exists in both sets but the parameters’ values differ.

• The object exists in both sets and has identical parameter values.

To compare two Variations:

1. In an active project, right-click on a non-active Variation and from the context-sensitive menu select
Select as Base to Compare.

2. Right-click on the (inactive) Variation to compare and from the context-sensitive menu select
Compare to “Name of the base object”.
3. The Merge Tool dialog (ComMerge) is displayed. By default, all of the contained elements are
compared. The Compare fields can be configured however, to compare only the objects or
selected subfolders.

4. Once the Compare options are set, press the Execute button.
5. When prompted, select Yes to deactivate the project and perform the comparison.
Figure 17.9.1 shows an example comparison of two Variations (based on the example presented in
Section 17.7), where the Variation “New Line” is set as the “Base” for comparison. The “Assigned from”
options are set such that all Expansion Stages from both “New Line” and “New Connection” Variations
will be merged into a single Variation, which will retain the name of the “Base” Variation “New Line”.

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Figure 17.9.1: Merge Tool Window

Refer to Chapter 21: Data Management, Section 21.4 (Comparing and Merging Projects) for further
details on use of the Merge Tool.

17.9.5 Colouring Variations the Single Line Graphic

The single-line graphic colouring function offers three modes which may be used to identify changes
from Variations and Expansion Stages. To set the colouring mode, go to Diagram Colouring, and under
Other select Variations / System Stages, and the desired mode from the following:

• Modifications in Recording Expansion Stage. Colours can be defined for Modified, Added, and
Touched but not modified components.
• Modifications in Variations / System Stages. Objects are shown in the colour of the Variation in
which the object is last added or modified.
• Original Locations. Objects are shown in the colour of the grid or the Variation in which the object
is added.

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17.9.6 Variation Conflicts

Active Expansion Stages with the same activation time must be independent. This means that the
same object can not be changed (modified, deleted, or added) in active Expansion Stages with the same
activation times. If there are dependent Expansion Stages, when the Variation is activated PowerFactory
will display an error message to the Output Window and the activation process will be cancelled. Other
conflicts that may arise during the activation of a Variation:
• The same object is added by more than one Expansion Stage. In this case the latest addition is
applied and a warning message is displayed in the Output Window.
• A previously deleted object is deleted. In this case the deletion is ignored and a warning message
is displayed in the Output Window.
• An object is changed or deleted in a Expansion Stage but it does not exist. In this case the change
is ignored and a warning message is displayed in the Output Window.
• A deleted object is changed in a Expansion Stage. In this case the change is applied to the
deleted target object and a warning message is displayed in the Output Window.

17.9.7 Error Correction Mode

As well as recording the addition and removal of database objects, variations also record changes to
database objects. Human error or the emergence of new information can result in a need to update a
change. Suppose that at some time after the change has been introduced, the user wishes to update
the change. If additional variations have been created since the change was introduced, this will be
hard to achieve. The user must first remember in which Expansion Stage the change was introduced,
then they must make this Expansion Stage the Recording Stage before finally updating the change or
rectifying the error. The Error Correction mode is intended to simplify this procedure. The following
example illustrates use of the Error Correction Mode.

Suppose that a project is planned consisting of a base case and 2 Variations, namely Variation 1 and
Variation 2. Suppose that the base case network contains a line object (ElmLne) of length 1km. When
Variation 1 is recorded, the length of the line is updated from the base case value to a new value of
10km. This change is recorded in the Expansion Stage associated with Variation 1. Subsequently, the
user creates Variation 2 and records a new set of changes in the Expansion Stage of Variation 2. The
user makes no changes to the line object in Variation 2, but suddenly realises that the length of the line
is incorrect. The length should be 15km not 10km. If the user makes a change to the line length while
Variation 2 is recording this change will be recorded and applied while Variation 2 is activated. However,
as soon as Variation 2 is deactivated, providing Variation 1 is activated, the line length will return to the
10km value. This is incorrect and the error is therefore still present in the project.

Instead of recording the change in the Recording Expansion Stage of Variation 2, the user should turn
on the Error Correction Mode. This can be achieved by first ensuring that the Project Overview Window
is visible. (If not, select Window → Show Project Overview Window). Then, by Right clicking in the
Project Overview Window on the title line of the Network Variations section. A contextual menu as
illustrated in Figure 17.9.2 will appear. The option Error Correction Mode should be selected from the
contextual menu.

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Figure 17.9.2: Activating Error Correction Mode

Once the Error Correction Mode has been switched on, any changes introduced will now, not automati-
cally be stored in the Recording Expansion Stage. Instead, they will be stored in the Expansion Stage
containing the record of the last change to the object in question. For the example described, this will be
in the Expansion Stage associated with Variation 1, where the length was updated from 1km to 10km.
The 10km value will be updated to 15km. If the Error Correction Mode is now switched off, again by
right clicking in the Project Overview Window, the user can proceed knowing that the error has been
eliminated from the project.

Please note, if any change to the line had been recorded during Variation 2 prior to the application of the
Error Correction Mode, not necessarily a change to the length of the line, but a change to any ElmLne
parameter, then with Error Correction Mode active, the change would be recorded in the Recording
Expansion Stage of Variation 2. This is because the Expansion Stage containing the record of the last
change to the object in question would in fact be the one in Variation 2. In this case, the error would still
be present in the project.

17.10 Compatibility with Previous PowerFactory Releases

17.10.1 General

Prior to PowerFactory v14, “System Stages” where used to analyse design alternatives as well as
different operating conditions. They recorded model changes (addition/removal of equipment, topology
changes, etc.), operational changes (switch positions, tap positions, generator dispatch, etc.), and
graphical changes. Since version 14.0, the System Stage definition has been replaced by Variations
and Operation Scenarios, which provides enhanced flexibility and transparency.

When importing (and then activating) a project that was implemented in a previous PowerFactory
version, the activation process will automatically make a copy of the project, rename it (by appending
_v14 or _v15 to the project name) and migrate the structure of the copied project.

The migration process creates new Project Folders (such as Network Data, Study Cases, Library
folders, etc.) and moves the corresponding information to these project folders. Additionally, existing
Stations and Line Routes elements are migrated to their corresponding definition in v14 and v15 (i.e.
Substations and Branches).

If the project contains System Stages, they will not be converted automatically. They will be still
be defined, and functions related to their handling will still be available. If the user wishes to take
full advantage of the Variation and Operational Scenario concepts, then the System Stages must be
converted manually. The procedure is described in the following section.

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17.10.2 Converting System Stages

The conversion process of System Stages is described with reference to an example project opened in
PowerFactory v14, with the structure shown in Figure 17.10.1. The project contains three grids “Grid
110 kV”, “Grid 220 kV” and “Grid 33 kV”. Each Grid contains a “2010 Base Case” System Stage with
three System Stages “2010 MAX”, “2010 MIN”, and “2011 Base Case”. The “2011 Base Case” stage
in-turn contains two stages, “2011 MAX” and “2011 MIN”. The Study Cases are configured so that the
“2011 MAX” Study Case and the “2011 MAX” stages are active.

Figure 17.10.1: Example Project - System Stage Structure

To convert the System Stages to Variations / Operation Scenarios:

1. Activate the Study Case that uses the base grids (in this example “Base Case 2009”), so that no
System Stage is active.

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2. Create a Variations folder inside the Network Data folder by opening the Data Manager window
and from the left pane select the Network Data folder (located inside the Network Model folder),
right-click and select New → Project Folder. In the dialog window that appears, type in a name
(for example “Variations”) and select “Variations” as the folder type. Press OK.
3. Define a Variation inside the Variations folder. From the Data Manager window select the Varia-
tions folder, right-click and select New → Variation. In the dialog window that appears, type in a
name (for example “2010”). Press OK, and select Yes to activate the new Variation.
4. The Expansion Stage dialog will be displayed. Type in a name and set the activation time as
appropriate (in this case, it is set to 01.01.2010). Press OK, and select Yes to set the stage as
recording. After this step, the Variation should be active and the Expansion Stage be recording.
5. From the Data Manager, select a Study Case that uses System Stages (it should not be active),
right-click and select Reduce Revision. This will copy both network data and operational data from
the System Stages used by the study case into the recording Expansion Stage, and will delete the
System Stages (to copy operational data to an Operation Scenario, an Operation Scenario must
be active at this step). In this example, the “2010 Base Case” is reduced, followed by the “2011
Base Case” - this is because the complete System Stage branch, containing all System Stages
between the selected stage and the target folder are reduced. Figure 17.10.2 shows the result of
reducing the “2010 Base Case” and “2011 Base Case” to Variations.

Figure 17.10.2: Reduce Revision performed for the 2011 Base Case

6. After converting System Stages “2010 Base Case” and “2011 Base Case” (with Network Data
modifications) to Variations, and System Stages “2010 MAX”, “2010 MIN”, “2011 MAX”, and
“2011 MIN” (with operational modifications) to Operation Scenarios, the Variations and Operation
Scenarios are assigned to Study Cases. Figure 17.10.3 shows the resulting project structure
for this example, where all System Stages have been converted to Variations and Operation
Scenarios.

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Figure 17.10.3: Resulting Project Structure

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Chapter 18

Parameter Characteristics,
Load States, and Tariffs

18.1 Introduction

This chapter provides details on how to define and use characteristics, load states, load distribution
states, and tariffs.

It is useful to be aware that when element parameters have characteristics applied to them, they appear
differently coloured in both the element dialogs and in a network model manager. By default, the
colouring for characteristics is lilac (pale purple). Note that both the colour and its priority can be
changed in the User Settings (see Section 7.8).

18.2 Parameter Characteristics

General Background

In PowerFactory any parameter may be assigned a range of values (known as a Characteristic) that is
then selectable by date and time, or by a user-defined trigger. The range of values may be in the form
of a scaling factor, a one-dimensional vector or a two-dimensional matrix, such as where:
• Load demand varies based on the minute, day, season, or year of the study case.

• Generator operating point varies based on the study being conducted.

• Line/transformer ratings, generator maximum power output, etc. vary with ambient temperature.
• Wind farm output varies with wind speed, or solar farm output varies with irradiance.

The assignment of a characteristic may be made either individually to a parameter or to a number of

parameters. New characteristics are normally defined in either:
• The Characteristics folder of the Operational Library.
• The Global Characteristics folder within Database → Library.

Studies which utilise characteristics are known as ’parametric studies’.

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Scales and Triggers

The value of the characteristic is defined by the value of the scale. New scales are normally defined in
the Scales folder within the Characteristics folder in the Operational Library.

When a scale is created, a means to ’set’ the scale, and thereby to set the parameter to the correspond-
ing value, is required. This is called a trigger (SetTrigger, ). After a new scale has been defined,
a trigger is automatically created in the active study case folder (see also Chapter 13, Section 13.12:
Triggers). When a trigger is edited and a ’current’ value is set the scale is set and the parameter value
is changed. When a different study case is activated, or a new study case is created, and a load-flow is
performed, all relevant triggers are copied into the study case folder and may be used in the new study
case. Triggers for characteristics may be created at any time in the Data Manager within the Library
→ Operational Library → Characteristics→ Scale folder, or at the time the Characteristic is created.
Triggers for characteristic can generally be accessed from either:

• The Date/Time of Study Case icon ( ).

• The Trigger of Study Case icon ( ).

Figure 18.2.1 illustrates an application of scales and triggers, where the study case time is used to set
the output of a load based on the hour of the day.

Figure 18.2.1: Illustration of Scales and Triggers

Available Characteristics

Table 18.2.1 shows a summary of the Parameter Characteristics available in PowerFactory. Note: Click
on Characteristic description to link to the relevant section.

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Characteristic Description of Application

18.2.1: Time Charac- Parameter(s) are to be modified based on
teristics the day, week, or month set in the Study
Time. Parameter states may be interpolated
between entered values.
18.2.2: Profile Char- Parameter(s) are to be modified according
acteristics to seasonal variation and the day, week and
month set in the Study Time.
18.2.4: Scalar Char- Parameter(s) are to be manually modified by
acteristics a scaling factor.
18.2.5: Vector Charac- Discrete parameter states are to be se-
teristics with Discrete lectable.
Scales
18.2.5: Vector Charac- Parameter states may be interpolated be-
teristics with Continu- tween entered values.
ous Scales
18.2.5: Vector Char- Parameter(s) are to be modified with Fre-
acteristics with Fre- quency.
quency Scales
18.2.5: Vector Char- Parameter(s) are to be modified based on
acteristics with Time a user-defined scale referencing the Study
Scales Time.
18.2.6: Matrix Param- Parameter states are based on two variables,
eter Characteristics and may be interpolated between entered
values.
18.2.7: Parameter Parameter states and the trigger (optional) is
Characteristics from to be read from a file.
Files
18.2.8: Characteristic Reference link between a parameter and a
References Characteristic

Table 18.2.1: Summary of Parameter Characteristics

Usage

With the exception of the Scalar Characteristic, the “Usage” field at the bottom of the characteristic
dialog can be used to specify how “Values” are applied to the parameter that the characteristic is
associated with:

• Relative in % will multiply the parameter by the percentage value.

• Relative will multiply the parameter by the value.
• Absolute will replace the current parameter with the absolute value entered.
Characteristic Curves

For continuous characteristics, various approximation methods are available to interpolate and extrapo-
late from the entered Values:
• Constant: holds the Y-value in between X-values.
• Linear: uses a linear interpolation.
• Polynomial: uses a polynomial function with a user defined degree.
• Spline: uses a spline function.
• Hermite: uses Hermite interpolation.

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The approximation curve will be shown in the diagram page of the Characteristic dialog. The inter-
polated Y-value may vary considerably depending on the entered data and the approximation function
applied.

Figure 18.2.2 highlights the difference between interpolation methods for an example characteristic with
a continuous scale (shown on the horizontal axis from -20 to +45). For instance, at a trigger value of
25, linear interpolation will give an output value of 60, whereas constant interpolation will give an output
value of 40.

Figure 18.2.2: Approximated characteristics

Note that Approximation methods are not available for discrete characteristics.

Creating a Characteristic

To create a Characteristic, right-click on the desired parameter (e.g. ’Active Power’), right-click and
select Add Project Characteristic or Add Global Characteristic and create the desired characteristic. It
is also possible to edit the existing characteristic by selecting the option Edit Characteristic. Details of
how to create the different types of characteristics are provided in the following sub-sections, including
an example application of characteristics.

18.2.1 Time Characteristics

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2. The time
characteristic determines the value of the parameter according to the study time (SetTime). The time
characteristic (ChaTime) uses an internally defined Recurrence period that is convenient to define a pe-
riodically recurring characteristic. The user simply selects a Recurrence and enters the corresponding
values. The Recurrence values available are:

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• Daily
• Weekly
• Monthly
• Yearly
• None
There are four options for defining the data source of values used in a time characteristic: Table, File,
Result File and Database. The Table data is stored internally within PowerFactory. The File data is
stored externally to PowerFactory in a Comma Separated Values (*.csv) file or User Defined Text File.
For the Result File option, the characteristic is created from data in an existing results file, and the
Database option enables the data to be taken from a database outside the PowerFactory database, for
which access information has to be provided by the user, as described below.

Time characteristic using internal table

To define a project time characteristic for a parameter using a table:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Time Characteristic . . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the Time Characteristic will be displayed. Define the parameter name and select
’Data Source’ Table.
• Select the desired ’Recurrence’ and the ’Resolution’.
• Define the ’Usage’ and ’Approximation’ and enter the characteristic values in the table.
• Press OK.
Time characteristic using an external file

To define a project time characteristic for a parameter using an external file:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Time Characteristic . . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the Time Characteristic will be displayed. Define the parameter name and select
’Data Source’ File.
• Select the desired ’Filename’ and file ’Format’.
• Define the file configuration including the ’Unit’ of time or ’Time Stamped Data’ format, ’Time
Column’ and ’Data Column’ and ’Column separator’ and ’Decimal separator’.
• Define the ’Usage’ and ’Approximation’.
• Press OK.
Time characteristic using a Result File

To define a project time characteristic for a parameter using a result file:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the parameter for which the
characteristic is to be defined.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Time Characteristic . . .

• Click the New Object button

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• The edit dialog of the Time Characteristic will be displayed. Define the parameter name and select
’Data Source’ Result File.
• Use the drop-down arrow to select the Result File.
• Select the element whose results are to be used.
• Select the relevant parameter.
• Define the ’Usage’ and ’Approximation’.
• Press OK.
Time characteristic using a Database

When defining characteristics which use data from an external database, the user has to set up an
ODBC Database Configuration object, or select an existing Database Configuration. These database
configurations can exist within the project, in a folder, or in a configuration area, for example.

If defining a new configuration, this can be done from the ChaTime dialog, using the drop-down arrow
next to Database. This is described below, as part of the process of setting up the characteristic.

To define a project time characteristic for a parameter using an external database:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the parameter for which the
characteristic is to be created.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Time Characteristic . . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the Time Characteristic will be displayed.
• Define the parameter name and select “Data Source” Database.
• Using the drop-down arrow next to Database in the Database panel of the dialog, the database
configuration details are either selected or a new configuration created like this:
– Navigate to the chosen location for the new object.
– Click the New Object button
– Select the database system and the ODBC driver. Oracle, PostgreSQL and SQL Server are
supported.
– Enter the access details (Username and password) for the database system.
– Enter the database name.
• Two Table modes are offered, as illustrated in figure 18.2.3 below:
– “Value Column” is used when individual database tables exist for individual element charac-
teristics. In this case the user must provide the Table name, the Time Column name and the
Value Column name.
– “Id Column” is used if there is a common table, where data for more than one characteristics
is stored. In this case, the table will have an additional column for id-references, and so the
column name and id must be supplied.
• The Time offset: The values in the time column are normally assumed to be UTC times, which are
therefore independent of the local time zone or daylight saving regime. If the user wishes to enter
local times instead, the Time offset is used to make the necessary adjustment to these values to
convert them to UTC times. For example, if the values in the time column are in Central European
Time (CET i.e. UTC+01:00), the Time offset should be “-1.0”.
• Select the relevant parameter.
• Define the ’Usage’ and ’Approximation’.
• Press OK.

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Figure 18.2.3: Database table modes

Note: When setting up the database, users should be aware that the read performance for large tables
can be vastly improved by ensuring that there are appropriate table indexes. The value column-
based table should have an index on the Timestamp column (e.g. with “CREATE INDEX Index-
Name ON Table (Timestamp)”); the id-based table should have an combined index on both the
Timestamp and the Id column (e.g. with “CREATE INDEX IndexName ON Table(Timestamp,Id)”).

Discrete Time Characteristics

The discrete time characteristic (ChaDisctime) is provided for backward compatibility with previous
versions of PowerFactory. It is more restricted than the time characteristic and hence its use is limited
since PowerFactory version 15.1. Similar to the time characteristic, the discrete time characteristic uses
an internally defined series of time scales that are convenient to use to define the characteristic. The
user simply selects a scale (e.g. day of the week) and enters the corresponding values.

18.2.2 Profile Characteristics

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

The profile characteristic is used to select a time characteristic (ChaTime) corresponding to individual

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days or group of days and each season. The profile characteristic can also be used to select a time
characteristic for certain holiday days.

To define a project profile characteristic for a parameter:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.

• Select Add Project Characteristic → Profile Characteristic . . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the Profile Characteristic will be displayed.

• Select the ’Seasons’ page and define one or more seasons with a ’Description’, ’Start Day’, ’Start
Month’, ’End Day’ and ’End Month’. Note that Seasons can not overlap with each other.
• Select the ’Groups of Days’ page and define grouping for each day and holiday.

• Select the ’Holidays’ page and define one or more holidays with a ’Description’, ’Day’, ’Month’, if it
is ’Yearly’ or select a holiday ’Year’.
• Select the ’General’ page, Right Click and Select ’Select Element/Type . . . ’ or Double-Click on
each relevant cell and select or create a time characteristics for each group of days, holiday and
season.
• Press OK.
Yearly Growth Characteristic

In addition to seasonal characteristic variation, a yearly growth characteristic can also be defined. A
yearly growth characteristic is defined using a time characteristic (ChaTime) with a recurrence value of
“None”, for the specified years.

Note: All daily and yearly characteristics must be relative. No absolute-value characteristics are per-
missive

18.2.3 Scaling Factor

General background on characteristics is provided in Section 18.2.

Scaling factors are used when a parameter should be multiplied by a certain value or percentage.
For example, a scaling factor could be used to multiply the Active Power value of one or more static
generators by 0.5. If a parameter is assigned several scaling factors, it will be multiplied by their product.

To define a project scaling factor for a parameter:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter (e.g. ’Active
Power’).
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Scaling Factor. . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog will be displayed. Set the value of the factor. The associated trigger is automatically
created in the current study case.
• Define the ’Usage’ “relative” or “relative in %”.

• Press OK.

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18.2.4 Linear Functions

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

Linear Functions are used when a parameter should vary according to a mathematical relationship,
with reference to a scale value “x”. For example, a linear function may reference a Scalar and Trigger
(TriVal) with a Unit of ’Temperature’. Then, if the temperature is set to, say, 15 deg, the parameter that
this characteristic is applied to will thus be multiplied by the value of the linear function 2 · 15 + 3 = 33.

To define a project linear function for a parameter:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter (e.g. ’Active
Power’).
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Linear Function. . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog will be displayed. Click ’Select’ from the drop down menu next to ’Scale’ and select
an existing scale and press OK, or create a new scale:
– Click on the ’New Object’ button to create a Scalar and Trigger (TriVal) and set the desired
units of the scale. The associated trigger is automatically created in the current study case.
– Press OK.
• Define the ’Usage’ and enter the parameters ’A’ and ’b’ of the linear function 𝐴 · 𝑥 + 𝑏.
• Press OK.

18.2.5 Vector Characteristics

Vector Characteristics may be defined with reference to Discrete Scales, Continuous Scales, Frequency
Scales, and Time Scales.

Vector Characteristics with Discrete Scales (TriDisc)

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

A discrete parameter characteristic is used to set the value of a parameter according to discrete cases
set by the trigger of a discrete scale. A discrete scale is a list of cases, each defined by a short text
description. The current value is shown in the characteristic dialog in red, according to the case that is
currently active.

To define a new project discrete parameter characteristic:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → One Dimension Vector. . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the one dimension vector characteristic (generic class for one dimensional
characteristics) will be displayed. Click ’Select’ from the drop down menu next to ’Scale’ and
select an existing scale and press OK, or create a new scale:
– Click on the New Object button and select Discrete Scale and Trigger (TriDisc).
– Write the name of the scale cases (one case per line).
– Press OK twice.
• Define the ’Usage’ and enter the characteristic values.
• Press OK.

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The diagram page for the discrete characteristic shows a bar graph for the available cases. The bar for
the case that is currently active (set by the trigger) is shown in black.

Vector Characteristics with Continuous Scales (TriCont)

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

A continuous parameter characteristic is used to set the value of a parameter (’Y’ values) according to
the ’X’ values set in the continuous scale.

To define a new project continuous parameter characteristic:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → One Dimension Vector. . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the one dimension vector characteristic (generic class for one dimensional
characteristics) will be displayed. Click ’Select’ from the drop down menu next to ’Scale’ and
select an existing scale and press OK, or create a new scale:
– Click on the New Object button and select Continuous Scale and Trigger (TriCont).
– Enter the unit of the ’X’ values.
– Append the required number of rows (right-click on the first row of the Scale table and select
Append n rows) and enter the ’X’ values.
– Press OK.
• Define the ’Usage’, enter the characteristic ’Y’ values, and define the ’Approximation’ function.
• Press OK.

Vector Characteristics with Frequency Scales (TriFreq)

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

A frequency characteristic is a continuous characteristic with a scale defined by frequency values in

Hz. The definition procedure is similar to that of the continuous characteristics, although the Frequency
Scale (TriFreq) is selected.

Vector Characteristics with Time Scales (TriTime)

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

Time parameter characteristics are continuous characteristics using time scales. A time scale is a
special kind of continuous scale that uses the global time trigger of the active study case. The unit of
the time trigger is always a unit of time but may range from seconds to years. This means that changing
the unit from minutes to hours, for instance, will stretch the scale 60-fold. The units ’s’, ’m’, and ’h’ are
respectively, the second, minute and hour of normal daytime. A Time Scale may be used, for example,
to enter four equidistant hours in a year (1095, 3285, 5475, and 7665).

The definition procedure is similar to that of the continuous characteristics, although the Time Scale
(TriTime) scale is selected.

18.2.6 Matrix Parameter Characteristics

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

When defining a matrix parameter characteristic, two scales must be defined. The first scale, that for
columns, must be a discrete scale. The scale for rows may be a discrete or continuous scale.

To define a new project matrix parameter characteristic:

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• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select Add Project Characteristic → Two Dimension - Matrix. . .

• Click the New Object button

• The edit dialog of the matrix characteristic will be displayed. Click ’Select’ from the drop down
menu next to each ’Scale’ and select an existing scale and press OK, or create a new scales.
Scales can be defined as discussed in previous sections.
A column calculator can be used to calculate the column values, as a function of other columns. This
is done by pressing the Calculate. . . button. Once the values have been entered and the triggers have
been set, the ’Current Value’ field will show the value to be used by the characteristic.

18.2.7 Parameter Characteristics from Files

General background on characteristics and their properties is provided in Section 18.2.

When a series of data is available in an external file, such as an Excel file, or tab or space separated
file this data may be utilised as a characteristic if the “Parameter Characteristic from File” (ChaVecfile
object) is used. The external file must have the scale column for the data series in column 1.

To define a new parameter characteristic from file:

• In the edit dialog of the target network component right-click on the desired parameter.
• Select New Characteristic → Characteristic from File. . .
• Complete the input data fields, including:
– Define (or select) a scale and trigger. Scales can be defined as discussed in previous
sections.
– Generally the ’Column’ should be set to the default of ’1’. The field is used for specialised
purposes.
– Set the ’Factor A’ and ’Factor B’ fields to adjust or convert the input data. The data contained
in column 2 of the external file will be adjusted by 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where “x” is the data in the
external file and “y” is what will be loaded into the characteristic.
– Set the ’Usage’ and ’Approximation’.
– Once the file link has been set, press the Update button to upload the data from the external
file to the characteristic.

18.2.8 Characteristic References

When a characteristic is defined for an objects parameter, PowerFactory automatically creates a char-
acteristic reference (ChaRef object). The characteristic reference is stored within the PowerFactory
database with the object. The characteristic reference acts as a pointer for the parameter to the
characteristic. The characteristic reference includes the following parameters:

Parameter the name of the object parameter assigned to the characteristic. This field cannot be
modified by the user.
Characteristic the characteristic which is to be applied to the parameter.
Inactive a check-box which can be used to disable a characteristic reference.

The ability to disable the characteristic for individual objects using the object filter and the Inactivate
option makes data manipulation using characteristics quite flexible.

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18.2.9 Edit Characteristic Dialog

Once a parameter has a characteristic defined, then an option to Edit characteristic(s) becomes visible
on the parameters context sensitive menu, i.e. select parameter and right-click → Edit characteristic(s).
Once selected, the Edit characteristics dialog appears which lists all the characteristics referenced by
the parameter. The Edit characteristics dialog provides a graphical representation of the characteris-
tic and allows characteristics to be inserted, appended and deleted. The Edit characteristics dialog
also allows modification of individual characteristics values, triggers and characteristic activation and
deactivation.

Note: By default the value of the first active characteristic is assigned to the parameter.

18.2.10 Characteristics Tab in Data Filters

When viewing elements in a Data Manager or Network Model Manager, parameter characteristics
information can be seen by selecting the Characteristics tab. For this tab to be visible, it must be enabled
in the User Settings, on the “Functions” page. An example of a Network Model Manager showing the
Characteristics tab is shown in Figure 18.2.4 (remember that the browser must be in “detail” mode to
see these tabs). Note also that the data colouring indicates that characteristics are applied.

Figure 18.2.4: Network Model Manager Characteristics tab

The Characteristics tab shows all characteristics defined for the displayed objects, together with the
original value and the current value as determined by the characteristic. In the example, various scales
are applied to modify the active power from 100 MW to the “Current Value”. The current values will
be used in all calculations. New characteristics for individual or multiple elements can be defined by
selecting the relevant fields and doing right-click → Add project characteristic...

The Characteristics tab will only show a particular characteristic column when at least one of the objects
has that characteristic defined for a parameter. It is thus necessary to define a characteristic for one
object prior to using the browser, when the user would like to assign characteristics, for the same
parameter, for a range of other objects. To define a Project “High-Low” loading characteristic for all
loads, for instance, can thus be done by performing the following steps.
• Create a discrete scale in the grid folder.
• Create a vector characteristic using this scale in the grid folder.

• Edit one of the loads, right-click the active power field and assign the vector characteristic to the
relevant parameter.
• Open a browser with all loads, activate the “detail” mode and select the Characteristics tab.

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• Select the characteristic column (right-click → Select Column) and then right-click the selected
column.
• Use the Select Project Characteristic. . . option and select the vector characteristic.

18.2.11 Example Application of Characteristics

Consider the following example, where the operating point of a generator should be easily modified by
the user to predefined values within the capability limits of the machine.

Firstly, the Active Power of the synchronous generator is set to the maximum capability of 150 MW.
Then, a vector characteristic is added to the Active Power parameter. To create a new Project Vector
Characteristic, right-click on the Active Power parameter (pgini) and select Add Profile Characteristic
→ One Dimension - Vector. . . . Click on the New Object icon and define a characteristic called “Active
Power” in the ChaVec dialog.

A new discrete scale is required. To create the scale, click on the arrow next to Scale and select
Select. . . . Click on the New Object icon and create a new Discrete Scale and Trigger (TriDisc). The
Discrete Scale and Trigger is named “Output Level”, with three cases as shown in Figure 18.2.5.

Figure 18.2.5: Active Power Discrete Scale and Trigger

Click on OK to return to the Vector Characteristic. Define the values for the different loading scenarios.
Values are entered in %, and thus Usage is set to ’relative in %’. Figure 18.2.6 shows the resultant
vector characteristic, including a reference to the Scale “Output Level” and the current parameter value.

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Figure 18.2.6: Active Power Parameter Characteristic

Next, a matrix characteristic is added to the Reactive Power parameter of the generator in a similar
fashion to the Active Power characteristic. A new discrete scale named “Operating Region” is created
(for the Columns) and the three operating regions “Underexcited”, “Unity PF” and “Overexcited” are
defined.

The scale “Operating Region” is linked to the Scale for Columns, and the previously defined scale
“Output Level” is selected for the Scale for Rows. Absolute Mvar values are entered in the Matrix
Characteristic as shown in Figure 18.2.7.

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Figure 18.2.7: Reactive Power Matrix Characteristic

Now that the characteristics and triggers are defined, the “Operating Region” and “Output Level” triggers
can be used to quickly modify the operating point of the generator (see Figure 18.2.8).

Figure 18.2.8: Setting of Discrete Triggers

18.3 Load States

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This section describes Load States, as used in Reliability and Optimal Capacitor Placement calcula-
tions.

18.3.1 Creating Load States

Pre-requisites:

Prior to creating load states, a time-based parameter characteristics must be defined for at least one
load in the network model. See Time Characteristics (ChaTime) in Section 18.2.1 and Vector Charac-
teristics with Time Scales (TriTime) in Section 18.2.5 for more information on parameter characteristics,
as well as the example later in this section.

Follow these steps to create the load states:

1. For calculation of load states:

• (Reliability) click the ’Create Load States’ icon ( ) on the reliability toolbar and select ’Load
States’. Optionally inspect or alter the settings of the Reliability Calculation and Load Flow
commands.
Note: Optionally choose the option to “Consider Generators” to consider time varying power
feed-in of generators. If selected, the generator power state will additionally be contained
within the clusters. Please note, that the Load and Generator States can only be applied
for Reliability assessment.

• (Optimal Capacitor Placement) Click on ’Load Characteristics’ page of the Optimal Capacitor
Placement command and select ’Create Load States’.

2. Enter the time period for calculation of load states:

• (Reliability) Enter the year.
• (Optimal Capacitor Placement) Enter Start Time and End Time. The time period is inclusive
of the start time but exclusive of the end time.
3. Enter the Accuracy. The lower accuracy percentage, the more load states are generated.
4. Optional: Limit the number of load states to a user-defined value. If the total number of calculated
load states exceeds this parameter then either the time period of the sweep or the accuracy should
be reduced.
5. Optional: Change the threshold for ignoring load states with a low probability by altering the
’Minimum Probability’. If selected, states with a probability less than this parameter are excluded
from the discretisation algorithm.

6. Click Execute to generate the load states.

18.3.2 Viewing Existing Load States

After you have generated the load states as described above, or if you want to inspect previously
generated load states follow these steps:
1. Using the Data Manager, select the ’Reliability Assessment’ or ’Optimal Capacitor Placement’
command within the active Study Case.

2. Use the filter ( ) (in the Data Manager window) to select the ’load states’ object. There should
now be created load states visible in the right panel of the Data Manager.

3. Locate the ’load states’ object and double-click to view the load states.

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18.3.3 Load State Object Properties

The load states object properties are as follows:

Basic Data

• year: The Year used to create the load states.

• Number of loads: Number of loads and generators considered in the load cluster object.
• Number of states: This equals the number of columns in the “Clusters” table.

• Loads: Table containing each load considered by the load states creation algorithm and their
peak demand.
• Clusters: Table containing all load clusters. The first row in the table contains the probability
of the corresponding cluster. The remaining rows contain the power values of the loads. Every
column in the table contains a complete cluster of loads with the corresponding power.

Diagram Page

• Displayed Load: Use the selection control to change the load displayed on the plot.

The plot shows the cluster values (P and Q) for the selected load where the width of each bar represents
the probability of occurrence for that cluster in the given year.

18.3.4 Example Load States

The example below shows how load states can be generated for a network model with four Loads (Ld1,
Ld2, Ld3, and Ld4).
1. The Vector Characteristic shown in Figure 18.3.1 is applied to both Active Power and Reactive
Power of load Ld4 only, with the associated Time Scale shown in Figure 18.3.2 Ld4 is initially set
to 3.1 MW, 0.02 Mvar.

Figure 18.3.1: Load State Vector Characteristic

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Figure 18.3.2: Time Scale for Load State Characteristic

2. Load States are generated by clicking Create Load States (as discussed in the preceding section).
3. PowerFactory calculates the resultant Load States:
• The maximum value of each load 𝐿𝑝 is determined for the time interval considered. In the
example, Ld4 has a peak load of 4.03 MW.
• The ’load interval size’ (𝐼𝑛𝑡) is determined for each load, where 𝐼𝑛𝑡 = 𝐿𝑝 · 𝐴𝑐𝑐 and ’Acc’ is
the accuracy parameter entered by the user. For the example above using an accuracy of 10
%, the interval size for Active Power is 0.403 MW.
• For each
(︀ 𝐿 )︀hour of the time sweep and for each load determine the Load Interval: 𝐿𝐼𝑛𝑡 =
𝐶𝑒𝑖𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑖
where 𝐿𝑖 is the load value at hour ’i’.
• Identify common intervals and group these as independent states.
• Calculate the probability of each state based on its frequency of occurrence.

The independent states and their probabilities are shown in Figure 18.3.3. Load states for Ld4 vary
according to the characteristic parameters, where the states from characteristic values of 93 % and
100 % have been combined due to the selection of 10 % accuracy in the calculation. Load states for
Ld1, Ld2, and Ld3 do not vary, since characteristics were not entered for these loads.

Figure 18.3.3: Load States (SetCluster) dialog box

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18.4 Load Distribution States

This section describes how to create load distribution states, as used by the Reliability calculation.

18.4.1 Creating Load Distribution States

Pre-requisites:

Prior to creating load distribution states a substation/s must have been defined within the model. A
distribution curve must have also been defined (accessed from the reliability page of the substation/s).

Follow these steps to create the load distribution states:

1. Click the ’Create Load States’ button ( ) on the reliability toolbar. The load states creation dialog
will appear.
2. Optional: Use the Reliability Assessment selection control to inspect or alter the settings of the
Reliability Calculation command. This selection control points to the default reliability command
within the active Study Case.

3. Optional: Use the Load Flow selection button to inspect and alter the settings of the load flow
command. This selection control points to the default load-flow command within the active Study
Case.
4. Enter the Minimum Time Step in hours (suggested to be the minimum step size on the load
distribution curve).

5. Enter the Maximum Power Step (0.05pu by default).

6. Optional: Force Load State at S = 1.0 p.u. so that a state is created at P = 1.0 pu, irrespective of
the load distribution curve data and step sizes entered.
7. Click Execute to generate the load distribution states.

18.4.2 Viewing Existing Load Distribution States

After you have generated the load states as described above, or if you want to inspect previously
generated load states follow these steps:
1. Using the Data Manager, select the ’Reliability Assessment’ Command within the Active Study
Case.
2. Optional: Use the filter ( ) (in the Data Manager window) to select the ’load distribution states’
object. There should now be created load distribution states visible in the right panel of the Data
Manager.
3. Locate the ’load distribution states’ object and double-click to view the load states.

18.4.3 Load Distribution State Object Properties

The distribution load states object properties are as follows:

Basic Data

Year The Year used to create the load states.

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• Clusters: Table containing all substation clusters. The first row in the table contains the probability
of the corresponding cluster. The remaining rows contain the power values of the substations.
Every column in the table contains a complete cluster of substations with the corresponding power.

• Number of substations: Number of substations considered in the Distribution State object.

• Number of states: This equals the number of columns in the Distribution State table.
Diagram Page
Displayed Station: Use the selection control to change the load displayed on the plot

The plot shows the cluster values (Apparent power in pu with reference to the substation load) for the
selected substation where the width of each bar represents the probability of occurrence for that cluster.

18.4.4 Example Load Distribution States

In this example, a Load Distribution Curve is entered for a substation.

1. The Load Distribution Curve shown in Figure 18.4.1 is entered for the substation (Apparent power
in pu of substation load).

Figure 18.4.1: Substation Load Distribution Curve (IntDistribution)

2. Load States are generated by clicking Create Load Distribution States (as discussed in the pre-
ceding section).
3. The resultant Load Distribution States are shown in Figure 18.4.2. ’Force Load State at S =
1.0 p.u.’ has not been selected in this instance.

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Figure 18.4.2: Load Distribution States (SetDistrstate)

18.5 Tariffs

This section describes the definition of Time Tariffs (as used in Reliability calculations), and Energy Tar-
iffs (as used in Reliability calculations and Optimal RCS Placement calculations, and Techno-Economical
calculations).

18.5.1 Defining Time Tariffs

A time tariff characteristic can be defined by taking the following steps:

1. Choose the Select option from the ’Tariff’ selection control on the reliability page of the load
element. A Data Manager browser will appear with the ’Equipment Type Library’ selected.
2. Optional: If you have previously defined a ’Tariff’ characteristic and want to re-use it, you can
select it now. Press OK to return to the load element to reliability page.

3. Create a time tariff object by pressing the New Object button from the data browser toolbar. A
type creation dialog should appear.
4. Select Time Tariff and press OK. A ’Time Tariff’ dialog box will appear.
5. Select the unit of the interruption cost function by choosing from the following options:
$/kW Cost per interrupted power in kW, OR
$/customer Cost per interrupted customer, OR
$ Absolute cost.

6. Enter values for the Time Tariff (right click and ’Append rows’ as required).
7. Press OK to return to the load element reliability page.
8. Optional: enter a scaling factor for the Tariff.

Example Time Tariff

An example Time Tariff characteristic is shown in Figure 18.5.1. In this example, ’Approximation’ is set
to ’constant’, i.e. no interpolation between data points, and ’Unit’ is set to $. An interruption to a load for
a duration of 200 minutes would lead to a cost of $20, irrespective of the active power consumption.

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Figure 18.5.1: Example Time Tariff

18.5.2 Defining Energy Tariffs

An energy tariff characteristic can be defined by taking the following steps:

1. Choose the ’Select’ option from the ’Tariff’ selection control on the reliability page of the load
element. A Data Manager browser will appear with the ’Equipment Type Library’ selected.
2. Optional: If you have previously defined a ’Tariff’ characteristic and want to re-use it, you can
select it now. Press OK to return to the load element to reliability page.

3. Create an energy tariff object by pressing the New Object button from the data browser toolbar.
A type creation dialog should appear.
4. Select ’Energy Tariff’ and press OK. An ’Energy Tariff’ dialog box will appear.
5. Enter Energy and Costs values for the Energy Tariff (right click and ’Append rows’ as required).
6. Press OK to return to the load element reliability page.
7. Optional: enter a scaling factor for the Tariff.

Example Energy Tariff

An example Energy Tariff characteristic is shown in Figure 18.5.2. In this example, ’Approximation’ is
set to ’constant’, i.e. no interpolation between data points. A fault which leads to energy not supplied of
2.50 MWh would result in a cost of

$9,20 · 2,50 · 1000 = $23000 (18.1)

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Figure 18.5.2: Example Energy Tariff

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Chapter 19

Reporting and Visualising Results

19.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the tools and options in PowerFactory for presenting the calculation results.
Key concepts in this topic are Result Boxes, Output Reports, Results Objects, Variable Selection and
Plots. The structure of this chapter is as follows:

• Section 19.2 provides the instructions for customising the result boxes displayed in the single-line,
overview and detailed diagrams. Instructions about selecting the predefined formats are given in
chapter Network Graphics, section 9.5.

• Section 19.3 describes the Variable Selection object, which is used to define the variables to be
presented, either in the Result Boxes, Flexible Data page or Results Files.
• Section 19.4 describes the predefined reports available in PowerFactory to present data in the
output window.
• Section 19.5 describes the option to compare steady state calculations results.

• Section 19.6 describes the Results File object to store results or selected variables.
• Section 19.7 lists and describes all the plot types available in PowerFactory and the tools used to
modify/customise them.

19.2 Result Boxes

Results are displayed with help of result boxes in the single line diagrams. Several predefined formats
can be selected, as described in Chapter 9, Section 9.5 (Result Boxes, Text Boxes and Labels).

The result box itself is actually a small output report, based on a form definition. This form definition is
used to display a wide range of calculated values and object parameters, and can be also be used to
specify colouring or user defined text.

19.2.1 Editing Result Boxes

To edit result boxes the so-called “Format” dialog is used. In this dialog, text reports can be defined, from
very small result boxes to more complex and comprehensive reports within DIgSILENT PowerFactory.

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The Format object (IntForm), shown in Figure 19.2.1, will be used in most cases to change the contents
of the result boxes in the single line graphic; the Format dialog is accessed by right clicking on a result
box and selecting the option Edit format for. . . .

Figure 19.2.1: The Format dialog

The format defined in this dialog can be saved for later use by clicking on the button To Library and
defining a user-specific name for it.

This Format dialog has a page to change the format by selecting variables and a page to manually
define a format. What is displayed on this page depends on the input mode; that can be changed using
the button Input Mode. Both options are described in the following sections.

19.2.1.1 Input Mode - User Selection

When using this input method it is possible to select any number of parameters out of all available
parameters for the selected object or class of objects. This includes model parameters as well as
calculated values.

Different variables can be added by appending new rows. By double clicking on the corresponding row
in the column Variable, a Variable Selection showing the list of all available variables will appear. More
information about Variable Selection is available in section 19.3.

It is also possible to define how the variable will be shown by selecting the columns Show Name,
Show “=”, Decimal Places and Show Unit. A preview of the result box is shown in the Preview field.

19.2.1.2 Input Mode - Format Editor

This is the most flexible, but also the most difficult mode. In this mode, any text and any available
variable, in any colour, can be entered in the Form. The highly flexible DIgSILENT output language
allows for complex automatic reports. The User defined button acts like the input mode User Selection
with one important difference: where the User Selection mode is used to redefine the complete form
text, the User defined button appends a line for each set of variables to the existing form text.

For example if the active and reactive power of an element have been selected using the input mode

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User Selection, when switching to Format Editor the variables will be shown in the DIgSILENT output
language code like this:

#.## $N,@:m:P:_LOCALBUS
#.## $N,@:m:Q:_LOCALBUS

This example shows the basic syntax of the DIgSILENT output language:

• The ’#’ sign is a placeholder for generated text. In the example, each line has a placeholder for
a number with two digits after the decimal point (’#.##’). The first ’#’-sign stands for any whole
number, not necessary smaller than 10.
• The ’$N’ marks the end of a line. A line normally contains one or more placeholders, separated
by non-’#’ signs, but may also contain normal text or macro commands.
• After the ’$N’, the list of variable names that are used to fill in the placeholders have to be added.
Variable names must be separated by commas. Special formatting characters, like the ’@:’-sign,
are used to select what is printed (i.e. the name of the variable or its value) and how.

The Format Editor offers options for the unit or name of the selected variable. If the Unit-show option is
enabled, a second placeholder for the unit is added:

#.## # $N,@:m:P:_LOCALBUS,@:[m:P:_LOCALBUS
#.## # $N,@:m:Q:_LOCALBUS,@:[m:Q:_LOCALBUS

The ’[’-sign encodes for the unit of the variables, instead of the value.

The same goes for the variable name, which is added as

# #.## $N,@:∼m:P:_LOCALBUS,@:m:P:_LOCALBUS
# #.## $N,@:∼m:Q:_LOCALBUS,@:m:Q:_LOCALBUS

where the “∼” -sign encodes for the variable name. With both options on, the resulting format line

# #.## # $N,@: m:P:_LOCALBUS,@:m:P:_LOCALBUS,@:[m:P:_LOCALBUS

will lead to the following text in the result box:

P -199,79 MW

Other often-used format characters are ’%’, which encodes the full variable description, and ’&’, which
encodes the short description, if available.

For a detailed technical description of the report generating language, see Appendix D (The DIgSILENT
Output Language).

19.3 Variable Selection

Variable Selection (IntMon) objects are used to select and monitor variables associated with objects in
the data model. The variable selection object can be used to select the variables to be recorded during
a calculation (e.g. RMS/EMT Simulation, Quasi-dynamic Simulation, Harmonic Analysis) and to define
the variables to be displayed in the result boxes and in the Flexible Data (see section 10.6).

The variable selection dialog is shown in Figure 19.3.1. The object for which the variables are defined
is marked in red, the calculation to which these variables belong to in green, and the selected variables
in blue.

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Figure 19.3.1: Example of a variable selection dialog

The variable selection object contains the following fields:

• Object: the object (normally a network component), whose variables are going to be monitored.
• Class Name: if no object has been selected the Class Name field becomes active. The use of
the class name instead of the object for variable definition is only valid for some calculation types
(e.g Quasi-dynamic simulation).
• Display Values during simulation in output window: this is only visible when the variable
selection is being done for a time domain simulation (RMS/EMT). By checking this box and
selecting the option Display results variables in output window in the simulation command, the
values calculated for the selected variables during a simulation will be displayed in the output
window.
• Page: the first step is to select the page on the left-hand side of the dialog, because the variables
are sorted by calculation function (e.g. Basic Data, Load Flow AC, Short-Circuit DC, etc.).
• Variable Filter: within this panel further filtering options are available:
– Representation: depending on the type of calculation to be monitored (balanced or unbal-
anced), it is possible to toggle between balanced and unbalanced variable selections.
– Variable Set: the variables are further sorted into variable sets, which are described below
in the subsection 19.3.1.
– Bus and Phase: this filter allows the selection of individual phase information where appro-
priate, or the selection of bus for multi-port elements.
• Available Variables: all the variables available for display, according to the above selections, are
listed here. To help the user to find the required variables, a drop-down arrow on each column
header allows the list to be filtered further.
• Selected Variables: the selected variables. Variables are placed here by double clicking on them
on the Available Variables side, by selecting their checkbox, or by selecting them and then pressing

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the ( ) button. Variables can be removed from the Selected Variables area by double-clicking on
them or by selecting them and then pressing the ( ) button.
• Display All: if this box is checked then all of the selected variables are shown in the Selected
Variables area. If not checked, the filter selected in the Filter for field will also apply to the Selected
Variables area and only those selected variables in the filtered set will be shown.
The following buttons are available on the right side of the dialog:

• Print Values: the current values of all the selected variables are displayed in the output window.

• Variable List: a list of all available variables is printed in the output window.
• Variable List (Page): a list of all the available variables for the current page (e.g. Basic Data) is
displayed in the output window.

The second tab of the Variable Selection dialog goes to the Editor, where variables can be manually
input. If the variable selection dialog is used to define the Flexible Data page, an additional tab called
Format/Header is visible; more information about this tab is available is section 10.6.1: Customising the
Flexible Data Page.

19.3.1 Variable Selection Filter

The first sorting of the variables is by calculation function. Within these sets variables are sorted into
sub-sets. The desired subset can be selected using the drop down menu on the Variable Set field.
These are the available subsets:

• Currents, Voltages and Powers: almost self explanatory - these are the outputs as calculated by
a calculation function. The variable is preceded by “m:” (representing ’monitored’ or ’measured’)
as in m:P:bus1 for the active power drawn by the load.

• Bus Results: variables for the bus/es where the element is connected (usually preceded by “n:”
for ’node’). An element having only one connection to a bus, will obviously only have results for
“Bus1.” An element having two connections will have “Bus1” and “Bus2”. This means that the
results of objects connected to the object whose variable list is compiled can be accessed.
• Signals: variables that can be used as interface between user defined and/or PowerFactory
models (inputs and outputs). They are preceded by “s:”. These should be used when creating a
controller or in a DPL script. These variables are accessible whilst an iteration is being calculated,
whereas the other variables sets are calculated following an iteration.
• Calculation Parameter: variables that are derived from the primary calculations (i.e. currents,
loading, power, losses, etc.), from input data (i.e. the absolute impedance of a line, derived from
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑘𝑚 * 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ), or that have been transformed from input data to a format useful for
calculation (actual to per unit), or that are required for such transformation (e.g. nominal power).
The parameters that actually are available depend on the object type. Calculation parameters are
preceded by a “c:”.
• Element Parameter: input parameters that belong directly to the object selected (preceded by
“e:”).
• Type Parameter: input parameters from the corresponding type object that are linked to the
element object under consideration; for example, the current rating of a line type that a line element
is using.

• Reference Parameter: these are variables from objects that are linked or connected to the object
under consideration (preceded by “r:”). For example, a line element may be part of a line coupling
and the reference parameter will allow us to display the name of the coupling element.

Vector variables: certain models within PowerFactory may support vectors (refer to the Technical
Reference documentation of a specific model for more information). In such cases, vector variables use

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1-based numbering as index. The syntax is: name of signal suffixed by colon suffixed by index e.g.
“s:gate:1” (the first index of signal “s:gate”) or “s:Ucap:20”(the twentieth index of signal “s:Ucap”).

For general use it is sufficient to simply select the variables required and transfer them to the selected
variables column. To find a particular variable requires some knowledge of where the variables are
stored in the object under consideration.

Additional information about how the result variables are calculated is available in section Technical
References of Result Variables of the Technical References Document.

User defined variables are shown when the page Data Extensions is selected. Additional information
about Data Extensions is available in Chapter 20.

19.4 Output Reports

PowerFactory offers two types of reports which are printed in the output window. The Documentation
of Device Data prints either all or a part of the data entered in PowerFactory the Output of Calculation
Analysis prints the results of a previously executed calculation in the output window.

19.4.1 Documentation of Device Data

The Output of Device Data command (ComDocu) can be accessed by clicking on the icon on the
main tool menu.

19.4.1.1 Documentation of Device Data - Settings

The Short Listing

The “Short Listing” reports only the most important device data, using one line for each single object,
resulting in concise output. Like the “Output of Results”, the “Short Listing” report uses a form to
generate the output. This form can be modified by the user. When the report form is changed, it is
stored in the “Settings” object of the active project, so does not influence the reports of other projects.
The output of objects without a defined short listing will produce warnings like:

Short Listing report for StoCommon is not defined.

The Detailed Report

The detailed report outputs all device data of the elements selected for output. In addition, type data can
be included (“Print Type Data in Element”). Device Data is split into the different calculation functions like
“Load-Flow” or “Short-Circuit”. The “Basic Data” is needed in all the different calculations. “Selected
Functions” shows a list of the functions whose data will be output. To report the device data for all
functions, simply move all functions from left to right. If “Selected Functions” is empty no device data
will be output.

Device Data
• Use Selection: the set of reported elements depends on the Use Selection setting. If Use
Selection is checked one element or a set object must be chosen for output. If Use Selection
is not checked, the Filter/Annex page specifies the set of elements for the report. Another way to
select object for the report is to right-click on the objects from the Data Manager or the single line
graphics and select Output Data → Documentation, this will open the Documentation of Device
Data command.
• Annex: each class uses its own annex. There is either the default annex or the individual annex.

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To use the default annex check Use default Annex. Changes of the annex are stored in the
Settings of the active project. The local annex is stored in the Documentation of Device Data
command. To modify the local annex press the Change Annex button.

• Title: most reports display a title on top of each page. The reference Title defines the contents of
the header.

19.4.1.2 Documentation of Device Data - Filter/Annex

If one wants to report elements without defining a set of objects, Use Selection on the Device Data
page must not be checked. The objects in the list Selected Objects will be filtered out of the active
projects/grids and reported. Available Objects shows a list of elements which can be added to the
Selected Objects list. The list in Available Objects depends on the Elements radio button. Elements in
the left list are moved to the right by double-clicking them. The text in the Annex input field will be set
as default annex for the selected class.

The Annex for Documentation

The Annex for Documentation stores the annex for the documentation of results. The annex number
and the page number for the first page are unique for each class.

• Objects: this column shows the different classes with their title.
• Annex: this column stores the annex number shown in the Annex field of the report.
• First Page: this column defines the start page for the class in the report. The first page number
depends on the class of the first element output in your report. The page number of its class is
the page number of the first page.

19.4.2 Output of Results

The command Output of Results (ComSh) is used to produce an output of calculation results. The
output can be used in reports or may help in interpreting the results and is accessed by clicking on the
icon from the main tool menu.

Several different reports, depending on the actual calculation, can be created. The radio button on the
upper left displays the different reports possible for the active calculation. Some reports may be inactive,
depending on the object(s) chosen for output.

On the Advanced tab, the Used Format gives access to the format(s) used for the report.

Some reports are a set of different outputs. For these reports more than one form is shown. If the form
is modified it will be stored automatically in the Settings folder of the active project. The changed form
does not influence the reports of other projects. If Use Selection is active, a set of objects (selection) or
a single object must be chosen. The report is generated only for these elements. All relevant objects
are used if Use Selection is not selected. The relevant objects depend on the chosen report. Most
reports display a title on top of each page. The reference Title defines the contents of the header.

For some reports additional settings are required. These settings depend on the chosen report, the
selected objects for output and the calculation processed before. The calculation (left top) and the used
format(s) (right top) are always shown.

One option for Load Flow calculations is the Power Interchange report. If this option is selected, a
tabular report is generated, showing the power interchange between various parts of the network, i.e.
Grids, Areas or Zones. When reporting Power Interchange for Grids, a further feature is available:
If the several connected networks are modelled, and the connections are represented by boundary
nodes held in a dedicated boundary grid, the user may not be interested in power interchanges with the
boundary grid itself but rather in the power interchanges between the grids either side of it. Therefore

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there is now an option provided for the ElmNet object, to mark it as a “Fictitious border grid”. If this is
done, then it becomes transparent from the point of view of this Power interchange report, which then
reports the interchange between the grids of interest.

19.5 Comparisons Between Calculations

At many stages in the development of a power system design, the differences between certain settings
or design options become of interest. For a single calculation, the “absolute” results are shown in the
single line graphics and in the flexible data page of the elements.

When pressing the Comparing of Results on/off button ( ), the results of the calculation are “frozen”.
Subsequent calculations results can then be shown as deviations from the first calculation made. The
subsequent calculation results are stored together with the first result. This allows the user to re-arrange
the comparisons as desired by pressing the icon.

The differences between cases are coloured according to the severity of the deviation, making it possible
to recognise the differences between calculation cases very easily.

The set of calculated comparisons may be edited to select the cases which are to be compared to each
other or to set the colouring mode. When the icon on the main toolbar is pressed, the Compare
dialog will open.

With the Compare dialog, the two cases which are to be compared can be selected. Furthermore, a list
of colours may be set which is then used to colour the results displayed in the result boxes, according
to certain levels of percentage change.

19.6 Results Objects

The results object (ElmRes, ) is used by PowerFactory to store tables of results. The typical use of
a results object is in writing specific variables during a transient simulation, or during a data acquisition
measurement. Results objects are also used in scripts, contingency analysis, reliability calculations,
harmonic analysis, etc.

The results object edit dialog shows the following fields:

• Name: the name of the results object

• File path: is the path where the results file is saved inside the database

• Last Modification: date when the results file was changed the last time
• Default for: the default type of calculation
• Info: information about the currently stored data including:
– the time interval
– the average time step
– the number of points in time
– the number of variables
– the size of the database results file
• Trigger-Times: trigger times (in case of a Triggered default use)

The Clear Data button will clear all result data.

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Note: Clearing the data will delete all calculated or measured data in the results file. It will not be
possible to restore the data.

The default type settings are used for two purposes:

1. Creating a new results object and setting the default type to Harmonics, for instance, will cause
the harmonics command dialog to use this results object by default.
2. Setting the Default type to Triggered will cause the calculation module to copy and temporarily
store signals in that copied results object, every time a Trigger Event becomes active. The
Triggered default type enables the trigger time fields.
When the Output Protocol is pressed, all events that happened during the simulation, recorded by the
results object, will be written again into the output window. So one can check which events took place
during the last simulation.

The contents of a results object are determined by one or more monitor Variable Selection (IntMon)
objects. These monitor objects can be edited by pressing the Variables button. This will show the list
of monitor sets currently in use by the results object.

Selecting a set of result variables, using monitor objects is necessary because otherwise all available
variables would have to be stored, which is practically impossible.

By clicking on the Variables button, the list of recorded variables is displayed, if the list is empty a new
variable selection can be added by clicking on the New Object icon ( ). More information about the
definition of variable selections is available in section 19.3.

19.6.1 Exporting Results

The stored results for the monitored result variables can be exported by pressing the Export button in
the results object. This will activate and open the ASCII Result Export command, which enables the
definition of the format and the file type used to export the results.

19.6.1.1 Results Export - Basic Options

On this page the Results File and its information is displayed, and the type of export to be executed can
be defined.

Export to

The following options are available:

• Output window
• Windows clipboard

• Measurement file (ElmFile)

• ComTrade
• Textfile
• PSSPLT Version 2.0

• Comma Separated Values (*.csv)

• Database

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If the last option (Database) is used, there is a requirement to configure the access to the database via
an ODBC Database Configuration object (*.SetDatabase), or select an existing database configuration.
These database configurations can exist within the project, in a folder, or in a configuration area, for
example. If a new database configuration is to be defined, these are the steps:

• Navigate to the chosen location for the new object.

• Click the New Object button

• Select the database system and the ODBC driver. Oracle, PostgreSQL and SQL Server are
supported.
• Enter the access details (Username and password) for the database system.
• Enter the database name.

Variable selection

By default, the option Export all variables is selected, which mean that all the results for all monitored
variables are exported. But also a selection of variables can be made by selecting the option Export
only selected variables.

19.6.1.2 Results Export - Advanced Options

On this page, additional options such as the individual step size and the columns headers of the results
file for the export can be defined.

Export
• Values: the results values will be exported
• Variable description only: the description of the recorded variables is exported. This is useful for
reviewing the stored data.

• Object header only: also useful for reviewing the recorded data; will only export the columns
headers.
Interval

A User defined interval for the time/x-scale can be set as the minimum and maximum value of the first
recorded variable (in time domain simulations this is of course the time).

Shift time

When this box is checked, a new start time can be defined. This will “move” the results to the starting
time.

Column header

Here is possible to customise the column header to be exported not only for the element (e.g. name,
path, foreign key), but also for the variable (e.g. parameter name, short or long description)

19.7 Plots

Plots are used for displaying results graphically. The most common use of a plot is to show the results of
a time-domain simulation such an EMT or RMS simulation, but there are various other applications, for
example to graphically display voltage profiles, results of a harmonic analysis, results of modal analysis,
etc. These could be in the form of a bar graph, a plotted curve, single displayed variables, tables of
values, etc.

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All signals, parameters, variables or other values from PowerFactory can be shown in a plot. The
variables are normally floating point numbers, but it is also possible to show discrete variables and
binary numbers, for example an out of service flag or the switching operation of a circuit-breaker.

The plots are inserted using the Insert Plot icon from the main menu ( ), which will open the insert
plot dialog, shown in figure 19.7.1.

Once a plot has been created, it is held in the Graphics Board of the active study case. If the user
closes the plot using the x on the tab, or by right-clicking on the tab and selecting Close page, the plot
is still retained. It can be re-opened from the Window menu of the main toolbar, by selecting the option
Open Plot Page. If the user wants to delete the plot completely, this is done by right-clicking on the tab
and selecting Delete page.

There are various designs of plot available. The plots can be filtered by the functions where they are
normally used. Some plots are typically used for more that one category (e.g. curve plots) and some
are meant to be used for specific functions (e.g. correlation plot, time-overcurrent plot). All the plots are
listed under the category (All) and the recently used in category (Recent).

Figure 19.7.1: Insert Plot dialog

All the available plots are described in section 19.7.8 or in the corresponding chapter (for calculation-
specific plots).

The plots have several areas that should be edited separately:

• The curve area (Data Series) that can be edited either by right-clicking on the plot and selecting
Edit Curves. . . , or by double-clicking on the area where the curve is displayed. The functions,
common to all the plot types, are described in the Data Series section (19.7.2).
• The plot area, described in section 19.7.1, that can be edited by double-clicking on an empty area
of the plot page (e.g. close to the border).
• The axes and gridlines, accessible by right-clicking on an axis and selecting Edit Axis. . . , or by
double-clicking on it. These are described in section 19.7.3.
• The legend, described in section 19.7.4 and accessible by right-clicking on an axis and selecting

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Edit Legend. . . , or by double-clicking on it.

The tools available for modifying plots, such as labels and constants, can be applied equally to most
plot types and are described in section 19.7.5.

The plots can be exported by selecting the option File → Export→ Diagram. . . from the main menu or
using the Diagram Export icon on the plots toolbar.

The following formats are supported:

• Portable Document Format (*.pdf)
• Enhanced Windows Metafile (*.emf)
• Scalable Vector Graphics (*.svg)
• Portable Network Graphics (*.png)
• Tag Image File Format (*.tif, *.tiff)
• File Interchange Format (*.jpg, *.jpeg, *.jpe, *.jfif)
• Windows Bitmap (*.bmp)
• Windows Metafile (*.wmf)
• Graphics Interchange Format (*.gif)

19.7.1 Plot Area

The plot dialog summarises all the information on the plot, providing the links to all the parts of the plot.
In addition, the style and layout of the area outside the curve can be personalised. It can be edited by
double-clicking on an empty area of the plot page (e.g. close to the border).

19.7.1.1 Basic

On this page, the name of the plot can be modified. In addition, the following links are available:

• Curves: a link to the Data Series, described in section 19.7.2.

• Title: clicking on the select arrow opens the edit dialog of the plot title with the following fields:
– Title: to define visibility and displayed name
– Positioning and Layout: to define the location of the title of the plot
– Text Format: to define the font size and colour
– Border and Background: to define the style of the title
– Floating position: if the title is moved from the default position, a floating position can be set
in this field.
• Legend: a link to the plot legend dialog, described in section 19.7.4.

19.7.1.2 Axes

The plot axes often needs to be synchronised for all plots in the Study Case or for all plots on one plot
page, for instance to show the same time-scale in all plots.

In this page, the sharing of the axis can be defined. This can also be done by right-clicking on the axis
and selecting → Axis sharing.

The sharing options are:

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• Local: the axis scale, labelling and format are only valid for the local plot.
• Page: all the plots on the plot page will use the same axis scale, labelling and format.

• Graphics Board: the axis settings will apply to all the plots in the study case.
The scale, labelling and format options, described in section 19.7.3, can be accessed by clicking on the
button by the Used Axis field.

Additional axes can be added using the button Create.

19.7.1.3 Style and Layout

On the Style and Layout page, the following display options can be selected:

Border and Background

• Draw border: to define outside border and colour of the plot area, i.e. the “non-gridded area”.
• Fill background: to define the background colour of the plot area.

Plot Position on Page (mm)

Defines the position of the plot on the page. Usually this is set using the Automatic Arrangement
Commands described in section 19.7.5.4, but it is also possible to define the position on the page using
these fields.

Element Padding (mm)

Defines the size of the plot area outside the curve; this is particular useful when using a coloured
background.

Axis Visibility

In this panel, the user can set the visibility of the axes.

19.7.2 Data Series

The Data Series in the base for almost all the plot types. To edit the Data Series, right-click on the plot
and select Edit Curves. . . , or double-click on the area where the curve is displayed. The pages of the
edit dialog are described in the following sections.

19.7.2.1 Curves

The data in the curves page is entered in the following panels:

Data Source
• Calculation type: the calculation type is set automatically when the plot is inserted, based on the
category selected on the Insert Plot dialog. This setting automatically determines other settings
for the plot (e.g. scales).
• Auto-search results: this is a reference to the currently active results file (ElmRes). With this
selection the currently used result file of the last calculation is chosen. More information about
results objects is available in section 19.6

• Select results individually per curve: this option gives the user the possibility to choose another
result file. The result file should be specified in the Curves table.

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Curves

The definition table for the curves is used to specify the results file (optional), element and variable for
each curve as well as its representation. Each line in the Curves table is used to define one curve.

• The first column allow the visibility of the curve on the plot to be set.

• If the option Select results individually per curve is selected, the next column is for the results
object from which the data to plot the curve will be read.
• There then follows a column for the power system element, which is selected from the available
elements in the results object.

• The next column is for the actual variable for the curve, selected from the variables in the results
object, belonging to the selected element.
• The following columns allow the user to specify the style of the individual curve.

Note: The assignation of colours and styles can be done automatically by right clicking on the
colour/style and selecting Auto Assign Subsequent Colours /Line Styles/Line Widths.

• The last column, named Label, can be used to add additional information for the curve legend.

Only the elements and variables stored in the results file can be plotted. Additional curves can be
added by right clicking and selecting Insert Rows or Append (n) Rows. Similarly, to delete a marked
curve definition from the list, Delete Rows can be selected.

Several elements can be selected and PowerFactory will automatically insert the corresponding number
of rows. In the same way, several variables of the same element can be added in one step by selecting
them together.

Note: The position of the curve (i.e. front or back) is automatically assigned by the row numbering,
however, it is possible to change it by right clicking on the curve (on the plot) and selecting Move
Curve → Backwards/Fordwards

Plot Features

In this panel, additional features for the curves, including shape, transformation and stacking of curves
are defined.

• Additional curve shapes: when this option is checked, two additional columns are shown in the
Curves table:
– On the column Shape, one of these option can be selected: Curve, Steps, Filled curve, Filled
steps and Bars.
– If one of the filled shapes is selected in the Shape column, the filling style can be changed in
the column Fill Style

• Data transformation: this options allows the transformation of the data on the curve according
to the following options:
– Normalisation: the values of the variable can be normalised to a nominal value ( specified in
the column Nom. Value).
– Binarisation: transform the values of the curve into binary data: if a value is bigger than 0.5,
it is set to 1, otherwise is to 0.
– Functions: probabilistic functions can be used to convert the data. More information can be
found in section 19.7.8.6.

Note: The options for data transformation might vary depending on the calculation type.

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• Curve stacking: this option can be used if more than one curve is shown and will “pile up” the
values of the curves as:
– Values
– Absolute values
– Relative values
– Percentage

Export Button

When clicking on the Export... button on the right of the plot, the ASCII Result Export command,
described in section 19.6.1, with a time interval set to the time displayed on the plot can be executed to
export the result values of the plotted variables.

Filter Button

It is possible to add additional filters to the curves presented in the plot; it should be noted that when a
filter is defined it is applied to all the curves displayed in the plot. The Curve Filter command specifies
the type of filter applied to the data read from the results object. The following filter settings are available:

• Disabled: no filtering will be performed.

• Moving average: the filtered curve is the running average of the last n points. The first n-1 points
are omitted.
• Moving balanced average: the filtered curve is the running average of the last (n-1)/2 points, the
current point and the next (n-1)/2 points. This filter thus looks ahead of time. The first and last
(n-1)/2 values are omitted; n must be an odd number.
• Average: the filtered curve contains the averages of each block of n values; every n-th value is
shown.
• Subsampling: the filtered curve only contains every n-th value. All other values are omitted.

• Deviation from initial value: the curves are shifted, so that for each curve the values are all
relative to the first value.

Note: A curve filter can only be applied at the end of the simulation or measurement. Points added
during a simulation or measurement are not filtered.

Processed and Aggregated Results

The curve plots have the option to define a user defined signal. This option allows calculation of addi-
tional results based on the arithmetic manipulation of one or more results calculated by PowerFactory
and recorded in a results object (ElmRes ). A new user defined signal, can be defined by clicking on
the Create... button on the edit dialog of the curve plot. An example of the calculated result dialog is
shown in Figure 19.7.2.

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Figure 19.7.2: The calculated results object

The calculated results object dialog includes the following fields:

• Name: the name of the calculated results object

• Input Parameters
– Results: defines the results object in which the arithmetic operands are located.
– Operands: defines the elements and variable names of the operands within the results object.
Additional operands can be inserted or appended by Right-Click → Insert Row(s) or Append
(n) Row(s).
• Result
– Name: defines the name of the user defined curve
– Description: a free text field for description of the curve
– Unit: user defined variable unit
– Formula: DSL expression for arithmetic calculation; operands are defined in accordance with
the naming convention in the Input Parameters field i.e. in1, in2, in3 etc.

More information about the DSL syntax is available in section 30.4.

The buttons Manage... and Add to table... can be used for editing the defined variables and adding
them to the Curves table.

19.7.2.2 Style and Layout

On the Style and Layout page, the following additional display options can be selected:

Curve Area Position (mm)

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If Auto-Position Curve Area is selected, the position of the curve is automatically set to fit the page size.
If it is deselected, the border of the plot will appear as shown in figure 19.7.3 and the user can set the
size and position of the plot.

Figure 19.7.3: Resizing a Curve Plot

Border and Background

• Draw border: to define outside border and colour of the curves area.
• Fill background: to define if the curves area should be filled, and select the colour.

19.7.3 Axes and Gridlines

Each of the axes can be edited either by double click or by Right click → Edit Axis. The plot axis dialog
options are described in this section.

19.7.3.1 Scale

The options presented in the Scale page depend on whether the edited axis is a x- or a y-axis.

Axis mode

This option is only available for the x-axis and is automatically set depending on the plot type. Alterna-
tively, can be selected by the user. The options are:

• Default: depends on the type of simulation and the results object created during the previous
simulation.
• Time: the x-axis is set to time and an additional field for the time unit is displayed.
• Date and time: used by default in quasi dynamic simulation plots, the format for the date and hours
and the time period can be specified.
• Frequency: the x-axis is set to frequency and an additional field for the frequency unit is displayed.

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• Discrete (net elements): used in bar plots, where network elements are shown in the x-axis
Scale Type

For the x-axis, for all the modes, except the Date and time, the scale can be set to linear or logarithmic.
The y-axis can additionally be set to dB.

Range

The Minimum and Maximum limits of the axes can be set manually.

Scale to Contents

The scaling of the axis is done according to the data available, for the x-axis is by default 0 % and for
the y-axis 10 %. The option Limit minimum to origin if possible will set the minimum to zero. The option
Scale when calculation data changes will automatically update the scale of the axis after the calculation
is executed.

19.7.3.2 Axis Labelling

On this page, the grid lines and styles are defined.

Tick Mark Positions

• Step size in data space: PowerFactory tries to find the ticks that would best fit with the data. For
this, a reference value can be set to force the origin.
• Fixed number of tick marks: the number of ticks a fixed number of subdivisions between the
minimum and maximum limits.

For both options, the option Determine tick positions automatically can be selected. This option de-
termines the number of ticks depending on what would look best on the plot page. If the option is
unchecked, the user can select either the step size (for the step size in data space option) or the
number of ticks (for the fixed number of tick marks option).

Line Style

Options to alter the width, line style and colour of the ticks and grid lines.

19.7.3.3 Text Format

In the Font Style panel, the following options can be set:

• Font: font size, type and effects.

• Label colour and offset: the colour of the axis values and the distance between the axis and the
text.
• Show unit: to display to unit of the axis.

In the Number Format panel, the following options can be set:

• Format: the user can select between concise, fixed decimals and scientific.
• Digits: if the option concise is selected, the user can set the maximum number of digits to be
displayed.

• Decimals: if the option fixed decimals or scientific is selected, the user can set the number of
decimal places to be shown.
• Exponent character: the user can select between E and e for the scientific option.

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19.7.4 Plot Legend

The edit dialog of the legend can be accessed either by double-clicking on it or by Right click → Edit
Legend. These are the options available:

Show legend

Defines the visibility of the legend.

Positioning and Layout

• Position: the position of the legend. Options are:
– Floating
– Top left
– Top centre
– Top right
– Bottom left
– Bottom centre
– Bottom right
– Left
– Right

• Layout: the layout of the legend. Options are:

– Automatic: based on the size of the plot and number of variables
– Columns: organise in columns; an additional field for the number of columns is displayed
– Horizontal
• Margin: the distance in mm to the axis/curve area.
• Padding: defines the size of the box around the legend, particulary useful when defining a
background colour for the legend.

• Include only drawn curves: only the curves with results will be shown on the legend, otherwise
the legend of those curves is shown greyed-out.
• Reverse item order: change the order of the legend items.
Text Format

• Font: font size, type and effects.

• Always show units: display the units of the variables.
• Use short variable description: short description of all the variables.

• Line spacing: defines the spacing of the legend text.

Border and Background
• Draw border: to define outside border of the legend and the colour of it.
• Fill background: to define if the legend should be filled and the colour to be used.

Floating position

If the position of the legend is set to floating, the location of the legend in mm can be set in this field.

19.7.5 Plots Toolbar

There are numerous tools which help the user interpret and analyse data and calculation results. Most
of the tools are accessible directly through plot toolbar, which is displayed when a plot is inserted. Each

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of the icons of the plot toolbar, shown in figure 19.7.4 and the additional context sensitive menu options
are described in the following sections.

Figure 19.7.4: Plots Toolbar

19.7.5.1 Insert Plot

The icon inserts a plot in the existing page. Clicking on this button opens the Insert Plot dialog,
described in section 19.7.

19.7.5.2 Edit Plots on Page

The icon opens the dialog for defining curves of several plots. If the variables of only one plot are
to be changed, it is suggested to edit the dialog of the plot itself by double-clicking it. This procedure is
more convenient.

This dialog gives a very good overview over the diagrams on the plot page and the variables, axis and
curve styles. Figure 19.7.5 shows an example of the dialog.

Figure 19.7.5: Editing all plots on the plot page

Each line of the table named Curves defines a variable shown on the panel. The variables definition
applies to the plot shown in the first column. When the dialog is opened the plots are sorted from left to
right and from top to bottom and are numbered accordingly.

All data and settings of each variable are displayed in the table, and the columns are used exactly like
the columns in the table of a plot.

The Default Result File for Page can be used to set the default result file for all the plots on the page.

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The buttons Colouring, Width and Style set those values automatically per plot.

19.7.5.3 View and Select Commands

• Rebuild: updates the currently visible page by updating the drawing from the database.

• Zoom In: changes the cursor to a magnifying glass. The mouse can then be clicked and
dragged to select a rectangular area of the plot to be zoomed.

• Hand Tool: if a zoom is applied, can be used to pan the plot.

• Zoom All: zooms to the page extends.

• Zoom Level: zooms to a custom or pre-defined level.

Note: Ctrl+ mouse scrolling can be used to zoom in and out

19.7.5.4 Automatic Arrangement Commands

A plot’s size and position is usually set automatically. There are two different modes for automatically
arranging the plots in the plot page:

• Arrange plots on top of each other

• Arrange plots automatically

The modes can easily be changed by pressing the one or the other button. The relative positions of
plots can also easily be changed: mark the plot by clicking it, then ’drag’ the plot across another plot.

Note: This option of exchanging the plots by dragging is only possible when one of the arrangement
buttons are active. If you deactivate both buttons by unselecting them in the toolbar, the plots can
freely be moved by dragging them on the panel

19.7.5.5 Scale Buttons

• Scale x-axes automatically: scales all the x-axes to the start and end of the results file.

• Scale y-axes automatically: scales all the y-axes according to the maximum and minimum
values of the variables in the results file.
• Zoom x-axis: zooms in a certain range of the x-axis (if the axis is shared, the zoom is applied
to all plots sharing the axis definition).

• Zoom y-axis: zooms in a certain range of the y-axis (if the axis is shared, the zoom is applied
to all plots sharing the axis definition).

• Move x-scale: moves the position of the x-axis (is applied to all plots sharing the axis
definition).

• Stretch/compress x-scale: modifies the x-axis scales in order to compress or stretch the
shown curve (is applied to all plots sharing the axis definition).

Note: The scale buttons are inactive if there are no plots shown at all or if the x or y axes cannot be
scaled automatically.

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19.7.5.6 Add Curve Label

A number of Curve Labels tools are available in the Drawing Toolbox, which will be displayed if the user
clicks on the Add Curve Labels button .

Figure 19.7.6: Curve Labels Tools

There are different styles of labels available for labelling curves and graphics. Setting labels is possible
in most of the different plots, although some of the labels are not available in all plot types. Labels are
all created in the same way.

Most of the label buttons are only active after clicking on the curve. After selecting the appropriate label
from the sub-option of label, a rubber band from the cross to the mouse is shown. A click with the left
mouse button sets the label, the right mouse button cancels. The following labels are available:

• Text Label: displays user-defined text above and below a line connected to the curve.

• Label with Curve Value: displays the x/y coordinates of selected point.

• Label with Definable Format: displays the name of the element.

• Gradient Label: displays the difference in x and y values (dx and dy) between two points, and
also the gradient (dy/dx) and the value of 1/dx.

• Statistic Label: helps to analyse a curve, by labelling, for example, its extrema.

• Delete Statistic Label: delete existing statistic label.

Text, Curve Value and Gradient labels

The text, value and gradient labels are defined using the same object type. The VisValue edit dialog
contains the following fields:

• Value: displays the connected curve position of the label. For labels created as a value-label this
position is displayed automatically as label text. “x-Axis” displays the x axis value and “y-Axis” the
y axis value. “Time” is only visible for plots showing a trajectory.
• Text on Top and on Bottom: text written above and below the horizontal line.

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Figure 19.7.7: Text, Value and Gradient labels

Label with Definable Format

The format-label displays text printed using a form. It is typically used to show the name of the object
whose variable is shown in the curve. It is useful when several curves with the same colour are plotted.

The form is different for each type of diagram. It is either defined locally per label or defined for all
diagrams of the same type in the activated project. The format-label dialog is shown in the following
figure.

Figure 19.7.8: Edit dialog of the label with definable format

• Value: displays the connected curve position of the label. x-Axis displays the x axis value and
y-Axis the y axis value.
• Data Object: reference to the object of which the plotted curve parameter is derived. If Data
Object is not set the label itself is taken as the Shown Object.
• Shown Object: object output by the form, see Data Object described above.
• Edit Used Format: shows the used Format Manager. The used format is either the local format or
the one defined for all plots of the same type in the active project.
• Set Default Format: set the used format as the one used for all plots of the same type in the active
project.

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Statistic Labels

The statistic label function provides the possibility to label the following values of the curves:
• Minimum or Maximum in the visible area of the plot
• Global Minima or Maxima

• Local Minima or Maxima

• Global Average
• Average of the visible area of the plot

• Integral of the visible area of the plot

To remove statistic labels from a curve, the button Delete Statistic Labels can be used.

19.7.5.7 Multi-Curve Tracking

Enabling “Multi-Curve Tracking” mode means that when the mouse is hovered over a point in the
plot, a tooltip will appear, giving information about the current value on the x-axis as well as all y-axis
values for the curves. The tooltip follows the mouse while it is moved over the plot and therefore makes
it very easy to see individual results without zooming in, even if lines are on top of each other, or very
close together.

19.7.5.8 Frequency Analysis

When the button is clicked, the frequency of an area of the curve can be analysed. More information
about the frequency analysis is available in section 29.13.

19.7.5.9 Cursors

The buttons and can be used to add a vertical line in all the plots of the page. These cursor can
be used to compare plots instead of defining separate x-constants in every plots.

19.7.5.10 Title Block

The icon shows or hides the title block of the page.

The title can be defined or changed by double-clicking on it.

For details about the settings of the title object refer to Chapter 9: Network Graphics.

19.7.5.11 Edit Plot Page

Whenever a plot is inserted, a Plot Page is automatically created, the Plot Page being one of the
possible page types on a Graphics Board. The edit dialog can be opened by clicking on the icon
and the pages are described below.

Basic Data
• Name: name of the page, also modifiable by right clicking on the tab and selecting → Rename
page.

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• Page auto layout: defines the layout of the plots on the page. This option is the same as using the
plot arrangement buttons, described in section 19.7.5.4.
• Curve area alignment: align the plots on the page, options are:
– Off
– Align plots that share axis
– Align all the plots on the page
• Results: to define the Results File object used for all the plots in the plot page. The result column
of the plots need not be set for most calculations: the plot itself will look for the results element to
display automatically.
Advanced

Defines the order on the Graphic Board and the group where the page belongs.

19.7.5.12 Page Format

The page format is modified using the icon. In the Page Format, the drawing size and the page
format are defined. The plot page uses the page format set in the graphics board.

In addition a local page format can be created for each Plot Page by selecting the option Create local
Page Format from the context sensitive menu.

19.7.5.13 Export Diagram

The Export Diagram icon opens a dialog offering options for exporting the graphic. A range of file
formats is supported.

19.7.5.14 Print

The Print Diagram icon opens the print preview page. The printer and margins to be used can be
selected in this dialog.

19.7.6 Context Sensitive Menu Tools

As well as the tools of the plot toolbar, the following additional tools are available via the context sensitive
menu, displayed by right clicking on the plot.

Copy Plot to New Page This option will create a new Plot Page containing only the selected plot.

Add Intersection Line

The intersection line is used to display a straight line, which can be the y-values for a constant x-quantity,
the x-values for a constant y-quantity or a line with a slope in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. The appearance
of constant labels can be modified using the following settings:

• Style: changes the representation of the constant label as follows:

– Line Only : displays only the solid line and the related label.
– Line with Intersections: shows a solid line including label and indicates the values when
intersections with the curves of the plot.
– Short Line Only (Left/Right/Top/Bottom): indicates the constant value at the bottom/top re-
spectively at the right/left side of the plot.

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– Short Line/Intersection (Left/Right/Top/Bottom): indicates the constant value at the bottom/-

top respectively at the right/left side of the plot and the intersections with curves.
– Intersection Only : shows only the intersection points with the curves.

• Label: either the default value (name of the variable in the axis) or defined by the user.
• Position: defines the position of the constant value label as follows:
– None: displays no label at all.
– Outside of Diagram: creates the label between the border of the Plot and the diagram area.
Labels of constant x values are created above the diagram area, labels of constant y values
to the right of the diagram area.
– Above Line (right): shows a label above the line if y is constant; the label will be on the right
hand side.
– Below Line (left): shows the label below the line on the left hand side.
– Left of Line (top): shows a label on the left side of the line if x is constant; the label will be on
the top end.
– Right of Line (bottom): shows the label right of the line on the bottom end.

• Value: defines the constant value, either X or Y. The dialog shows if either an X or Y is set. Also
the actual position of the cross will be shown as an x- or y-value. It is not possible to change a
constant X into a constant Y label other than by removing the old label and creating the new one.
• Colour: specifies the colour of the line and the labels/intersections.

• Linestyle and Width: specifies the line style and line width for the line shown. Invisible if Show
Values is set to Intersections Only.
• m and b: if the intersection line is a Line Equation, the m and b values should be defined in these
fields.

19.7.7 User-Defined Styles

The user-defined styles are stored in a folder called Plot Style Templates within the Settings folder of
the active project. A new style is created by right-clicking on the plot or on the plot page and selecting
Style → Save Style as....

The style can be changed by right clicking on the plot or on the plot page and selecting Change Style
→ ....

Inside the user-defined style, a template of the plot page, described in section 19.7.1, is stored and can
be modified.

19.7.8 Plot Types

All the available plots are listed below, grouped by category, and described either in the following
sections or in the corresponding chapter (for calculation-specific plots).

1. Simulation RMS/EMT
• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)
• Curve plot with two y-axes (section 19.7.8.2)
• XY curve plot (section 19.7.8.3)
• Vector plot (section 19.7.8.10)
2. Quasi-Dynamic Simulation
• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)

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• Complete Generation (section 19.7.8.8)

• Plant Categories (section 19.7.8.7)
• Renewable and Fossil (section 19.7.8.9)
• Duration curve (section 19.7.8.6)
• Curve plot with two y-axes (section 19.7.8.2)
• XY curve plot (section 19.7.8.3)
3. Unit Commitment
• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)
• Complete Generation (section 19.7.8.8)
• Plant Categories (section 19.7.8.7)
• Renewable and Fossil (section 19.7.8.9)
• Duration curve (section 19.7.8.6)
4. Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis
• Eigenvalue Plot (section 32.4.2.1)
• Mode bar plot (section 32.4.2.2)
• Mode phasor plot (section 32.4.2.3)
5. Power Quality and Harmonic Analysis
• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)
• Harmonic distortion
• Curve plot with two y-axes (section 19.7.8.2)
• Waveform Plot (section 36.5.4)
• XY curve plot (section 19.7.8.3)
6. Probabilistic Analysis
• Convergence of statistics (section 44.3.8.3)
• Distribution estimation (section 44.3.8.5)
• Distribution fitting (section 44.3.8.6)
• Correlation plot (section 44.3.8.4)
7. Protection and Arc-Flash Analysis
• Current comparison differential plot (section 33.10.1)
• Curve-input (section 19.7.8.11)
• Phase comparison differential plot (section 33.10.2)
• R-X plot (section 33.6)
• Relay operational limits plot (P-Q diagram) (section 33.7)
• Short-circuit sweep plot (section 33.12)
• Time-distance plot (section 33.8)
• Time-overcurrent plot (section 33.4)
8. Power Park Analysis
• Annual load duration curve
• Curve plot (time series)
• Generation curves (basic analysis)
• Losses curves (basic analysis)
• Wind speed cumulative probability (basic analysis)
• Wind speed probability (basic analysis)
9. Optimal Equipment Placement

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• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)

• Complete Generation (section 19.7.8.8)
• Plant Categories (section 19.7.8.7)
• Renewable and Fossil (section 19.7.8.9)
• Duration curve (section 19.7.8.6)
10. General
• Curve plot (section 19.7.8.1)
• Bar plot (section 19.7.8.4)
• Binary bar plot (section 19.7.8.5)
• Curve plot with two y-axes (section 19.7.8.2)
• Curve-input (section 19.7.8.11)
• Vector plot (section 19.7.8.10)
• XY curve plot (section 19.7.8.3)
11. Virtual Instruments (section 19.7.8.12)
• Digital display
• Horizontal scale
• Measurement instrument
• Vertical scale
12. Others
• Button
• Command button
• Network graphic
• Schematic path
• Text
• Voltage profile (along feeder) (section 19.7.8.13)
• Voltage sag plot

19.7.8.1 Curve Plot

Curve plots are the “basic” diagrams and are typically used to display one or more plotted curves from
the results of a simulation (EMT, RMS, Quasi-dynamic). The Data Series of this plot type is described
in section 19.7.2. The following figure shows an example of a curve plot.

Figure 19.7.9: Curve Plot

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19.7.8.2 Curve Plot With Two Y-Axes

A curve plot with two y-axes is typically used for displaying together quantities which have very different
scales. The Data Series of this plot type is as described in section 19.7.2, the main difference being the
additional y-axis. The following figure shows an example of a curve plot with two y-axes.

Figure 19.7.10: Curve Plot (two y-axes)

19.7.8.3 XY Curve Plot

This plot shows one variable plotted against a second variable. The two variables can be completely
independent from each other and do not have to belong to the same element. The differences in the
Data Series of this plot type compared with the one described in section 19.7.2 are:

• Additional columns for the element and variable on the x-axis.

• A specific time range to be displayed can be defined.
• Is it not possible to add processed and aggregated results.

The following figure shows an example of a XY curve plot.

Figure 19.7.11: XY Curve Plot

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19.7.8.4 Bar Plot

The bar plot is used to visualise steady-state values such as voltages, currents and power. A bar plot
can be inserted after a calculation has been executed using the Insert Plot dialog or directly by right
clicking on an element(s) and selecting the option Show → Bar Plot→ “variable”. An example of the bar
plot is shown in the following figure.

Figure 19.7.12: Bar Plot

The Style and Layout page of the edit dialog of the bar plot the same as the Data Series, described in
section 19.7.2.2. The Curves page is different, as described below.

x-Axis Elements

The x-Axis Elements table consists of the elements whose variables are shown in the plot. If the plot is
inserted by right clicking on the element, the elements are automatically defined. Otherwise the element
can be selected by double clicking on the corresponding field.

Curves

On the Curves table, the user can select the variables to be displayed. The default shape is Bars and
the fill style can be specified by the user.

19.7.8.5 Binary Bar Plot

The Binary Bar Plot can be used to illustrate digital signals. The Data Series is as the one described in
section 19.7.2 and the following options are set by default:

• Plot Features:
– Additional curve shapes
– Data transformation: Binarisation
– Curve stacking: Values
• Curves table:
– Shape: Filled steps

An example of the binary bar plot is shown at the bottom of figure 19.7.13.

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Figure 19.7.13: Binary Bar Plot

19.7.8.6 Duration curve

With the Duration curve plot it is possible to evaluate the utilisation of specific elements such as
transformers or different power plants over a given time period. After a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation
is executed, for example, the loading of a transformer can be illustrated.

Figure 19.7.14: Duration curve of the loading of a transformer over the duration of a day

The edit dialog of the Data Series of this plot type is the same as the described in section 19.7.2. The
following options are set by default:

• Plot Features:
– Additional curve shapes
– Data transformation: Functions

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• Curves table:
– Shape: Steps
– Column Function set. See description below.

Double clicking on the column Function opens the Distribution estimation dialog, which contains the
following options:

• For the Method that is used to determine the duration curve, Histogram or Bootstrapping can be
selected. A detailed description on the methods can be found in section 44.2.5.
• The Curve can be defined through several different functions: Cumulative distribution function,
Probability density function, Quantile function and Mirrored quantile function. More details can be
found in section 44.2.1.1.
• The different methods that are used for the Estimation are User-defined, Automatic parameter
deduction, Rice Rule, Freedman-Diaconis choice and Scotts Rule. Detailed descriptions of the
estimation methods can be found in section 44.2.5.2.

19.7.8.7 Plant Categories

The Plant Categories plot is one of the energy plots and used for displaying the proportion of all defined
plant categories from the total generation in a network.

An example of the plot is shown here:

Figure 19.7.15: Total generation in a grid divided into different plant categories

The edit dialog of the Data Series of this plot type is the same as the described in section 19.7.2. The
following options are set by default:

• Plot Features:
– Additional curve shapes
– Data transformation: Energy plot
– Curve stacking: Values

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• Curves table:
– Shape: Filled steps

The Plant Categories plot can be customised as follows:

• In the Curves table all available Plant Categories are shown by default; however, the user can use
the checkbox on the Visible column to show only some categories.
• In the column Element, the defined grouping object for each category is used. By default the
Summary Grid is selected to represent all calculated generation in the network. It has to be noted
that different grouping objects can be defined for the same category, but no element is allowed to
be defined in several grouping objects.
• The order of the stacking of the curves is defined as the first entry is displayed in the plot on the
bottom, while the last entry that is defined is displayed on the top. This however, can be modified
on the plot by right clicking on a curve and selecting Move Curve → Upwards/Downwards.
• Changing the stacking to Percentage or Relative values standardises the values to 100 % or 1 to
illustrate the share of the shown variables.

The following options available for the curve plots are not available for the energy plots:
• Filter... button

• Export... button

19.7.8.8 Complete Generation

The Complete Generation plot is one of the energy plots and displays the total generation in a network.
Therefore it can be used to show, for example, the total generation in different areas of the grid, as
shown here:

Figure 19.7.16: Total generation in a grid divided into different areas

The pages on the edit dialog of the plot are the same as for the energy plot Plant Categories described
in section 19.7.8.7.

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The only difference is the default entry for the Curves, since all plant categories are summed up as
Group Generators for the whole summary grid.

19.7.8.9 Renewable and Fossil

The Renewable and Fossil plot is one of the energy plots and displays the renewable and fossil shares
of the generation in a network.

An example of the plot is shown here:

Figure 19.7.17: Total generation in a grid divided into renewable and fossil categories

The pages on the edit dialog of the plot are the same as for the energy plot Plant Categories described
in section 19.7.8.7.

The only difference is the default entry for the Curves since the plant categories in the grid are divided
into fossil and renewable categories.

19.7.8.10 Vector Plot

A vector plot is used to visualise complex values such as voltages, currents and apparent power as
vectors. A complex variable can be defined and shown in one of two different representations:
• Polar coordinates, e.g. magnitude and phase of the current
• Cartesian coordinates, e.g. active-and reactive power

Figure 19.7.18 shows an example of a vector plot.

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Figure 19.7.18: Vector Plot

Note: A vector plot can be shown after a load flow calculation or before and after a transient simulation.

A vector plot can be inserted using the Insert Plot dialog or directly by right clicking on the element and
selecting the option Show → Vector Plot→ “variable”

Variables Page

• Variables table: if the plot is inserted by right clicking on the element, the element and complex
variable are automatically defined on the Variables table. Otherwise the element and complex
variable can be selected by double clicking on the corresponding fields.
• Automatic: the colour of the new curves in the plot will be set automatically when the option is
enabled. The Set now button will assign the colour to all the existing curves again.
• Show all phases in plot: if checked, all the phases of the selected variable will be shown (for
unbalanced calculations)
• Scales table: in most plots, the x and y scales are given by the minimum and maximum value of
each scale. A vector plot can’t be defined using minimum and maximum for each scale because
the x- and the y-ratio must be equal. The ratio for each unit is therefore set as the parameter units
per axis tick. In addition the location of the origin can be defined. If all shown variables have the
same unit, the axis are labelled with values and unit. If there is more than one unit, the labels
show ticks. A legend showing the ratio of the units is added in the bottom-right corner of the plot.
• Min. values: the minimum values for the x and y axes can be defined. This will modify the centre
on the plot.
• Auto Scale: if turned on, the scales are adapted whenever a new calculation is ready; otherwise
the defined scale limits will be used.

Advanced Page
• Label of Vectors: the label of the vector can be displayed in the different coordinate representa-
tions. The different coordinate systems allow display with either the real and imaginary values or
the magnitude and phase angles of the vectors.
• Frame: this defines the frame of the plot (off, simple, 3D or 3D with user defined label)
• Representation of Coordinates: the coordinates can be displayed as polar or cartesian repre-
sentation. For this to be visible at least the main grid should be visible, the visibility of the grid is
defined on the context sensitive menu of the plot (i.e. Right click on plot → Grid).

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Apart for all the options already described, which are also accessible via the context sensitive menu of
the plot, the following additional options are available for the vector plot (only available by right click):

• Edit Element: opens the edit dialog of the element whose variables are displayed in the plot.
• Jump to Element: shows a list of all connected elements from which one can be selected. Here
the side of a branch element is automatically checked. The Jump To option is not available if there
is more than one element shown in the same plot or if there are no calculation results available.

• Set Origin: moves the origin to the right-clicked position.

• Centre Origin: sets the origin to the centre of the plot.

19.7.8.11 Curve-Input Plot

The curve input command is used for measuring printed curves. The original curves must be available
in one of the supported formats and are displayed as a background in the curve input plot as shown in
figure 19.7.19. This plot then allows plot points to be defined by successive mouse clicks.

Figure 19.7.19: Curve-Input Plot

The curve input plot allows the measurement and editing of single curves or group of curves at once.
The measured curve points will be stored in a Matrix object, which is why, before inserting this plot, it is
necessary to define or select the corresponding matrix.

The matrix object should be created inside the project, for example in the Study Case folder, by opening
the Data Manager and once inside the Study Case folder (or selected folder), clicking on the New icon
( ). From the elements list, the Matrix (IntMat) should be selected as shown in figure 19.7.20. The
matrix should have at least two columns and one point (inside the curve) has to be manually defined.

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Figure 19.7.20: Defining new matrix

The fields of the curve-input plot edit dialog are:

• Background: by clicking on the button the location of the graphic file to be used as background
image can be selected; several formats are supported.

• Limits: this is used to set the range of the axes of the curves as they are in the graphics file.
• Scale: the options Linear and Log. (logarithmic) can be selected and should be as per the graphic
file.
• Curves: two different types of curves can be input:
– Single: each matrix input defines a single curve. The first column in the matrix holds the
x-values, the second one the y values. Other columns are ignored.
– Set of Curves: only the first matrix is used for input. The first column in the matrix holds the
x-values, the other columns hold the y-values of each curve in the group of curves.
• Interpolation: the measured curve is drawn between the measured points by interpolation. The
available modes of interpolation are:
– Linear
– Cub. Spline
– Polygon
– Hermite

• Curves Tables: the matrix or list of matrices to be used has to be set in this table.

The rest of the setting of the plot are done using the context sensitive menu, which is accessed by right
clicking on the plot. The settings are described below in the order they should be executed.

• Set Axis: with this option the origin of the axes and the length of the axes can be adjusted
according to the figure imported.
– Origin: sets the origin of the graph to be inserted
– x-Axis (y=Origin): sets the x-axis dependent on the y-axis origin.
– x-Axis: sets the x-axis independent of the y-axis.
– y-Axis (x=Origin): sets the y-axis dependent on the x-axis origin.
– y-Axis: sets the y-axis independent of the x-axis

• Active Curve: sets the curve to modify

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• Input: specifies the input mode:

– x/y-Pairs: each left mouse click adds a point to the curve.
– Drag & Drop: turns on the “edit mode”: all points can be dragged and dropped to change
their y-position or left click and delete the point with the Del key.
– Off: switches off the measurement mode

• Interpolate All: interpolates undefined y values for all curves for all defined x-values
• Interpolate N: interpolates undefined y values of curve N for all defined x-values

19.7.8.12 Virtual Instruments

The virtual instruments are basically measurement instruments that can be inserted into the plot to
present steady state values. The variable can be displayed with one of the following instruments:

• Digital display
• Horizontal scale

• Vertical scale
• Measurement instrument

An example of all the available measurement instruments is shown on the right side of the following
figure; the maximum and minimum limits, as well as the element and the variable presented should be
defined in the edit dialog of the instrument.

Figure 19.7.21: Measurement Instruments

19.7.8.13 Voltage Profile Plot

The Voltage Profile Plot (along feeder) shows the voltage profile of a radial network based on the load
flow calculation results. The Voltage Profile Plot is directly connected to a feeder object defined in the
network, so it can only be created for parts of the system where a feeder is assigned.

The Voltage Profile Plot requires a successful load flow calculation before it can display any results.
The voltage profile plot can be inserted, as all the plots, using the Insert Plot dialog, however, since it is
linked to one or more feeders, in this case it is recommended to create the plot directly from the context
sensitive menu of the feeder element, selecting Show → Voltage Profile.

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An example of a voltage profile plot is shown here:

Figure 19.7.22: Voltage profile along feeders

Customising the Voltage Profile Plot

Scales Page

The x-axis variable can be set to one of the following options:

• Distance: shows the distance from the beginning of the feeder in km.
• Bus Index: each bus is numbered sequentially from the beginning of the feeder and all of the
buses are displayed equidistantly on the plot.
• Other: this option allows plotting against a user defined variable. Only variables available at all
terminals in the feeder can be used.
By default, any branch with a loading greater than 80 % will appear red on the voltage profile plot and
any branch loaded less than the Lower Limit will be coloured blue. These colours and limits can be
adjusted in the Branch Colouring field.

The Parallel Branches option is required because the voltage profile plot only shows a single connection
line between nodes, regardless of how many parallel branches connect the two nodes. If there is a
situation where one of these parallel lines is below the Lower Limit and another is above the Upper
Limit, then the parallel branches option determines whether the single line in the voltage profile plot is
either the line with the maximum loading or the line with the minimum loading.

Curves Page

On the Curves page, the colour and style of the displayed feeders can be modified; also, a display filter
can be configured to show only the nodes with a nominal values between the specified values and to
ignore nodes with voltages below a specified limit.

Advanced Page

On this page the frame of the plot and the visibility of the legend can be defined. The colour of the
busbar (terminal) names on the voltage profile plot can also be modified as follows:
• Off: does not display any bus names
• Black: shows all names in black
• Coloured acc. to Feeder: colours the bus names according to the colour of the different feeders.

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The context sensitive menu of the plot shows additional functions regarding the voltage profile plot
including:
• Edit Feeder: opens the edit dialog of the feeder related to the plot.

• Edit Data: opens the edit dialog of the selected line, transformer or other element.
• Edit and Browse Data: shows the selected element in the Data Manager.
• Mark in Graphic: marks the selected element in the single line graphic(s).

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Chapter 20

Data Extensions

20.1 Introduction

Introduced in PowerFactory 2018, the Data Extensions functionality allows users to extend their data
models by adding user-defined attributes for elements and other objects in a PowerFactory project.
Furthermore, if the users find that defining additional attributes for existing objects is not sufficient to
address their needs, it is also possible to define entire new classes of object.

The definitions of the attributes, which are done on an object class basis, include the data type (such as
integer, double, string), description, unit and default value. Once defined, the new attributes are treated
by PowerFactory in the same way as the in-built attributes, available to scripts, DGS interface etc. Data
Extensions are specific to the project, but the configuration can be copied from one project to another,
where the new Data Extensions will be aggregated with any existing Data Extensions.

20.2 Data Extension Configuration

20.2.1 Creating Data Extensions

To create Data Extensions within a project, select from the main toolbar Tools → Data Extensions→
Configuration. The Data Extension Configurations are stored in the project Settings folder, and the
required *.SetDataext will be automatically created as required.

When the Tools → Data Extensions→ Configuration command is used, a dialog box appears, which
allows the user to create new Data Extensions or modify or delete existing ones.

To create a new Data Extension variable definition, follow these steps:

• Use the New Object icon ; this will then create a new IntAddonvars object, where the attributes
are configured.
• Select or type in the name of the class for which the attributes are to be configured. “Wildcards”
(e.g. Elm*) may be used if the attributes are to be made available to multiple classes. Note that if
the class name is not recognised as an existing class, it will be assumed that the user wishes to
create an entirely new class (see section 20.2.2 below)
• Give the definition a meaningful name.
• Use right-click to append rows in the table below.
• Populate the rows as required. The Name is the actual attribute name and the Description will
appear, for example, as a column heading if the attribute is used in a flexible data page.

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• The attribute Type is selected from a drop-down list, and the Unit and Initial Value can also be
specified as required.
• Click on OK to save the new definition.

Note that once Data Extensions have been created, further additions or changes will result in a need to
migrate the data within the project, and a version will be created in case there is a need to roll back to
the state prior to the change.

Modifications to Data Extensions must be done using the Tools → Data Extensions→ Configuration
command. Modifications cannot be done by going to the Settings folder of the project and accessing
the Data Extensions directly there. It should also be noted that it is currently not possible to change an
attribute’s type in an existing Data Extension. The attribute must be deleted, the configuration saved
and then the attribute can be redefined with a new type.

20.2.2 User Defined Classes

In an enhancement to the above process, the user can choose to define a completely new class of
object, then ascribe the attributes to this new object class.

To define a new object class, follow the above steps but instead of using an existing class name enter
a new class name. PowerFactory will create the new class, prefixing it with “Ext” to indicate that it is a
user-defined class.

Once the new class is defined, objects of that class can be created and handled like other objects in the
project, for example being populated with data and accessed via DPL or Python scripts.

20.3 Using Data Extensions

The new attributes can be treated in much the same way as existing attributes, for example added to
flexible data pages or accessed by scripts; the use of characteristics with such parameters, however, is
not possible.

To add a new attribute to a flexible data page (see 10.6 for more information about the use of flexible
data pages), open up the Variable Definition dialog and select Data Extension on the left-hand side.

They have a prefix p, rather than the e used for the built-in attributes, so for example if Data Extension
for synchronous machines includes a new attribute Size, the parameter will be shown as p:Size.

The value of a Data Extension attribute can be modified within the object’s edit dialog (select the Data
Extension page) or in a Flexible data page, as with other parameters. Attributes of primitive data types,
i.e. integer and double, can be edited in place. For more complex attributes including strings, double-
clicking into the cell opens a dedicated edit value dialog. Although it is not possible to type such values
directly in a flexible data page, it is still possible to copy and paste them from one object to another.

As mentioned in the introduction, Data Extensions can be used by scripts, DGS imports etc. Recording
in scenarios is also supported; however, this is restricted to attributes of type string, integer, double or
object.

20.4 Sharing Data Extensions

Having created Data Extensions in one project, users may wish to use them in other projects. It is
possible to fetch Data Extension configurations from another project using the command Tools → Data
Extensions→ Copy settings from project. This process is additive, i.e. the fetched Data Extensions will

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be added to any existing Data Extensions in the project. However, the user will be required to resolve
any conflicts such as duplicate attribute names for the same object class.

Another option open to users if they have Data Extensions which they want to use routinely is to create
them in the default project (in the Configuration, Default folder) so that every new project created in the
database will automatically have them.

As the Data Extensions are part of the project, they are therefore retained when moving or copying
projects. Likewise, they are also retained when projects are exported as .pfd or snapshot export .dzs
files, but will not be retained if the older .dz export is used.

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Chapter 21

Data Management

21.1 Introduction

The basic elements of project management within the PowerFactory environment were introduced in
Chapter 4 (PowerFactory Overview). They allow the user to generate network designs and administer
all input information and settings related to PowerFactory calculations and analyses. The project itself
is much more than a simple folder which stores all objects which comprise a power system model; it
allows the user to do advanced management tasks such as: versioning, deriving, comparing, merging
and sharing. These advanced features simplify data management in multi-user environments.

The following sections explain each of the data management functions in more detail:

• Project Versions;
• Derived Projects;
• Comparing and Merging Projects;
• How to update a Project;
• Sharing Projects;
• Combining Projects; and
• Database Archiving.

21.2 Project Versions

The section explains the PowerFactory concept of a version. The section first explains what a version
is and when it can be used. Next the procedure for creating a version is explained. Specific procedures
related to versions such as rolling back to a version, checking if a version is the basis for a derived
project and deleting a version are then explained.

21.2.1 What is a Version?

A Version is a snapshot of a project taken at a certain point in time. Using versions, the historic
development of a project can be controlled. Also, the previous state of a project can be recovered by
rolling back a version. From the PowerFactory database point of view, a version is a read-only copy of
the original project (at the moment of version creation), which is stored inside a Version (IntVersion, ).
Versions are stored inside the original project in a special folder called Versions.

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The concept of versions is illustrated in Figure 21.2.1. At time 𝑡0, the project ’SIN’ is created. After a
time, 𝑡1, when the owner has made several changes they decide to make a copy of the project in its
current state by creating the version ’V1’. After more time, 𝑡2, and after more changes with respect to
’V1’, another version ’V2’ is created by the owner. The version control can continue with time like this,
with versions accumulating with a periodicity of 𝑡.

After versions are created, the owner can revert the project to the state of the version by using the
Rollback function. This destroys all modifications implemented after a version was created (including
all versions created after the rolled-back version.

Figure 21.2.1: Project versions

21.2.2 How to Create a Version

This sub-section describes the procedure for creating a version. To create a version of the active project
follow these steps:

1. Right-click on the active project.

2. Select New → Version from the context-sensitive menu. Alternatively, use the option File → New
Version from the main PowerFactory menu. The dialog for the new version appears.
3. Set the desired options (explained in the next section) and press OK. PowerFactory automatically
creates and stores the version in the Versions folder (which is automatically created if it does not
yet exist).

21.2.2.1 Options in the Version Dialog

Point in Time By default this is set to the system clock time when the version was created. However, it
is also possible to enter an earlier time (back to the beginning of retention period of the project).

Note: Setting a Point in Time earlier than the clock time means that the version is created considering
the state of the project at the time entered. This can be used for example, to revert the project to
a previous state, even though other versions have not yet been created.

Notify users of derived projects If this option is enabled, when a user of a project that is derived from
the active project activates their derived project, they are informed that the new version is available.
Thereafter, updates of the derived project can be made (for further information about derived projects
refer to Section 21.3).

Complete project approval for versioning required If this option is enabled, PowerFactory checks if
all the objects in the active project are approved. If Not Approved objects are found, an error message
is printed and the version is not created.

Note: The Approval Status is found on the Description page in the dialog of most grid and library
objects.

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21.2.3 How to Rollback a Project

This sub-section describes the use of the Rollback function to revert a project to the state of a version
of that project. For example, consider a project called ’V0’, created at a point in time, 𝑡. If a Rollback to
’V0’ is completed, the project returns to its state at the creation of ’V0’. After the Rollback, all changes
implemented after ’V0’ (i.e. after V0’s point in time) are deleted. Also, all versions newer than ’V0’ are
removed. This concept is illustrated in Figure 21.2.2.

Figure 21.2.2: Example of a rollback

To complete a rollback

1. Deactivate the target project.

2. Right-click on the version that you wish to rollback to and select the option Rollback to this version
from the context-sensitive menu.
3. Press OK when the confirmation message appears.

Note that a Rollback is not allowed (and therefore not enabled in the context-sensitive menu) if a newer
version of the project exists and this version is the base of a derived project. A rollback cannot be
undone!

Note: A version can only be deleted if it does not have derived projects.

21.2.4 How to Check if a Version is the Base for a Derived Project

The following steps should be followed to check if a version is the base for a derived project:

1. Activate the project.

2. Go to the Versions folder inside the project.
3. Right-click on the Version that should be checked. This should be done via the right window pane
in the Data Manager, not the main Data Manager tree.

4. Select the option Output. . . → Derived Projects.

5. A list of derived projects will be shown in PowerFactory ’s output window.

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21.2.5 How to Delete a Version

To delete a version:

1. Activate the project containing the version.

2. Go to the Versions folder inside the project.
3. Right-click on the Version that should be deleted.

4. Select the option Delete.

21.3 Derived Projects

This section explains the concept of a derived project. For background information regarding the use of
derived projects, see sub-Section 21.3.1. In addition, sub-Section 21.3.2 describes the procedure for
creating a derived project.

21.3.1 Derived Projects Background

As is often the case, several users might wish to work on the same project. To avoid large amounts of
data duplication that would be required to create a project copy for each user, DIgSILENT has developed
a virtual copy approach called derived projects. From the user’s point of view, a derived project is like
a normal copy of a project version. However, only the differences between the original project version
(the base project) and the virtual copy (the derived project) are stored in the database. Because the
derived project is based on a version, changes made to the base project do not affect it. Like ’normal’
projects, derived projects can be controlled over time by the use of versions, but these derived versions
cannot be used to create further derived projects.

Note: A derived project is a local ’virtual copy’ of a version of a base project (master project):
- It behaves like a “real copy” from the user’s point of view.
- Internally, only the data differences between the base project and the derived project are stored
in the database.
- This approach reduces the data overhead.

In a multi-user database, the data administrator might publish a base project in a public area of the
database. Every user can subsequently create their own derived project and use as if it is the original
base project. Changes made by individual users are stored in their respective derived projects, so that
the base project remains the same for all users.

In a single-user database, the data administrator must export the base project. The user of the derived
project must always have this project imported. However, different users of the same base project can
exchange their derived project. Therefore the derived project should not be exported with option Export
derived project as regular project enabled. See Section 8.1.4 for further details.

The purpose of a derived project is that all users work with an identical power system model. The
derived project always remains connected to the base project.

The concept of derived projects is illustrated in Figure 21.3.1; here version ’Version3’ of the base project
(’MasterProject’) was used to create ’DerivedProject’. After ’DerivedProject’ was created, two versions
of it were created.

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Figure 21.3.1: Principle of derived projects

At any stage, the data administrator might create a version of a base project which has derived projects
from other versions of the base project. The user might wish to update their derived project with one of
these new versions. Alternatively, the data administrator might like to incorporate changes made in a
derived project to the base project. All of these features are possible, by using the Compare and Merge
Tool, explained in Section 21.4.

Figure 21.3.2: Derived projects in a multi-user database

In the Data Manager, a derived project looks like a normal project. The Derived Project page of its
dialog has a reference where the user can see the base project and the version used to derive the
project.

Users are notified of changes in the base project if: there is a new version of the base project (newer
than the currently-used version) which has the option Notify users of derived projects enabled (the
user/administrator enables this option when creating a new version), and the option Disable notification
at activation disabled (found on the Derived Project page of the project dialog).

The user may update a derived project when they next activate it, provided that the conditions stated
above are met. The newest version that can be used to update a derived project is referred to (if
available) in the Most recent Version field of the dialog. Users can compare this new version with their
own derived project and decide which changes to include in the derived project. For comparing and
accepting or refusing individual changes, the Compare and Merge Tool is used. For information about
the Compare and Merge Tool refer to Section 21.4.

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Figure 21.3.3: New version of base project in a multi-user database

Figure 21.3.4: Merging the new version of the base project into derived projects

21.3.2 How to Create a Derived Project

The most direct and intuitive method for creating a Derived Project is by means of the Data Manager,
as explained below:

1. Right-click on the desired base project in the left pane of the Data Manager,
2. Select the option Create Derived Project from the context-sensitive menu,

3. Select the source Version of the base project using the data browser that appears automatically,
4. Edit, if required, the predefined settings of the Derived Project and
5. Press OK.

After the derived project is created, it can be used in a similar way as a regular project.

Note: • The base or master project has to have at least one version before other projects can be
derived from it.

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• A derived project cannot be used as a base project, i.e. it is not possible to create a derived
project from another derived project.
• Whether a project is derived or not can be checked on the Derived Project page of the project
dialog.
• To create a derived project from a base project stored in another user’s account, read access
is required. See Section 21.6 for further details.

The derived project can be exported as a “Regular Project” or with the base project. This option can be
selected from the Export dialog.

21.4 Comparing and Merging Projects

This section describes the procedure for comparing and merging projects within the PowerFactory
database. There are many circumstances whereby it may be desirable and/or necessary to merge
data from multiple projects. For example, when the data administrator updates a master project that is
the base project for a derived project that a user is working with. The Compare and Merge Tool (CMT)
can be used to update the user’s project with the data changes, yet also allows the user control over
which changes are implemented.

This section is separated into six sub-sections. Firstly, the background of the CMT is presented. The fol-
lowing sub-section explains the procedure needed for merging together or comparing two projects. Sub-
Section 21.4.3 explains the procedure for merging or comparing three projects. In sub-Section 21.4.4,
the advanced options of the CMT are explained. The CMT uses a diff browser for showing the
differences and conflicts between compared projects and also for allowing data assignments. This
is explained in sub-Section 21.4.5.

21.4.1 Compare and Merge Tool Background

When working collaboratively in a multi-user environment, a data administrator might often need to
update the master project to create a version based on updates completed by one or more users to
projects derived from the master project. The Compare and Merge Tool (CMT) is used for this purpose.
This tool can be used for project comparison in addition to the merging of project data. It is capable of
a two-way comparison between two projects and also a three-way comparison for three projects.

Internally, PowerFactory refers to each of the compared projects according to the following nomencla-
ture:

• <Base> Project - the base project for comparison.

• <1st> - the first project to compare to the <Base> project.
• <2nd> - the second project to compare to the <Base> project and to the <1st> project (three-
way comparison only).

The CMT compares the chosen projects and generates an interactive window known as the CMT diff
browser to show the differences. For a two-way merge, the changes found in the <1st> project can be
implemented in the <Base>, provided that the user selects <1st> as the source (<Base> is by default
the target). When merging three projects together, the target is either the <1st> or <2nd> project.

21.4.2 How to Merge or Compare Two Projects Using the Compare and Merge
Tool

This section describes the procedure for merging together or comparing two projects using the Compare
and Merge Tool (CMT) (ComMerge). Note that the comparison is completed using a similar procedure

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but with slight differences that will also be explained here.

To merge or compare two projects:

1. In the Data Manager, right-click on an inactive project and choose Select as Base to Compare.

2. Right-click on a second (inactive) project and select Compare to [Name of Base Project]. The
CMT options dialog will appear. The <Base> and the <1st> project are listed in the Compare
section of the dialog.
3. Optional: If a third project should be included in the comparison, the box next to <2nd> must be
checked. The third project can then be selected with a data browser by using the icon. See
Section 21.4.3 for a more detailed explanation of the 3-way comparison.

4. Optional: If the base and compare projects should be swapped around, press the button. This
would be the case if Project A should be the <1st> project and Project B should be the <Base>.

5. Select one of the options Compare only, Manually or Automatically. The differences between
these three choices are:
• Compare only : If the two projects should only be compared and no merge is desired, then
select Compare only. This disables the merge functionality and only the differences between
the two projects will be shown.
• Manually : When this option is selected, the user will be asked to make assignments (i.e.
to choose the source project data for common objects that are merged together). For this
option, the target project can also be selected. Selecting <Base> will merge changes into
the <Base> project, whereas selecting <1st> will instead merge changes into the <1st>
comparison project.
• Automatically : When this option is selected, PowerFactory will attempt to automatically
merge the two projects together, by automatically making data assignments. In a two-way
comparison, merging will be automatically into the base project (the base is automatically
assumed to be the ’target’ for the merging procedure). Note that if conflicts are detected
during an automatic merge, the CMT will automatically switch to manual mode.
6. Press Execute to run the compare or merge. The CMT diff browser will appear (unless an
automatic merge was selected and no conflicts were identified by PowerFactory ). Interpreting
and using the diff browser is described in Section 21.4.5.

Note: It is possible to assign user-defined names to each of the compared projects. This makes it
easier to recognise which project is being referred to by the CMT later on in the diff browser (see
Section 21.4.5). For example, the user might wish to name two compared projects ’Master’ and
’User’, respectively. User-defined names can be implemented by typing the desired name in the
as ... field in the CMT options dialog. These user-defined names are limited to a maximum of 10
characters.

21.4.3 How to Merge or Compare Three Projects Using the Compare and Merge
Tool

This section describes the procedure for merging or comparing three projects using the Compare and
Merge Tool (CMT). The comparison procedure is completed using a similar method to that used for a
two-way merge or compare, but with minor differences that will be explained here.

To merge or compare three projects:

1. In the Data Manager, right-click an inactive project and choose Select as Base to Compare.

2. In the window on the right of the Data Manager, hold the CTRL key to multi-select a second and
third inactive project.

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3. Right-click the multi-selection and select the option Compare to “<project>”. The CMT options
dialog will appear as shown in Figure 21.4.1. The <Base>, the <1st> and the <2nd> project are
listed in the Compare section of the dialog.

Figure 21.4.1: Compare and Merge Tool options dialog for a three-way merge

4. Select one of the options Compare only, Manually or Automatically. The differences between
these three choices are:
• Compare only : If only two projects should be compared and no merge is required, then select
the radio button Compare only. This disables the merge functionality and only the differences
between the two projects will be shown.
• Manually : When this option is selected, the user will be asked to make assignments (to
choose the source project data for common objects that are merged together). Using this
option, the target project can also be selected. For a three-way merge, merging cannot
be done into the <Base>, meaning that either the <1st> or the <2nd> project must be
selected.
• Automatically : When this option is selected, PowerFactory will attempt to merge the three
projects together, via automatic data assignments. As for the option Manually, the target
can be either the <1st> or <2nd> project. Note that if ’conflicts’ are detected during an
automatic merge, the CMT will automatically switch to manual mode.
5. If using options Manually or Automatically, the assignment priority must also be selected, by
choosing an option from the Assign drop-down menu. This defines the default assignment in
the CMT diff browser (or automatic merge) when PowerFactory identifies conflicts. For example,
say the CMT identifies that the load ’L1’ has an active power of 10 MW in <Base>, 12 MW in
<1st> and 13 MW in <2nd>. By choosing the option Automatically and favour 1st, the default
assignment for ’L1’ would be <1st>, and a power of 12 MW would be assigned to this load in the
target project (provided that the user did not manually alter the assignment).
6. Press Execute to run the compare or merge. The CMT diff browser will appear (unless an
automatic merge was selected and no conflicts were identified by PowerFactory ). Using the diff
browser is described in Section 21.4.5.

Note: It is possible to assign user-defined names to each of the compared projects. This makes it
easier to recognise which project is being referred to by the CMT later on in the diff browser (see
Section 21.4.5). For example, the user might wish to name two compared projects ’Master’ and
’User’, respectively. User-defined names can be implemented by typing the desired name in the
as ... field in the CMT options dialog. These user-defined names are limited to a maximum of 10
characters.

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21.4.4 Compare and Merge Tool Advanced Options

Search correspondents for added objects

This option is only available for a three-way merge and is enabled by default. If enabled, PowerFactory
can automatically align two independently added objects as being the same object. This option can
be useful when completing a comparison on projects where users have added the same object (same
name) in each of their respective projects, and the user would like to ensure that PowerFactory identifies
this object as being the same object. Note that this option is only considered when the Identify
correspondents always by name/rules option is also enabled.

Consider approval information

By default this option is disabled, which means that information on the Description page under Approval
Information is not compared. For example, if this option is disabled and an object’s Approval status
changes from Not Approved to Approved or vice versa, then this modification would not be registered
by the CMT comparison engine.

Depth

This option controls whether the CMT compares only the selected objects or also all objects contained
within the compared objects. By default, Chosen and contained objects is enabled which means
the CMT compares all objects within the selected comparison objects. This is generally the most
appropriate option when merging projects.

Ignore differences <

This field defines the tolerance of the comparison engine when comparing numerical parameters. If
the difference between two numerical parameters is less than the value entered into this field, then the
comparison will show the two values as equal, =.

21.4.5 Compare and Merge Tool ’diff browser’

After the CMT options have been set, press the Execute button to start the CMT comparison. The
comparison and assignment results are then presented in a data browser window (the CMT diff browser
window shown in Figure 21.4.2). The diff browser is divided into three parts:

• Data Tree window on the left;

• Comparison and Assignment window on the right; and

• Output window at the bottom.

These features are explained in the following sections.

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Figure 21.4.2: Compare and Merge Tool diff browser after a three-way merge

Output Window

The output window displays reports from the context-sensitive (right-click) menu, and other error infor-
mation.

How to use the Comparison and Assignment window

In the CMT Comparison and Assignment Window, a list of the compared objects is shown. The
window appears slightly different depending on whether a two-way merge, a three-way merge or a
comparison has been performed. For instance, after a comparison, the Assigned from and Assignment
Conflict columns are not shown. After a two-way merge, the columns with the project names will show
<Base> and <1st> (or user-defined names), whereas after a three-way merge they will show <1st>
and <2nd>. A comparison result symbol, indicating the differences found for each object from the list,
is displayed in the columns <Base> and <1st> after a two-way merge and in columns <1st> and
<2nd> after a three-way merge. The possible combinations of these symbols are shown and explained
in Tables 21.4.1 and 21.4.2.

Base 1st Comment

The object has been removed from the <1st> project
The object has been added to the <1st> project
A parameter of the object has been modified in the <1st> project
The object is identical in both projects

Table 21.4.1: Possible results after a two-way comparison or merge

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1st 2nd Result Comment

Objects are identical in all projects
A parameter of the object is modified in the
<2nd> project
A parameter of the object is modified in the
<1st> project
A new object in the <2nd> project
A new object in the <1st> project
Object removed from the <2nd> project
Object removed from the <1st> project
Modified in both projects but the same
modifications in both
Modified in both projects but the modifica-
tions are different
Modified in the <1st> project and re-
moved from the <2nd> project
Modified in the <2nd> project and re-
moved from the <1st> project
Identical object added to both projects
Object added to both projects but param-
eters are different
Object removed from both projects

Table 21.4.2: Possible results after a three-way comparison or merge

For a project merge (i.e. the Merge option was enabled in the command dialog), the Assigned from
must define the source project of the changes to implement in the target project. All listed objects must
have an Assignment. If a certain change should not be implemented in the target; then the ’target’
project must be selected as the source.

Special attention should be paid to all results indicated by the ’conflict’ symbol . This symbol shows
that the objects are different in both compared projects or that another error has occurred. In the case
of conflicts, the user must always indicate the source project for the data.

In a two-way merge, the only available sources for assignment are the <Base> (which is also the
target) and <1st>. In a three-way merge, the possible sources are <Base>, <1st> and <2nd>. The
assignment can be made manually by double-clicking on the corresponding cell in the Assigned from
column and selecting the desired source, or double-clicking the <Base>, <1st> or <2nd> cell that
the user wishes to assign. However, this task can be tedious in large projects where there are many
differences. To rapidly assign many objects, the objects can be multi-selected and then Assign from . . .
or Assign with Children from . . . can be selected from the context-sensitive (right-click) menu.

Following the assignment of all the objects, the projects can be merged by pressing the Merge button.
The changes are then automatically implemented in the target project.

Note: The Comparison and Assignment window always shows the selected object in the Data Tree
window in the first row.

Data Tree Window

The window on the left side of Figure 21.4.2 shows the Data Tree, which is similar in appearance
to PowerFactory ś Data Manager tree. This window shows the compared objects in a normal project
tree structure. At each level of the tree, there is an indication on the right showing the status of the
comparison of the contained objects (and the object itself). The legend for the comparison indication is
shown in Table 21.4.3.

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Icon/Text Meaning
Assignments/comparison is okay
Conflicts exist
Mixed/<Base>/<1st>/<2nd> The text indicates the assignments
within by indicating the assigned
project. If assignments within are from
multiple different sources, then ’Mixed’
will be shown.
Assignments missing
Bold red font Three-way merge - information will be
lost during the merge
Two-way merge - information could be
lost during the merge

Table 21.4.3: Data Tree window legend

Diff Browser Toolbar

As previously mentioned, the objects displayed in the CMT window can be sorted and organised by the
toolbar as shown in Figure 21.4.3. The buttons available are explained in this section.

Figure 21.4.3: Compare and Merge Tool ’diff browser’ toolbar

Modifications to be shown The Modifications to be shown drop-down menu allows the results
in the comparison windows to be filtered according to their comparison status. Possible filter
options for a three-way comparison are:

• All objects
• All modifications (default)
• All modifications in <1st> (show all modifications, additions and deletions in the <1st> project)
• All modifications in <2nd> (show all modifications, additions and deletions in the <2nd> project)

• All modifications in both (show only those objects which exist in both projects and have been
modified in both projects)
• All modifications in both but different (show only those objects which exist in both projects and
have been modified in both projects to different values)

• Added in <1st> (show only objects added to the <1st> project)

• Modified in <1st> (show only objects modified in the <1st> project)
• Deleted in <1st> (show only objects deleted from the <1st> project)
• Added in <2nd> (show only objects added to the <2nd> project)

• Modified in <2nd> (show only objects modified in the <2nd> project)

• Deleted in <2nd> (show only objects deleted from the <2nd> project)

The following options are available for a two-way comparison:

• All objects

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• All modifications
• Added in <1st>

• Modified in <1st>
• Deleted in <1st>

Only one option can be selected at a time.

Show all objects inside chosen object This button will list all compared objects and also
all contained objects (at every level of the tree).

Show graphical elements Pressing this button will prevent graphical differences from ap-
pearing in the Comparison window. Because graphical changes often occur, and are usually
trivial (i.e. a slight adjustment to the x-axis position of an object), this button is extremely useful
for organising the data.

Detail mode and Detail mode class select The functionality of these two buttons is
identical to their function in the Data Manager.

Show only not assigned Filters the display to show only objects not yet assigned. This filter
is only available when the merge option is used. By default all assigned and unassigned objects
are displayed.

Show only Objects with assignment conflicts Only objects with assignment conflicts are
displayed. This filter is only available when the merge option is used. By default objects with and
without assignment conflicts are displayed.

Group dependent objects If this option is enabled, dependent objects are listed indented
underneath each listed comparison object. A dependent object is defined as an object that is
referenced by another object. For example, a line type (TypLne) is a dependent object of a line
element (ElmLne), as are the cubicles that connect the line element to a terminal. If the objects
are grouped and not filtered otherwise, every object has to be listed at least once but can be
listed several times as a dependency. Non-primary objects (such as graphical elements) are only
listed separately if they are not listed as a dependency for another object.

Dependent objects are not filtered. By default, the grouping of dependent objects is not displayed
because this type of display can quickly expand to become unusable (because in a typical project
there are many dependencies).

Diff window right-click menu options

A context-sensitive menu can be accessed by right-clicking on a cell or an object in the Data

Tree window or in the Comparison and Assignment window. The following options are available:
Show Object . . . A project selection window will appear so that the user can select to show
specific object data. After the reference project has been selected, the dialog of the selected
object is then displayed. The dialog is read-only.

Output Modification Details This prints a report to the output window showing the details of the
differences for the selected objects. The format of the report is an ASCII table with the modified
parameters as rows and the parameter values in each compared project as columns. The date
and time of the last modification along with the database user who made the last change are
always shown in the first two rows.

Output Non-OPD Modification Details This option is similar to the Output Modification Details
option, but it only shows the modifications that are not classed as Operational Data.

Align Manually This option allows the compared objects to be realigned across the compared
projects. What this means is that disparate objects can instead be compared directly. This could
be useful for example when two different users have added an object to their derived projects but

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each has given it a slightly different name, even though the objects are representing the same
’real world’ object. The CMT would see these objects as different objects by default. In this case,
the data administrator might wish to tell PowerFactory that these two different objects are the
same object. This can be achieved using the Align Manually function.

Ignore Missing References For every compared object, missing references can be optionally
ignored. The assignment check will then not check the references of the object. Missing refer-
ences can also be considered again by using the Consider Missing References option. By default
missing references are not ignored.

Set Marker in Tree A right-click in the Data Tree window allows the user to set a marker within
the Data Tree. This has the functionality similar to a bookmark and the user can return to this
point in the Data Tree at any time by using the Jump to Marker ”...” in Tree. Note that it is only
possible to set one marker at a time; setting a new marker will automatically overwrite the last
marker.

Diff window buttons

The various diff window buttons (as highlighted in Figure 21.4.4) will now be explained.

Figure 21.4.4: Compare and Merge Tool ’Diff window’ with buttons highlighted

Check This button checks that all assignments are okay. The following conflicts are checked for
all compared objects:
• Missing assignment;

• Missing parent (parent object of an assigned object will not exist in the target after merge.)
• Missing reference (referenced object of an assigned object will not exist in the target after merge.)
All conflicts are printed as errors to the output window of the CMT. Conflicts are listed in groups
and with the icon in the Data Tree and in the Comparison and Assignment window.

Recompare After a realignment, it is necessary to run the CMT again using this button to update
the comparison results.

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Merge The merge procedure updates the target by copying objects or parameters or by deleting
objects according to the assignments. Before the merge procedure is started, an assignment
check is done. The merge procedure is cancelled if the check detects conflicts. If no conflicts
are detected, the diff browser is closed and then the merge procedure is started. After the merge
procedure is complete, all data collected by the CMT is discarded.

Info The Info dialog called by the Info button shows more information about the comparison:
• Database path of the top-level projects/objects that are being compared;
• Target for merge (only if merge option is active);
• Selected comparison options;

• Number of objects compared;

• Number of objects modified; and
• Number of objects with conflicts (only if merge option is active).

21.5 How to Update a Project

There are two common procedures that users and data administrators need to complete when working
with master projects and other user projects that are derived from versions of this master project:
• Updating a derived project with information from a new version; and
• Updating a master project with information from a derived project.

This section explains these two procedures and also provides tips for working with the CMT.

21.5.1 Updating a Derived Project from a new Version

When a derived project is activated after a new version of the Base project has been created (provided
that the flag Notify users of derived projects was checked when the version was created and that the
derived project option Disable notification at activation is unchecked), then the user will be presented
with the dialog shown in Figure 21.5.1.

Figure 21.5.1: New version available dialog

The options offered in the notification dialog are:

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• Merge new version with derived project and. PowerFactory automatically generates a tem-
porary copy derived from the new version. It then executes a 3-way comparison with the base
version of the user’s project (as the base), the derived project (as <1st>) and the temporary copy
(as <2nd> and target). In the case of a conflict, one of the following actions will be taken:
– favor none: The CMT diff browser is displayed, and the user can then resolve the conflict(s)
by defining how the changes should be assigned.
– favor derived project: Conflicts are resolved automatically by favouring the user’s modifica-
tions, thereby discarding modifications in the base.
– favor new version: Conflicts are resolved automatically by favouring the base’s modifica-
tions, thereby discarding the user’s modifications.
• Get new version and discard modifications in derived project. The derived project is auto-
matically replaced by the new version. All user modifications will be lost.
• Merge manually. Use the CMT to merge the modifications manually. The results of the com-
parison are displayed in a CMT diff browser, where the user defines how the changes should be
assigned. After these assignments have been defined, the new version and the derived project
are merged to the temporary copy, when the user clicks on the Merge button. The derived project
is then automatically replaced by the temporary copy (now containing information from the new
version), which is deleted.
• Notify me again in. . . . The user enters the desired time for re-notification, and the derived project
is activated according to how it was left in the previous session. The notification is deactivated for
the indicated number of days.

Note: In a multi-user environment, updated versions of the base project can be released regularly and
the user will often be presented with the new version notification in Figure 21.5.1. In many cases,
the user will not want to apply the updated version because they will be in the middle of a project
or other calculation and may not want to risk corrupting or changing their results. Therefore, the
option Notify me again in. . . is the recommended choice because it will leave the user’s project
unchanged.

If the Cancel button is used, the project is activated as it was left in the previous session. The notification
will appear following the next activation.

An alternative way to manually initiate the above procedure is to right-click on the derived project and
select the option Merge from base project. This feature is only possible with deactivated projects.

21.5.2 Updating a Base Project from a Derived Project

Changes implemented in derived projects can also be merged to the base project. In this case, the
option Merge to base project must be selected from the context-sensitive menu available by right-
clicking on the derived project. As in previous cases, the CMT is started and conflicts can be manually
resolved using the diff browser.

21.5.3 Tips for Working with the Compare and Merge Tool

One of the most common uses of the CMT is for merging changes made by users to their derived
projects back into the master project to create an updated version for all users. This kind of task is often
performed by the data administrator. For this task it can help to follow the steps outlined below:

1. Check the user’s modifications with a 2-way merge (derived vs. base; What changes were made?
Are all changes intended? Modifications which were made by mistake should be corrected in the
user’s derived model before continuing with the merge procedure.). The check of the modifications
should be done by the user and the data administrator.

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2. The data administrator creates a new derived project based on the most recent version of the
’master’ model.
3. A three-way merge is performed, selecting the version on which the user’s derived project is based
on as ’base’, the derived project created in the previous step as <1st> and the user’s derived
project as <2nd>. The changes are merged into <1st> (target).
4. The resulting model is then validated. Conflicts which could not be resolved automatically by the
CMT are corrected manually.
5. The validated model (derived project in data administrator account) is merged to the base model
by using the context-sensitive menu entry Merge to Base Project. This will not cause problems if
the master model has not been changed since deriving the model in step 2.
6. A new version is created by the data administrator and the users are informed.

Note: The Compare and Merge Tool can be used to compare any kind of object within a PowerFactory
project. The functionality and procedure to follow is similar to that explained in this section for
project comparison and merging.

21.6 Sharing Projects

In PowerFactory, any project can be shared with other users according to the rules defined by its owner.
Projects are shared with groups of users and not directly with individuals. Therefore, users must be part
of a group (created and managed by the data administrator) in order to access shared projects.

Depending on the access level that the owner assigns to a group, other users can get:
• Read-only access to the shared project, which allows the copying of objects and the creation of
derived projects from versions within the shared project;
• Read-write access, which allows users full control over all objects within the project.
This includes project activation, but does not include the creation of versions.
• Full access, which allows the user to modify the sharing properties and create versions.
Each access level includes the rights of the lower levels.

Deletion of a project is only possible by the project owner.

To share a project:

1. Open the project dialog by right-clicking on the project name and selecting the option Edit.
2. Select the Sharing page;
3. Right-click within the Groups or Sharing access level columns on the right side of the Sharing
information table to insert (or append) a row(s);
4. Double-click in the Groups cell of the new line and select the group with whom the project is
shared using the data browser;
5. Double-click on the Sharing access level to select the desired access level.

A shared project is marked with the symbol in the Data Manager. To display all the available users
on the Data Manager, click on the Show All Users icon ( ). Only the shared projects of the other users
will be displayed.

For information regarding user groups and the data administrator, refer to Chapter 6 (User Accounts
and User Groups).

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21.7 Combining Projects

In version 2017 of PowerFactory, a new tool was introduced which enables two or more projects to be
combined. It is a two-stage process: first, the Project Combination Assistant is used to bring the two
networks and all associated data into one project, then the Project Connection Assistant can be used
to make connections between the two networks at known common points. Buttons which give easy
access to these functions can be found in the “Additional Tools” toolbar.

Note: Within any individual PowerFactory project, if a foreign key is defined for any element (on the
Description page of the element), that foreign key must be unique. However, when projects are
to be combined it is quite possible that there will be duplication of foreign keys. This can be
deliberate, to facilitate the connection process (see section 21.7.2.2) but may also be coincidental.
In either case, the situation is managed by prefixing all foreign keys with characters which make
them unique. For example, a foreign key of “LA234” from the first project would be changed to
“001:LA234”.

21.7.1 Project Combination Assistant

The Project Combination Assistant can be used either to combine two or more projects into one new
project, or to incorporate further projects into an already active project.

21.7.1.1 New Combined Project

Before starting the combination process, it is first necessary to ensure that the source projects all have
a Version defined; the user will need to specify which Version is to be used when the combination
process is executed. Please see section 21.2 for more information about versions. It may also be worth
thinking about how the networks will be connected in the next step, to ensure that the necessary data
configuration has been made, although this can also be done after the two projects are combined.

To start the project combination, first of all ensure that there is no project active, then bring up the
Project Combination Assistant tool, either via the icon on the Additional Tools toolbar, or via the File →
New→ Combined Project . . . option from the main menu, or by right-clicking on the user name in data
manager, then New → Combined Project.

A list of projects is then made by adding project and version references. Once this has been done, the
process is run by pressing the Execute button. The new project is created and activated.

21.7.1.2 Structure of Combined Project

The resultant structure of the combined project can be seen in figure 21.7.1, below. In this example two
projects have been combined.

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Figure 21.7.1: Structure of combined project

The folders seen in the figure, which are automatically created, take the names of the source projects
and allow the user to clearly identify where each object came from. Initially no study cases or grids are
active. The user can now use the Project Connection Assistant (21.7.2) to establish the links between
the two networks.

21.7.1.3 Incorporating additional Projects

Another possibility for combining projects is to start with an active project and incorporate an additional
project or projects into it. In this case, the target project must be active but there should be no study
case active. The Project Combination Assistant is then launched using the button on the Additional
Tools toolbar. As described above, the source project is then specified, including the required version.

21.7.2 Project Connection Assistant

The Project Connection Assistant offers two methods for automatically making the connections
between two networks at the common points in their grids: connection via terminals, or connection via
switches.

Following the process of creating a new project described in section 21.7.1.1, a new active study case
must first be created before the connection process can start. To do this, right-click on one of the source
study cases and select the option to “Apply network state”. The same can be done on the other source
study case(s), in which case all the settings of those study cases, i.e. the active scenarios, variations
and the summary grid will also be copied to the currently active Study Case. These settings might affect
the network topology so it can make a difference for the connection algorithm if they are not added, but
it is optional.

At this point it is still possible to make any adjustments to the data (e.g. foreign keys or node names) to
ensure that the next step runs smoothly.

21.7.2.1 Connection Using Common Terminals

With this approach, the common points in the two networks are identified as nodes, i.e terminal elements
ElmTerm. In each of the source projects, all the relevant ElmTerm objects should be separated into a
designated grid; in the example in figure 21.7.1, the grid is called Fictitious Border Node. There is
no restriction on the name of the grid but the same name must be used in each source project. The

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default method by which the nodes within the connecting grids are matched up is to use the node names
(loc_name). However the user can specify an alternative parameter such as the CIM RDF id (cimRdfId).

The Project Connection Assistant is launched from the Additional Tools toolbar. It should be noted that a
new Variation will be created during the process, which will record all the changes made. The user then
selects the connection method “by virtual nodes” from the drop-down menu and specifies the virtual
nodes grid. It doesn’t matter which of the virtual nodes grid is selected; the tool searches for all grids of
this name.

When the Execute button is pressed, the matching nodes in the various virtual node grids are consoli-
dated into new terminals in a new virtual node grid. The source virtual node grids are deactivated.

21.7.2.2 Connection Using Elements with Foreign Keys

As an alternative to specifying terminals as connection points, it is possible to identify the connection

points as elements with identical foreign keys. Currently, only switch elements are permitted for this
process. Such switches must only be connected to one terminal, indicating that the other side is
available for connection. If necessary, the terminal on the outer side of the switch can simply be deleted.

The connection tool searches from switches which have the same foreign key in the two models and
will then execute a connection process using any switches connected only on one side. The process
involves the removal of one switch and connecting the other switch in its place, as shown in figure 21.7.2.
The switch is always left open after this process.

Figure 21.7.2: Network connection using paired switches

To carry out the connection process, the Project Connection Assistant is launched from the Additional
Tools toolbar. The user should select the connection method “by foreign key” from the drop-down menu,
then press Execute.

Once the connection process is complete, a report is presented to the user in tabular format, listing the
matching switches. Any switches found which had identical foreign keys but could not be connected
because they were already connected to terminals at both sides will be highlighted.

21.7.3 Final Project State

Once the project combination and connection processes are complete, the result will be a useable
project for the whole network. The project structure, with separate folders for components originating
from the different source projects, will remain. The connection activities are captured in variations,
which can be deactivated if the user wishes to see the state before connection. As mentioned above,
foreign keys will have been modified to avoid duplication.

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The user should review the connected network to ensure that it correctly represents the desired state.
For example, it may be necessary to remove load objects that previously represented lower voltage
networks which are now modelled. If connections were made using terminals, the user should consider
whether changes need to be made as a result of the original terminals being deleted, for example check
that station controllers which referenced terminals in the virtual node grid are now pointing to the new
terminals at the interface points.

If it is found that the networks have not been connected as expected, the user should check carefully
that the names or foreign keys of the matching elements are precisely the same (remembering that
these names/keys are case-sensitive).

Before executing any calculations, the user should be aware that when projects are combined no
command objects are copied from the source projects (as there would be no way of knowing which
are the preferred settings). Any calculations will therefore initially take the default settings.

21.7.4 Project Normalisation

As described in Section 21.7.1.2, the contents of the project are organised into dedicated folders,
making it easy to identify the original sources of the different data items. In some cases, users would
like to take a further step of completely integrating the data into a single folder structure. Although it is
possible to do this “normalisation” manually, there is also a tool provided, to do this very easily:

• Deactivate the combined project

• Edit the project and go to the Combined Project page

• Click on the Normalise button

21.8 Database Archiving

An archiving function for decreasing the used database storage space and increasing performance of
large multi-user databases is available. Older projects that are currently not used, but which are still
important for possible future use can be archived.

Archiving describes the process of automatically exporting and deleting projects from the database and
storing them in a restorable way in the file system. The actual workload is shifted to the housekeeping
job which can be run overnight, where export and delete operations do not interfere with the users.
Archiving can either be done by the user selecting a project for archiving, or by using DPL scripts.

In multi-user database environments, the user can easily send projects to the archive folder via the
context-sensitive (right-click) menu for each project, and selecting “Archive”. The archived projects
are exported from the database and are placed in a separate folder (“Archived Projects”) for long-term
storage. The user thereby increases system performance and the speed of general database operations
(e.g. project loading/closing). All information regarding the initial project location is also saved allowing
the user to restore projects to the exact location from which they originated.

Projects can be restored into the active database by executing the “Restore” command in the context-
sensitive (right-click) menu of each project.

For more information on this topic, see Chapter 5 Program Administration, Section 5.6: Housekeeping.

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Chapter 22

Task Automation

22.1 Introduction

The Task Automation command (ComTasks) enables the PowerFactory user to run a list of various
tasks ranging from specific PowerFactory power system analysis calculation functions up to generic
data handling/processing jobs (via scripts) in parallel or sequentially. Using this command it is possible
to execute tasks defined in multiple study cases (with any number of calculation commands per case)
or multiple independent calculation commands (organised within a single study case). The Parallel
Computation feature makes full use of a host machine with multi-core processor architecture.

To successfully execute the Task Automation command the user first needs to configure a list of
calculation functions (e.g. ComLdf, ComSim) or scripts (e.g. ComDpl, ComPython) for every designated
study case and then PowerFactory processes automatically the assigned tasks. Depending on the
selected configuration options, a task may represent one study case or one calculation command
within a study case (refer to Section 22.2.2 for more information). Most calculation commands can be
used within the Task Automation tool given that the specific command actions are acting on the same
PowerFactory project data. Generally speaking, a calculation command is designated in PowerFactory
by the object class prefix “Com”.

Task Automation offers enhanced possibilities for power network studies execution, with examples such
as:

• Already developed PowerFactory projects containing complete power grid analyses which are
organised in various study cases, as is usually the case, can be directly used for parallel compu-
tation;
• Calculation intensive dynamic simulations can be configured with individual simulation events /
operation scenarios by creating multiple study cases. Then, the list of study cases can be passed
to the Task Automation command for parallel computation.

For information on how to configure the Task Automation command, refer to Section 22.2.

For information on the Parallel Computing Manager object, refer to Section 22.4.

For information on how to locate and manage the results generated by the Task Automation command,
refer to Section 22.3.

22.2 Configuration of Task Automation

A new Task Automation command can be created via:

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• the Menu Bar: Click on Calculation → Task Automation...

• the Main Toolbar:
– Click on Change Toolbox icon ( ) and select the Additional Tools toolbox
– Click on Task Automation icon ( )

• the Data Manager:

– With a project active, open the Data Manager and click on the Study Cases project folder
– From the Data Manager toolbar click on the New Object icon ( )
– Select the elements category Others and type in “ComTasks”. Click the OK button.
• Scripting, by creating a Task Automation object (ComTasks). Special care needs to be taken when
configuring the Task Automation object using a script in the sense that assigning references (e.g.
study cases or specific commands) to the Basic Options page fields (e.g. vecCases and curTasks)
is done via the dedicated DPL functions described in the DPL Reference document.
The Task Automation command dialog has the following pages:
• Basic Options

• Parallel Computing
• Output.

22.2.1 Basic Options Page

Selection of study cases: This dialog pane contains a list of existing study cases that may be
considered for the Task Automation command. Study Cases can be added to the list via the Add button.
The Remove all button removes all items within the current list. The checkboxes in the Ignore column
exclude a specific study case from the cases being considered by the calculation without removing it
from the list.

Selection of commands/additional results: This dialog pane stores information on the calculation
commands (Com*) to be executed by the Task Automation for each study case that is added to the
Selection of study cases list as previously described. The commands list is unique for each study case.
The currently shown list is valid for one specific study case as selected via the drop down menu Study
case. Calculation commands (Com*) can be added to the list via the Add button. As a prerequisite,
each selected command must be located within the referenced study case folder. The Remove all
button removes all items within the current list. The Ignore checkbox excludes a specific command from
the list without removing its entry.

Additional Results: Several commands generate results files during their execution, such a case being
for example the Contingency Analysis command (ComSimoutage). Others, like a conventional load flow
calculation (ComLdf ), do not, while the results are stored temporarily in the memory. To address this
latter case, the user can choose to write an additional results file per command (by ticking the checkbox
in the Additional results column). Variables that shall be recorded in that results file after the execution
of the command can be configured by double-clicking/right-clicking on the corresponding cell of the
Result variables column.

Results: This field reference defines the folder where the additional results files of the currently selected
study case will be located after the Task Automation command is executed. Moreover, this folder will
contain references to all results files that have been generated by a calculation command within this
study case.

Note: There is one Results-folder per study case. The shown field reference corresponds to the
currently selected study case as shown in the drop down menu Study case.

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22.2.2 Parallel Computing Page

The Task Automation command can be executed sequentially, thereby processing command after
command, or in parallel mode, using the built-in process parallelisation algorithm.

The following settings are subject to user configuration:

Parallel computation: By ticking this checkbox, the user switches from the sequential execution to
the parallel task processing; by unchecking it, the sequential execution of tasks is adopted. If parallel
computation is selected, a minimum number of tasks can be specified via the setting Minimum number of
packages. If the user selects fewer tasks than this number, the ComTasks will be executed sequentially.

Parallel Computing Manager: A reference to the Parallel Computing Manager which administrates
the parallelisation settings is added. The Parallel Computing Manager is described in Section 22.4. If
the Parallel Computation checkbox is ticked, the number of processor cores that are practically used by
PowerFactory (as configured in the Parallel Computing Manager and dependent on the local machine
characteristics) is displayed. Clicking the Edit button ( ) next to the Parallel Computing Manager
reference will open the parallel computing configuration object. Further details on the settings used in
this object are presented in Section 22.4.

The use of the Parallel Computing feature is dependent on the particular PowerFactory user settings as
defined via the PowerFactory Administrator account. Enabling Parallel Computing for a particular user
is achieved by following the procedure below:
• Log in PowerFactory using the Administrator account;
• Within the Data Manager, open the specific PowerFactory user account Edit Dialog;
• Click on the Parallel Computing page;
• Tick the Allow Parallel Computing checkbox.

Note: If a user is not allowed to perform a parallel computation an info-message is displayed in the
Parallel Computing page.

Distribute packages: The radio-button Distribute packages determines the definition of a task (pack-
age) in the context of distribution of tasks to the parallel processes:

• If By study case is selected, a task is defined as a study case and all commands configured for a
specific study case are processed sequentially by the Task Automation command within a single
parallel process. This setting is handy when commands belonging to one study case list depend
on each other.
• If By command is selected, a task is defined as an individual command. Every command is
executed by the Task Automation independently of the other commands within the same study
case. Furthermore, commands within the same study case may be queued for execution in
different parallel processes in order to maximise performance. This option can be used when
commands are independent of each other.

Note: The Distribute packages option is disabled for sequential execution of the Task Automation. In
this case, the option By study case is always chosen and commands are executed in the defined
order (as specified in the Selection of commands/additional results list). If the option By study
case is chosen for parallel computation, different study cases are assigned to different parallel
processes. In particular, the execution of a command in a later study case in the list should not
rely on the execution of commands in a previous study case.

Database changes of parallel processes: the radio-button Database changes of parallel processes
defines, which data shall be transferred from the parallel process to the master process and merged
into the database:

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• If Merge all changes to master process is selected, all changes, which have been made within
the parallel process, are transferred to the master and merged into the database. In this case the
changes of the database correspond to a sequential execution.
• If Transfer only results files to master process is selected, the parallel processes will run in read-
only mode. That means, all modifications are temporarily stored in the internal memory of the
computer. After a parallel process has finished, only the results (i.e. pointers to results files)
are transferred to the master process, to be written back into the database. In addition to the
advantage that the database is not changed by the parallel processes in this way, the amount of
data, which has to be transferred to the master process, is significantly reduced. This results in a
performance increase.

Note: The Database changes of parallel processes option will only be available if a parallel calculation
is possible (Parallel computation box is checked and settings of the Task Automation allow a par-
allel execution → emphasised by the blue text in the Parallel computation field). For a sequential
execution (emphasised by the red text in the Parallel computation field) the Database changes of
parallel processes option will be disabled.

22.2.3 Output Page

Output per package defines the behaviour of the Task Automation command with respect to Output
Window reporting. The Output per package radio button has the following settings subject to user
configuration:
• Detailed calculation status The behaviour of this option is dependent on the task execution
mode:
– Sequential Task Execution: All messages of executed commands are shown in the output
window.
– Parallel Task Execution: A message is issued when the calculation of a task starts and one
on success or failure at the task end. Details about which command failed in the task are
additionally issued.
• Short (only issue errors) The behaviour of this option is dependent on the task execution mode:
– Sequential Task Execution: Only errors issued during the calculation command execution are
displayed.
– Parallel Task Execution: one message is issued when the calculation of a task starts and
another one at the calculation end (reporting execution success or failure).

22.3 Task Automation Results

The Task Automation executes a series of commands either sequentially or in parallel using different
local machine processor cores and parallel processes. Therefore, there will be no single set of results
readily available after executing the Task Automation command. The results of an individual command
(i.e. from the Selection of commands/additional results list) are recorded during its execution or right
after it finished by means of an additional results file.

The available tools for obtaining results from the Task Automation command are summarised below:

• The calculation status of individual commands is issued in the Output Window during the task
processing as described in Section 22.2.3. Moreover, there is an error summary of all failed com-
mands per study case printed to the Output Window at the end of executing the Task Automation
command.
• Beside results files created during the execution of individual commands, additional results files
can be defined which are created after the individual command execution. Pre-defined variables

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can be recorded, as shown in Section 22.2.1. Note that all such results files together with
references to results files generated during the calculation are added to a results folder per study
case (as defined in the Task Automation command).

• Access all these results files in a summarised tree-structure manner, where the icon Task Automa-
tion - Show results ( ) can be used. The icon is available from the main toolbar, Additional Tools
toolbox, next to the Task Automation command.
• Result log files are created for each parallel process. The log files are saved under the PowerFac-
tory workspace folder, “db-process-1\log” subfolder (e.g. C:\Users\MyUser\AppData\Local\DIgSILENT
\PowerFactory
textbackslash Workspace.nnnnnnn\db-process-1\log). These files provide further information on
the execution details of each parallel process.

22.4 Parallel Computing Manager

When creating a new Task Automation command or any other command which supports parallel compu-
tation (e.g. Contingency Analysis, Quasi Dynamic Simulation, Reliability Analysis, etc.), PowerFactory
links the specific command to a Parallel Computing Manager object (e.g. as seen in the Parallel Com-
puting page of the Task Automation command dialog). This object contains the necessary settings for
the parallel computation of tasks and by default it is located in within the PowerFactory database under
“/System/Configuration/Parallel Computation”. This object has read-only rights for a non-administrator
PowerFactory user account: it can be used by the Task Automation command (or any other command
which supports parallel computation) but cannot be edited by the normal user. However, it is possible
for a user to customise the Parallel Computing Manager settings in order to use fewer cores than the
maximum defined by the Administrator. See Section 7.11 for details.

Alternatively, it is possible to create a user defined settings object by following the steps below:
• Log in PowerFactory using the administrator account;
• Using the Data Manager, verify under the “/Configuration” folder if there exists a subfolder named
“Parallel Computation” whose key (parameter loc_name) is “Parallel”. If it does not exist then
create a new folder, give it a suitable name and assign the “Parallel” key to it;
• Create a new Parallel Computing Manager object (“*.SetParalman”) under the newly created
system folder (e.g. “Parallel Computation” folder) and give it a suitable name;
• Edit and modify corresponding settings by opening the Parallel Computing Manager Dialog;

• Log out of the Administrator account and log in with the normal PowerFactory user account;
• Go back to the “Parallel Computing” page of the specific command and notice the changed
reference to the newly created Parallel Computing Manager object.
The Parallel Computing Manager has the configuration options as summarised below:

• Basic Options page

– Master host name or IP
– Parallel computing method
– Max. number of processes on local machine
• Communication page
– Communication method

Note: The Parallel Computing Manager settings can be changed only by the Administrator account.

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22.4.1 Basic Options Page

Master host name or IP: The machine name or IP address of the master host. If only the local multi-
core machine is used, the name can be “localhost”.

Parallel computing method:

• Local machine with multiple cores: all the parallel processes will be started in the local machine.
Max. number of processes on local machine:

• Number of cores: all cores available in the machine will be used for parallel computing.

• Number of cores minus 1: use N-1 cores (N is the number of cores available in this machine).
• User defined: the number of parallel processes as specified by the given table will be started
in the local machine. The first column of the table is the number of cores available in the local
machine and the second column is the number of parallel processes to be started. For a specific
machine, the corresponding row in this table is found according to the number of available cores
and then the number of parallel processes in the second column is used. If the row is not found
(not specified in this table), all cores are used by default.

22.4.2 Communication page

Communication method: The network data can be transferred to parallel processes either via file or
TCP/IP protocol.

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Chapter 23

Scripting

This chapter describes the options available for scripting in PowerFactory, which are based around two
programming languages: the DIgSILENT Programming Language DPL and Python.

Section 23.1 looks at the in-built programming language DPL and Section 23.2 shows how this can be
used to build tabular reports. Section 23.3 introduces the open source programming language Python.

The remaining two sections of the chapter provide information about the text editor used for scripting
and the concept of Add On Modules, which can be used with either DPL or Python.

23.1 The DIgSILENT Programming Language - DPL

The DIgSILENT Programming Language DPL serves the purpose of offering an interface for automating
tasks in the PowerFactory program. The DPL method distinguishes itself from the command batch
method in several aspects:

• DPL offers decision and flow commands

• DPL offers the definition and use of user-defined variables
• DPL has a flexible interface for input-output and for accessing objects
• DPL offers mathematical expressions
The DPL adds a new dimension to the DIgSILENT PowerFactory program by allowing the creation of
new calculation functions. Such user-defined calculation commands can be used in all areas of power
system analysis, such as
• Network optimising
• Cable-sizing
• Protection coordination
• Stability analysis
• Parametric sweep analysis
• Contingency analysis
• etc.

Such new calculation functions are written as program scripts which may use
• Flow commands like “if-then-else” and “do-while”

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• PowerFactory commands (i.e. load-flow or short-circuit commands)

• Input and output routines

• Mathematical expressions
• PowerFactory object procedure calls
• Subroutine calls

23.1.1 The Principle Structure of a DPL Command

The principle structure of a DPL script is shown in Figure 23.1.1.

Figure 23.1.1: Principle structure of a DPL command

The DPL command ComDpl is the central element, which connects different parameters, variables or
objects to various functions or internal elements and then outputs results or changes parameters.

The input to the script can be predefined input parameters, single objects from the single line diagram or
the database or a set of objects/elements, which are then stored inside a so called “General Selection”.

This input information can then be evaluated using functions and internal variables inside the script.
Also internal objects can be used and executed, like
• a calculation command, i.e. ComLdf, ComSim, etc., especially defined with certain calculation
options
• subscripts also released in DPL
• filter sets, which can be executed during the operation of the script

Thus the DPL script will run a series of operations and start calculations or other functions inside the
script. It will always communicate with the database and will store changed settings, parameters or
results directly in the database objects. Almost every object inside the active project can be accessed
and altered.

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During or at the end of the execution of the DPL script, the results can be output or parameters of
elements may be changed. There is the possibility to execute a predefined output command ComSh or
to define one’s own outputs with the DPL commands available.

23.1.2 The DPL Command

The DPL command element ComDpl contains the script code (or a reference to a so called remote
script), the definition of input and output parameters, a description and information about versions. DPL
command objects can therefore be divided into:

• Root commands, which have their own scripts on the Script page of the dialog.

• Referring commands, which use the scripts of remote DPL commands by only adapting input and
output parameters and external objects.

23.1.2.1 Creating a new DPL Command

A DPL Command ComDpl can be created by using the New Object ( ) icon in the toolbar of the Data
Manager and selecting DPL Command and more. Then press OK and a new DPL command is created.
The dialog is now shown and the parameters, objects and the script can now be specified.

This dialog is also opened by double-clicking a DPL script, by selecting Edit from the context sensitive
menu or by selecting the script from the list when pressing the icon .

23.1.2.2 Defining a DPL Commands Set

The DPL command holds a reference to a selection of objects (General Selection). At first this general
selection is empty, but there are several ways to define a special set of object used in the DPL command.
This “DPL Commands Set” (SetSelect) can be specified through:

• Select one or more elements in the single line diagram. Then right-click the selection (one of the
selected elements) and choose the option Define. . . → DPL Commands Set. . . from the context
sensitive menu.
• It is also possible to select several elements in the Data Manager. Right-click the selection and
choose the option Define. . . → DPL Commands Set. . . from the context sensitive menu.

23.1.2.3 Executing a DPL Command

To execute a DPL command or to access the dialog of a script, the icon can be activated. This will
pop up a list of available DPL and Python scripts from the global and local libraries.

The easiest way to start a DPL command AND define a selection for it is to:
• Select one or more elements in the single line diagram or in the Data Manager and then right-click
the selection.

• Choose the option Execute Script from the context sensitive menu.
• Then select a DPL script from the list. This list will show DPL scripts from the global as well as
from the local library.
• Select a DPL script, insert/change the variables and then press the button Execute

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In this way the selection is combined into a DPL Commands Set and the set is automatically selected
for the script chosen.

Only one single DPL command set is valid at a time for all DPL scripts. This means that setting the DPL
command set in one DPL command dialog, will change the DPL command set for all DPL commands
in the database.

Note: To choose different sets for various DPL scripts you can either use different selection object
SetSelect like the “General Set”. Or new DPL command sets can be created and selected
inside the active study case. This is done by pressing , selecting “other” and the element
Set (SetSelect) and then selecting the set type.

The interface section Input Parameters is used to define variables that are accessible from outside the
DPL command itself. DPL commands that call other DPL commands as subroutines, may use and
change the values of the interface variables of these DPL subroutines.

The list of External Objects is used to execute the DPL command for specific objects. A DPL command
that, for example, searches the set of lines for which a short-circuit causes too deep a voltage dip at a
specific busbar, would access that specific busbar as an external object. Performing the same command
for another busbar would then only require setting the external object to the other busbar.

23.1.2.4 Results

On this page, the Result parameters can be defined. These parameters are results from the script
and they are stored inside the results object. Hence it is possible to access them through the variable
monitor and display them in a plot. In addition to the value itself, the name, the type (if a string, object
or number), the unit and the parameter description can be entered.

23.1.2.5 DPL Script Page

The most important part of a DPL command is of course the DPL script code. That script is written on
the Script page of the DPL command dialog. As an alternative to writing the code directly, the command
can reference an existing script by selecting it as a Remote script.

On this page the DPL code of an already defined script is shown and/or new command lines can be
inserted for modifying this script or writing a new script. The available commands and the DPL language
are described in the following sections.

The edited program code also features highlighting specially suited for handling DPL scripts.

23.1.2.6 DPL Script Encryption

PowerFactory offers the possibility to encrypt the script code of a DPL command. The encryption action
can be initiated by pressing the corresponding button in the edit dialog of the DPL command object
(does not work for commands with a remote script referenced). The encryption process then asks in
a dialog for a password and its confirmation. The password is only needed to decrypt the script at a
later stage. The encrypted script can be executed without entering the password. After completing the
encryption with OK, the code is hidden and only the name of the command itself, the values of the input
parameters and external objects can be changed. If there are subscripts stored as contents, they will
be encrypted with the same password, too.

Note: The encrypt-action affects the script for which it is executed and does not create an encrypted
copy of the ComDpl-object.

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The encryption is reversible; an encrypted script can be decrypted using the corresponding button in the
edit dialog of the encrypted ComDpl-object. After entering the password and confirming with OK, the
script returns to its original status, where all properties may be changed and the script code is shown.

23.1.3 The DPL Script Editor

The Script page of the DPL command includes a built-in editor based on the Scintilla editing component
(http://www.scintilla.org), which offers the following features:

• Auto-completion: when typing a new word, a list of suitable suggestions for keywords, global
functions, variable names (defined within the current script or as input/result variables) and sub-
scripts will pop up. Using the arrow keys the user may explore all suggestions, and insert the
currently selected suggestion. The autocompletion can be deactivated in the editor settings.
Note: The suggestion lists do not contain deprecated names.

• Bracket match checking: when the cursor stands before an opening or closing bracket, the
editor will check if the brace is matched. If it is, the bracket and its partner are highlighted in blue.
If the bracket, however, is not matched, it will be highlighted in red.
• Automatic bracket insertion: when typing in an opening bracket, the editor will automatically
insert a matching closing bracket and position the caret between the two brackets. Additionally, if
the caret stands before a matched closing bracket, typing a closing bracket of the same type will
simply result in the caret moving forwards. This helps users who are not familiar with automatic
bracket insertion avoid inserting unnecessary additional closing brackets.
• Automatic quote character insertion: similar to automatic bracket insertion; when typing in a
single quote character (’), the editor will automatically insert an additional single quote character
and position the caret between the two quote characters. Additionally, if the caret stands before a
quote character, typing a quote character of the same type will simply result in the caret moving
forwards.
• Zoom-in/Zoom-out: using the key combination Ctrl + Mousewheel will increase or decrease the
zoom. Note that this only temporarily modifies the used font size and has no effect at all on the
font size that the user chose in the editor font settings. The key combination Ctrl + 0 restores the
font to its original size.
• Selection highlighting: whenever text is selected (not counting column selections and selections
that span more than one line), all occurrences of the selected text in the current document are
lightly highlighted using the last known search settings.
• Instance-independent search terms and search settings: whenever the user opens the find
(or find/replace) dialog, the chosen search term and search settings are used in every open
editor component. This enables users to search the same term with the same settings in multiple
documents without having to call the find (or find/replace) dialog for each one of them.
• Advanced syntax styling: the script will be coloured according to this scheme: keywords are
blue, (recognised) global function and method names are light blue, string literals are red, number
literals are turquoise, operators are light brown, identifiers are dark blue, comments are green.

To open the editor (23.4) in an additional window press the icon on the bottom side of the Script
page of the DPL Command dialog. Note that when the script is opened in an additional window, it
cannot be edited via the DPL Command.

23.1.4 The DPL Script Language

The DPL script language uses a syntax quite similar to the C++ programming language. This type of
language is intuitive, easy to read, and easy to learn. The basic command set has been kept as small
as possible.

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The syntax can be divided into the following parts:

• variable definitions

• assignments and expressions

• program flow instructions
• method calls
The statements in a DPL script are separated by semicolons. Statements are grouped together by
braces. Example:
1 statement1;
2 statement2;
3 if (condition){
4 groupstatement1;
5 groupstatement2;
6 }

23.1.4.1 Variable Definitions

DPL uses the following internal parameter types

• double, a 15 digits real number
• int, an integer number
• string, a string

• object, a reference to a PowerFactory object

• set, a container of objects
Vectors and Matrices are available as external objects.

The syntax for defining variables is as follows:

[VARDEF] = [TYPE] varname, varname, ..., varname;

[TYPE] = double | int | object | set

All parameter declarations must be given together in the top first lines of the DPL script. The semicolon
is obligatory.

Examples:
1 double Losses, Length, Pgen;
2 int NrOfBreakers, i, j;
3 string txt1, nm1, nm2;
4 object O1, O2, BestSwitchToOpen;
5 set AllSwitches, AllBars;

23.1.4.2 Constant parameters

DPL uses constant parameters which cannot be changed. It is therefore not accepted to assign a value
to these variables. Doing so will lead to an error message.

The following constants variables are defined in the DPL syntax:

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SEL is the general DPL selection

NULL is the “null” object

this is the DPL command itself

Besides these global constants, all internal and external objects are constant too.

23.1.4.3 Assignments and Expressions

The following syntax is used to assign a value to a variable:

1 variable = expression;
2 variable += expression;
3 variable -= expression;

The add-assignment “+=” adds the right side value to the variable and the subtract-assignment “-=”
subtracts the right-side value.

Examples:
1 double x,y;
2 x = 0.5*pi(); ! x now equals 1.5708
3 y = sin(x); ! y now equals 1.0
4 x += y; ! x now equals 2.5708
5 y -= x; ! y now equals -1.5708

23.1.4.4 Standard Functions

The following operators and functions are available:

• Arithmetic operators: +, -, * , /
• Standard functions ( all trigonometric functions based on radians (RAD))

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function description example

sin(x) sine sin(1.2)=0.93203
cos(x) cosine cos(1.2)=0.36236
tan(x) tangent tan(1.2)=2.57215
asin(x) arcsine asin(0.93203)=1.2
acos(x) arccosine acos(0.36236)=1.2
atan(x) arctangent atan(2.57215)=1.2
sinh(x) hyperbolic sine sinh(1.5708)=2.3013
cosh(x) hyperbolic cosine cosh(1.5708)=2.5092
tanh(x) hyperbolic tangent tanh(0.7616)=1.0000
exp(x) exponential value exp(1.0)=2.718281
ln(x) natural logarithm ln(2.718281)=1.0
log(x) log10 log(100)=2
sqrt(x) square root sqrt(9.5)=3.0822
sqr(x) power of 2 sqr(3.0822)=9.5
pow (x,y) power of y pow(2.5, 3.4)=22.5422
abs(x) absolute value abs(-2.34)=2.34
min(x,y) smaller value min(6.4, 1.5)=1.5
max(x,y) larger value max(6.4, 1.5)=6.4
modulo(x,y) remainder of x/y modulo(15.6,3.4)=2
trunc(x) integral part trunc(-4.58823)=-4.0000
frac(x) fractional part frac(-4.58823)=-0.58823
round(x) closest integer round(1.65)=2.000
ceil(x) smallest larger integer ceil(1.15)=2.000
floor(x) largest smaller integer floor(1.78)=1.000

Table 23.1.1: DPL Standard Functions

• Constants:

pi() pi
twopi() 2 pi
e() e

Table 23.1.2: DPL Internal Constants

23.1.4.5 Program Flow Instructions

The following flow commands are available.

if ( [boolexpr] ) [statlist]
if ( [boolexpr] ) [statlist] else [statlist]
do [statlist] while ( [boolexpr] )
while ( [boolexpr] ) [statlist]
for ( statement ; [boolexpr] ; statement ) [statlist]

in which

[boolexpr] = expression [boolcomp] expression

[boolcomp] = "<" | ">" | "=" | "<=" | ">=" | "<>"
[statlist] = statement; | { statement; [statlist] }

• Unary operators: “.not.”

• Binary operators: “.and.” | “.or.” | “.nand.” | “.nor.” | “.eor.”

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• Parentheses: {logical expression}

Examples:
1 if (a<3) {
2 b = a*2;
3 }
4 else {
5 b = a/2;
6 }
7 while (sin(a)>=b*c) {
8 a = O:dline;
9 c = c + delta;
10 }
11 if ({.not.a}.and.{b<>3}) {
12 err = Ldf.Execute();
13 if (err) {
14 Ldf:iopt_lev = 1;
15 err = Ldf.Execute();
16 Ldf:iopt_lev = 0;
17 }
18 }
19 for (i = 0; i < 10; i = i+1){
20 x = x + i;
21 }
22 for (o=s.First(); o; o=s.Next()) {
23 o.ShowFullName();
24 }

Break and Continue

The loop statements “do-while” and “while-do” may contain “break” and “continue” commands. The
“break” and “continue” commands may not appear outside a loop statement.

The “break” command terminates the smallest enclosing “do-while” or “while-do” statement. The exe-
cution of the DPL script will continue with the first command following the loop statement.

The “continue” command skips the execution of the following statements in the smallest enclosing “do-
while” or “while-do” statement. The execution of the DPL script is continued with the evaluation of the
boolean expression of the loop statement. The loop statement list will be executed again when the
expression evaluates to TRUE. Otherwise the loop statement is ended and the execution will continue
with the first command following the loop statement.

Example:
1 O1 = S1.First();
2 while (O1) {
3 O1.Open();
4 err = Ldf.Execute();
5 if (err) {
6 ! skip this one
7 O1 = S1.Next;
8 continue;
9 }
10 O2 = S2.First();
11 AllOk = 1;
12 DoReport(0); !reset
13 while (O2) {
14 err = Ldf.Execute();
15 if (err) {
16 ! do not continue
17 AllOk = 0;

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18 break;
19 }
20 else {
21 DoReport(1); ! add
22 }
23 O2 = S2.Next();
24 }
25 if (AllOk) {
26 DoReport(2); ! report
27 }
28 O1 = S1.Next();
29 }

23.1.4.6 Input and Output

The “input” command asks the user to enter a value.

input(var, string);

The input command will pop up a window with the string and an input line on which the user may enter
a value. The value will be assigned to the variable “var”.

The “printf” command can be used to write text to the output window.

printf(string);

The string may contain “=-” signs, followed by a variable name. The variable name will then be replaced
by the variable’s value.

Example:
1 double diameter;
2 input(diameter, 'enter diameter');
3 printf('the entered value = %f',diameter);

The example results in the pop up of a window as depicted in Figure 23.1.2.

Figure 23.1.2: The input window

The following text will appear in the output window:

the entered value = 12.3400

Refer to the DPL Reference for more information about the printf command.

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23.1.5 Access to Other Objects

With the syntax for the parameter definitions, program flow and the input and printf, it is already possible
to create a small program. However, such a script would not be able to use or manipulate variables of
“external” objects. It would not be possible, for instance, to write a script that replaces a specific line by
possibly better alternatives, in order to select the best line type. Such a script must be able to access
specific objects (the specific line) and specific sets of objects (the set of alternative line types).

The DPL language has several methods with which the database objects and their parameters become
available in the DPL script:
• The most direct method is to create an object, or a reference to an object, in the DPL command
folder itself. Such an object is directly available as “object” variable in the script. The variable
name is the name of the object in the database.
• The DPL command set may be used. This method is only useful when the order in which the
objects are accessed is not important. The DPL command set is automatically filled when a
selection of elements is right-clicked in either the single line graphic or the Data Manager and the
option Execute DPL Script is selected.
• The list of external objects is mainly used when a script should be executed for specific objects or
selections. The list of external objects is nothing more than a list of “aliases”. The external object
list is used to select specific objects for each alias, prior to the execution of the script.

23.1.5.1 Object Variables and Methods

If a database object is known to the DPL command, then all its methods may be called, and all its
variables are available. For example, if we want to change a load-flow command in order to force an
asymmetrical load-flow calculation, we may alter the parameter iopt_net. This is done by using an
assignment:
1 Ldf:iopt_net = 1; ! force unbalanced

In this example, the load-flow objects is known as the objects variable “Ldf”. The general syntax for a
parameter of a database object is
1 objectname:parametername

In the same way, it is possible to get a value from a database object, for instance a result from the
load-flow calculations. One of such a result is the loading of a line object, which is stored in the variable
c:loading. The following example performs the unbalanced load-flow and reports the line loading.
Reported value is always represented in the unit selected in PowerFactory. In our case returned value
is in % but for example returned value for active power (m:P:bus1) can be represented in MW, kW, etc.

Example
1 00. int error;
2 01. double loading;
3 02. Ldf:iopt_net = 1; ! force unbalanced
4 03. error = Ldf.Execute(); ! execute load-flow
5 04. if (error) {
6 05. exit();
7 06. } else {
8 07. loading = Line:c:loading; ! get line loading
9 08. printf('loading=%f', loading ); ! report line loading
10 09. }

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This examples is very primitive but it shows the basic methods for accessing database objects and their
parameters.

23.1.6 Access to Locally Stored Objects

Locally stored objects (also called “internal objects”) can be accessed directly. They are known in the
DPL script under their own name, which therefore must be a valid DPL variable name. It will not be
possible to access an internal object which name is “My Load-flow\∼{}1* ”, for instance.

Internal objects may also be references to objects which are stored elsewhere. The DPL command
does not distinguish between internal objects and internal references to objects.

The example DPL script may now access these objects directly, as the objects “Ldf” and “Line”. In
the following example, the object “Ldf”, which is a load-flow command, is used in line 01 to perform a
load-flow.
1 00. int error;
2 01. error = Ldf.Execute();
3 02. if (error) {
4 03. printf('Load-flow command returns an error');
5 04. exit();
6 05. }

In line 01, a load-flow is calculated by calling the method Execute() of the load-flow command.
The details of the load-flow command, such as the choice between a balanced single phase or an
unbalanced three phase load-flow calculation, is made by editing the object “Ldf” in the database. Many
other objects in the database have methods which can be called from a DPL script. The DPL contents
are also used to include DPL scripts into other scripts and thus to create DPL “subroutines”.

23.1.7 Accessing the General Selection

Accessing database objects by storing them or a reference to them in the DPL command would create
a problem if many objects have to be accessed, for instance if the line with the highest loading is to be
found. It would be impractical to create a reference to each and every line.

A more elegant way would be to use the DPL global selection and fill it with all lines. The Data Manager
offers several ways in which to fill this object DPL Command Set with little effort. The selection may
then be used to access each line indirectly by a DPL “object” variable. In this way, a loop is created
which is performing the search for the highest loading. This is shown in the following example.

Example
1 00. int error;
2 01. double maxi;
3 02. object O, Omax;
4 03. set S;
5 04.
6 05. error = Ldf.Execute(); ! execute a load-flow
7 06. if (error) exit(); ! exit on error
8 07.
9 08. S = SEL.AllLines(); ! get all selected lines
10 09. Omax = S.First(); ! get first line
11 10. if (Omax) {
12 11. maxi = Omax:c:loading; ! initialise maximum
13 12. } else {

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14 13. printf('No lines found in selection');

15 14. exit(); ! no lines: exit
16 15. }
17 16. O = S.Next(); ! get next line
18 17. while (O) { ! while more lines
19 18. if (O:c:loading>maxi) {
20 19. maxi = O:c:loading; ! update maximum
21 20. Omax = O; ! update max loaded line
22 21. }
23 22. O = S.Next();
24 23. }
25 24. printf('max loading=%f', maxi); !print results
26 25. Omax.ShowFullName();

The object SEL used in line 08 is the reserved object variable which equals the General Selection in
the DPL command dialog. The SEL object is available in all DPL scripts at all times and only one single
“General Selection” object is valid at a time for all DPL scripts. This means that setting the General
Selection in the one DPL command dialog, will change it for all other DPL commands too.

The method AllLines() in line 08 will return a set of all lines found in the general selection. This
set is assigned to the variable “S”. The lines are now accessed one by one by using the set methods
First() and Next() in line 09, 16 and 22.

The line with the highest loading is kept in the variable “Omax”. The name and database location of this
line is written to the output window at the end of the script by calling “ShowFullName()”.

23.1.8 Accessing External Objects

The DPL contents make it possible to access external objects in the DPL script. The special general
selection object (“SEL”) is used to give all DPL functions and their subroutines access to a central
selection of objects. i.e. the DPL Command Set.

Although flexible, this method would create problems if more than one specific object should be ac-
cessed in the script. By creating references to those objects in the DPL command itself, the DPL
command would become specific to the current calculation case. Gathering the objects in the general
selection would create the problem of selecting the correct object.

To prevent the creation of calculation-specific DPL commands, it is recommended practice to reserve

the DPL contents for all objects that really “belong” to the DPL script and which are thus independent
on where and how the script is used. Good examples are load-flow and short-circuit commands, or the
vector and matrix objects that the DPL command uses for its computations.

If a DPL script must access a database object dependent on where and how the DPL script is used, an
“External Object” must be added to the external object list in the DPL root command. Such an external
object is a named reference to an external database object. The external object is referred to by that
name. Changing the object is then a matter of selecting another object.

In Figure 23.1.3, an example of an external object is given. This external object may be referred to in
the DPL script by the name “Bar1”, as is shown in the example.

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Figure 23.1.3: DPL external object table

Example:
1 sagdepth = Bar1:u;

23.1.9 Remote Scripts and DPL Command Libraries

To understand the DPL philosophy and the resulting hierarchical structure of DPL scripts, it is important
to understand the following:
• A DPL command either executes its own script or the script of another, remote, DPL command.
In the first case, the DPL command is called a “root command” and the script is called a “local
script”. In the second case, the DPL command is called a “referring” command and the script
is called a “remote script”.
• A root command may define interface variables that are accessible from outside the script and
which are used to define default values.

• Each root command may define one or more external objects. External object are used to make
a DPL command run with specific power system objects, selections, commands, etc.
• A referring command may overrule all default interface values and all selected external objects of
the remote command.

• Each DPL command can be called as a subroutine by other DPL commands.

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The use of remote scripts, external objects and interface variables makes it possible to create generic
DPL commands, which may be used with different settings in many different projects and study cases.

The easiest way to develop a new DPL command is to create a new ComDpl in the currently active
study case and to write the script directly in that DPL object. In such a way, a DPL “root command” is
made. If this root command needs DPL subroutines, then one or more DPL command objects may be
created in its contents. Each of these subroutines will normally also be written as root functions.

The newly written DPL command with its subroutines may be tested and used in the currently active
study case. However, it cannot be executed when another study case is active. In order to use the DPL
command in other study cases, or even in other projects, one would have to copy the DPL command
and its contents. This, however, would make it impossible to alter the DPL command without having to
alter all its copies.

The solution is in the use of “remote scripts”. The procedure to create and use remote scripts is
described as follows.

Suppose a new DPL command has been created and tested in the currently active study case. This
DPL command can now be stored in a safe place making it possible to use it in other study cases and
projects.

This is done by the following steps:

• Copy the DPL command to a library folder. This will also copy the contents of the DPL command,
i.e. with all its DPL subroutines and other locally stored objects.
• “Generalise” the copied DPL command by resetting all project specific external objects. Set all
interface variable values to their default values. To avoid deleting a part of the DPL command,
make sure that if any of the DPL (sub)commands refers to a remote script, all those remote
scripts are also stored in the library folder.
• Activate another study case.
• Create a new DPL command (ComDpl) in the active study case.
• Set the “Remote script” reference to the copied DPL command.
• Select the required external objects.
• Optionally change the default values of the interface variables
• Press the Check button to check the DPL script
The Check or Execute button will copy all parts of the remote script in the library that are needed for
execution. This includes all subroutines, which will also refer to remote scripts, all command objects, and
all other objects. Some classes objects are copied as reference, other classes are copied completely.

The new DPL command does not contain a script, but executes the remote script. For the execution
itself, this does not make a change. However, more than one DPL command may now refer to the same
remote script. Changing the remote script, or any of its local objects or sub-commands, will now change
the execution of all DPL commands that refer to it.

Note: PowerFactory is delivered with several ready-to-use scripts, which are located in the correspond-
ing folder in the global library. They can be used as root commands for remote scripts or adapted
as required, enhancing their functionality. The description and version page contain information
about their functionalities, parameters and handling.

23.1.9.1 Subroutines and Calling Conventions

A DPL command may be included in the contents of another DPL command. In that case, the included
DPL “subroutine” may be called in the script of the enclosing DPL command. In principle, this is not
different from calling, for example, a load-flow command from a DPL script.

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As with most other commands, the DPL command only has one method:

int Execute(); executes the DPL script.

The difference is that each DPL subroutine has different interface parameters, which may be changed
by the calling command. These interface parameters can also be set directly at calling time, by providing
one or more calling arguments. These calling arguments are assigned to the interface parameters in
order of appearance. The following example illustrates this.

Suppose we have a DPL sub-command “Sub1” with the interface section as depicted in Figure 23.1.4.

Figure 23.1.4: Interface section of subroutine

The calling command may then use, for example:

1 ! set the parameters:
2 Sub1:step = 5.0;
3 Sub1:Line = MyLine;
4 Sub1:Outages = MySelection;
5 ! execute the subroutine:
6 error = Sub1.Execute();

However, using calling arguments, we may also write:

1 ! execute the subroutine:
2 error = Sub1.Execute(5.0, MyLine, MySelection);

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23.1.10 DPL Functions and Subroutines

The DPL syntax is very small because it mainly serves the purpose of basic operations like simple
calculations, if-then-else selections, do-while loops, etc..

The strength of the DPL language is the possibility to call functions and to create subroutines. A function
which can be called by a DPL command is called a “method”. Four types of methods are distinguished:

Internal methods These are the build-in methods of the DPL command. They can always be
called.

Set methods These methods are available for the DPL “set” variables.

Object methods These methods are available for the DPL “object” variables.

External methods These are the methods which are available for certain external PowerFactory
objects, such as the load-flow command, the line object, the asynchronous machine, etc.

Refer to the DPL Reference for a description of these functions including implementation examples. The
DPL Reference is also accessible selecting Help → Scripting References→ DPL from the main menu.

23.2 Tabular Reports

Tabular reports are a powerful tool for generating your own personalised data views and showing all the
information you want to extract from the PowerFactory model in one table. Before starting to create your
own tabular reports, you should be familiar with the DPL programming language (Section 23.1). The
command ComTablereport extends the DPL programming language with a simple framework to create
tables. The command ComTablereport is not available in Python. In Python the use of a external GUI
framework like TKInter or Qt is recommended. It is also possible to create a Tabular Report with DPL
and use Python subroutines to calculate the contents.

Tabular Reports provide the following features:

• Display user-defined data in a table:
– Allows the user to sort the table by each column.
– Allows the user to use a data filter for each column.
– Provides a callback function to add cell data editing features.
– Provides a callback function to add additional entries to cells context menu.
– Allows copy and paste of the table data.

• Allows the addition of global programmable selection filters and input data.
• Allows the addition of extra buttons to trigger user defined actions.
• Allows a user-defined data plot to be displayed instead of the table.

• Allows the user to export the table content to a HTML or Excel file.

23.2.1 Basic Structure of a Tabular Report

A Tabular Report always consists of a ComTablereport object and one or more callback ComDpl objects
as children. The ComTablereport only supports the following predefined set of ComDpl objects:

• Init optional The Init script is called only once, when the report is displayed the first time.

• Create mandatory The Create script is called every time, when the report is displayed or rebuilt.

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• Edit optional The Edit script is called after the user changes a cell.
• Action optional The Action script is called after the user selects a user-defined entry from the
context menu.

• ButtonPressed optional The ButtonPressed script is called after the user presses a button.

Only the Create object is mandatory. The concept is quite simple. The whole report is defined with the
Create function. If something changes, the whole report has to be rebuilt from scratch with the Create
function.

23.2.2 The Table Report Command

The Tabular Report element ComTablereport itself contains only a few attributes:
• Name loc_name The name of the ComTablereport object.
• Use Selection iSelection A flag indicating whether the report use a Selection as input.
• Class Filter sFilter A class filter, which is applied to the input selection to extract only the relevant
elements for the report.
• Description attributes Additional attributes to provide a short and a detailed description.
• Version attributes Additional attributes to provide version, author and copyright information.
The ComTablereport object provides a wide variety of functions, to define the tabular report, as shown
in Figure 23.2.1 below. Please refer to the function descriptions in the DPL Reference.

Figure 23.2.1: ComTablereport functions

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23.2.2.1 Creating a new Table Report Command

A tabular report command element ComTablereport can be created by using the New Object ( ) icon
in the toolbar of the Data Manager and selecting Others. If the Filter property is set to Commands
(Com*), it is possible to select Table Report (ComTablereport) from the Element list.

After creating the ComTablereport object, a new ComDpl object with the name Create has to be added
as a child of the ComTablereport object. See 23.2.3 for an example. Other ComDpl functions (see
23.2.6) may be added optionally.

23.2.2.2 Executing a Table Report Command

To execute and show a Tabular Report:

• Right-click at the ComTablereport object and choose Execute from the context menu.
• or Open or Edit the ComTablereport object and press the Execute button.

If the Tabular Report uses a Selection:

• Select some elements in a single line diagram or in the data manager.
• Then right-click and choose from the context menu “Execute Table Report”
• Then select a ComTablereport object from the list. (This step is omitted if there is only one Report
with a Selection.)

23.2.3 A minimal Tabular Report

A minimal tabular report is built from a ComTablereport with a DPL script ComDpl Create as child.
Section 23.2.2.1 describes how to create these. With the following code in the Create script, the report
will show a table with 2 columns and a row with the words Hello World.

Example 1 “Hello world report” Create script:

1 object oReport;
2 oReport = this.GetParent();
3 oReport.AddTable('Table ID');
4 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'Column 1 ID', 'First Column');
5 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'Column 2 ID', 'Second Column');
6 oReport.AddRow('Table ID', 'Row 1 ID');
7 oReport.SetCellValueToString('Table ID', 'Column 1 ID', 'Row 1 ID', 'Hello');
8 oReport.SetCellValueToString('Table ID', 'Column 2 ID', 'Row 1 ID', 'World');

As the first step, the script has to access the ComTablereport object. This command object is always
the parent of the Create script. So a simple this.GetParent() will work. As the second step, a table with
an identifier is defined with the function AddTable(’Table ID’). Use this table identifier in all subsequent
functions to define the table. In the next step the table columns will be defined. With each call to the
AddColumn function a new column is defined with its own column identifier and a column header text.
In a similar way the rows of the table will be defined. The function SetCellValueToString fills the content
of a cell with a string value. To refer a specific cell, the defined table, column and row identifiers must
be used.

To test the report, you have to execute the tabular report (see 23.2.2.2), but not the Create script.

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23.2.4 Handling different kinds of data

In the first example, the function SetCellValueToString was used to fill the table cells with content. To
view different kinds of data, there are several similar functions. See the DPL Reference for a description
of all these functions. The following example demonstrates the use of some of these functions. This
example requires an active project with at least some lines (ElmLne objects) in the network model. You
could use one of the PowerFactory example projects to test the report.

Example 2 “Lines report” Create script:

1 set aLines;
2 object oReport,
3 oLine;
4 string sRowId;
5

6 oReport = this.GetParent();
7 oReport.AddTable('Table ID');
8 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'line column', 'Line');
9 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'name column', 'Name');
10 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'parallel column', 'Number of\nparallel Lines');
11 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'length column', 'Length\n[m]');
12 oReport.AddColumn('Table ID', 'out column', 'Out of\nService');
13

14 aLines = GetCalcRelevantObjects('*.ElmLne');
15 for(oLine = aLines.First(); oLine; oLine = aLines.Next()){
16 sRowId = oLine.GetFullName();
17 oReport.AddRow('Table ID', sRowId);
18 oReport.SetCellValueToObject('Table ID', 'line column', sRowId, oLine);
19 oReport.SetCellValueToString('Table ID', 'name column', sRowId, oLine:loc_name);
20 oReport.SetCellValueToInt('Table ID', 'parallel column', sRowId, oLine:nlnum);
21 oReport.SetCellValueToDouble('Table ID', 'length column', sRowId, oLine:dline);
22 oReport.SetCellValueToCheckbox('Table ID', 'out column', sRowId, oLine:outserv);
23 }

Some of these functions not only show plain data, but provide additional features. If a PowerFactory
object is shown with the function SetCellValueToObject, a double click in the cell opens the edit dialog
of this object. In addition, there is a new entry in the context menu of the cell, which will mark the object
in a graphic. The SetCellValueToCheckbox expects a boolean value, which is displayed as a checkbox.

23.2.5 Advanced Features

23.2.5.1 Programmable Filters and Input Values

The ComTablereport function AddListFilter adds a drop-down list to the report. The drop-down list
has an identifier and a visible name. The function AddListFilterEntries can be used to add entries to
the list. To get the selected entry, the Create script has to define a string input parameter with the
name s<identifier>. When the Create script is called the first time to generate the report, this parameter
contains the default value, or an empty string if no default value is set. Every time the user selects a new
entry from the drop-down-list or another event refreshes the report, the Create script is called again with
the selected entry in the input parameter s<identifier> to recreate the report. In the example below, the
drop-down list is given the identifier UFilt. So the Create script should contain a string input parameter
sUFilt. This parameter defines the currently selected entry. The function SetListFilterSelection can be
used to set the selected entry in the drop-down list.

Example 3 “Drop-down list report” Create script:

1 object oReport;
2 oReport = this.GetParent();

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3 oReport.AddListFilter('UFilt', 'Usage');
4 oReport.AddListFilterEntries('UFilt', 'Busbar');
5 oReport.AddListFilterEntries('UFilt', 'Junction');
6 oReport.AddListFilterEntries('UFilt', 'Internal');
7 oReport.SetListFilterSelection('UFilt', sUFilt);

If all the list information is available at once, it is possible to shorten the above code and create the whole
drop-down list with one call to AddListFilter. To distinguish the list entries, they have to be separated by
“\n”.

Example 3 “Drop-down list report” Create script change:

1 oReport.AddListFilter('UFilt','Usage:','Busbar\nJunction\nInternal',aDummy,sUFilt);

With this code it is possible to create different views of the report, depending on the input parameter
sUFilt.

The ComTablereport function AddTextFilter creates an additional text input field in the report. In contrast
to the drop-down list, the report will not trigger an automatic rebuild if the user changes the text. Instead,
the user has to press the Refresh button at the end of the text field. To obtain the user input, the Create
script has to define the input parameter s<identifier>

Example 4 “Input value report” Create script:

1 object oReport,
2 oReport = this.GetParent();
3 oReport.AddTextFilter('TFilt', 'Text input', '', sTFilt);

The Create script can also modify the user input. For example, if the user must be able to input numbers,
the script code can just convert the input in a number and discard any invalid input data.

Example 4 “Input value report” Create script:

1 object oReport,
2 string sCurrentValue,
3 int iNumber, iRes;
4

5 oReport = this.GetParent();
6 iNumber = 0;
7 iRes = sscanf(sNFilt, '%d', iNumber);
8 sCurrentValue = sprintf('%d', iNumber);
9 oReport.AddTextFilter('NFilt', 'Nominal Voltage above', 'KV', sCurrentValue);

The above code always resets the input to 0 if the user enters invalid data. Sometimes it may be useful
to remember the last valid value to restore. In this case a hidden filter can be used with the function
AddInvisibleFilter. The hidden filter does nothing but preserve the data between 2 consecutive calls of
the Create function. Again the Create script has to define the string input parameter s<identifier> to get
the value back in the call of the function.

Example 4 “Input value report” Create script:

1 object oReport,
2 string sCurrentValue,
3 int iNumber, iRes;
4

5 oReport = this.GetParent();
6 iNumber = 0;

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7 iRes = sscanf(sOldValue, '%d', iNumber);

8 iRes = sscanf(sNFilt, '%d', iNumber);
9 sCurrentValue = sprintf('%d', iNumber);
10 oReport.AddInvisibleFilter('OldValue', sCurrentValue, NULL);
11 oReport.AddTextFilter('NFilt', 'Nominal Voltage above', 'KV', sCurrentValue);

The third parameter of the function AddInvisibleFilter takes a PowerFactory object as input. To get this
object back in the next call, the Create script has to define an external object o<identifier> as input.

23.2.5.2 Edit Cells

The ComTablereport function SetCellEdit makes an individual cell editable. To identify the cell the
defined table, column and row identifiers must be used. In addition, the callback ComDpl script Edit
must be provided as a child of the ComTablereport. This callback report takes five input parameters:

• sColumnId string The column identifier of the changed cell.

• sRowId string The row identifier of the changed cell.
• sNewValue string The new value, if the cell contains a string.
• iNewValue int The new value, if the cell contains an int.
• dNewValue double The new value, if the cell contains a double.

It is the responsibility of the programmer to change the underlying value with the Edit callback script.
With the help of this script the user input can also be changed or rejected, if it is invalid. Every time
the user changes a cell, the Edit callback script is called. Following the execution of the Edit script, the
Tabular Report is rebuilt with a call of the Create script. To assist the edit process, a set of cell-specific
objects can be passed with the call of the function SetCellEdit. These objects will be available in the
Edit callback script as external input objects:

• oEditObject1 The first object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit.
• oEditObject2 The second object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit.
• oEditObject<X> The Xth object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit.
As an example of a tabular report with editable cells, you can extend the script from chapter 23.2.4. Add
a new set variable to the Create script at line 1.

Example 2 “Lines report” Create script extension:

1 set aEditSet;

Add the following code to the Create script before line 23.

Example 2 “Lines report” Create script extension:

1 aEditSet.Clear();
2 aEditSet.Add(oLine);
3 oReport.SetCellEdit('Table ID', 'name column', sRowId, aEditSet);
4 oReport.SetCellEdit('Table ID', 'parallel column', sRowId, aEditSet);
5 oReport.SetCellEdit('Table ID', 'length column', sRowId, aEditSet);
6 oReport.SetCellEdit('Table ID', 'out column', sRowId, aEditSet);

Add a new ComDpl object Edit to the tabular report. Define the input parameter (see above) and an
external object oEditObject1. Fill the script content of the Edit script with the following code:

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Example 2 “Lines report” Edit script:

1 object oLine;
2 int iColumnCmp;
3 oLine = oEditObject1;
4 iColumnCmp = strcmp(sColumnId, 'name column');
5 if (iColumnCmp = 0){
6 oLine:loc_name = sNewValue;
7 }
8 iColumnCmp = strcmp(sColumnId, 'parallel column');
9 if (iColumnCmp = 0){
10 oLine:nlnum = iNewValue;
11 }
12 iColumnCmp = strcmp(sColumnId, 'length column');
13 if (iColumnCmp = 0){
14 oLine:dline = dNewValue;
15 }
16 iColumnCmp = strcmp(sColumnId, 'out column');
17 if (iColumnCmp = 0){
18 oLine:outserv = iNewValue;
19 }

With this script all visible attributes of the line could be changed. Note: this example modifies the
attributes of the lines of your active project!

23.2.5.3 Additional Context Menu Entries

The ComTablereport function AddCellAction adds a new entry to the context menu of a cell. To identify
the cell the defined table, column and row identifiers must be used. The fourth parameter is the Action
Identifier and the fifth parameter defines the text of the context menu entry. In addition, the callback
ComDpl script Action must be provided as a child of the ComTablereport. This callback script takes two
input parameters:

• sActionId string The Action Identifier, which was defined with the call of AddCellAction.
• aObjects set The set of objects, which were passed through with the call of AddCellAction.

The callback function Action is always called if the user selects an additional entry from the cell context
menu. The function AddCellAction provides an optional parameter refresh to define whether the report
shall be rebuilt after the execution of the Action script or not. The default is set to rebuild the report with
a call of the Create script.

23.2.5.4 Additional Buttons

The ComTablereport function AddButton adds a new button with an identifier and a label to the top
of the table report. The callback ComDpl script ButtonPressed must be provided as a child of the
ComTablereport. This callback script takes one input parameter.

• sButtonId string The Button Identifier which was defined with the call of AddButton.

The callback function ButtonPressed is always called if the user presses a button in the tabular report.
The function AddButton provides an optional parameter refresh, which defines whether the report shall
be rebuilt after the execution of the ButtonPressed script or not. If the callback script ButtonPressed
changes the content of table, the parameter refresh will be always set to 1.

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23.2.5.5 Using a Selection

If the tabular report must be able to show user defined pre-selected elements, it must have set the
Use Selection iSelection attribute of the ComTableReport. See chapter 23.2.2 for a description of the
ComTableReport attributes. In addition, the report must be stored in the report folder Library\TableReport
of the project. The exact name of the report folder depends on the PowerFactory language settings
at the time of project creation. If both conditions are fulfilled, the report can be executed with a
user selection (see 23.2.2.2). Inside the Create or Init callback scripts the ComTablereport function
GetSelection provides access to this selection. If the ComTablereport attribute Class Filter sFilter is
set, the function GetSelectedElements could be used instead. This function returns an already filtered
set of selected objects.

23.2.6 Table Report Callback Script Reference

23.2.6.1 Init

• optional
• called only when the report is opened the first time
• no input parameter

23.2.6.2 Create

• mandatory
• called if the report is created or rebuilt
• input parameter passed through from AddInvisibleFilter, AddListFilter, AddMultiListFilter, AddTab-
ularFilter or AddTextFilter :
– s<FilterId> string The selected value of a filter.
• external input objects passed through from AddInvisibleFilter, AddListFilter or AddMultiListFilter :
– o<FilterId> The selected object of a filter.

23.2.6.3 Edit

• optional
• called if:
– a cell defined with SetCellEdit is changed by the user or
– a filter defined with AddInvisibleFilter, AddListFilter, AddMultiListFilter, AddTabularFilter or
AddTextFilter is changed by the user
• input parameters:
– sColumnId string The column identifier of the changed cell or the filter identifier of the
changed filter.
– sRowId string The row identifier of the changed cell.
– sNewValue string The new value, if the cell contains a string, or the new value of the changed
filter.
– iNewValue int The new value, if the cells contains an integer.
– dNewValue double The new value, if the cells contains a double.
• external input objects:

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– oEditObject1 The first object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit or the selected
object of a changed filter.
– oEditObject2 The second object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit.
– oEditObject<X> The Xth object passed from the Create script with SetCellEdit.

23.2.6.4 Action

• optional

• called if the user selects an additional context menu entry defined with AddCellAction.
• input parameters:
– sActionId string The Action Identifier which was defined with the call of AddCellAction.
– aObjects set The set of objects, which were passed through with the call of AddCellAction.

23.2.6.5 ButtonPressed

• optional

• called if the user presses a button defined with AddButton.

• input parameter:
– sButtonId string The Button Identifier which was defined with the call of AddButton.

23.3 Python

This section describes the integration of the Python scripting language in PowerFactory and explains the
procedure for developing Python scripts. The Python scripting language can be used in PowerFactory
for:
• Automation of tasks
• Creation of user-defined calculation commands
• Integration of PowerFactory into other applications

Some of Python’s notable features include:

• General-purpose, high-level programming language
• Clear, readable syntax

• Non-proprietary, under liberal open source licence

• Widely used
• Extensive standard libraries and third-party modules
– Interfaces to external databases and Microsoft Office-like applications
– Web services, etc.
The integration of Python into PowerFactory makes the above-mentioned features accessible to users
of PowerFactory.

To execute a Python script the following steps have to be considered:

1. Python interpreter has to be installed. (Subsection 23.3.1)

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2. Python file .py that contains code of the script has to be created by external editor. After being
created .py file can be link to the ComPython object inside of PowerFactory. (Subsection 23.3.3)
3. In each .py file PowerFactory Python module ’powerfactory.pyd’ has to be imported. (Subsection
23.3.2)
4. To run the script the User has to execute the (ComPython) object. (Subsection 23.3.3.2)

23.3.1 Installation of a Python Interpreter

When PowerFactory is installed, the installation does not include a Python interpreter and therefore
this must be installed separately. The recommended Python versions are available on https://www.
python.org/downloads/. All supported Python versions can be checked inside of the PowerFactory
Configuration dialogue (see Figure 23.3.1) here is also where a preferred Python version can be
selected.

The PowerFactory architecture (32- or 64-bit) determines the Python interpreter as shown below:
• PowerFactory 32-bit requires a Python interpreter for 32-bit
• PowerFactory 64-bit requires a Python interpreter for 64-bit
To check which PowerFactory architecture is installed, press Alt-H to open the Help menu and select
About PowerFactory. If the name of PowerFactory includes “(x86)”, then a 32-bit version is installed; if
the name of PowerFactory instead includes “(x64)”, then a 64-bit version is installed. To avoid issues
with third-party software, the Python interpreter should be installed with default settings (for all users),
into the directory proposed by the installer.

Depending on the functions to be performed by a particular Python script, it may be necessary to install
a corresponding Python add-on/package. For example, Microsoft Excel can be used by Python scripts if
the “Python for Windows Extensions” PyWin32 (http://sourceforge.net/projects/pywin32/)
package is installed, which includes Win32 API, COM support and Pythonwin extensions.

23.3.2 The Python PowerFactory Module

The functionality of PowerFactory is provided in Python through a dynamic Python module (“power-
factory.pyd”) which interfaces with the PowerFactory API (Application Programming Interface). This
provides Python scripts with access to a comprehensive range of data in PowerFactory :
• All objects
• All attributes (element data, type data, results)

• All commands (load flow calculation, etc.)

• Most special built-in functions (DPL functions)
A Python script which imports this dynamic module can be executed from within PowerFactory through
the new Python command ComPython (see Section 23.3.3), or externally (PowerFactory is started by
the Python module in non-interactive mode) (see Section 23.3.4).

23.3.2.1 Python PowerFactory Module Usage

To allow access to the Python PowerFactory module it must be imported using the following Python
command:
1 import powerfactory

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To gain access to the PowerFactory environment the following command must be added:
1 app = powerfactory.GetApplication()

A Python object of class powerfactory.Application is called an application object. Using the application
object from the command above(“app”), it is possible to access global PowerFactory functionality.
Several examples are shown below:
1 user = app.GetCurrentUser()
2 project = app.GetActiveProject()
3 script = app.GetCurrentScript()
4 objects = app.GetCalcRelevantObjects()
5 lines = app.GetCalcRelevantObjects("*.ElmLne")
6 sel = app.GetDiagramSelection()
7 sel = app.GetBrowserSelection()
8 project = app.CreateProject("MyProject", "MyGrid")
9 ldf = app.GetFromStudyCase("ComLdf")

The listed methods return a data object (Python object of class powerfactory.DataObject) or a Python
list of data objects. It is possible to access all parameters and methods associated with a data object.
Unlike DPL syntax, Python syntax requires use of the dot (.) operator instead of the colon (:) in order to
access element parameters of objects (i.e. name, out of service flag, etc.).

Examples:
1 project = app.GetActiveProject()
2 projectName = project.loc_name
3 project.Deactivate()

All other object parameters (calculated, type, measured, . . . ) are to be called by GetAttribute() method
and using the colon (:), as is done in DPL.
1 lines = app.GetCalcRelevantObjects("*.ElmLne")
2 line = lines[0]
3 currLoading = line.GetAttribute("c:loading")

For printing to the PowerFactory output window, the following application object (e.g. “app” object)
methods are provided:
1 app.PrintPlain("Hello world!")
2 app.PrintInfo("An info!")
3 app.PrintWarn("A warning!")
4 app.PrintError("An error!")

Printing the string representation of data objects to the PowerFactory output window makes them
selectable (i.e. creates a hyperlink string in the output window):
1 project = app.GetActiveProject()
2 app.PrintPlain("Active Project: " + str(project))

A list of all parameters and methods associated with an object can be obtained using the dir() function
as shown below:

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1 project = app.GetActiveProject()
2 app.PrintPlain(dir(project))

23.3.2.2 Python PowerFactory Module Reference

A Python Module Reference document is available in the Help menu containing a list of offered functions.
Python reference

23.3.3 The Python Command (ComPython)

In contrast to DPL, the Python command only links to a Python script file. It stores only the file path of
the script and not the file itself.

The script may be executed by clicking on the Execute button of the corresponding dialog. Editing the
script file is possible by clicking the Open in External Editor button.

The preferred editor may be chosen in the External Applications page of the PowerFactory Configuration
dialog by selecting the Tools → Configuration. . . menu item from the main menu (see section 5.2.4).
Python scripts may be created in any text editor as long as the script file is saved using the UTF-8
character encoding format. The Python version can be selected in the PowerFactory Configuration
dialog.

Figure 23.3.1: Selection of a preferred Python editor program

On the Basic Options page of the Python command (ComPython), the user can define Input parameters
and External objects. The Input parameter table in the dialog is used as in DPL to define variables that
can be accessed from outside of the Python script. Input parameters may be the following data types:
double, int and string. All other fields (Name, Value, Unit, Description) are user definable.

The External object table allows the direct configuration of objects under investigation. An external
object is an object external to the Python command that the user wants to access in the script. By
defining the External object here, the user avoids accessing it via Python methods inside the script
(thereby allowing the script to execute faster).

Important: To access an external object or input parameter in Python, the user has first to get the script

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and can then access the parameter through ScriptObj.ExternObjName:

1 script=app.GetCurrentScript() #to call the current script
2 extObj=script.NameOfExternObj #to call the external object
3 inpPar=script.NameOfInpPram #to call input parameter

Result parameter section is to be found on the Results page. The Result parameters represents results
from the script and they are stored inside the specified results object. The Script page contains three
sections:Remote script,Script file and Interface version. Remote script offers a selection of a remote
script, which is used instead of the code defined in the Script file section. A remote script can be
advantageous in cases where the user has multiple Study Cases using the same script code, but
different input parameters. If the user wants to use a remote script, then modifying the master script will
affect all the Python scripts that refer to it. If the user had locally-defined scripts, then they would need
to change the code in each of them.

Python Script: The source of the Python script can be selected. Two options are available:

• External: An external *.py Python script file has to be selected under Script file.
• Embedded: The script is embedded in the ComPython-object and can directly be developed
using the internal editor (see Section 23.4). Please note that only single file Python scripts are
supported.
Script file will be available if External (see above) is selected. It is a field that contains the path of the
Python script file (*.py).

Embedded Code: Available if option Embedded (see above) is selected. The Python script is embedded
in the ComPython-object and can directly be developed in the editor.

Interface Version refers to the returned value of some Python methods. For example if selecting

Version 1-“old interface version”. Data object methods with arguments such as the method GetPage()
from the class SetDesktop return list containing [[returned value],argument of the following entries] :
1 list(DataObject, ...) SetDesktop::GetPage(str,[int])

Version 2- “new interface version”. Methods like the method GetPage() returns just the result, without
input parameters.
1 DataObject SetDesktop::GetPage(str,[int])

The Python command may also contain objects or references to other objects available in the Pow-
erFactory database. These can be accessed by clicking on the Contents button. New objects are
defined by first clicking the New Object icon in the toolbar of the Python script contents dialog and
then selecting the required object from the New Object pop-up window. References to other objects are
created by defining a reference object “IntRef”. Note: Python supports different access to this objects
than DPL. See example
1 script=app.GetCurrentScript()
2 ContainedObejct=script.GetContents('Results.ElmRes')

23.3.3.1 Creating a New Python Command

To create a new Python command click on the New Object ( ) icon in the toolbar of the Data Man-
ager and select DPL Command and more. From the Element drop-down list select ’Python Script

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(ComPython)’. Then press OK and a new Python command will be created. The Python command
dialog is then displayed. The name of the script, its input parameters and the file path to the script, etc,
can now be specified. The Python command dialog is also opened by double-clicking a Python script;
by selecting Edit from the context-sensitive menu or by selecting the script from the list after clicking on
the main toolbar icon Execute Script ( ).

23.3.3.2 Executing a Python Command

A Python command may be executed by clicking the Execute button in the dialog.

Alternative methods for executing a Python script include:

• From the Data Manager:

– Right-click on the Python command and select Execute from the context-sensitive menu.
– Right-click in a blank area and select Execute Script from the context-sensitive menu. A list
of existing DPL and Python scripts contained in the global and local libraries will pop up.
Select the required Python script and click OK.
• From the single line diagram:
– Select one or more elements in the single line diagram. Right-click the marked elements
and select Execute Script from the context-sensitive menu. A list of existing DPL and Python
scripts contained in the global and local libraries will pop up. Select the required Python
script and click OK.
– A button may be created in the single line diagram to automate the execution of a specific
Python script.
• From the main toolbar:
– Click the icon Execute Script . A list of existing DPL and Python scripts from the global
and local libraries will appear. Select the specific Python script and click OK.

23.3.4 Running PowerFactory in Non-interactive Mode

PowerFactory may be run externally by Python. In order to do this, the script must additionally add the
file path of the dynamic module (“powerfactory.pyd”) to the system path. Example:
1 # Add powerfactory.pyd path to python path.
2 import sys
3 sys.path.append("C:\\Program Files\\DIgSILENT\\PowerFactory 2020\\Python\\3.7")
4

5 #import PowerFactory module

6 import powerfactory
7

8 #start PowerFactory in non-interactive mode

9 app = powerfactory.GetApplication()
10

11 #run Python code below

12 #.....................

The PowerFactory environment can be accessed directly from the Python shell as shown in Fig-
ure 23.3.2

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Figure 23.3.2: Python shell

Note: If an error message appears when importing the powerfactory module stating “ DLL load failed:
the specified module could not be found”, this often means that the corresponding Microsoft Visual
C++ Redistributable are not installed on the computer.

23.3.5 Performance of Python Scripts

The execution time of a Python script can vary strongly depending on the used environment set up.
There are dedicated environment functions Python Reference to improve the performance of a script.
One example for a possible performance improvement is disabling the User Break -button. This button
has a huge impact on the execution time of some scripts, because every few simulation steps Python
has to check, whether the button has been pressed. The SetUserBreakEnabled()-function allows to
disable and enable the break button freely during the execution of a script.

23.3.6 Debugging Python Scripts

As with any other Python script, it is possible to remotely debug scripts written for PowerFactory by
using specialised applications.

23.3.6.1 Prerequisites

The recommended IDE for debugging is Eclipse (www.eclipse.org) with the Python add-on PyDev
(www.pydev.org).

1. Install Eclipse Standard from www.eclipse.org/downloads/

2. Open Eclipse
3. Click “Install New Software . . . ” in the “Help” menu

4. Add the repository http://pydev.org/updates and install PyDev

23.3.6.2 Debugging a Python script for PowerFactory

The following is a short description of remote debugging with PyDev. For more information please con-
sult the remote debugger manual of PyDev (http://pydev.org/manual_adv_remote_debugger.
html).

1. Start Eclipse
2. Open Debug perspective

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3. Start the remote debugger server by clicking “Start Debug Server” in the “Pydev” menu
4. Start PowerFactory

5. Prepare the Python script for debugging:

• Add “pydevd.py” path to sys.path
• Import PyDev debugger module “pydevd”
• Start debugging calling pydevd.settrace()
Example:
1 #prepare debug
2 import sys
3 sys.path.append ("C:\\Program Files\\eclipse\\plugins\\
4 org.python.pydev_2.8.2.2013090511\\pysrc")
5 import pydevd
6

7 #start debug
8 pydevd.settrace()

6. Execute the Python script

7. Change to Eclipse and wait for the remote debugger server
It is not possible to stop and restart the remote debugger server while running PowerFactory.

23.3.7 Example of a Python Script

The following example Python script calculates a load flow and prints a selection of results to the output
window. The script can be executed from within PowerFactory.
1 if __name__ == "__main__":
2 #connect to PowerFactory
3 import powerfactory as pf
4 app = pf.GetApplication()
5 if app is None:
6 raise Exception("getting PowerFactory application failed")
7

8 #print to PowerFactory output window

9 app.PrintInfo("Python Script started..")
10

11 #get active project

12 prj = app.GetActiveProject()
13 if prj is None:
14 raise Exception("No project activated. Python Script stopped.")
15

16 #retrieve load-flow object

17 ldf = app.GetFromStudyCase("ComLdf")
18

19 #force balanced load flow

20 ldf.iopt_net = 0
21

22 #execute load flow

23 ldf.Execute()
24

25 #collect all relevant terminals

26 app.PrintInfo("Collecting all calculation relevant terminals..")
27 terminals = app.GetCalcRelevantObjects("*.ElmTerm")
28 if not terminals:
29 raise Exception("No calculation relevant terminals found")
30 app.PrintPlain("Number of terminals found: %d" % len(terminals))

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31

32 for terminal in terminals:

33 voltage = terminal.GetAttribute("m:u")
34 app.PrintPlain("Voltage at terminal %s is %f p.u." % (terminal , voltage))
35

36 #print to PowerFactory output window

37 app.PrintInfo("Python Script ended.")

23.4 Editor

PowerFactory has an integrated editor which can be used to write and execute scripts or as normal
text editor. The editor can be reached by pressing “ctrl e” on the keyboard or from the script page of a
ComDpl/ComPython dialog by right clicking somewhere in the code and selecting “Open Text Editor”.
When the editor is opened in an additional window, the available tools are shown in the Editor Toolbar ;
note that the same tools are available when using the page Script of ComDpl/ComPython command by
using the context sensitive menu.

Open external text file

Save file. If the file is a script the changes will be saved to the script object. Otherwise the file will
be saved as a .txt file

Print the current file

Check the syntax of the script. Only available for DPL scripts

Execute the current script. The button is interpreted as save and execute.

A browser with the script contents is shown.

With this Edit icon the edit dialog of the script is opened.

Cut part of the text.

Copy part of the text.

Paste the copied or cut text.

The text of the script will be deleted

Undo the last operation.

Redo the last operation.

With the Search icon the user can activate a Find, a Replace or also a Go To function inside the
editor.
Find/replace/go to the next matching word.

Find/replace/go to the previous matching word.

With this icon bookmarks can be set in the editor.

Go to the next bookmark.

Go to the previous bookmark.

Clear all the existing bookmarks.

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Open the User Settings dialog in the Editor page. More information is given in section 7.7.

When editing is complete, press the icon or icon and the script will be synchronised with the
main dialog.

In order to close an editor window click on the “close button” (“X”) on the top of the right side of the
window directly underneath corresponding buttons on the title bar.

23.5 Add On Modules

The purpose of Add On Modules is to allow the user more flexibility in the processing of calculations
and the presentation of results. By using Add On Modules the user can, for example, execute a number
of different calculations and present the results together on a graphic or in a report. Furthermore,
the concept of user-defined variables is introduced, these being variables created by the user in order
to store results, parameters, or any other information relevant to the process. After a module has
been executed, the user-defined variables may be accessed in the same way as the standard results
variables, for example being selected to display in a flexible data page. An Add On Module is created
and executed using an Add-On Command (ComAddon), which can be stored within a project or stored
in a central location and accessed via the user-defined toolbar.

23.5.1 Add On Module framework

The Add On Module is created using an ComAddon command, which typically consists of the following
components:

• A DPL or Python script, which:

– uses a CreateModule command to create the Add On module;
– may include a range of calculation commands such as ComLdf and ComShc;
– includes commands to transfer results variables or other information to the user-defined
variables;
– uses a FinaliseModule command to complete the Add On module and make the results in
the user-defined variables available to the user.
• One or more User-defined variable definitions IntAddonvars; these are where the user specifies a
set of user-defined variables for a particular element class.

As can be seen in figure 23.5.1 below, the Add On command object also specifies two other pieces of
information:

Module Name: This is the name that will be given to the module itself. When the command is executed,
the module is created and this name will appear, for example, when the user selects variables to
display on a flexible data page.
Module Key: This is a key used internally by PowerFactory. It is used as a reference so that the
appropriate flexible data, graphic colouring and result boxes are used when the command is
executed. It is possible, if appropriate, for several Add On commands to use the same module
key.

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Figure 23.5.1: Add On Command object

So when the Add On command is executed, the Add On module that is created can be regarded as
a bespoke PowerFactory function, handled in the same way as other functions such as a load flow or
RMS simulation, but offering great flexibility for the user.

23.5.2 Creating a new Add-on Module command

To create a new Add On Module in a study case, the following steps can be followed:

• In a Data Manager, select the study case and click on the New Object icon .
• Select from the list Others and as Filter “Commands (Com*)”. Choose from the Element drop
down list “Add On (ComAddon)” and confirm with OK.
• Give the Add On a name and a key and confirm the edit dialog with Close.

• Select the Add On on the left side in the tree hierarchy of the Data Manager and press the New
Object icon again.
• Four options are available initially. The DPL Command (ComDpl) or Python Script(ComPython)
can be selected to create the script for the module. The third option, Variable Definition of Add On
(IntAddonvars) is used to create the user-defined variable definitions (IntAddonvars). The fourth
option, Flexible Data (SetFoldflex), offers the possibility to define a new tab (like the flexible data
page) and a predefined set of displayed variables.
• Once a script exists, any additional objects created in the module can only be user-defined variable
definitions IntAddonvars or the definition of an additional flexible data page SetFoldlfex.

• The IntAddonvars is configured to set up the user-defined variables. In the example in figure 23.5.2
below, short-circuit results variables are defined, one for each phase, and also line loading, line
length and an internal counter from the script.

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Figure 23.5.2: Example of user-defined variable definitions for line elements

The setup of an additional flexible data page could be done as follows:

• Create a Flexible Data definition SetFoldflex inside the Add On.
• Execute the Add On.
• Open the Network Model Manager and look at the object classes for which Add On variable
definitions were created.
• Switch to the newly created, user defined flexible data tab at the bottom.
• Add user defined and whatever parameters of interest to the displayed variables via the Variable
Selection .
• With the variable selection done for all object classes of interest, the corresponding settings can
be copied into the Add On. Navigate in the Data Manager to the Settings folder of the project and
within it to the newly created flexible data page.
• Copy the Flexible Page Selector objects (IntMonsel) and paste them inside the Add On Flexible
Data definition (see figure 23.5.3).
• When this Add On is then executed in another project, the additional flexible data page will contain
the configured sets of variables.

Figure 23.5.3: Definition of additional flexible data page and corresponding variable sets for the object
classes.

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For the user-defined variables, supported data types include integer, double, string, object (reference),
arrays and matrices; for edge elements, variables can be defined as per phase and/or per connection
quantities.

Within the script itself, important features are the command CreateModule();, which is followed by all
the required calculations and data manipulation, new DPL and Python methods used for the handling
of the variables, and the FinaliseModule(); command, which is used once the calculations and data
manipulation are complete and which defines the point at which no more changes are made to the
user-defined variables and the results are ready to be viewed.

23.5.3 Executing an Add-on Module command

Add-on Modules can be executed directly or from an icon on the Additional Tools toolbar as shown in
figure 23.5.4 below. Clicking on this icon will bring up a list of all Add On commands stored in the active
study case or in the Add On folder in the Configuration area (see section 23.5.4).

Figure 23.5.4: Running Add On modules from the Additional Tools toolbar

When the script has been executed, it is possible to access the user-defined variables in a flexible data
page as shown in figure 23.5.5 below, or add them to a result box.

If an additional flexible data page is defined in the Add On, the corresponding flexible data page can be
selected and further adapted.

In figure 23.5.5, it can be seen how the Add On Module name appears on the left-hand side together
with the standard PowerFactory calculation functions.

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Figure 23.5.5: Selecting user-defined variables for a flexible data page

23.5.4 Adding Add On Modules to the User-Defined Tools toolbar

Add On Modules can be made available for use in different projects and (in the case of a multi-
user database) by other users, by adding the Add-On commands to the User-defined Tools toolbar.
Section 6.7.1 describes how the User-defined Tools toolbar is configured; the Add On Module command,
including contents, is placed in the Add On folder of the Configuration folder.

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Chapter 24

Interfaces

24.1 Introduction

PowerFactory supports a wide set of interfaces. Depending on the specific data exchange task the user
may select the appropriate interface.

The interfaces are divided as follows:

• Interfaces for the exchange of data according to DIgSILENT specific formats:
– DGS
– StationWare (DIgSILENT GmbH trademark)
• Interfaces for the exchange of data using proprietary formats:
– PSS/E (Siemens/PTI trademark)
– NEPLAN (NEPLAN AG trademark)
– ELEKTRA
– MATLAB (The MathWorks, Inc trademark)
– INTEGRAL
– PSS/SINCAL (Siemens/PTI trademark)
– ETAP (Operation Technology, Inc trademark)

• Interfaces for the exchange of data according to standardised formats:

– UCTE-DEF
– CIM
– OPC
• Programming interfaces for integration with external applications
– C++ API
The above mentioned interfaces are explained in the following sections.

24.2 DGS Interface

DGS (DIgSILENT) is PowerFactory ’s standard bi-directional interface specifically designed for bulk data
exchange with other applications such as GIS and SCADA, and, for example, for exporting calculation
results to produce Crystal Reports, or to interchange data with any other software package.

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Figure 24.2.1 illustrates the integration of a GIS (Graphical Information System) or SCADA (Supervisory
Control And Data Acquisition) with PowerFactory via the DGS interface

Here, PowerFactory can be configured either in GUI-less or normal mode. When used in GUI-less
mode (engine mode), PowerFactory imports via DGS the topological and library data (types), as well
as operational information. Once a calculation has been carried out (for example a load flow or short
circuit), the results are exported back so they are displayed in the original application; which in this
example relates to the SCADA or GIS application. The difference with PowerFactory running in normal
mode (see right section of Figure 24.2.1) is that, besides the importing of data mentioned previously, the
graphical information (single line graphics) is additionally imported, meaning therefore that the results
can be displayed directly in PowerFactory. In this case, the exporting back of the results to the original
application would be optional.

Figure 24.2.1: DGS - GIS/SCADA Integration

Although the complete set of data can be imported in PowerFactory every time a modification has
been made in the original application, this procedure would be impractical. The typical approach in
such situations would be to import the complete set of data only once and afterwards have incremental
updates.

24.2.1 DGS Interface Typical Applications

Typical applications of the DGS Interface are the following:

• Importing to PowerFactory
– Data Import/Update into PowerFactory from external data sources such as GIS (Network
Equipment), SCADA (Operational Data) and billing/metering systems (Load Data) in order to
perform calculations.
• Exporting from PowerFactory
– Performing calculations in PowerFactory and exporting back the results to the original appli-
cation.

• Integration

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– Importing data sets to PowerFactory from GIS or SCADA, performing calculations, and
exporting back results to GIS or SCADA.

24.2.2 DGS Structure (Database Schemas and File Formats)

PowerFactory ’s DGS interface is strictly based on the PowerFactory data model. Data can be imported
and exported with DGS using different file formats and database schemas.

The following databases or file formats are supported:

• Databases
– Oracle DB Server (ODBC client 10 or newer)
– Microsoft SQL Server (ODBC driver 2000 or newer)
– System DSN (ODBC)
– Generic ODBC
• File Formats
– DGS File - ASCII
– XML File
– Microsoft Excel File (2003 or newer)
– Microsoft Access File (2003 or newer)
Important to note here is that the content of the files is the same, the only difference being the format.

Note: Due to changes in the format, DGS is available in several versions. It is highly recommended to
always use the latest available DGS version.

The core principle of DGS is to organise all data in tables. Each table has a unique name (within
the DGS file or database/table space) and consists of one or more table columns, where generally all
names are case-sensitive.

More information on DGS and examples can be accessed by selecting from the main menu Help →
Additional Packages→ DGS Data Exchange Format

24.2.3 DGS Import

To import data via the DGS interface, the general procedure is as follows:
• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → DGS Format. . . which opens the DGS-Import
dialog.
• Specify the required options in both the General and Options pages, and click on the Execute
button.
When importing DGS files, the user has two options:
1. Importing into a new project. With this option selected a newly generated project is left activated
upon completion.
2. Importing into an existing project. If an operational scenario and/or a variation is active at the
moment the import takes place, the imported data set will be divided correspondingly. For example
importing breaker status (opened/closed) while an operational scenario is active will store this
information in the operational scenario.
The following sections describe each of these options.

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24.2.3.1 General Page

Import into New Project By choosing this option, a project will be created where all the DGS data
will be stored. The user will have the option of specifying a specific name and location (other than the
default).

Import into Existing Project By choosing this option, the DGS data will be imported into an already
existing project. Here, the data can be selective and its not required that the imported data must be
complete. In some cases, most of the objects already exist and only an update is required for some of
them.

Import from The source of the data to be imported is specified with this option. If a File Format source
is selected then the location and type of data (DGS, XML, MDB or XLS) must be specified. If a Database
source is selected, then a service, User and Password information is required (the SQL server option
will require an extra Database information).

24.2.3.2 Options Page

The visible options depend on the DGS version being used, and on the users choice of the Import
Format.

Options for DGS version 4.x

Predefined Library
A predefined library located somewhere else in the database can be selected. The option of
copying the library into the project is available.

Create Switch inside Cubicle

In cases where the source data has no switches defined inside the cubicles, the enabling of
this option will create the switches automatically during the import. If switches already exist in a
certain cubicle, the creation of switches in that particular cubicle is ignored.

Replace non-printable characters

If the source data contains not allowed characters (∼, ?, etc.), they are replaced by an underscore
character.

Options for DGS version 5.x

Open single line diagram(s)

If the DGS source contains graphics objects for single line diagrams, these will be opened
automatically after import.

Dataset Import (only available if a Database Schema is selected as Import Format)

For DGS version 5 or higher, a labelled version of the data in the source data base can be
selected for import. The labelled versions are mainly used to chose a time-dependent state of
the data. The label name is input in the field Label.

Options for DGS version 6.x

The options for DGS version 5.x are available for DGS version 6.x as well. In addition, the options
described below can be configured.

Global type library

The DGS import in earlier versions only allows for references to existing objects within the active
project. With the DGS version 6.x, a global type library can be selected. Elements in the DGS
source can refer to the foreign key of types in the selected global library.

Partial Import (only available if a Database Schema is selected as Import Format)

For DGS version 6 or higher, labelled regions can be selected for import in the source data base.

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The labelled regions can be used to select specific voltage levels or sub-grids from the bulk data
set. The label names are input in the field Labels separated by commas.

The option pages for all DGS versions contain the field

Additional Parameters
This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by the user.

More detailed information on DGS and examples can be accessed by selecting from the main menu
Help → Additional Packages→ DGS Data Exchange Format

24.2.4 DGS Export

In contrast to the DGS Import, where it is not relevant if a project is active or not; the DGS Export is
based on what information is active at the moment the export takes place. In other words, only the active
project, with the corresponding active Study Case, active Scenario, and active Variations are exported
(objects are exported in their current state). Furthermore, the export can be fully configured, meaning
that the user has the option of selecting the amount of information to be exported per class object. In
general, the following data can be exported:
• Element data

• Type data
• Graphic data
• Result data (e.g. load flow results)
To export data via the DGS interface, the general procedure is as follows:

• Create an Export Definition

• Activate the project to be exported, considering which Study Case, Scenario and Variations should
be active.

• From the main menu go to File → Export. . . → DGS Format. . . which opens the DGS-Export
dialog.
• Specify the required options in both the General and Options pages, and click the Execute button.

The following sections describe each of these options.

24.2.4.1 General Page

DGS Version
Version of the DGS structure.

Format
Output format. Either as ASCII, XML, MS Excel or MS Access file (for Excel or Access, Microsoft
Office must be installed on the computer) or as Oracle, MS SQL Server, ODBC DSN or generic ODBC
databases (respective data base drivers must be installed.).

File Name or Data Base Service

Depending on the Output Format, a file name for the output file or the data base service and user
access information are required.

Insert Description of Variables

If checked, a description of the column headers is included in the output file (only available for ASCII,
XML and MS Excel).

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Variable Sets
Select the variable set definition for export. The data exported will be according to the variable definition
specified (see the explanation at the beginning of the section). It is required to select a folder that
contains the monitor variable objects (IntMon) related to each class that is to be exported.

24.2.4.2 Options Page

The visible options mostly depend on the DGS version 4.x, 5.x or 6.x and on the users choice of the
Export Format.

DPL Script
Independent of the DGS version, the user can select a DPL script. This DPL script is automatically
executed before DGS export.

Options for DGS version 5.x

Allow hierarchy and references of exported objects to be incomplete

If this option is set, error messages because of references to external objects (e.g. types in the
global library) that will not be exported are omitted. Furthermore, the export of data classes is
possible although their parent-folder class is not contained in the variable definition set.

Allow user-defined table names

With this option, a prefix and suffix can be added to all table names on DGS export. The prefix
or suffix is defined in the field Additional Parameters.

Export as dataset (available for export to data base formats only)

This option is used to write the exported data to a specifically labelled data set (session state)
into the data base. A label identifier must be given. Optional, a description can be added.

Options for DGS version 6.x

All options for DGS version 5.x are available for DGS version 6.x. In addition, the following options exist:

Export as Update
DGS 6.0 supports an explicit marker OP to mark a data record to be created (C), updated (U) or
deleted (D) on DGS import. On export, the user can chose to mark all data as Update by means
of this option. Otherwise the exported data are marked for Create.

Categorisation of data for partial import (available for export to data base formats only)
This option is used to define for each grid (ElmNet) in the active project a data part in the data
base. In addition, certain data types and elements are labelled with respect to their meaning in
the context of this partial export: global types, local types, boundary set (branches connecting
elements that belong to different grids), other elements (e.g. characteristics). The names of these
labels are input in the respective fields (all fields should be filled in). In addition, a global library
folder can be selected to include referenced types from this library on DGS export.

Options for DGS version 4.x

Export Grid Name

If this option is set, a column “Grid” is added to all tables containing network elements.

Export Cubicles
With this option, cubicles are exported. Cubicles describe the connectivity of nodes and branches.
The export of cubicles can be omitted if the grid topology is not needed (e.g. for result export).

Export Graphical Data

The user can select one of three options for the export of graphical data:
No No graphical data are exported.

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Yes, with Graphic (IntGrfnet) Names Graphical data are exported. All graphic object tables
contain a column for the name of the graphic scheme (IntGrfnet).
Yes, without Graphic (IntGrfnet) Names Graphical data are exported. The graphic scheme
is not referenced by the exported graphic objects.
The option page contains independent of the DGS version always the field

Additional Parameters
This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by the user.

More detailed information on Variable Sets definitions (IntMon) can be accessed by selecting from the
main menu Help → Additional Packages→ DGS Data Exchange Format.

24.3 PSS/E File Interface

Although both import and export functions for PSS/E files are integrated commands of PowerFactory,
the export function is licensed separately. For more information on prices and licensing contact the
sales department at [email protected].

PSS/E Import supports versions 23 to 34 and can be carried out by going to the main menu and
selecting File → Import. . . → PSS/E.

In the same manner, and provided the appropriate licensing exists, a project can be exported in PSS/E
format by selecting from the main menu File → Export. . . → PSS/E. For exports, PSS/E is supported
up to and including version 33.

24.3.1 PSS/E File Types and Versions

PowerFactory is able to convert the following PSS/E ’Source Format’ file types:

RAW Power Flow Data (Import and Export) * .raw extension.

SEQ Sequence Data (Import and Export) * .seq extension.
DYR Dynamics Data (Import and Export) * .dyr extension.

PowerFactory is not able to convert the following PSS/E ’Binary Format’ file types:

SAV Power Flow Data “Saved Case”: needs to be converted to RAW format in PSS/E.
SNP Dynamics Data “Snapshot”: needs to be converted to DYR format in PSS/E.

SLD Single Line Data “Slider Data”: not supported by PowerFactory.

DRW Single Line Data: not supported by PowerFactory. Instead, diagrams can be created in Power-
Factory using the diagram layout tool.

PSS/E files from versions v35.x cannot be converted/imported to PowerFactory at present. They first
have to be converted to the PSS/E version v34 in PSS/E.

24.3.2 Importing PSS/E Steady-State Data

PowerFactory is able to convert both steady-state data (for load-flow and short-circuit analysis) and
dynamic data files. It is good practise to first import the steady-state data (described in this section),
then to add the dynamic models (described in Section 24.3.3: Import of PSS/E file (Dynamic Data).

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Before starting the next steps for importing a PSS/E file, make sure that no project is active. Once this
has been confirmed, select from the main menu File → Import. . . → PSS/E. By doing so, the Convert
PSS/E Files command dialog will be displayed, asking the user to specify various options.

24.3.2.1 General Page

Nominal Frequency Nominal frequency of the file to be Converted/Imported.

PSS/E File Type

PSS/E Raw data Location on the hard disk of the PSS/E raw data file. By default the program searches
for * .raw extensions.
Sequence Data Location of the PSS/E sequence data file. By default the program searches for * .seq
extensions.

Note: From PowerFactory 2020 onwards the drw file is no longer converted/imported. Instead, network
graphics can be generated after import into PowerFactory, using the Diagram Layout Tool.

Save converted data in

Project The project name that will be assigned to the converted/imported file in PowerFactory.
in Location in the Data Manager tree where the imported file will be stored.
The following topics:

• Dyn. Models Data,

• Composite Frame Path,
• DSL - Model Path,
• Parameter Mapping

are not used for the import of steady-state data and will be explained in the dynamic import Sec-
tion 24.3.3.

24.3.2.2 Options Page

• Convert only sequence data file - With this option enabled, the converter will only add the
sequence data to an existing project.
• Convert only dynamic models file - With this option enabled, the converter will only add the
dynamic data file to an existing project (only for dynamic data import).
• Only convert file (no DB action) - Internal option used for syntax check and error messages
during conversion. Normally this box should be left unchecked.
• Output only used dynamic models - Displays a list of used dynamic models (only for dynamic
data import).
• Unit of ’LEN’ for lines in miles instead of km - With this option enabled, all lengths will be
interpreted in miles in the PSS/E raw files.
• Consider transformer phase shift - With this option enabled, transformer phase shifts will be
considered. This option is recommended and activated by default.
• Convert Induction Machines (Generators: P<0) - With this option enabled, all generators in the
raw data file that have negative active power will be converted to asynchronous machines. For
transmission grids the option should be disabled for proper modelling of phase shift generators.

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• Automatic 3-W. Transformer detection/conversion - In versions <27, PSS/E does not handle 3-
winding transformers as a dedicated model. In such cases, the 3-winding transformer is modelled
with three 2-winding transformers connected to a busbar. If this option is selected, the converter
will try to detect the existence of three 2-Winding Transformers connected to a busbar. If any can-
didates are available, PowerFactory will replace them by a 3-Winding Transformer. The detection
algorithm uses the impedances and the voltage control of the transformers as reference. From
version 27 onwards PSS/E supports the 3W-transformer model, so that PowerFactory does not
start an automatic detection of 3W-Trf modelled as 2W-Trfs.

• Convert capacitive line shunts to line susceptance B’ - If a line has line shunts the converter
adds automatically the line shunt capacitance to the C1’ (B1’) in the PowerFactory line type.
• Convert Common Impedance as Transformer - If this option is selected, the Common Impedance
in PSS/E may be converted to a PowerFactory common impedance or to a transformer.
• Convert Series Capacitance as Common Impedance - Older versions of PSS/E do not handle
series capacitances as a dedicated model. These elements therefore are represented by lines
with negative reactances. During the conversion, PowerFactory detects these branches and
converts them to series capacitances (by default) or to common impedances (when this option
is active).
• Convert off-nominal turn ratio to transformer tap - Transformer ratios different from the rated
ratio are automatically converted to a transformer type using taps, including the correct tap posi-
tion.
• Busbar naming: ’PSSE_NAME’ - With this option enabled, the busbars are named similar to the
PSS/E raw data file (without bus number).
• Branch naming: ’BUSNAME1_BUSNAME2_ID’ - With this option enabled, the branches are
named as the name of the busbars + ID.

Additional Parameters - This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by
the user.

24.3.3 Import of PSS/E file (Dynamic Data)

As explained in Section 24.3.2 it is good practice first to import the steady-state data and then to add
the dynamic model data.

Some dynamic models used in PSS/E are available in the global DIgSILENT Library. User defined
dynamic models should be modelled in PowerFactory before importing the program. In this case, an
important condition for successful file conversion is that all DSL models used during the conversion
process should be stored in the same model library folder.

If the original library should use specific folders for the different types of controllers (AVR,PCO,PSS,
etc.), the user should copy all of the models into the same library folder, in this case the recommendation
is to copy the dynamic models from the DIgSILENT library into the library where the rest of the user
defined models are located. After the conversion, the user may re-arrange the models.

The procedure to start the import of dynamic network data is very similar to the import of steady-state
data. Some parameter adjustments have to be made.

24.3.3.1 General Page - Dynamic Models

On the General page of the import dialog the following topics have to be specified:

Dyn. Models Data - Location of the PSS/E Dynamic Models data file. By default the program searches
for * .dyn and *dyr extensions.

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Use Standard Models from global library - If this option in enabled, PowerFactory will automatically
point to the PSS/E compatible library located in the DIgSILENT library. There will be no need of
selecting the composite Frame Path and DSL Model Path.

Composite Frame Path - Location in the PowerFactory data base where the composite frames are
stored (Standard Models/Composite Models Frames. . . ).

DSL - Model Path - Location in the PowerFactory data base where the DSL models are stored (Stan-
dard Models. . . ).

Parameter Mapping - Location of the PowerFactory mapping file. This is an option that normally
will not have to be defined by the user. By default PowerFactory will automatically set up its own
internal mapping file. This file defines how to translate the PSS/E internal models into PowerFactory
models, including the mapping of controller parameters. For automated conversion of user-defined
PSS/E controllers the mapping file may be customised.

24.3.3.2 Import Options Page - Dynamic Model Import

On the Options page of the import dialog the following options should be considered:

Convert only dynamic models file - With this option enabled, the converter will only add the dynamic
data file to an existing project.

Output only used dynamic models - Displays a list of used dynamic models.

24.3.4 Exporting a project to a PSS/E file

This function allows the export of the network model in PSS/E format. The export comprises both
steady-state and dynamic data sets. The correct conversion of dynamic models is only possible for
the standard IEEE models. Models which the user implemented in PowerFactory ’s DSL can not be
automatically translated and must be modelled as user-defined controller types separately in PSS/E.

To export a project in PSS/E format select File → Export. . . → PSS/E from the main menu.

24.3.4.1 Export General Page

RAW Conversion File - Path and file name for the PSS/E RAW file, containing the symmetrical de-
scription of the model. By default the program selects the * .raw extension.

SEQ Conversion File - Path and file name for the PSS/E SEQ file, containing the additional description
of the model necessary for unbalanced conditions. By default the program selects the * .seq extension.

DYN Conversion File - Path and file name for the PSS/E DYN/DYR file, containing the dynamic models
of the project. By default the program selects the * .dyr extension.

PSS/E Version - Version of the exported PSS/E file (25 to 33).

24.3.4.2 Export Options Page

Convert Motors to Generators if P<0 - With this option enabled, all asynchronous machines in
generator mode will be converted to synchronous machines.

Export branch as single equivalent line - Selecting this option will convert the branch models to an
equivalent line.

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Convert SVS to generator - This option defines how the SVS elements will be exported. Three options
are available:

• No: the SVS elements won’t be exported.

• Only voltage controlled: will convert the SVS elements with control mode set to Voltage Control
(Load Flow page of the element) to generator models.
• Always: all the SVS elements will be converted to generator models.

Base Apparent Power - Base for the power values given in per-unit system.

Min (Zero) Impedance Branch - Minimum impedance for ideal connections.

PSS/E Bus Number - This option defines the naming convention when exporting terminals ElmTerm.
Three options are available:

• Automatic: the number assigned will be according to the name (in ascending/alphabetical order).
• Use Serial Number: the serial number information stated in the Description page of each terminal
will be used for assigning the PSS/E bus number.

• Use Characteristic Name: the characteristic name information stated in the Description page of
each terminal will be used for assigning the PSS/E bus number.

Export PSS/E-Area index as - The way the Area index is defined in PSS/E is defined here, two options
are available:

• Grids: the exported file will have the areas defined according to the Grids defined in the Power-
Factory model.
• Areas: the exported file will have the areas defined according to the Areas defined in the Power-
Factory model.

Additional Parameters - This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by
the user.

24.4 ELEKTRA Interface

PowerFactory offers the user the possibility to import different types of ELEKTRA files. The files
supported for import are as follows:

• Elektra network models

– Element data (*.esd) from Elektra Version 3.60 to 3.98, which contain the topological and
electrical data of the elements in the grid.
– Network diagrams (*.enp) from Elektra Version 3.92 to 3.98, which contain the graphical
representation of grids.

• Elektra equipment type library

– Type data (*.dat), which contains equipment types.

24.4.1 Import of Elektra Data

The general way to import data via the Elektra interface is as follows:

• From the main menu, select: File → Import→ Elektra. . . . The Elektra-Import dialog will be
displayed.
• Select the desired options and click on the Execute button.

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Note: The Elektra import cannot be executed if Elektra is open. Close the software before executing
the import.

The import will be executed regardless of whether a project is activated or not. At the end of the
import, the project will be activated. If there is another project activated while importing the Elektra
data, PowerFactory will deactivate the active project, and activate the newly-created or selected project
(according to the settings).

The options available in the Elektra import dialog are described in the following section.

24.4.2 General Settings

Import into

New project A new project will be created in which all of the Elektra data will be stored. The user can
select a name and a storage location. Different versions of the same network model should be
stored in new projects.
Existing project Elektra data will be imported into an existing project. Use this option if grids from
different regions will be connected and should be calculated together in one project.

Files

Kind of data Within the Elektra import, Element/graphic data (data type *.esd and *. enp) or Type data
(data type *.dat) can be imported, according to the selection.
Element data If Element/graphic data is selected, set the storage location of the Elektra element data
by clicking the “. . . ” icon.
Graphical data Add graphical data for the element. Select Delete to remove the data from the list.
Type data If Kind of Data: Type data is selected, click on Add to select the Elektra type library (*.dat)
for import. Repeat this step if more type libraries should be added to the import. Select Delete to
delete single files from the selection.

24.4.3 Advanced Settings

On the Advanced settings page, the following options can be used to simplify the imported network. In
addition, there are two options to activate the import of coupling impedances and active/reactive power
characteristics (Q(P) curves).

General Options

consider graphical node representation If a node is set to Internal Node in the Elektra element
data, PowerFactory will also set the node to Internal Node. That is, the usage of the node in
PowerFactory is set according to the usage in Elektra element data.
create detailed busbar systems for single busbars By default, a detailed representation of substa-
tions is generated for all Elektra busbars in a PowerFactory substation. This is done regardless of
whether it is a single or double busbar. This option should be chosen to set locations where only
single busbars exist, to single busbars in PowerFactory.
create auxiliary graphic objects in annotation layer Objects in the Elektra open graphic (open texts,
memos, rectangles, pictures, . . . ) will be transformed into the annotation layer of PowerFactory
by default. These layers can be scaled and changed in PowerFactory. As an alternative, graph-
ical objects can be split into parts in the import process. This leads to limited options in later
adaptations of the objects.

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create element names with reference to the node name In PowerFactory, every element must have
a unique name. To ensure this uniqueness for the Elektra import, the names are comprised of
the following parts: Elektra element name - Elektra name of terminal 1 - Elektra name of other
terminal. If this name has more than 40 letters it will be shortened.
coupling impedances Coupling impedances between adjacent overhead lines in Elektra network data
are converted into corresponding tower elements (ElmTow) and tower types TypTow in PowerFac-
tory.
convert Q(P) curves The reactive power behaviour of generator units or synchronous machines in
Elektra data can be given as an active/reactive power characteristic. These curves are converted
into a Q(P) characteristic in PowerFactory and assigned to the corresponding static generator/s
or synchronous machine/s.

Individual scaling factors at Elektra node elements

Active and reactive power can be modified through scaling factors in Elektra on different layers. These
factors are transformed into scalar PowerFactory characteristics, upon import of Elektra element data.
If there are many individual scaling factors for Elektra node elements, one of the following options can
be chosen. These options may assist in reducing the number of characteristics in PowerFactory.

Ignore all scaling factors The factors for active and reactive power for Elektra node elements are
ignored within the data import. The results of the load flow calculation are influenced by this
option.

Calculate resulting power quantities The multiplication of the active and reactive power by the Elek-
tra node element factor is transferred into PowerFactory.
Create individual scale factor objects For all factors for Elektra node elements that are set to a value
different to ’1’, corresponding scalar characteristics are created in PowerFactory. This is the
default option.

Additional Parameter This field is for internal use. No additional information is required from the user.

24.4.4 Importing Elektra Network Data

To import Elektra network data, choose Kind of data: Element/graphic data. The following combinations
of element and graphic data exist:

1. Selection of Elektra element data (*.esd) without graphic data

The element and topological data from the *.esd file will be imported. Type data for the element
data will be created. There is no creation of a network diagram.
2. Selection of Elektra element data (*.esd) and one or more corresponding graphic files (*.enp)
The included topological and type data from the *.esd file will be imported. Type data for the
element data will be created. Additionally, a network diagram for every selected Elektra graphical
data will be created and elements are linked to the graphical objects (if present in both files).
3. Selection of Elektra graphical data (*.enp), without element data.
If only graphical data has been selected, for each graphic file one network diagram will be created.
From the topological information in the *.enp file, network data will be created. This network data
does not contain technical parameters or type references.

24.4.5 Importing Elektra Type Data

To import Elektra type data, select one or more *.dat files.

In the folder Library/Equipment Type Library from the import project, a new Equipment Library will be
created for each file and relevant kind of element.

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If the successfully imported type data should be used in PowerFactory ś global library, continue as
follows:
1. Change the user to Administrator by selecting Tools → Switch User. . . → Administrator via the
main menu.
2. Open the PowerFactory Data Manager, and create a new folder of type Library within the directory
Database.
3. Copy the Equipment Library from the import project into this folder.

24.4.6 Output Window

During the import the following information is provided in the output window:

• Network elements which do not coexist in the Elektra element and in the Elektra graphical data
(multiple entries while importing multiple graphical files are possible).
• Network elements which are generated from power ratings in Elektra nodes.
• Coupling objects between different locations, which cannot be converted.
• Graphical objects whose names are adapted during import.
• Inconsistent or incomplete element parameters.

24.5 NEPLAN Interface

PowerFactory offers to the user the option of importing different types of NEPLAN files. The files
supported for importing are the following:
• NEPLAN 4
– Project File Data (*.mcb) containing the topological, electrical and graphical data.
– Line Data Type (*.ldb) containing the line type information.
• NEPLAN 5
– Node Table (*.ndt) containing the node data, such as rated voltages and loads.
– Element table (*.edt) containing the branch data, such as lines and transformers.
– GIS/NMS Interface (*.cde) containing the graphical information of all the networks which are
part of the NEPLAN project.

24.5.1 Importing NEPLAN Data

To import data via the NEPLAN interface, the general procedure is as follows:
• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → Neplan. . . which opens the NEPLAN-Import dialog.
• Specify the required options and click on the Execute button.
The NEPLAN data import always creates a new PowerFactory project. Once the import process has
been executed, the newly generated project is left activated upon completion.

Independent of the NEPLAN file version (4 or 5), the user has the option of importing the data with
or without graphical information. That is, if the user selects importing the data without graphical
information, only the topological and electrical data will get imported, and no single line graphic will
be generated. In order to import NEPLAN 5 graphics, the path to the NEPLAN files should not contain
spaces.

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Importing NEPLAN 4 Files

When importing NEPLAN 4 files, the user has basically two options:
1. Selection of a * .mcb file.
If the user selects this type of file and if a corresponding * .ldb file is present (should be in the same
directory where the * .mcb is stored), then the information of both files gets imported. If only the
*
.mcb file exists, then only the information regarding this file is imported (which can also contain
line data).
2. Selection of a * .ldb.
If the user selects this type of file only the information regarding this file (line data) is imported.
Importing NEPLAN 5 Files

When importing NEPLAN 5 files, the user is only required to select the * .ndt. By doing so, the
corresponding * .edt file is automatically imported also. This basically means that a * .edt file must
be present otherwise the import will not be executed. The * .cde file is however optional. Additionally, all
three files must have the same name and must be in the same directory! As a recommendation, create
a separate folder and place all the files there.

The following section describes each of the NEPLAN import dialog options.

24.5.1.1 General Settings

File Type
Neplan Data Location on the hard disk of the NEPLAN data file. Three types of files are available:
*
.mcb, * .ldb and * .ndt.
Save converted data in
Project The project name that will be assigned to the converted/imported file in PowerFactory.
in Location in the Data Manager tree where the imported file will be stored.
Common Conversion Settings

Automatic busbar system detection

Import Graphic Information If this option is enabled then the graphical information is imported and
the single line diagram is generated. In case of NEPLAN 5 import the * .cde file is required.
Graphic Import Options (only for NEPLAN 5 import)
Additional Rotation Angle for 1-port Elements (deg) If a value different than 0 is stated, then the
single port elements (loads, generators, motors, etc.) are rotated counter clockwise (degrees)
with respect to the original position.
Automatically scale to A0 If this option is selected, then the graphic is rescaled according to the A0
page format.
User defined scaling factor
Additional Parameters
This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by the user.

24.6 INTEGRAL Interface

PowerFactory offers the user the option to import Integral files for Load Flow and Short Circuit analysis.
The following files are supported:

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• *.dvg
• *.dtf

• *.xml

Furthermore Integral files can be export as *.xml files.

24.6.1 Importing Integral Data

To import Integral data, the procedure is as follows:

• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → Integral. . . (this will open the Integral import dialog).

In the ’Save converted data in’ field the user can enter a project name, and the PowerFactory user for
this project can be selected. The Integral data import always creates a new PowerFactory project.
The *.xml Integral files contain graphical information. However, for older Integral files with the ending
*.dvg and *.dtf it is necessary to select graphical data with the ending *.bild.

More information about the Integral Import is available in the German version of the User Manual.

24.6.2 Export Integral Data

The Integral export converts the PowerFactory project into an *.xml file in Integral format. Therefore
’XML Data’ must be defined as the path where to store the xml file. If the ending .xml is not given, it will
automatically added.

More information about the Integral Export is available in the German version of the User Manual.

24.7 PSS SINCAL Interface

PowerFactory offers the user the option to import MS Access database files from PSS SINCAL for Load
Flow and Short Circuit analysis. The following files are supported:

• *.mdb

24.7.1 Importing PSS SINCAL Data

The procedure to import PSS SINCAL data is as follows:

• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → Sincal. . . (this will open the PSS SINCAL import
dialog).

• Select the file location of the MS Access database file of the SINCAL project (usually named
database.mdb) in the field Database name.
• In the Save converted data in field, the user can enter a project name, and the PowerFactory user
for this project can be selected.

The PSS SINCAL data import will always create a new PowerFactory project.

The SINCAL *.mdb database files contain graphical information. This information is converted into a
PowerFactory network diagram.

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Note: A SINCAL import error message appears when the PowerFactory installation type (32bit or
64bit) is different from the Microsoft Office installation type (32bit or 64bit). To open the SINCAL
database (*.mdb) during the import to PowerFactory, MS Access is required.
During the installation of Office / Access 32bit, Microsoft only installs the 32bit ODBC driver by
default. PowerFactory (64bit) needs the 64bit ODBC driver. The same goes for the other way
around: Office / Access 64bit is installed by Microsoft by default only with the 64bit ODBC driver.
PowerFactory (32bit) needs the 32bit ODBC driver.
The user has to install the missing driver from here:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-US/download/details.aspx?id=13255
We recommend “Microsoft Access Database Engine 2010 Redistributable” instead of the newer
2016 version, which requires more rights and a work-around for a successful installation.

24.8 ETAP Interface

PowerFactory offers the user the option to import Excel files exported from ETAP for Load Flow and
Short Circuit analysis. The following files are supported:

• *.xlsx

24.8.1 Importing ETAP Data

The procedure for importing ETAP data is as follows:

• Navigate to the PowerFactory installation folder (e.g. C:∖Program Files∖DIgSILENT∖PowerFactory

2021 SP2)
• From the Etap folder, copy the ExportTemplate.xlsx file to the location where the ETAP data should
be exported.
• Keep the original ExportTemplate.xlsx file located in the Etap folder unchanged for later use.
• In ETAP, use the copy of the ExportTemplate.xlsx to export the project data to Excel - Open
Format.

• In PowerFactory, from the main menu go to File → Import→ ETAP. . . ; this will open the ETAP
import dialog.
• Select the Excel file exported from ETAP in the field Excel filename.
• In the Save Converted Data in field, enter the name for a new project and set the location where
the project should be created.
• The ETAP Import will create a new PowerFactory project and store the converted data. The
ETAP Excel file includes graphical information. This information is converted into a PowerFactory
network diagram.

Note: • The ETAP import works with Excel data exported from ETAP 19.5. Exports from ETAP 20
are not supported, while exports from ETAP versions earlier than 19.5 are not confirmed.
• An ETAP import error message appears when the PowerFactory installation type (32bit or
64bit) is different from the Microsoft Office installation type (32bit or 64bit).
• To read the ETAP Excel file during the import to PowerFactory, either MS Excel, or MS ODBC
driver is required.

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• During the installation of Office / Excel 32bit, Microsoft only installs the 32bit ODBC driver by
default. PowerFactory 64bit requires the 64bit ODBC driver. The same is valid for the other
way around: Office / Excel 64bit is installed by Microsoft by default only with the 64bit ODBC
driver. PowerFactory 32bit requires the 32bit ODBC driver.
• The missing drivers can be downloaded from:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-US/download/details.aspx?id=13255
• We recommend using the “Microsoft Access Database Engine 2010 Redistributable” instead
of the newer 2016 version, which requires more rights and a work-around for a successful
installation.

24.9 UCTE-DEF Interface

In PowerFactory, both export and import of UCTE-DEF (Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission
of Electricity - Data Exchange Format) is supported. The UCTE interface is currently intended for
importing/exporting grid data of a country belonging to the former UCTE community.

The data contained in these files correspond basically to load flow and short circuit (3 phase) type data.
Furthermore, it only considers specific UCTE voltage levels according to voltage level codes, as well as
UCTE specific country codes, such as DK for Denmark, P for Portugal, etc.

Important to note here is that from 1𝑠𝑡 of July 2009, ENTSO-E (European Network of Transmission
System Operators for Electricity) took over all operational tasks of the 6 existing TSO associations in
Europe, including the Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE).

For more information related to the UCTE format, refer to the ENTSOE website: https://www.entsoe.eu

24.9.1 Importing UCTE-DEF Data

To import data via the UCTE interface, the general procedure is as follows:
• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → UCTE. . . which opens the UCTE-Import dialog.
• Specify the required options and click on the Execute button.

Once the import process has been executed, the project (new or existing) is left activated upon comple-
tion.

The following section describes each of the UCTE import dialog options.

24.9.1.1 General Settings

Import into
New Project By choosing this option, a project will be created where all the UCTE data will be stored.
The user will have the option of specifying a specific name and location (other than the default).
Existing Project By choosing this option, the UCTE data will be imported into an already existing
project.
File Type

Add UCTE Files Location on the hard disk of the UCTE files. Two types of files are available: * .uct and
*
.ucte.
Options

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Import for DACF process With this setting the user has the option to import the Day Ahead Forecast.
Convert negative loads to generators With this option enabled, negative loads defined in the UCTE
file will be converted to generators in the PowerFactory model.

Convert transformer equivalent to common impedance With this option enabled, transformer equiv-
alents defined in the UCTE file will be converted to common impedances in the PowerFactory
model.
Ignore reactive power limits for generators With this option enabled, the reactive power limits of the
generators defined in the UCTE file will be ignored .
Additional Parameters This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by
the user.

24.9.2 Exporting UCTE-DEF Data

As in the other export interfaces, the UCTE Export is based on the active project at the moment the
export takes place. To export data via the UCTE interface, the general procedure is as follows:

• Activate the project to be exported, considering the which Study Case, Scenario and Variations
should be active.
• From the main menu go to File → Export. . . → UCTE. . . which opens the UCTE-Export dialog.
• Specify the required options, and click on the Execute button.

The following section describe each of these options.

24.9.2.1 General Settings

File Type
UCTE Data Location on the hard disk where the UCTE files will be stored. Two types of files are
available: * .uct and * .ucte.
Grids Selection of which grids to export.

Options
Export UCTE voltage >= Only the elements having a voltage greater than the UCTE voltage specified
are exported.
Export branch as single equivalent line By enabling this option the export will convert the PowerFac-
tory branch definitions into single equivalent lines.
Use first character of characteristic name as branch order code If checked, the characteristic name
(first character) is used in the branch order code of the exported UCTE file.
Additional Parameters This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by
the user.

24.10 CIM Interface

In PowerFactory, both export and import of CIM (Common Information Model) is supported. The CIM
interface is currently intended for importing/exporting the following profile:

• ENTSO-E 2009

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(Options “ENTSO-E 2010” and “ENTSO-E 2009 Dynamic Models” in the drop-down menu relate to
profiles which were never formally released. Therefore, although these options are available to the
user, they are not supported.)

CIM is defined in IEC-61970, and its purpose is to allow the exchange of information related to the
configuration and status of an electrical system.

For information relating to CGMES, please see section 24.11 below.

24.10.1 Importing CIM Data

To import data via the CIM interface, the general procedure is as follows:

• From the main menu go to File → Import. . . → CIM. . . which opens the CIM-Import dialog.
• Specify the required options and click on the Execute button.
Once the import process has been executed, the project (new or existing) is left activated upon comple-
tion.

The following section describes each of the CIM import dialog options.

24.10.2 General Page

Import into

New Project By choosing this option, a project will be created where all the CIM data will be stored.
The user will have the option of specifying a specific name and location (other than the default).
Active Project By choosing this option, the CIM data will be imported into the active project.
Import from

Profile Currently the profile ENTSO-E 2009 is supported.

separated Files With this setting the user has the option to import the equipment, topology and solved
state files separately.
CIM File Location on the hard disk of the CIM files. Two types of files are supported: * .zip and * .xml.

Additional Parameters This field is specified for internal use only. No extra information is required by
the user.

24.10.3 Exporting CIM Data

As in the other export interfaces, the CIM Export is based on the active project at the moment the
export takes place. To export data via the CIM interface, the general procedure is as follows:

• Activate the project to be exported, considering which Study Case, Scenario and Variations should
be active.
• From the main menu go to File → Export. . . → CIM. . . which opens the CIM-Export dialog.
• Specify the required options, and click on the Execute button.

The following sections describe each of these options.

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24.10.3.1 General Page

Export to

Profile Currently the profile ENTSO-E 2009 is supported.

separated Files With this setting the user has the option to export the equipment, topology, and solved
state files separately.
CIM File Location on the hard disk where the CIM files will be stored. Two types of files are supported:
*
.zip and * .xml.
Export Selection

Grids Selection of which grids to export.

Border Nodes Grid Selection of the grid which contains the X-nodes.

24.11 CGMES Tools

The CGMES Tools provide an additional interface to CIM. These tools are accessible via the main
menu in PowerFactory under Tools → CGMES Tools. This section describes these tools and uses the
following naming conventions:

• Model folder stores all CIM data.

• Archive contains all corresponding CIM Models.
• CIM Model stores all data contained in a single instance file (mainly CIM Objects and names-
paces).
• CIM Object stores all data contained in a single object.

The CGMES Tools separates each action (i.e. the import and export of CIM data) into two steps. To
import data from a CIM file (XML format) into PowerFactory, the first step is to import the CIM data
into CIM objects (CIM Data Import). This offers the user the possibility to directly interact with the CIM
data from within PowerFactory. The second step is to convert the CIM objects into a grid model (CIM
to Grid Conversion). To export grids from PowerFactory, they must first be converted to CIM objects
(Grid to CIM Conversion). These may still be modified if required, and also directly reimported. The
newly-created CIM objects can then be exported as a ZIP or XML file in conformity with the CIM data
structure (CIM Data Export).

24.11.1 CIM Data Import

The CIM Data Import is accessible in PowerFactory under Tools → CGMES Tools→ CIM Data Import.
The following options for the import location are available:
• New archive in new project creates a new project with the given name and imports the data into
an archive with the same name.
• New archive in active project imports the data into a new archive with the given name, within
the currently active project.
• Existing archive in active project imports the data into the given archive; data models that are
already contained in the archive will not be modified.
Import of instance data belonging to a profile (XML file)

By selecting “New archive in new project”, the name of the project and the file to import can be
specified. Upon clicking the Execute button, the content of the XML file will be imported. This step

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results in an active project containing the “CIM Model” folder, which itself has a single archive. This
archive contains the model representations from the XML file.

Import of multiple profiles instance data (ZIP file)

By selecting “New archive in new project”, the name of the project and the file to import can be
specified. Upon clicking the Execute button, the content of the ZIP file will be temporarily extracted and
imported. This step results in an active project containing the “CIM Model” folder, which has a single
archive. This archive contains the model representations from the ZIP file.

Import of multiple files

To import several files in a row, the destination Existing archive in active project must be used. The
archive created by the first step must be selected as the “Path” for all subsequent files. This will import
the data into the archive provided.

24.11.2 CIM Data Export

The CIM Data Export is accessible via Tools → CGMES Tools→ CIM Data Export or right-click → CIM
Data Export. The archive selected as “Source data” will be exported. This can be fine-tuned by an
option for each available profile instance.

The option “Create archive for each CIM model” can be used to match the DACF and D2CF require-
ments by ENTSO-E to upload each individual profile within a separated zip file.

In both cases the naming rules can be defined per profile. As these rules might be different for various
processes, the naming rules can be configured on the “Advanced Options” page according to the
individual needs for each profile.

24.11.3 CIM to Grid Conversion

The CIM to Grid Conversion is accessible under Tools → CGMES Tools→ CIM to Grid Conversion or
right-click → CIM to Grid Conversion

To convert all data contained in an imported archive, select “Source Archives” followed by Execute.
This will additionally consider any valid difference models contained in the archive. To import a base
model only, the difference models must be deleted before conversion. If only specific profile information
should be exported, select “Convert selected profiles” and specify those that should be considered. It
should be noted that the resulting subset of profiles still needs to be complete in terms of dependencies.

Additional information (e.g. SSH data) can be added to already converted models (i.e. EQ/TP); these
must be selected as “Additional Archives”.

To convert an archive including models that have dependencies on other models not included in the
archive (e.g. the boundary grid), the other models must be specified as “Additional Archives”.

For both selections “Additional Archives” as well as “Source Archives” the user may either select a single
or multiple CIM archives in order to convert multiple archives at once or reference to multiple ones (e.g.
the Boundary and the used EQ file) accordingly.

All available profiles in the selected archive will be shown on per MAS basis in the “Modelling Authority
Sets” table. These MAS will be linked to existing grid elements if a matching rdfID is found, but can be
adjusted manually if needed. Additionally the user can define how to deal with the models per MAS.
Therefore, the options convert, link and ignore are available, where link means that the model is not
converted, but only linked (e.g. an old version of a boundary is used). In case of conversion of an
already existing (referenced) model, this will be updated in terms of new elements are added.

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Note: A regular task in CGMES is to update the currently used boundary file. This can be achieved
by referencing the old boundary grid in the CIM to Grid conversion and converting it. This way
a merged boundary will be created (nodes that are used in the original Boundary that are not
existing anymore in the new one will remain).

24.11.4 Grid to CIM Conversion

The Grid to CIM Conversion is accessible under Tools → CGMES Tools→ Grid to CIM Conversion.

The following options for the destination are available:

• New archive converts the networks into a new archive with the given name.
• Existing archive imports the data into the archive specified in “Target Archive”; if the archive
already contains models for the selected networks, the original models will be preserved.
• Additional Archives is used when references to other archives are required.

For “Additional Archives” the user may either select a single or multiple CIM archives for example to
manage dependencies on the correct Boundary grid.

Profile version: A drop-down menu allows the user to select which of the supported CGMES versions
should be used.

A model for each profile selected will be created per network in the target archive. By default all profiles
are selected. Boundary grids will only be exported with EQ and TP profiles (the respective boundary
versions).

The option Create difference models creates a difference model, when selected. Note that difference
models can only be created if Existing archive is selected as the destination. This archive should contain
the base models for the difference models.

In order to create a bus-branch model, the option Create bus-branch model can be selected. When
ticked, an internal reduction from a node-breaker model to a bus-branch model is done automatically.
The resulting CIM archive will be a bus-branch model according to CGMES.

Convert network selection

The PowerFactory networks to be converted can be selected by ticking the checkbox. Only activated
networks can be converted. If one of the networks is to be treated as boundary grid, the corresponding
checkbox must be ticked as well. Each network to be converted must have a Modelling Authority Set
URI.

• Two or more networks can be associated to a common Modelling Authority Set. In such a case,
all networks and data associated to a MAS will be exported into the same model set.
• If the selection contains two or more Modelling Authority Sets (apart from the Boundary network),
and SV and/or DL profiles are selected for export, these instance data will be exported into
an “Assembled” model set. Otherwise, if only one MAS is converted (apart from the Boundary
network) SV and DL data will be exported into the same model set as EQ and TP models.

Advanced Options

Further information for the model to be converted can be altered under the Advanced Options page:

• Version is an optional parameter to define the model version

• Description is an optional parameter to describe the model

• Additional Parameters are inputs causing specific behaviour and do not need to be used.

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24.11.5 CIM Data Validation

The CIM Data Validation is accessible under Tools → CGMES Tools→ CIM Data Validation or right-click
→ CIM Data Validation.

This data validation is based on the UML profile information and can be used on CIM archives to validate
their CGMES profile compliance. The archives used for this validation can be selected via “CIM Archives
or Models”. Therefore a multiselection is possible.

Note: This build-in validator can be used to validate archives of third parties or in case there are issues
in the conversion (e.g. missing dependencies). The validator is not officially supported by the
ENTSO-E.

24.11.6 Import and Export of the EIC as additional parameter

Grid to CIM Conversion

The “IdentifiedObject.energyIdentCodeEic” attribute is not applicable to PowerFactory data-model. How-

ever, it is possible to assign an “EIC” to a PowerFactory element, by adding the following “User Attribute”
entry at the end of the description field of PowerFactory elements:

<Attribute Name=“EIC” Type=“string”>the code</>

For PowerFactory elements where no “EIC” is provided, no “IdentifiedObject.energyIdentCodeEic” is

set in the corresponding CIM object.

CIM to Grid Conversion

The “IdentifiedObject.energyIdentCodeEic” attribute is not applicable to PowerFactory data-model, thus

is converted as a “User Attribute” entry at the end of the description field in PowerFactory elements as
follows:

<Attribute Name=“EIC” Type=“string”>the code</>

If no “IdentifiedObject.energyIdentCodeEic” is set in a CIM object, the entry will not be created in

the corresponding PowerFactory element. For CIM object classes which have no representation in
PowerFactory, the “EIC” code is not converted, thus not visible in PowerFactory data-model (e.g.
RegulatingControl, GeneratingUnit etc.).

24.12 MATLAB Interface

For a detailed description on the MATLAB interface refer to Chapters RMS/EMT Simulations and Modal
Analysis, Sections 30.6.3: MATLAB Interface for DSL models and 32.3.4.1: Output to Matlab files.

24.13 OPC Interface

PowerFactory ’s OPC interface is an asynchronous communication and data exchange mechanism used
in process interaction and is widely applied in SCADA and control systems. This OPC implementation
assumes that the PowerFactory software is executed as an OPC Client while the OPC Server is
controlled via the external source. OPC server libraries are available from various manufacturers. An
example of a freeware OPC Server is that available from Matrikon (“MatrikonOPC Simulation Server”).

PowerFactory supports both OPC DA (data access) and OPC UA (unified architecture) standards.

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Figure 24.13.1 illustrates the integration of a SCADA system with PowerFactory via the OPC interface.
In this OPC implementation, PowerFactory can be used either in GUI-less or normal mode. Some
further characteristics of this integration include:

• OPC Client/Server exchange of any PowerFactory object parameter as well as any signal (bi-
directional Data Exchange).
• PowerFactory listening mode to receive any data or signal from a registered OPC Server.
• PowerFactory sending mode to write back any data or signal to a registered OPC Server.

Figure 24.13.1: SCADA -PowerFactory integration via the OPC interface.

The OPC interface can be configured in two different modes:

• Offline
– The bi-directional data exchange is carried out through an explicit command given by the user
in PowerFactory. For example, by pressing a button predefined by the user in PowerFactory.
• Online
– The bi-directional data exchange is automatically carried out at a certain frequency rate;
where the frequency rate is determined by the user.

24.13.1 OPC Interface Typical Applications

Some typical applications of the OPC Interface are the following:

• SCADA Online State Estimation

• SCADA Simulation Mode, for example dispatcher load flow, switching validation.
• SCADA Training Simulator
• Importing to PowerFactory
– in order to update the operational data.
– in order to reflect the Operator actions, such as breaker status and tap positions.
– in order to perform state estimation based on the measured network data.

• Exporting from PowerFactory

– in order to update the SCADA interface with the calculated results.

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24.14 StationWare Interface

This chapter describes the StationWare interface. An introduction into StationWare is provided in
Section 24.14.1.

The following two sections describe the overall StationWare architecture (Section 24.14.2) and the
conceptual differences between PowerFactory and StationWare (Section 24.14.3).

Both PowerFactory and StationWare have to be configured before they can be used together (Sec-
tion 24.14.4).

The Getting Started section (Section 24.14.5) provides an introduction to the most important features.
The complete documentation can be found in the section ’Description of the Menu and Dialogs’ (Sec-
tion 24.14.6).

The terms StationWare and PSMS are used synonymously throughout this chapter. PSMS stands
for Protection Settings Management System, and stresses the more internal and technical part of
StationWare.

24.14.1 About StationWare

DIgSILENT StationWare is a centralised asset management system for primary and secondary equip-
ment. It provides a reliable central protection settings database and management system for the
complete power system data, both to manage the various control parameters and to centrally store
power system related information and data, based on the latest .NET technology.

StationWare stores and records all settings in a central database, allows modelling of all relevant
work flow sequences, provides quick access to device manuals, interfaces with manufacturer-specific
relay settings software, and integrates with PowerFactory software, allowing powerful and easy-to-use
settings co-ordination studies.

Modern numerical relays have a large number of settings that are determined, stored and communi-
cated by proprietary software solutions (these may be suitable for only one particular manufacturer or
only one series or type of relay). This results in a fragmented and distributed settings “database”. DIgSI-
LENT StationWare provides a single system that incorporates all different device protocols, thereby
providing one manageable software data storage system, based on modern IT techniques, facilitating
data interfacing and exchange in a transparent and straightforward manner.

PowerFactory ś data exchange facility allows it to access the settings stored in StationWare such that
these may be used as input to the powerful PowerFactory system simulation and protection settings
tools. Settings that are calculated by using these tools may then be transferred back to StationWare.

24.14.2 Component Architecture

DIgSILENT StationWare is a so-called Client-Server Application: the functionality is distributed over at

least two computers: client and server. Figure 24.14.1 gives an overview of the components.

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Figure 24.14.1: Architecture overview

There are usually several clients. One main advantage of this architecture is that the data is stored in
one central database on the server. One client connects to the server and fetches the data from there,
modifies it, and then stores it back to the server. These changes are visible on other clients.

DIgSILENT StationWare server provides two interfaces to access from client machines:

• Visualisation by means of a standard web browser. The HTML interface can be used with an usual
web browser (e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox).
The browser displays HTML pages which are created by StationWareś HTML front end. The
HTML pages are transferred using the HTTP(S) protocol on top of the TCP/IP internet protocol.
HTML allows to present all kind of data e.g. plain text, tables or images.
Additionally HTML provides concepts to achieve interactivity: by submitting HTML forms or press-
ing on hyperlinks data is sent to the server. The server interprets such requests and creates new
HTML pages which are displayed by the browser again.
• The web service interface, similar to the HTML interface uses the HTTP(S) protocol to communi-
cate with the web service frontend, though no HTML pages are transferred but lower-level data
(SOAP/XML encoded). The web service client application is responsible to present this data
conveniently.
PowerFactory is able to play the role of a web service client. It integrates parts of StationWareś
data and concepts smoothly into its own world.

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Note: The default StationWare configuration requires SSL for the StationWare applications (web GUI
and web services). Please use HTTP instead of HTTPS, if SSL is not enabled for your StationWare
applications. In the following, the expression HTTP(S) is used.

The functionality of the HTML interface is covered in the StationWare manual. The remainder of this
chapter focuses on PowerFactory as client.

24.14.3 Fundamental Concepts

Although StationWare and PowerFactory store data and settings associated with primary devices such
as lines, transformers, . . . and secondary devices, i.e. relays, CTs, VTs and circuit breakers, the two
systems utilise different concepts to deal with this data.

In StationWare it is possible to model a location hierarchy and associate the devices to nodes in this
hierarchy (e.g. substations). This has no equivalent in PowerFactory, where the devices are stored
inside the parent grid (ElmNet) object.

Conversely, PowerFactory allows to the creation of a topological representation of networks which is

not supported in StationWare.

This section describes the concept mismatch between PowerFactory and StationWare. In order to use
the StationWare interface, it is important to understand the differences between both applications.

Location

In StationWare each device belongs to exactly one location. There are different location types e.g.
Region, Area, Site, Substation, or Bay. The locations are organised in a hierarchy tree as shown in
Figure 24.14.2.

Figure 24.14.2: StationWare locations

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In PowerFactory the data is organised in projects (IntPrj). A project may have one or more grids
(ElmNet) which in turn contain net elements e.g. terminals, cubicles, and relays (ElmRelay ). See
Figure 24.14.3 for a typical PowerFactory project.

Figure 24.14.3: PowerFactory project

StationWare’s location concept and PowerFactory ’s project/grid concept hardly fit together. That’s the
reason why the data mapping between PowerFactory and StationWare begins at the device level which
is the subject of the next sections.

Device

StationWare manages a set of devices e.g. relays, CTs, VTs, circuit-breakers, . . . . Each device is
associated with a device type e.g. ABB DPU2000R or SEL421 003. In addition, each device has an
unique ID: the device ID.

In PowerFactory a relay is represented by an ElmRelay object which references exactly one TypRelay
object. The ElmRelay object contains several sub-components e.g. the I> component (a RelToc
object), the Logic component (RelLogic), or the Ios component (RelMeasure). See Figure 24.14.4
for an example. The device ID is used to link one StationWare device to one PowerFactory device. The
PowerFactory device e.g. an ElmRelay object stores the StationWare device ID as foreign key.

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Figure 24.14.4: PowerFactory relay

Device State

A device’s state is in StationWare called setting. A setting is a list of parameters, and describes the
state of one device completely. An parameter is a tuple of
• parameter name,
• parameter type which can be an arbitrary integer or floating point number, optionally with a range
restriction, or a string, or a enumeration type.,
• a default value,
• an optional unit.
A complex relay may have thousands of parameters. In StationWare the setting parameters are organ-
ised in so-called setting groups. A setting group groups the parameters together which belong somehow
together. It’s often defined by the device manufacturer. Each parameter belongs to exactly one setting
group. Inside a group the parameter name is unique.

The device type defines which parameters and groups characterise a device. Table 24.14.1 shows an
example of a possible device type. There are two setting groups G and H. Group G has the parameters
a, b, and c, group H has the parameters d and e.

Group Name Type Default Unit

G a integer in [0,10] 0 A
b float -0.32 l/s
c float in [0.03, 4.65] 1.0
H d string ’DEFAULT’
e enum ’yes’, ’no’, ’maybe’ ’yes’

Table 24.14.1: Settings Definition

According to this parameter definition a device can have settings as shown in tables 24.14.2 or 24.14.3.

Group, Name Value

G,a 7
G,b 23.43
G,c 1.1
H,d ’abc’
H,e ’maybe’

Table 24.14.2: Settings Example 1

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Group, Name Value

G,a 8
G,b 0
G,c 1.1
H,d ’abcdef’
H,e ’yes’

Table 24.14.3: Settings Example 2

On the PowerFactory side there are neither settings nor groups. There is the ElmRelay object and its
sub-objects. These objects can have parameters. See Table 24.14.4 for a definition and Table 24.14.5
for an example. The TypRelay type defines components and parameters.

StationWare parameters are mapped to PowerFactory parameters and vice versa. The mapping is
non-trivial since only a small subset of the parameters (the calculation-relevant data) is modelled in
PowerFactory and vice versa. Additionally there is no one-to-one relationship between the Station-
Ware and PowerFactory parameters; i.e. a PowerFactory parameter may be calculated from several
StationWare parameters.

Component Parameter Type

i> o integer
Logic p string
q enum ’enabled’,’disabled’
los r float
s float

Table 24.14.4: Parameter Definition

Some relays support multiple setting groups (MSG) also called parameter sets. Such relays have
the same group many times (c.f. table 24.14.5). The groups H1, H2, and H3 have the same set of
parameters (c and d). The relay models in PowerFactory do not support this concept. Instead of
modelling all MSGs, only one instance of the H groups is provided.

In this case a group index parameter defines which of the MSGs actually is transferred from StationWare
to PowerFactory.

Lifecycle Phase

In StationWare each setting has one lifecycle phase e.g. Planning or Applied. At each point in time
a device can have a set of settings e.g. three Planning settings, one Applied setting and 12 Historic
settings.

Component Parameter Value

i>:o 8
Logic:p ’HIGH’
Logic:q ’enabled’
los:r 18,5
los:s 19,5

Table 24.14.5: Parameter Example

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Group Name Type Default Unit

G a integer in [0,10] 0 A
b float -0.32 l/s
H1 c string ’DEFAULT’
d float in [0.03,1.65] 1.0
H2 c string ’DEFAULT’
d float in [0.03,1.65] 1.0
H3 c string ’DEFAULT’
d float in [0.03,1.65] 1.0

Table 24.14.6: Multiple Setting Group Definition

In PowerFactory a device has exactly one state (or setting). Therefore when data is transferred between
PowerFactory and StationWare always a concrete device setting in StationWare must be specified.

For PowerFactory purposes a special PowerFactory planning phase is introduced. The transfer direc-
tions are specified as follows:
• Imports from StationWare into PowerFactory are restricted to Applied and PowerFactory
settings. Applied denotes the current applied setting (Applied) or a previous applied (Historic)
setting.

• Exports from PowerFactory to StationWare are restricted to the PowerFactory setting. (Applied
and Historic settings are read-only and can never be changed).
(Actually PowerFactory ś sophisticated variant management is similar to the phase concept, but there is
no obvious way how to bring them together.)

24.14.4 Configuration

In order to transfer data between PowerFactory and StationWare both systems must be configured.

StationWare Server

An arbitrary StationWare user account can be used for the StationWare interface in PowerFactory. The
user must have enough access rights to perform operations e.g. for the export from PowerFactory to
StationWare write-rights must be granted.

The bi-directional transfer of settings is restricted to lifecycle phases

1. of the phase type PLANNING or REVIEW and

2. with a cardinality constraint of 1 i.e. there may exist one or no such setting for one device.
Ensure that at least one phase fulfils these requirements, and there exists a setting of this phase.

PowerFactory Client

The client operating system must allow connections to the server (network and firewall settings etc.).

Nothing has to be done in the PowerFactory configuration itself. The TypRelay in the Library must of
course support StationWare - PowerFactory mapping.

24.14.5 Getting Started

The mapping between PowerFactory object attributes and calculation results with StationWare device
settings or process attributes, or additional attributes of devices, is done via flexible DPL scripts. These

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scripts have access not only to data in PowerFactory objects themselves, but also to other related
objects e.g a relay type object or relay sub-blocks.

To be able to transfer data from PowerFactory to StationWare and vice versa, suitable DPL scripts have
to be created and placed in an appropriate location in the project library folder.

Figure 24.14.5: Structure of the project library folder

The scripts for importing/exporting device settings should be located in the sub-folder “Settings” of the
StationWare folder inside the Project in PowerFactory.
Project\Library\StationWare\Settings.

For importing/exporting additional attributes from StationWare DPL scripts should be located in the sub-
folder “Attributes”. To be able to export results from PowerFactory to StationWare the corresponding
script should be located in the sub-folder “Results”. None of these folders are by default in project library
folder and must therefore be created.

Important: DPL scripts for import/export relay settings must be saved in the same folder as the relay
model (as contents of a TypRelay object).

In difference to the data exchange of device settings, additional attributes and results, the DPL import/-
export scripts for relay settings can refer to mapping tables which simplify the mapping of individual
parameters and the implementation of dependencies between parameters. Therefore, there are two
different ways of exchanging relay settings. Either the mapping of the parameters in the DPL script
code or the parameter mapping in mapping tables. Depending on which variant is selected, the
basic DPL scripts differ. More information about the different mapping possibilities can be found in
the documentation for Protection Devices.

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24.14.5.1 Import/Export of Relay Settings

This section is a simple walk-through and covers the most essential StationWare interface functionality.

By using a basic PowerFactory project and basic StationWare substation, it describes

1. how relays in StationWare and PowerFactory are created,

2. how these relays are linked,
3. how settings can be exported from PowerFactory to StationWare

4. how settings can be imported again into PowerFactory.

All (especially the more advanced) options and features are described in the section ’Description of the
Menu and Dialogs’ (see Section 24.14.6).

Prepare substation in StationWare

We begin with the StationWare side. We create a substation and two relays within:

• Start the web browser,

• log on to the StationWare system,

• create a new substation titled Getting Started,

• create two relays named Getting Started Relay 1 and Getting Started Relay 2 in the Getting
Started substation.

In the HTML interface the station detail page should look as shown in Figure 24.14.6.
• Go to the detail page of the Getting Started Relay 1 (Figure 24.14.7).
Since we have just created the device it has no settings, yet. Later it will contain a PowerFactory setting
which reflects the relay state on the PowerFactory side.

Figure 24.14.6: Substation

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Figure 24.14.7: Device

Prepare project in PowerFactory

Create a new PowerFactory project and create a simple grid within:

• Start PowerFactory,
• create a new project titled GettingStarted,
• draw a simple grid with two terminals (ElmTerm) connected by a line (ElmLne) as shown in
Figure 24.14.8.

Figure 24.14.8: Grid

Now add a relay to the upper terminal:

• Right-click the cubicle quadrangle with the mouse. A context menu pops up.
• Select New Devices. . . /Relay Model. . . as shown in Figure 24.14.9.

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A dialog pops up that allows you to specify the settings of the new relay (ElmRelay ).
• Insert Getting Started Relay 1 as Name,

• select an appropriate Relay Type which supports StationWare import/export (see Figure 24.14.10),
• press OK,
• in the same way add a relay Getting Started Relay 2 to the second terminal.
PowerFactory ’s object filter mechanism gives an overview over all devices inside the current project.

Figure 24.14.9: Cubicle context menu

• Press the icon (Open Network Model Manager. . . ) in the toolbar and select the class
(ElmRelay ) to filter out all non-relay objects.

All calculation relevant relays (actually there only the two we created above) are displayed in a table
(see Figure 24.14.11).

Link Relays and establish a Connection

Now the PowerFactory relays must get linked to the StationWare relays. To be able to make a connec-
tion:

• Ensure that the DPL Import/Export scripts are saved in the same folder as the relay model. If
mapping tables are used, ensure that the path and the name of the mapping tables is set in the
DPL Import/Export scripts.

• Mark both relay icons with the mouse.

• Press the right mouse button.

A context menu pops up as shown in Figure 24.14.12.

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• Select the StationWare menu item,

• select the Select Device ID item.

A Log on to StationWare server dialog pops up. Since this is the first time PowerFactory connects to
the StationWare server some connection settings must be entered.

Figure 24.14.10: Relay dialog

• Enter the Server Endpoint URL of the StationWare server. The URL should have a format similar
to
http(s)://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx.
• Enter Username and Password of a valid StationWare user account.

Figure 24.14.11: Relay display

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Figure 24.14.12: Device context menu

Figure 24.14.21 shows the dialog settings.

Figure 24.14.13: Log on dialog

• Press OK.

The connection procedure may take some seconds. If the server could be accessed and the user could
be authenticated a success message is printed into the output window

Established connection to StationWare server

’https://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx’(version 18.2.6981) as user
’Administrator’

Otherwise an error dialog pops up. Correct the connection settings until the connection is successfully
created. The section ’Description of the Menu and Dialogs’ (Section 24.14.6) explains the connection
options in detail.

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Having established a connection to the server, a browser dialog pops up which displays the location
hierarchy as known from the StationWare HTML interface. The dialog is shown in Figure 24.14.14.
• Navigate to the Getting Started substation,

• select the Getting Started Relay 1 device,

• press OK.

Figure 24.14.14: Browser dialog

Now the PowerFactory relay is “connected” to the StationWare device.

• In the same way select Getting Started Relay 2 for the second PowerFactory relay.

Export and Import Settings

Having linked PowerFactory to StationWare devices, the transfer between both systems can be started.
• Mark the relays with the mouse and right-click to get the relay context menu as shown in Fig-
ure 24.14.12.
• Select the Export Settings. . . in the StationWare menu entry.

A ComStationware dialog is shown which allows to specify the export options. See section ’Export and
Import Settings’ in the chapter 24.14.6 for all export options.

• Select PowerFactory as lifecycle phase,

• press Execute.

After a few seconds the relay settings are transferred to the server, and the output window contains the
message

Exported 2 of 2 device settings successfully

The result can now be observed in the StationWare HTML interface.

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Figure 24.14.15: Device detail page

• Navigate to the relay detail view of the Getting Started Relay 1 relay (see Fig. 24.14.15)

Observe the new created PF setting. The phase of this setting is PowerFactory.
• Switch to the settings detail page of the new PowerFactory setting (see Fig. 24.14.16).

Figure 24.14.16: Setting detail page

The setting values should correspond to the relay state in PowerFactory. In the same way the Getting
Started Relay 2 relay has a new PF setting.

Now try the opposite direction and import a setting from StationWare into PowerFactory.
• Modify the PF settings in StationWare by entering some other values.
• In PowerFactory mark the relays with the mouse and right-click to get the relay context menu as
shown in Figure 24.14.12.

• Select the Import Settings. . . in the StationWare menu entry.

Again the ComStationware dialog pops up as known from the export.
• Leave the default settings,
• press Execute.

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Again the result of the settings transfer is reflected in the output window:

Imported 2 of 2 device settings successfully

• find ElmRelay object parameters changed according to the changes on the StationWare side

All import options are described in detail in the section 24.14.6: Import/Export Options.

24.14.5.2 Import/Export of the Additional Attributes

Additional attributes represent additional information which users may find useful for a location, device
or settings within a device. These are not directly part of a settings record but are user-defined. For
example, a common additional attribute that is useful for a feeder or substation location is the nominal
voltage level in kV. Primary elements such as lines do not posses settings but instead parameters.
Parameters such as length or impedance are then presented by the use of additional attributes.

Figure 24.14.17: Additional attributes on the ’Device’ page

The following information for additional attributes can be imported/exported:

• Name of the attribute
• Description
• Unit
• Value (Bool, String, Integer, Real, Enumeration, Data Time)
• Type (Attribute, Propagate, Overall Status, Revision Number)
Import/export of additional attributes also requires that the DPL script be saved in the appropriate place
(see Section 24.14.5). All actions are similar to those described for settings (see Section 24.14.5.1) .

24.14.5.3 Export of the calculation results

Calculation results data exchange is only possible in one direction: from PowerFactory to StationWare.
It is important to know that PowerFactory stores calculation results in attributes of temporary so-called
“calculation objects”.

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This data will be exchanged between “calculation objects” and StationWare process objects.

Preparation of StationWare for importing result data

Inside a StationWare project, define the process lifecycle, category and type. This process object
should be configured to be capable of result data storage and presentation (e.g. “ArcFlashLabel Type”
see 24.14.18).

Important: Process lifecycle must posses a phase named “PowerFactory ” of type “Planning”.

Figure 24.14.18: Process types page in StationWare

After being defined, the process should be created and have a device assigned to it.

Figure 24.14.19: Location page where process is created

Preparing PowerFactory for export of result data

In PowerFactory it is important to have the DPL transfer script created and saved in a proper place
inside the project library folder (see Section 24.14.5). It is necessary to use separate scripts for each
calculation type and for each PowerFactory object class.

Connection of PowerFactory and StationWare

Refer to Section 24.14.5.1.

Export of results

Refer to similar section 24.14.5.1.

24.14.6 Description of the Menu and Dialogs

This section describes all options and features concerning the StationWare interface.

The Device Context Menu

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Almost all functionality can be accessed by the device context menu. Mark one or more objects which
supports the StationWare transfer e.g. ElmRelay
• in the object filter (Figure 24.14.12)

• in the Data Manager as shown in Figure 24.14.20.

Figure 24.14.20: Device context menu

The StationWare submenu contains the entries as follows:

Import X. . . opens the ComStationware dialog and sets the device selection according to the
above selected device objects. The ComStationware dialog settings are explained in detail in
Section 24.14.6: The ComStationware Object.

Export X. . . does the same for the export direction.

Select Device ID. . . starts the Browser dialog (Figure 24.14.24) to link this device to a Station-
Ware device. The dialog is subject of Section 24.14.6 : The Browser dialog.

Reset Device ID resets the device ID.

Connect. . . terminates the current StationWare session if it’s already existing. Shows a Log On
dialog. The connection settings are covered by Section 24.14.6. This may be useful when you
are using several StationWare accounts and want to switch between them.

Disconnect terminates the StationWare session

Connection

Similar to the HTML interface the StationWare interface in PowerFactory is session - oriented: when
a user logs on to the system by specifying a valid StationWare account (username and password) a
new session is created. Only inside such a session StationWare can be used. The account privileges
restrict the application functionality e.g. an administrator account is more powerful than a usual user
account.

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Figure 24.14.21: Log on dialog

Working with PowerFactory for the first time, the StationWare server is required, and the Logon dialog
is as shown in Figure 24.14.21.

The StationWare connection options are stored in the user settings (Figure 24.14.22). After each
successful logon the user settings are updated.

Figure 24.14.22: Log on dialog

As mentioned in the Architecture section (Section 24.14.2) StationWare is a client-server application.

The StationWare server component is located on a server machine in the internet. The client component
is the PowerFactory application which is running on a client machine.

The technology PowerFactory and StationWare use to communicate is called web services and is
standardised like many other internet technologies (HTML, HTTP(S)). The server computer (or more
exactly the StationWare service application on the server computer) has a ’name’ by which it can be
accessed. This ’name’ is called service endpoint and resembles a web page URL:

https://the.server.name/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx

or

https://192.168.1.53/psmsws/PSMSService.asmx

http(s) denotes the protocol, the.server.name is the computer name (or DNS) of the server computer
and psmsws/PSMSService.asmx is the name of the StationWare application.

The connection options are as follows:

Service Endpoint The Service Endpoint denotes the StationWare server ’name’ as described
above

Username/Password Username and Password have to be valid user account in StationWare. A

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StationWare user account has nothing to do with the PowerFactory user account.

The very same StationWare account can be used by two different PowerFactory users. The privileges
of the StationWare account actually restrict the functionality. For device import the user requires read-
access rights. For exporting additionally write-access rights are required.

The Browser Dialog

As mentioned in the Concept description (see Section 24.14.3: Device) the StationWare device ID
is stored as Foreign Key in the e.g. ElmRelay object dialog (Description page) as shown in Fig-
ure 24.14.23.

Figure 24.14.23: ElmRelay dialog

A more convenient way is to use the Browser dialog shown in Figure 24.14.24. The dialog allows to
browse through the StationWare location hierarchy and select a device. The hierarchy data is cached to
minimise network accesses. Due this caching it’s possible that there may exist newly created locations
or devices which are not displayed in the browser dialog. The Refresh button empties the cache and
enforces PowerFactory to re-fetch the correct data from the server.

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The ComStationware Object

In PowerFactory almost everything is an object: relays are ElmRelay objects, users are IntUser objects,
and grids are ElmNet objects, . . .

What may be on the first sight confusing is the fact that actions are objects as well: for a short-circuit
calculation a ComShc object is created. The calculation can be performed with several options e.g.
3-Phase, single phase, or 3 Phase to Neutral.

Figure 24.14.24: Browser dialog

You can even specify the fault location. All these calculation options are stored in the ComShc object.
Every action object has an Execute button which starts the action. In fact there is a large number
of parameterised actions like load flow calculation (ComLdf ), simulation (ComSim), there is even a
ComExit object that shuts down PowerFactory. All objects which can ’do’ something have the Com
prefix.

Since the StationWare interface is actually ’doing’ something (it does import data, it does export data) it
is implemented as a ComStationware object.

The ComStationware object is used both for the import and the export. It is located in the project’s study
case according to PowerFactory convention.

By default the study case of a new project contains no ComStationware object. It is automatically
created when it is first needed, as well as the ComShc object is instantiated at the time when the first
short-circuit calculation is performed.

Import/Export Options

The ComStationware dialog provides import/export options as follows:

Transfer Mode select Import/Export from StationWare as Transfer Mode

Transfer Data select Import/Export Data from StationWare (Attributes, Settings, Results of last
calculation)

Check only Plausibility if the Check only Plausibility flag is enabled the import is only simulated
but not really executed.

Lifecycle Phase/Time stamp A list of available lifecycle phases is shown.

• PowerFactory selects the current setting with PowerFactory phase as source setting.

• If Applied is selected the current Applied setting is transferred. If additionally a Timestamp value
is entered the setting that was applied at this time is transferred which may either be Applied or

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Historic.

The Timestamp format is in ISO format: e.g. 2005-02-28 22:27:16

The time part may be omitted. Then 00:00:00 AM is assumed.

All Devices If All Devices is enabled, all calculation-relevant devices are imported/exported.

Device Selection Unless All Devices is enabled, the Device Selection provides a more subtle
way to specify which devices are to be transferred.

The Device Selection is automatically set if the Device Context Menu mechanism (Section 24.14.6:
The Device Context Menu) is used.

All Settings Groups/Group Index This parameter specifies how multiple settings groups (MSG)
are handled.

The import/export transfer is started by pressing Execute.

24.15 API (Application Programming Interface)

For a detailed description on the API, a reference document is available via the main menu Help →
Additional Packages→ Programming Interface (API)

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 Part IV

Power System Analysis Functions

Chapter 25

Load Flow Analysis

25.1 Introduction

Whenever evaluating the operation and control of power systems, the electrical engineer is typically
encountered with questions such as:

• Are the voltages of every busbar in the power system acceptable?

• What is the loading of the different equipment in the power system? (transformers, transmission
lines, generators, etc.)
• How can I achieve the best operation of the power system?
• Does the power system have a weakness (or weaknesses)? If so, where are they located and
how can I countermeasure them?

Although we may consider that the above questioning would arise only when analysing the behaviour
of “existing” power systems; the same interrogations can be formulated when the task relates to the
analysis of “future” systems or “expansion stages” of an already existing power system; such as evalu-
ating the impact of commissioning a transmission line or a power plant, or the impact of refurbishment
or decommissioning of equipment (for example shutting down a power plant because it has reached its
life expectancy).

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Figure 25.1.1: Power System Analysis: System Operation and System Planning

Taking into account these two aspects: 1) Present operation and 2) Future operation, is how power
should be analysed. From one side, an operation or control engineer requires relevant information to
be available to him almost immediately, meaning he must be able to obtain somehow the behaviour
of the power system under different configurations that can occur (for example by opening or closing
breakers in a substation); on the other side, a planning engineer requires obtaining the behaviour of
the system reflecting reinforcements that have not yet been built while considering the corresponding
yearly and/or monthly load increase. Regardless of the perspective, the engineer must be able to
determine beforehand the behaviour of the power system in order to establish, for example, the most
suitable operation configuration or to detect possible weakness and suggest solutions and alternatives.
Figures 25.1.2 and 25.1.3 illustrate the system operation and planning aspects.

Figure 25.1.2: Power system operation example

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Figure 25.1.3: Power system planning example

25.2 Technical Background

Load flow calculations are used to analyse power systems under steady-state non-faulted (short-circuit-
free) conditions. Where steady-state is defined as a condition in which all the variables and parameters
are assumed to be constant during the period of observation. We can think of this as “taking a picture” of
the power system at a given point in time. To achieve a better understanding let us refer to Figure 25.2.1.
Here a 24 hour load demand profile is depicted. The user can imagine this varying demand to be the
demand of a specific area or region, or the demand of a whole network. In this particular case the
load is seen as increasing from early in the morning until it reaches it’s maximum at around 18:00
hrs. After this point in time, the total load then begins to decrease. A load flow calculation is stated
to be a steady-state analysis because it reflects the system conditions for a certain point in time,
such as for instance at 18:00 hrs (maximum demand). As an example, if we require determining the
behaviour of the system for every hour of the day, then 24 load flows need to be performed; if the
behaviour for every second is required then the number of load flow calculations needed would amount
to 86 400. In PowerFactory, the active power (and/or reactive power) of the loads can be set with
a Characteristic so they follow a certain profile (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). By doing so, the active
power will change automatically according to the date ant time specified. For more information refer to
Chapter 18(Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs).

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Figure 25.2.1: Example of a Load Demand Curve

A load flow calculation will determine the active and reactive power flows for all branches, and the
voltage magnitude and phase for all nodes.

The main areas for the application of load flow calculations can be divided in normal and abnormal
(Contingency) system conditions as follows:

Normal System Conditions

• Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.
• Optimisation tasks, such as minimising system losses, minimising generation costs, open tie
optimisation in distributed networks, etc.
• Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit calculations
using the complete superposition method.
Abnormal System Conditions

• Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.

• Contingency analysis, network security assessment.
• Optimisation tasks, such as minimising system losses, minimising generation costs, open tie
optimisation in distributed networks, etc.
• Verification of system conditions during reliability calculations.
• Automatic determination of optimal system resupplying strategies.
• Optimisation of load-shedding.
• Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit calculations
using the complete superposition method (special cases).

Regarding the above definitions of ”normal” and ”abnormal” system conditions, a distinction should be
made in terms of the manner simulations should be performed:

Simulation of normal operating conditions: Here, the generators dispatch as well as the loads are
known, and it is therefore sufficient for the load flow calculation to represent these generators
dispatch and to provide the active and reactive power of all loads. The results of the load flow
calculation should represent a system condition in which none of the branch or generator limits
are exceeded.

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Simulation of abnormal operating conditions: Here a higher degree of accuracy from the models
is needed. It can no longer be assumed that the entire system is operating within limits. The
models must be able to correctly simulate conditions which deviate from the normal operating
point. Hence the reactive power limits of generators or the voltage dependency of loads must be
modelled. Additionally, in many applications, the active power balance cannot be established with
a single slack bus (or machine). Instead, a more realistic representation of the active and reactive
power control mechanisms have to be considered to determine the correct sharing of the active
and reactive power generation.

Besides the considerations regarding abnormal conditions presented above, the assumption of bal-
anced systems may be inappropriate for certain distribution networks. State of the art computational
tools for power systems analysis must be therefore able to represent unbalanced networks for load flow
calculations as well.

The calculation methods and the options provided by PowerFactory ’s load flow analysis function allow
the accurate representation of any combination of meshed 1-, 2-, and 3-phase AC and/or DC systems.
The load flow tool accurately represents unbalanced loads, generation, grids with variable neutral
potentials, HVDC systems, DC loads, adjustable speed drives, SVSs, and FACTS devices, etc., for
all AC and DC voltage levels. With a more realistic representation of the active and reactive power
balance mechanisms, the traditional requirement of a slack generator is left optional to the user.

The most considerable effect of the resistance of transmission lines and cables is the generation of
losses. The conductor resistance will at the same time depend on the conductor operating temperature,
which is practically linear over the normal range of operation. In order to carry out such type of analysis,
PowerFactory offers a Temperature Dependency option, so that the conductor resistance is corrected
according to the specified temperature value.

For very fast and reliable analysis of complex transmission networks, where only the flow of active power
through the branches is considered, PowerFactory offers an additional load flow method, namely “DC
load flow (linear)”, which determines the active power flows and the voltage angles within the network.

The following sections introduce the calculation methods and the options provided with PowerFactory ’s
load flow tool. This information is a guide to the configuration of the PowerFactory load flow analysis
command . Additional information about special options are given in 25.2. Further technical details
related to the models (Network Components) implemented in PowerFactory for load flow calculations
are provided in the Technical References Document.

25.2.1 Network Representation and Calculation Methods

A load flow calculation determines the voltage magnitude (V) and the voltage angle (𝜗) of the nodes,
as well as the active (P) and reactive (Q) power flow on branches. Usually, the network nodes are
represented by specifying two of these four quantities. Depending on the quantities specified, nodes
can be classified as:

• PV nodes: here the active power and voltage magnitude are specified. This type of node
is used to represent generators and synchronous condensers whose active power and voltage
magnitude are controlled (synchronous condensers P=0). In order to consider equipment limits
under abnormal conditions (as mentioned in the previous section), reactive power limits for the
corresponding network components are also used as input information.
• PQ nodes: here the active and reactive power are specified. This type of node is used to
represent loads and machines with fixed values. Loads can also be set to change (from their
original 𝑃0 and 𝑄0 values at nominal voltage) as a function of the voltage of the node to which
the load itself is connected. Elements specified as PQ (for example synchronous machines, static
generator’s, PWM converters or SVS’s) can be “forced” by the algorithm so that the P and Q
resulting from the load flow are always within limits.
• Slack node: here the voltage magnitude and angle are fixed. In traditional load flow calculations
the slack node (associated with a synchronous generator or an external grid) carries out the

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balancing of power in the system.

• Device nodes: special nodes used to represent devices such as HVDC converters, SVSs, etc.,
with specific control conditions (for example the control of active power flow at a certain MW
threshold in a HVDC converter, or the control of the voltage of a busbar by an SVS).

Note: In traditional load flow calculations, asynchronous machines are represented by PQ nodes,
assuming that the machine operates at a certain power factor, independent of the busbar voltage.
Besides this traditional representation, PowerFactory offers a more accurate “slip iteration” (AS)
representation based on the model equivalent circuit diagrams. For further information refer to the
Technical References Document

In contrast to other power system calculation programs, PowerFactory does not directly define the
node characteristic of each busbar. Instead, more realistic control conditions for the network elements
connected to these nodes are defined (see the Load Flow page of each element’s dialog). For example,
synchronous machines are modelled by defining one of the following control characteristics:

• Controlled power factor (cos(𝜙)), constant active and reactive power (PQ);
• Constant voltage, constant active power (PV) on the connected bus;

• Secondary (frequency) controller (slack, SL).

It is also important to note that in PowerFactory the active and reactive power balance of the analysed
networks is not only possible through a slack generator (or external grid). The load flow calculation tool
allows the definition of more realistic mechanisms to control both active and reactive power. For further
information refer to Section 25.4.1.

Phase Technology

PowerFactory offers the possibility to model single-, bi- and three-phase AC networks with and without
the neutral conductor and DC networks. The system type (AC, DC or AC/BI) and the number of phases
are defined in the nodes.

• ABC corresponds to a three phase system with a phase shift of 120∘ between the phases.
• BI represents a dual phase system with a 180∘ phase shift between both phases.
• 2PH is used if only two of the three phases of an ABC-system are connected.

• 1PH is the choice if only a single phase has to be modelled.

• xxx-N considers an additional neutral conductor for the xxx phase technology.
Edge elements with 1, 2 or 3 phases can be connected to nodes with a corresponding phase technology.
For e.g. lines or transformers, the phase technology is set in their types, whereas e.g. the balanced or
unbalanced power demand of loads can be configured directly in the element.

This leads to a high flexibility in modelling any desired network with varying phase technologies in the
same or different projects and calculating the resulting power flows.

AC Load Flow Method

In PowerFactory the nodal equations used to represent the analysed networks are implemented using
two different formulations:

• Newton-Raphson (Current Equations).

• Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical).

In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved by an iterative method.
PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear equation solver. The selection of

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the method used to formulate the nodal equations is user-defined, and should be selected based on
the type of network to be calculated. For large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded,
the standard Newton-Raphson algorithm using the “Power Equations” formulation usually converges
best. Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better using
the “Current Equations” formulation.

In addition to the Newton-Raphson iterations, which solve the network nodal equations, PowerFactory
applies an outer loop when the control characteristic of automatic transformer tap changers and/or
switchable shunts is considered. Once the Newton-Raphson iterations converge to a solution within the
defined tolerance (without considering the setpoint values of load flow quantities defined in the control
characteristic of the tap changers/switchable shunts), the outer loop is applied in order to reach these
target values. The actions taken by the outer iterative loop are:

• Increasing/decreasing discrete taps;

• Increasing/decreasing switchable shunts; and
• Limiting/releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive power limits.

Once the above-listed actions are taken, a new Newton-Raphson load flow iteration takes place in order
to determine the new network operating point.

In the classical load flow calculation approach, the unbalance between phases are neglected. For the
analysis of transmission networks this assumption is generally admissible. In distribution networks this
assumption may be inappropriate depending on the characteristics of the network. PowerFactory allows
the calculation of both balanced (AC Load Flow, balanced positive sequence) and unbalanced (AC Load
Flow Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC)) load flows according to the descriptions above.

DC Load Flow Method

In addition to the “AC” load flow calculations presented in this section, PowerFactory offers a so-called
“DC” load flow calculation method. The DC load flow should not be interpreted as a method to be used
in case of DC systems given that it basically applies to AC systems.

Some occasions we may require performing fast analysis in complex transmission networks where only
a reasonable approximation of the active power flow of the system is needed. For such situations the DC
load flow can be used. Other applications of the DC load flow method include situations where the AC
load flow has trouble converging (see Section 25.6: Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems).

In this particular method, the non-linear system resulting from the nodal equations is simplified due to
the dominant relation that exists between voltage angle and active power flow in high voltage networks.
By doing so a set of linear equations is thereby obtained, where the voltage angles of the buses are
directly related to the active power flow through the reactance of the individual components. The DC
load flow does not require an iterative process and the calculation speed is therefore considerably
increased. Only active power flow without losses is considered. Summarising, the DC load flow method
has the following characteristics:

• The calculation requires the solving of a set of linear equations.

• No iterations required, therefore fast, and also no convergence problems.

• Approximate solution:
– All node voltage magnitudes fixed at 1.0 per unit.
– Only active power and voltage angles calculated.
– Losses are neglected.

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25.3 Executing Load Flow Calculations

A load flow calculation may be initiated by:

• Pressing the icon on the main toolbar;

• Selecting the Calculation → Load Flow . . . option from the main menu.
The following pages explain the load flow command options. Following this, some hints are given
regarding what to do if your load flow cannot be solved.

The following pages describe the different load flow command (ComLdf ) options. For a more detailed
technical background regarding the options presented here, refer to Section 25.4. If the execution of
the Load Flow Calculation leads to errors, refer to Section 25.6 for troubleshooting. The analysis of the
results is however described in Section 27.5.

25.3.1 Basic Options

25.3.1.1 Calculation Method

AC Load Flow, balanced, positive sequence: performs load flow calculations for a single-phase,
positive sequence network representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced repre-
sentation of unbalanced objects is used (for further details refer to Section 25.2.1).

AC Load Flow, unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC): performs load flow calculations for a multi-phase network
representation. It can be used for analysing unbalances of 3-phase systems, e.g. introduced by
unbalanced loads or non-transposed lines, or for analysing all kinds of unbalanced system technologies,
such as single-phase- or two-phase systems (with or without neutral return). For further details refer to
Section 25.2.1. Unbalance specific results are described in Section 25.5.6.

DC Load Flow (linear): performs a DC load flow based on a set of linear equations, where the voltage
angles of the buses are strongly related to the active power flow through the reactance of the individual
components (for further details refer to Section 25.2.1).

25.3.1.2 Active Power Regulation

Automatic tap adjustment of phase shifters: this option allows the automatic tapping of phase
shifters (quadrature boosters) which have automatic tapping enabled. It will be effective both for DC
and AC load flow calculations.

Consider active power limits: active power limits for models (as defined on the element’s Load Flow
tab) participating in active power balance, will be applied. If this option is disabled, the active power
output limits may be violated, in which case a warning is issued. Note that it is possible to be selective
about which machine models are considered in this respect; section 25.3.3 describes how the models
can be selected.

25.3.1.3 Voltage and Reactive Power Regulation

This option is available only for AC load flow calculations.

Automatic tap adjustment of transformers: adjusts the taps of all transformers which have the option
Automatic Tap Changing enabled on the Load Flow page of their element dialogs. The tap adjustment
is carried out according to the control settings defined in the transformer element’s dialog (for further
information refer to the Technical References Document).

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Automatic tap adjustment of shunts: adjusts the steps of all switchable shunts that have the option
Switchable enabled on the Load Flow page of the shunt’s element dialog (for further information refer to
the Technical References Document).

Consider reactive power limits: considers the reactive power limits of models. If the load flow cannot
be solved without exceeding the specified limits, a convergence error is generated. If this option is
not enabled, PowerFactory will print a warning message if any of the specified limits are exceeded.
Note that it is possible to be selective about which machine models are considered in this respect;
section 25.3.3 describes how the models can be selected.

25.3.1.4 Temperature Dependency: Line/Cable Resistances

. . . at 20∘ C: the resistance of each line, conductor and cable will be according to the value stated in the
Basic Data page of their corresponding type (at 20∘ C).

. . . at Maximum operating temperature: the resistance of each line, conductor and cable will be ad-
justed according to the equation (25.25) described in Section 25.4.5 and the Temperature Dependency
option stated in its corresponding type (TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).

. . . at Operating temperature: when this option is selected, the specified individual operating temper-
ature for each line and cable is used (specified on the Load Flow page of the element).

. . . at Temperature: when this option is selected a global operating temperature can be specified in the
load flow command that is applied to all lines and cables.

25.3.1.5 Load Options

Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads: the voltage dependency of loads with defined voltage
dependency factors (Load Flow page of the general- and complex load types) will be considered.

Feeder Load Scaling: scales loads with the option Adjusted by Feeder Load Scaling enabled on the
Load Flow page of their element dialog according to the Scaling Factors specified in the Load Scaling
section of the feeder element. In this case, the Scaling Factor specified on the Load Flow page of
load element dialog is disregarded. For the purpose of unbalanced load flows, if the option Phasewise
scaling is selected on the Load Flow page of the feeder elements, different set points can be specified
for each phase.

Details of the scaling process can be found in section 25.4.3.

25.3.2 Active Power Control

25.3.2.1 Active Power Control

As explained in Section 25.4.1, PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation offers several options for maintain-
ing power balance within the system under analysis. These options are:

as Dispatched: if this option is selected and no busbar is assigned to the Reference Busbar (Refer-
ence Bus and Balancing section of the Active Power Control tab), the total power balance is established
by one reference generator/external grid (“slack”-generator). The slack generator can be directly defined
by the user on the Load Flow page of the target element. The program automatically sets a slack if one
has not been already defined by the user.

according to Secondary Control: power balance is established by all generators which are considered
by a “Secondary Controller” as explained in Section 25.4.1. Active power contribution is according to
the secondary controller participation factors.

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according to Primary Control: power balance is established by all generators having a Kpf -setting de-
fined (on the Load Flow page of a synchronous machine element dialog), as explained in Section 25.4.1.
Active power contribution is according to the droop of every generator.

according to Inertias: power balance is established by all generators, and the contribution of each is
according to the inertia (acceleration time constant) as explained in Section 25.4.1.

25.3.2.2 Balancing

If as Dispatched is selected in the Active Power Control section of the tab, further options regarding the
power balancing method are available:

by reference machine: for each isolated area, the reference machine will balance the active power.

by load at reference bus: this option is valid only when the reference bus bar has been defined. The
load with highest active power injection at the reference bus will be selected as the slack (such as to
balance the losses).

by static generator at reference bus: as in the case of Balancing by Load, this option is valid only
when the reference bus bar has been defined. The static generator with the highest nominal apparent
power at the reference bus will be selected as the slack (i.e. to balance the losses).

Distributed slack by loads: when this option is selected, only the loads which have the option Adjusted
by Load Scaling enabled in the isolated area will contribute to the balancing. The distribution factor
calculated for a load is determined by the following equation:

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑛 (25.1)
∑︁
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑗
𝑗=1

where,

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 is the initial active power of the load.

Figure 25.3.1: Adjusted by Load Scaling option in the Load Flow page of the Load element (ElmLod)

Distributed slack by synchronous generators: all the synchronous generators in the isolated area
will contribute to the balancing. As in the Distributed slack by loads option, the distribution factor
calculated for a generator is determined by the following equation:

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𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑖
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑛 (25.2)
∑︁
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑗
𝑗=1

where,

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 is the initial dispatched power of the generator.

Distributed slack by synchronous generators and static generators: same as Distributed slack by
synchronous generators, but taking into account also static generators.

25.3.2.3 Reference Bus

Reference Busbar: a different busbar to the one connecting the slack machine (or network) can be
selected as a reference for the voltage angle. In this case the user must specify the value of the voltage
angle at this selected reference bus, which will be remotely controlled by the assigned slack machine
(or network).

Angle: user-defined voltage angle for the selected reference busbar. The value will be remotely
controlled by the slack machine (external grid). Only available if a Reference Busbar has been selected.

25.3.2.4 Interchange Schedule

This option is available only when the Distributed slack by loads, Distributed slack by synchronous
generators or Distributed slack by synchronous generators and static generators is selected. It allows
the loads or generation in a region to be scaled up or down to control the interchange of this region.
The regions can be defined by Grids, Boundaries, Zones or Areas.

In the load flow page of the grid, boundary, zone and area elements, the following operational parame-
ters are available:

• Consider Interchange Schedule: enables or disables the Interchange Schedule for this region.
By default this option is not selected.
• Scheduled active power interchange: for setting the expected active power interchange.

Figure 25.3.2: Consider Interchange Schedule option in the Load Flow page of the Grid element
(ElmNet)

Prior to version 2017 of PowerFactory, it was not possible to execute contingency analysis with this
option to consider interchange schedule selected, but from version 2017 onwards, Contingency Analysis
supports the use of interchange schedules for contingencies, provided that they are also considered in
the base case.

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Reference Machine Selection

The user is able to select which machine is used as the reference (slack) machine, using the checkbox
Reference Machine on the Load Flow page of the element (ip_ctrl). However, in cases where there
is no reference machine defined in the network, or an isolated part of the network, PowerFactory can
select which element should act as the reference machine, according to certain criteria. It should be
noted that the automatic selection of a reference machine is subject to a project setting for Automatic
Slack Assignment, described in section 8.1.2.3.

Automatic Determination of Reference Machine if none selected

If PowerFactory is required to designate a reference machine, the following network elements are
considered: ElmXnet, ElmPvsys, ElmSym, ElmVsc and ElmRec. The logic used is designed to ensure
that a large machine is selected, so scaling factors are applied to the size (Snom, or Unom for Voltage
source or Pgen for ward equivalent voltage source), according to the table below. This means that
generally speaking the choice of reference machine is determined according to element class. (Note
that i_spin=1 means that Spinning if circuit breaker is open is selected.)

Element Factor used for selection

Extended Ward equivalent voltage
Pgen +0.001
source
ElmXnet, ElmSym with i_spin=1 Snom
Ward equivalent voltage source 0.1*(Pgen+1)
ElmSym with i_spin=0 Method 2,
0.01*Snom
ElmVsc with controlled AC busbar
Voltage source Normal operation 0.001*Unom*usetp
ElmVsc if not Vac/phi control active 0.00001*Snom
ElmRec, ElmPvsys, ElmSym with i_-
-1
spin=0 Method 2

Table 25.3.1: Reference machine prioritisation factors (no machine selected by user)

Automatic Determination of Reference Machine if more than one selected

If several machines have been designated as reference machine, a similar prioritisation according to
element class and size takes place as that described above. The scaling factors below are used:

Element Factor used for selection

ElmXnet 10000*Snom
ElmGenstat,ElmPvsys,ElmSym 100*Snom
ElmSym with i_spin=0 Method 2,
0.01*Snom
ElmVsc with controlled AC busbar
ElmVac Unom*usetp
ElmVsc 0.01*Snom

Table 25.3.2: Reference machine prioritisation factors (several machines selected by user)

Note: For synchronous machines ElmSym and static generators ElmGenstat, the user has a further
possibility to influence the choice of slack machine. Within the project settings, Advanced Cal-
culation Parameters page, there are three options for Priority for Reference Machines. These
are:
• Rated Power: Snom is used as the criterion, as in the table above
• Active Power Capability: Pmax-Pmin is used instead of Snom

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• Active Power Reserve: Pmax-Pgini is used instead of Snom

25.3.3 Advanced Options

25.3.3.1 Tap Adjustment

Method

The direct method will include the tap controller models in the load flow calculation (i.e. in the internal
loop involving the Newton-Raphson iterations). The new tap positions will then be calculated directly
as a variable and are therefore known following a single load flow calculation. The stepped method will
calculate a load flow with fixed tap positions, after which the required tap changes are calculated from
the observed voltage deviations and the tap controller time constants. The load flow calculation is then
repeated with the new tap positions, until no further changes are required. These tap adjustments take
place in the outer loop of the calculation.

Min. Controller Relaxation Factor

The tap controller time constants are used in the automatic tap changer calculations to determine the
relative speed of the various tap controllers during the load flow iterations. The relaxation factor can be
used to slow down the overall controller speeds (in case of convergence problems, set a factor of less
than 1.0), or to speed them up (for a faster load flow, set a factor of greater than 1.0).
Reducing the relaxation factor results in an increased number of iterations, but yields greater numerical
robustness.

Automatic detection of tap hunting

Occasionally, users executing a load flow calculation can find that it fails to converge in the outer loop
just because a transformer is toggling between one tap position and another. To avoid this situation the
load flow algorithm will detect such behaviour and stop the affected transformer from tapping further.
By default, the corrective measure will be taken after three transitions, but this number is configurable
by the user.

Automatic detection of repeated reactive power limitations

A similar preventative measure to the detection of transformer tap hunting is applied to generators,
which can also toggle between being at a reactive power limit and being released from that limit. By
default, the corrective measure will be taken after the generator has been released from its limit three
successive times, but this number is configurable by the user.

25.3.3.2 Operational Limits

Consider operational limits for tap changer: this option globally enables or disables the operational
tap limits of transformers. If this option is disabled the limits from the transformer type are used.

Here it is also possible to specify which element classes should have their active and/or reactive power
limits observed. These selections come into play if the options Consider active power limits and/or
Consider reactive power limits are selected on the Basic Options page of the Load Flow Command
dialog, as described in section 36.2.1.

Considered Models for Active Power Limits

The following element classes can be independently selected:

• ElmSym
• ElmStat
• ElmAsm

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• ElmVsc
Consider reactive power limits scaling factor

This option is only available if Consider reactive power limits is enabled. If selected, the reactive power
limits of generators are scaled by the relaxation factors: Scaling factor (min) and Scaling factor (max)
which are set on the Load Flow page of the generator element’s dialog. Note that the reactive power
limits of generators are also defined on the Load Flow page of the generator element’s dialog by one of
the following: maximum/minimum values, or according to the generator’s assigned type.

Considered Models for Reactive Power Limits

Here it is possible to specify which element classes should have their reactive power limits observed.
The following element classes can be independently selected:

• ElmSym
• ElmStat
• ElmAsm
• ElmVsc
• ElmSvs
• ElmXnet
• Reference machine

The last option makes it possible to ignore the reactive limits on the reference machine even if they
are observed for other machines of the same class. This option is only relevant if the flag for the
corresponding element class has been checked, and the flag for the reference machine is not checked.
(If the flag for the corresponding class has not been checked, then limits will not be observed for the
reference machine whatever the setting.)

25.3.3.3 Simulation Options

This tab is not only important for load flow but also for other calculation functions such as transient
simulation. Utilising the options on this page can result in improved performance; i.e. the speed of a
transient simulation may improved when protection devices are neglected in the calculation.

Consider Protection Devices

Calculates the tripping times for all modelled relays and fuses. This will also show the load currents in
the overcurrent plots and/or the measured impedance in the R-X diagrams. Disabling this option will
speed up the calculations.

Ignore Composite Elements

Disables all controller models. The panes Models Considered and Models Ignored are used to disable
specific groups of controller models. Model names can be moved between these panes by either
double-clicking on them or by selecting them and using the arrow buttons. Enabling this option may
result in faster convergence, or an increased likelihood of convergence for systems which are otherwise
difficult to solve.

25.3.3.4 Advanced

Station Controller

Available on Advanced tab of the Advanced Options page. The options presented in this field determine
the reactive power flow from generators participating in station controllers (ElmStactrl). Refer to section
Load Flow Controllers of the Technical References Document for information on station controllers and
their control modes.

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Modelling Method of Towers

• with in/output signals: the equations of the lines are modelled in the tower. It should be noted
that selecting this option will result in slower performance.
• ignore couplings: inter-circuit couplings are ignored.
• equations in lines: the constant impedance and admittance matrices are calculated by the tower
and used to develop the equations of the lines. The equations involving coupling are modelled
in the lines; consequently, using this option results in faster performance than using option with
in/output signals.

Use this load flow for initialisation of OPF

The results of this load flow calculation are used to initialise the OPF calculation.

Calculate max. current at busbars

This option calculates the maximum current that will be seen along a busbar. In reality, the current along
the different sections of a busbar will be dependent on the layout of the substation. Since the busbar
has no length in PowerFactory, the connection points of circuits connected to the busbar can be defined
using Bay objects (ElmBay ). If a substation is created using Bay objects, the numbering of the Bays
allows the load flow calculation to calculate the current flows on the busbar and hence the maximum
current seen (Imax). To configure a project such that new substations are created with Bays, the user
should go to Project Settings → Single Line Graphics→ Insert substations with bays.

25.3.4 Calculation Settings

25.3.4.1 Algorithm

Load Flow Method

As explained in Section 25.2.1, the nodal equations used to represent the analysed networks are
implemented using two different formulations:
• Newton-Raphson (Current Equations)

• Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical)

In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved using an iterative method.
PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear equation solver. The selection of the
method used to formulate the nodal equations is user-defined, and should be selected based on the
type of network to be calculated. For large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded, the
classical Newton-Raphson algorithm using the Power Equations formulation usually converges best.
Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better using the
Current Equations formulation.

25.3.4.2 Iteration Control

The options on this tab relate to the non-linear equation solver and are therefore only available for
PowerFactory ’s AC load flow calculation methods.

Max. Number of Iterations for

The load flow calculation comprises an inner loop involving the Newton-Raphson method (see Sec-
tion 25.2.1), and an outer loop to determine changes to tap settings and to consider generator reactive
power limits. Default values for the maximum number of iterations for these two loops are 25 iterations
for the inner loop, and 20 iterations for the outer loop.

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• Newton-Raphson Iteration: the inner loop of the load flow involves the Newton-Raphson itera-
tions. This parameter defines the maximum number of iterations (typically 25).
• Outer Loop: the outer loop of the load flow calculation will determine changes to the tap changer
(depending on the tap adjustment method selected), and considers reactive power limits of gen-
erators, etc. These are adjusted in the outer loop and then a new iteration of the inner loop is
started again (see Section 25.2.1). The maximum number of outer loop iterations (typically 20) is
set by this parameter.
• Number of Steps: problematic load flows with slow or no convergence may be improved by
starting a load flow calculation for a low load level, then increasing the load level gradually in
the given number of steps. This is achieved by setting the Number of Steps to a value greater
than one. For example, nsteps = 3 begins a load flow at a load/generation level of 1/3 and then
increases the power to 100 % over two further steps.

Max. Acceptable Load Flow Error for

A higher precision or a faster calculation can be obtained by changing the maximum allowable error (i.e.
tolerance). The values of the calculated absolute error for nodes, or the calculated relative errors in the
model equations, e.g. voltage error of voltage controlled generators, are specified here.

• Nodes: maximum Iteration Error of Nodal Equations (typical value (Default): 1 kVA). The thresh-
olds can be distinguished and entered for different voltage levels, where the voltage levels itself
are definable as well in the project settings:

– Bus Equations (HV): Default 𝑈𝐻𝑉 > 66 kV

– Bus Equations (MV): Default 𝑈𝑀 𝑉 > 1 kV
– Bus Equations (LV): 𝑈𝐿𝑉 > 0 kV
• Model Equations: maximum Error of Model Equations (typical value: 0.1 %).

Convergence Options

• automatic adaptation: default option.

• fixed relaxation: when this option is selected, a Relaxation Factor can be entered. A Newton-
Raphson relaxation factor smaller than 1.0 will slow down the convergence speed of the load
flow calculation, but may result in an increased likelihood of convergence for systems which are
otherwise difficult to solve.

Automatic Model Adaptation for Convergency

The PowerFactory load flow calculation will always first try to find a solution using non-linear mathe-
matical power system models. If a solution cannot be found, and this option is enabled, an adaptive
algorithm will change these models slightly to make them more linear, until a solution is found. Any
model adaptations are reported in the output window.

Iteratively, starting from Level 1 up to Level 4, some types of models are adjusted in order to find a
solution. The adaptations of the models for each level are the following:
• Level 1
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 0.5
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary
• Level 2
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 0.8
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled

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– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary

• Level 3
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 2
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary
• Level 4
– Loads: All voltage dependency factors are set to minimum 2
– Generators and external grids: Reactive power limits are disabled and voltage equation are
linearised
– Transformers: tap control is disabled
– Motors: The rotor resistance is not allowed to vary

The models are not only linearised but also simplified. If Level 4 is reached, the user should consider
switching to the DC load flow method.

Settings - Automatic step size

This option can be used to reduce the time taken by a load flow that is not reaching a convergent
solution.

• Trim unreasonable Newton-Raphson steps: if this option is selected, the user specifies a limit
to the number of iterations to be carried out when convergence is not being reached.

25.3.4.3 Initialisation

No Topology Rebuild

Will speed up large sets of consecutive load flow calculations. Enabling this option means that the
topology of the system will not be rebuilt when calculating the next load flow. If no topological changes
will be made to the system between these consecutive load flow calculations, then this option may be
enabled.

No Initialisation (no flat-start)

Initialises a load flow from a previously convergent solution (no flat-start).

Consideration of transformer winding ratio

Sets the manner in which voltage initialisation takes place at nodes. This option, enabled by default,
means that PowerFactory will automatically consider off nominal transformer ratios as part of the
initialisation process.

Max. transformer phase shift

When a network contains phase-shift transformers whose tap settings cause a large voltage change,
the initial condition of the load flow can be far from the solution, which can result in non-convergence.
To avoid this problem, the load flow calculation can introduce the phase shift more gradually. For any
phase-shift transformer where it is detected that the total phase shift will be greater than the specified
threshold (the default is 20∘ ), it will be broken down into two or more steps, in successive outer loops.

25.3.5 Outputs

Show Outer Loop messages

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Will print a report concerning the outer loop iterations, which may be used to solve convergence
problems.

Show Convergence Progress Report

Will print a detailed report throughout the load flow calculation. When enabling this option the Number
of reported buses/models per iteration can be stated. As a result, the required number of buses and
models with the largest error will be reported (e.g. by stating 3, the 3 buses and models with the largest
error will be printed out in the output window). As in the case of Outer Loop messages, this information
can be useful in solving convergence problems.

Show Verification Report

Produces a table in the output window with a list of overloaded power system elements and voltage
violations, according to the following values:

• Max. Loading of Edge Element: reference value of the maximum loading used by the Verification
Report.
• Lower Limit of Allowed Voltage: reference value for the minimum allowed voltage used by the
Verification Report.
• Upper Limit of Allowed Voltage: reference value for the maximum allowed voltage used by the
Verification Report.

• Output: displays the report format definition that will be used. The arrow button can be
pressed to edit or inspect the report settings.

Check Control Conditions

This option is selected by default and lists all elements in the output window whose control conditions
(e.g. reactive power limits, etc) have not been fulfilled. The arrow button allows the user to select
which control devices should be checked:

• Generator
• Transformer
• Shunt and SVC
• Station Controller
• Tap Controller
• Others

25.3.6 Load/Generation Scaling

On this page it is possible to define global scaling factors for loads, generators and motors that will be
used only during the execution of the Load Flow Calculation.

Load Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following elements is scaled by the Load Scaling Factor:

• General Load (ElmLod)

• MV Load, load part (ElmLodmv )
• LV Load (ElmLodlv )
Generation Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following elements is scaled by the Generation Scaling Factor:

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• Static Generator (ElmGenstat)

• Synchronous Generator (ElmSym), when connected as a Generator
• Asynchronous Generator (ElmAsm), when connected as a Generator
• DFIG Generator (ElmAsmsc), when connected as a Generator
• MV Load (ElmLodmv ), generation part
Motor Scaling Factor

The active/reactive power of the following models is scaled by the Motor Scaling Factor:

• Synchronous Motor (ElmSym), when connected as a Motor

• Asynchronous Motor (ElmAsm), when connected as a Motor
• DFIG Motor (ElmAsmsc), when connected as a Motor
Zone Scaling

The Load Scaling Factor of a zone (parameter curscale) can be applied either to all loads or just loads
which have the Adjusted by Load Scaling parameter selected.

25.3.7 Low Voltage Analysis

As explained in Sections 25.4.2 and 36.2.1, low voltage loads (ElmLodlv and ElmLodvp) are modelled
in PowerFactory with fixed and variable (stochastic) components. The parameters which define these
fixed and variable components are set in both the load flow command dialog (i.e. globally), and in the
load types’ dialogs (i.e. locally) according to the settings defined below.

Consider Coincidence of Low-Voltage Loads

Calculates a ’low voltage load flow’ as described in Sections 25.4.2 and 25.3.7, where load coincidence
factors are considered, so as to produce maximum branch currents and maximum voltage drops. Since
coincidence factors are used, the result of low voltage analysis will not obey Kirchhoff’s current law.
After the load flow has been successfully executed, maximum currents (Imax), maximum voltage drops
(dumax) and minimum voltages (umin, Umin) are displayed in every branch element and at every
busbar. The usual currents and voltages represent here average values of voltages and currents.
Losses are calculated based on average values, and maximum circuit loading is calculated using
maximum currents.

Scaling Factor for Night Storage Heaters

This is the factor by which the night storage heater power (as found in Low Voltage Load elements) is
multiplied for all low voltage loads.

Definition of Fixed Load per Customer

The fixed load is the non-stochastic component of the load, which is not subject to coincidence factors.
The active and reactive power defined in this field, multiplied by the number of customers (defined in the
load element itself), are added to the fixed load component defined for each low voltage load (ElmLodlv
and ElmLodvp). For further information about LV loads refer to the Technical References Document.

Definition of Variable Load per Customer

The variable component of low voltage loads can be globally defined using the parameters in this section
or by specifically defining LV load types for the target loads.

The Max. Power per Customer is the independent maximum kVA per customer. This value, multiplied
by the Coincidence Factor (ginf) (see Section 25.4.2), gives the “Average Power” per customer, which
is used in load flow calculations.

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The ’total’ maximum variable power per load is calculated using the Max. Power per Customer, the
Coincidence Factor (ginf ), and the number of customers (defined in the load element itself) as described
in Section 25.4.2.

Note: The factors defined in the section Definition of Variable Load per Customer are used as global
data for the load flow calculation. If specific LV load types are defined, the locally-defined data
in the type is used by the corresponding loads. For all other LV loads with no type assigned, the
global data from the load flow command is used.

Voltage Drop Analysis

For the consideration of the stochastic nature of loads, PowerFactory offers two calculation methods:

• Stochastic Evaluation
• Maximum Current Estimation
The Stochastic Evaluation method is the more theoretical approach, and can also be applied to meshed
network topologies. The Maximum Current Estimation method applies stochastic rules only for the
estimation of maximum branch flows. Based on the maximum current flow in each branch element,
maximum voltage drops are calculated and added along the feeder. Obviously, this method has its
limitations in case of meshed LV networks.

25.4 Detailed Description of Load Flow Calculation Options

The following sections describe the options available in the Load Flow Calculation command in detail.

25.4.1 Active and Reactive Power Control

25.4.1.1 Active Power Control

Besides the traditional approach of using a slack generator to establish the power balance within the
system, PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation tool provides other active power balancing mechanisms
which more closely represent the reality of transmission networks (see selection in the Active Power
Control page of the load flow command). These mechanisms are implemented in the steady-state
according to the control processes that follow the loss of large power stations:

As Dispatched: as mentioned at the beginning of this section, the conventional approach in load flow
calculations consists of assigning a slack generator, which will establish the power balance within the
system. Besides this traditional approach, PowerFactory offers the option of balancing by means of a
single or a group of loads (Distributed Slack by Loads). Under such assumptions, the active power of the
selected group of loads will be modified so that the power balance is once again met; while leaving the
scheduled active power of each generator unchanged. Other methods of balancing include considering
the participation of all synchronous generators according to their scheduled active power (Distributed
Slack by Generation).

According to Secondary Control: if an unbalance occurs between the scheduled active power values
of each generation unit and the loads plus losses, primary control will adapt (increase/decrease) the
active power production of each unit, leading to an over- or under-frequency situation. The secondary
frequency control will then bring the frequency back to its nominal value, re-establishing cost-efficient
generation delivered by each unit. Secondary control is represented in PowerFactory ’s load flow
calculations by network components called Power Frequency Controllers (ElmSecctrl). If the Active
Power Control option According to Secondary Control is selected, the generators considered by the
Power Frequency Controller establish the active power balance according to their assigned participation

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factors. It is also possible, within the group of controlled generators, to implement a merit order priority; if
this option is selected in the Power Frequency Controller, generators with the highest merit order priority
will be dispatched first, as far as their operational limits allow, then the generators with successively
lower merit order priorities as required.

In cases where the total required MW change in generation exceeds the total available on generators
with a non-zero merit-order, the remainder will be distributed between generators with a zero merit-
order, according to the Primary Frequency Bias (Kpf) of these generators, those with a higher Kpf being
used first.

(For further information, refer to the Technical References Document).

According to Primary Control: shortly following a disturbance, the governors of the units participat-
ing in primary control will increase/decrease their turbine power and drive the frequency close to its
nominal value. The change in the generator power is proportional to the frequency deviation and is
divided among participating units according to the gain (𝐾𝑝𝑓 ) of their primary controllers and which is
depicted in Figure 25.4.1. If the Active Power Control option According to Primary Control is selected in
PowerFactory ’s load flow command, the power balance is established by all generators (synchronous
generators, static generators and external grids) having a primary controller gain value different than
zero (parameter Prim. Frequency Bias in the Load Flow page - Figure 25.4.2). The modified active
power of each generator is then calculated according to the following equation:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ + ∆𝑃𝑖 (25.3)

where

𝑃𝑖 is the modified active power of generator 𝑖,

𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ is the initial active power dispatch of generator 𝑖 and
∆𝑃𝑖 is the active power change in generator 𝑖.

The active power change of each generator (∆𝑃𝑖 ) will be determined by its corresponding primary
controller gain value (𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 ) and the total frequency deviation.

∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 · ∆𝑓 (25.4)

where

𝐾𝑝𝑓 −𝑖 is the primary controller gain parameter of generator 𝑖 and

∆𝑓 is the total frequency deviation.

The total frequency deviation (∆𝑓 ) can be obtained according to:

∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡
∆𝑓 = ∑︀ (25.5)
𝐾𝑝𝑓

where ∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡 corresponds to the active power change sum of every generator:

𝑛
∑︁
∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑗 (25.6)
𝑗=1

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Figure 25.4.1: Primary Frequency Bias

Figure 25.4.2: Primary Frequency Bias (𝐾𝑝𝑓 ) Setting in the Load Flow Page of the Synchronous
Machine Element (ElmSym)

Consider the following example:

Three generators supply a load.

• G1, has a set dispatch of 2 MW and a primary controller gain of 2 MW/Hz.

• G2, has a set dispatch of 2 MW and a primary controller gain of 2 MW/Hz.

• G3, has a set dispatch of 3 MW and a primary controller gain of 1 MW/Hz.
• G3 is set as the reference machine.
An as dispatched active power control indicates that a total active power output of 5 MW is required
from the 3 generators to supply the connected load:

G1 and G2 each supply 2 MW corresponding with their dispatch setpoints.

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As the reference machine, G3 supplies the final 1 MW.

The mismatch between the supplied power and the dispatched power is therefore.

∆𝑃𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = 5 𝑀 𝑊 − 7 𝑀 𝑊 = −2 𝑀 𝑊 (25.7)

The total frequency deviation is therefore:

−2 𝑀 𝑊
∆𝑓 = = −0.4 𝐻𝑧 (25.8)
5 𝑀 𝑊/𝐻𝑧

The active power deviation between the dispatch setpoint of each generator and its primary controlled
output is therefore:

∆𝑃𝐺 1 = 2 𝑀 𝑊/𝐻𝑧 · −0.4 𝐻𝑧 = −0.8 𝑀 𝑊 (25.9)

∆𝑃𝐺 2 = 2 𝑀 𝑊/𝐻𝑧 · −0.4 𝐻𝑧 = −0.8 𝑀 𝑊 (25.10)

∆𝑃𝐺 3 = 1 𝑀 𝑊/𝐻𝑧 · −0.4 𝐻𝑧 = −0.4 𝑀 𝑊 (25.11)

Finally, The primary controlled output of each generator is therefore:

𝑃𝐺 1 = 2 𝑀 𝑊 − 0.8 𝑀 𝑊 = 1.2 𝑀 𝑊 (25.12)

𝑃𝐺 2 = 2 𝑀 𝑊 − 0.8 𝑀 𝑊 = 1.2 𝑀 𝑊 (25.13)

𝑃𝐺 3 = 3 𝑀 𝑊 − 0.4 𝑀 𝑊 = 2.6 𝑀 𝑊 (25.14)

According to Inertias: immediately following a disturbance, the missing/excess power is delivered from
the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of the turbines. This leads to a deceleration/acceleration
and thus to a decrease/increase in the system frequency. The contribution of each individual generator
towards the total additional power required is proportional to its inertia. If the Active Power Control
option According to Inertias is selected in PowerFactory ’s load flow command, the power balance is
established by all generators. Individual contributions to the balance are proportional to the inertia/ac-
celeration time constant of each generator (defined on the RMS-Simulation page of the synchronous
generator type’s dialog and depicted in Figure 25.4.3). This relation can be mathematically described
as follows:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ + ∆𝑃𝑖 (25.15)

where
𝑃𝑖 is the modified active power of generator 𝑖,
𝑃𝑖−𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ is the initial active power dispatch of generator 𝑖 and
∆𝑃𝑖 is the active power change in generator 𝑖.

The active power change of each generator (∆𝑃𝑖 ) will be determined by its inertia gain (𝐽.𝜔𝑛 .2𝜋) and
the total frequency deviation, as follows:

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∆𝑃𝑖 = 𝐽 · 𝜔𝑛 · 2𝜋 · ∆𝑓 (25.16)

where
∆𝑓 is the total frequency deviation and 𝐽 is the moment of inertia, calculated as

𝑇𝑎𝑔𝑠
𝐽 = 𝑆𝑛 · (25.17)
𝜔𝑛2

where
𝜔𝑛 is the rated angular velocity,
𝑆𝑛 is the generator nominal apparent power and
𝑇𝑎𝑔𝑠 is the acceleration time constant rated to 𝑆𝑛

Figure 25.4.3: Inertia/Acceleration Time Constant Parameter of the Synchronous Machine Type
(TypSym). Simulation RMS Page

Figure 25.4.4 illustrates the different types of active power control.

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Figure 25.4.4: Frequency Deviation Following an Unbalance in Active Power

Note: The Secondary Control option will take into account the participation factors of the machines de-
fined within a Power-Frequency Controller (ElmSecctrl) in order to compensate for the frequency
deviation. In such a case, the final steady state frequency is considered to be the nominal value
(number 1 in Figure 25.4.4). The Primary Control option will take into account the frequency droop
(MW/Hz) stated in every machine in order to determine the active power contribution. Depending
on the power unbalance, the steady state frequency will deviate from the nominal value (number
2 in Figure 25.4.4). The According to Inertias option will take into account the inertia/acceleration
time constant stated in every machine in order to determine its active power contribution. In this
case, depending on the power unbalance, the steady state frequency will deviate from the nominal
value (number 3 in Figure 25.4.4).

25.4.1.2 Reactive Power Control

The reactive power reserves of synchronous generators in transmission networks are used to control the
voltages at specific nodes in the system and/or to control the reactive power exchange with neighbouring
network zones. In PowerFactory ’s load flow calculation, the voltage regulator of the generators has a
voltage setpoint which can be set manually (defining a PV bus type as introduced in Section 25.2.1), or
from an Automatic Station Controller (ElmStactrl). This Automatic Station Controller combines several
sources of reactive power to control the voltage at a given bus. In this case the relative contribution of
each reactive power source (such as generators and SVSs) is defined in the Station Controller dialog.
For further details about the use and definition of Automatic Station Controllers refer to the Technical
References Document.

25.4.2 Voltage Dependency of Loads

All non-motor loads, as well as groups of non-motor loads that conform a sub-system, for example, a
low-voltage system viewed from a medium voltage system, can be modelled as a “general load”.

Under “normal conditions” it is permissible to represent such loads as constant PQ loads. However
under “abnormal conditions”, for example during voltage collapse situations the voltage-dependency of
the loads should be taken into account.

Under such assumptions, PowerFactory uses a potential approach, as indicated by Equations (25.18)
and (25.19). In these equations, the subscript 0 indicates the initial operating condition as defined in
the input dialog box of the Load Type.

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(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑃 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑃 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑎𝑃 · + 𝑏𝑃 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑃 − 𝑏𝑃 ) · (25.18)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

where,

𝑐𝑃 = (1 − 𝑎𝑃 − 𝑏𝑃 )

(︃ (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑎𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑏𝑄 (︂ )︂𝑒_𝑐𝑄 )︃

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑎𝑄 · + 𝑏𝑄 · + (1 − 𝑎𝑄 − 𝑏𝑄) · (25.19)
𝑣0 𝑣0 𝑣0

where,

𝑐𝑄 = (1 − 𝑎𝑄 − 𝑏𝑄)

By specifying the particular exponents (e_aP, e_bP, e_cP and e_aQ, e_bQ, e_cQ) the inherent load
behaviour can be modelled. For example, in order to consider a constant power, constant current or
constant impedance behaviour, the exponent value should be set to 0, 1 or 2 respectively. In addition,
the relative proportion of each coefficient can be freely defined using the coefficients aP, bP, cP and
aQ, bQ, cQ. For further information, refer to the General Load technical reference in the Technical
References Document.

Note: These factors are only considered if the “Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads” is checked in
the Load-flow Command window. If no Load Type (TypLod) is assigned to a load, and the load
flow is performed considering voltage dependency then the load will be considered as Constant
Impedance.

25.4.3 Feeder Load Scaling

In radially operated distribution systems the problem often arises that very little is known about the
actual loading of the loads connected at each substation. The only information sometimes available
is the total power flowing into a radial feeder. To be able to still estimate the voltage profile along the
feeder a load scaling tool is used. In the simplest case the distribution loads are scaled according to
the nominal power ratings of the transformers in the substations. Of course, more precise results are
obtained by using an average daily, monthly or annual load.

This is illustrated in Figure 25.4.5. Here, the measured value at the beginning of the feeder is stated
to be 50 MW. Throughout the feeder there are three loads defined, of which only for one of them the
load is precisely known (20 MW). The other two loads are estimated to be at around 10 MW each.
PowerFactory ’s load flow analysis tool offers a special Feeder Load Scaling option so that the selected
groups of loads (scalable loads) are scaled accordingly in order to meet the measured value.

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Figure 25.4.5: Radial Feeder. Feeder Load Scaling Option

In PowerFactory the following options for Feeder Load Scaling are available:

• No scaling.
• Scaling to measured apparent power.
• Scaling to active power.
• Scaling to measured current.

• Scaling Manually.
• Scaling to measured reactive power.
• Scaling to measured power factor.

Furthermore, the previous options can be combined; for example, scaling a selected groups of loads in
order to meet a measured active power and power factor.

Note: Loads that are to be scaled must be marked as such (Adjusted by Load Scaling), also the load
scaling must be enabled in the load flow command option (Feeder Load Scaling).

The feeder load scaling process also can take into account the different type of load behaviour rep-
resented. Figure 25.4.6 illustrates just this. Here, a radial feeder consisting of three different type of
loads is depicted (constant power, constant current and constant impedance). Under such assumptions,
performing a load flow calculation with the option Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads (see previous
Section), will result in calculated base quantities according to the type of load specified; for example,
Ibase for the constant current load and Zbase for the constant impedance load. If in addition to the
voltage dependency of loads, the Feeder Load Scaling option is enabled, the calculated scaling factor
𝑘 is applied according to the type of load defined in the feeder.

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Figure 25.4.6: Feeder Load Scaling Factor Considering Different Behaviour of Loads

In PowerFactory, the number of Feeder definitions is not limited to the number of radial paths repre-
sented in the model. This means that the user can define more than one feeder element (ElmFeeder )
along the same radial path, as indicated in Figure 25.4.7 In this particular example, both Feeder 1 and
2 have the same specified orientation (→ Branch). While Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the
radial path, Feeder 2 is defined after load L2. This particular type of feeder representation is termed as
Nested Feeders. Since Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the radial path, every load (L1, L2, L3
and L4), as well as every feeder (Feeder 2) along this path will be considered as part of its definition.
Since Feeder 2 is along the path defined for Feeder 1; Feeder 2 is nested in Feeder 1.

In such cases, executing the load flow (with the option Feeder Load Scaling) will treat the two feeders as
independent. Although nested, Feeder 1 will only try to scale loads L1 and L2 according to its setting,
while Feeder 2 will scale loads L3 and L4. If Feeder 2 is placed Out of Service, then Feeder 1 will scale
all the loads along the radial path (L1, L2, L3 and L4).

Figure 25.4.7: Nested Feeder Definition

Note: In order to consider a load in the feeder-load-scaling process, the option Adjusted by Load
Scaling has to be enabled. In this case, the individual Scaling Factor of the load is not taken
into account but overwritten by the feeder-scaling factor.

For further information on Feeder definitions refer to Chapter 15, Section 15.5 (Feeders).

Additionally, loads can be grouped in zones, areas or boundaries so the scaling factor can be easily
edited. In case of zones, there will be an additional Zone Scaling Factor.

Calculation process and Equations

This section explains how the scaling is carried out for the various scaling options. There are two ways
of scaling: Manual scaling where a scaling factor is supplied, and scaling to setpoint, where the setpoint
is supplied and the scaling factors are calculated in order to meet this setpoint. In the equations below,

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the variables scale and scalephi are the quantities which are passed as signals for the load object
scaling.

25.4.3.1 Manual scaling, balanced Feeder Load Scaling

For balanced Feeder Load Scaling (flag scalePhaseWise inside ElmFeeder is off), manual scaling is
enabled by selecting “Manually” in the drop-down menu. (i_scale = 4 for the first set point, i_scale = 3
for the second set-point.)

Manual scaling using the first control introduces an additional scaling factor scale for the specific feeder.
This scaling factor scale is equal to the user-supplied factor scale0, and is applied to the apparent power
of each scalable load in the feeder:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜 * 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

where 𝑆𝑛 is the ’new’ apparent power of the load and 𝑆𝑜 is the ’old’ apparent power.

Manual scaling using the second control introduces an angle scalephi for the specific feeder. This
scaling factor scalephi is equal to the user-supplied Power Factor cosphiset. Each scalable load inside
the feeder is then set to the same powerfactor scalephi:

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜 * cos(𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑖)
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜 * sin(𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑖)

where 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑄𝑛 are the ’new’ active and reactive power consumptions of the load, and 𝑃𝑜 , 𝑄𝑜 are the ’old’
active and reactive power consumptions.

25.4.3.2 Manual scaling, phasewise Feeder Load Scaling

For phasewise Feeder Load Scaling (flag scalePhaseWise inside ElmFeeder is on), manual scaling is
enabled by selecting “Manually” (i_scale = 4) in the drop-down menu.

Only the first control may be set to Manual if phasewise scaling is being used.

The equations in this instance are complex and outside the scope of the User Manual.

25.4.3.3 Scaling to setpoint: Balanced Feeder Load Scaling

For balanced Feeder Load Scaling (flag scalePhaseWise inside ElmFeeder is off), the loads inside a
feeder may be scaled to meet a given setpoint:

Therefore:

• additional controls / signals are introduced: scale and / or scalephi

• additional setpoint equations are written at the feeding point

Feeding point equations:

When feeder set points have been specified, scale and scalephi have to be determined for each feeder
so that when the loads are scaled, the specified set points are met. The requirements at the feeder
points can be expressed as follows:

Given some setpoint 𝑠 and some calculated value 𝑣 at the feeding point (for example, 𝑠 is some
measured value of apparent power at the feeding point, and 𝑣 is the calculated apparent power at
the feeding point), the equation reads as:

𝑠 = 𝑣.

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Equations first setpoint, balanced Load Flow

Let 𝑐𝑢𝑟 be the current at the feeding point and 𝑢 the voltage at the feeding point.

• Apparent power scaling: 𝑆𝑠𝑒𝑡 = |𝑢 * 𝑐𝑢𝑟|.

¯

• Current scaling: 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑡 = |𝑐𝑢𝑟|.

• Active power: 𝑃 𝑠𝑒𝑡 = ℜ(𝑢 * 𝑐𝑢𝑟).
¯

Equations second setpoint, balanced Load Flow

Let 𝑐𝑢𝑟 be the current at the feeding point and 𝑢 the voltage at the feeding point.

• Reactive power scaling: 𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑡 = ℑ(𝑢 * 𝑐𝑢𝑟).

¯

• Power factor scaling: Let 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 equal 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑡) in the case of inductive scaling, and
equal −𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑡) in the case of capacitive scaling. Then the equation reads 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 =
𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑢 * 𝑐𝑢𝑟).
¯

Equations, unbalanced Load Flow

The equations for balanced Feeder Load Scaling with unbalanced Load Flow are similar to the equations
in the case of the balanced load flow. The only difference is that the phasewise calculated values at the
feeding point are summed up (sum of complex powers) in order to meet the setpoint.

Load equations:

When Feeder Load Scaling is enabled, additional controls scale and scalephi are introduced to control
the power consumption of the loads.

These controls are applied to the power consumption of the loads depending on the setting i_scale,
i_scalepf inside the feeder:

• All combinations of settings i_scale and i_scalepf in ElmFeeder, except Active Power control and
Reactive power control:
If i_scale is not 0: Apparent power of the load is scaled:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜 * 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 (25.20)

where 𝑆𝑛 is the ’new’ apparent power of the load, and 𝑆𝑜 is the ’old’ apparent power.
If i_scalepf is not 0: Power factor of the load is adjusted to equal scalephi:

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜 * cos(𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑖)
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜 * sin(𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝ℎ𝑖), (25.21)

where 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑄𝑛 are the ’new’ active and reactive power consumptions of the load, and 𝑆𝑜 is the ’old’
apparent power.
• Active Power scaling and Reactive Power scaling:
In this case a more involved scaling algorithm is used, in order to improve convergence. This is
outside the scope of the User Manual.

25.4.3.4 Scaling to setpoint: Phasewise Feeder Load Scaling

For phasewise Feeder Load Scaling (flag scalePhaseWise inside ElmFeeder is on), the loads inside a
feeder may be scaled per phase to meet a given setpoint:

Therefore:
• additional controls / signals are introduced: scale1r, scale1s, scale1t and scale2r, scale2s, scale2t

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• additional setpoint equations are written at the feeding point

Feeding point equations:

The feeding point equations in this case are written per phase. They follow the same logic as for
balanced Feeder Load Scaling.

Load equations:

In this case, a more involved scaling algorithm is used in order to support phasewise scaling. This is
outside the scope of the User Manual.

Note: The phasewise load scaling is quite sensitive in terms of phase shifts. In case that a transformer
(or other equipment) is located between the feeder begin and the scaled load, which causes a
significant phase shift, the scaling algorithm might not find a solution.

25.4.4 Coincidence of Low Voltage Loads

In a low voltage system every load may consist of a fixed component with a deterministic amount
of power demand plus a variable component comprising many different, small loads, such as lights,
refrigerators, televisions, etc., whose power varies stochastically between zero and a maximum value.
Under such conditions, PowerFactory uses a probabilistic load flow calculation, which is able to calcu-
late both maximum and average currents as well as the average losses and maximum voltage drops.
The probabilistic load flow calculation used by PowerFactory can be applied to any system topology,
including meshed low-voltage systems.

PowerFactory ’s probabilistic load flow calculation uses low voltage loads comprised of several cus-
tomers with fixed and variable (stochastic) demand components. The maximum value of the variable
component (which is dependent upon the number of customers, n) is described by the following formula:

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑛) = 𝑛 · 𝑔(𝑛) · 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (25.22)

Where 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum variable load per connection (customer) and the function 𝑔(𝑛) describes
the maximum coincidence of loads, dependent upon the number of connections, 𝑛. If a Gaussian
distribution is assumed, the coincidence function is:

1 − 𝑔∞
𝑔(𝑛) = 𝑔∞ + √ (25.23)
𝑛

The average value of the variable component is:

𝑔(𝑛) = 𝑔∞ · 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (25.24)

Note: Low voltage loads can be represented in PowerFactory by Low Voltage Load (ElmLodlv ) ele-
ments which can be directly connected to terminals or by Partial Low Voltage Loads (ElmLodlvp)
which are defined along transmission lines/cables (see the Definition of Line Loads section on the
Load Flow page of transmission line/cable elements - ElmLne).

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25.4.5 Temperature Dependency of Lines and Cables

The most important effect of the resistance of transmission line and cable conductors is the generation
of losses (I2 R). Resistance will also affect the voltage regulation of the line due to voltage drop (IR).

The resistance of a conductor is mainly affected by the operating temperature, and its variation can be
considered practically linear over the normal range of operation (an increase in temperature causes an
increase in resistance).

In PowerFactory, the load flow calculation has different options for considering the Temperature Depen-
dency of resistance for lines and cables:

• at 20∘ C: When this option is selected, the load flow calculation uses the resistances (lines and
cables) stated in the Basic Data page of the corresponding component (TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).

• at Maximum operating temperature: When this option is selected, the load flow calculation uses
the corrected value of resistance with the maximum operating temperature of each line (Specified
on the Load Flow page in the Type).
• at Operating temperature: When this option is selected, the specified individual operating tem-
perature for each line and cable is used (specified on the Load Flow page of the element).

• at Temperature: When this option is selected a global operating temperature can be specified in
the load flow command that is applied to all lines and cables.

The following equation is used to determine the temperature dependent resistance:

𝑅 = 𝑅20 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 20∘ 𝐶)] (25.25)

where,

𝑅20 is the resistance at temperature 20∘ C (Basic Data page of the corresponding type)

𝛼 is the temperature coefficient in 𝐾 −1

𝑇 is the operating temperature of the line. It can be the maximal operating temperature (line type), the
individual operating temperature (element) or a global temperature (load flow command).

𝑅 is the resistance at temperature 𝑇

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Figure 25.4.8: Temperature Dependency Option Setting in the Load Flow page of the line type (TypLne)

Additionally, the resistance temperature dependency can be defined by specifying either the resistance
at maximum operating temperature, the temperature coefficient (1/K) or the conductor material (Alu-
minium, Copper or Aldrey).

Table 25.4.1indicates the electrical resistivities and temperature coefficients of metals used in conduc-
tors and cables referred at 20∘ C/68∘ F (taken from IEC 60287-1 standard).

Material Resistivity (Ω-m) Temperature coefficient [K−1 ]

Aluminium 2.8264 · 10−8 4.03 · 10−3
Copper 1.7241 · 10−8 3.93 · 10−3

Table 25.4.1: Electrical Resistivities and Temperature coefficients of Aluminium and Copper

25.5 Results Analysis

In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in tabular form or by
using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram colouring options in other to have a
“quick” overview of the results.

25.5.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram

Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in the single-line
diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each “side” of an element. So for
example a load has one result box, a line two result boxes, and a three-winding transformer three result
boxes. In PowerFactory these elements are collectively called edge elements. In addition, there are
result boxes for nodes or buses.

The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is associated. Several
predefined formats can be selected, as described in Chapter 9: Network Graphics, section 9.5. Re-
sult boxes can also be personalised as described in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results,
section 19.2.

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25.5.2 Flexible Data Page

Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the Open Network Model Man-
ager. . . button ( ) located on the main menu will open a browser window with a list of all classes on
the left side of the window that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any of the classes will
display all elements of that class that are currently used in the calculation in a table on the right side of
the window. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of the browser is the Flexible Data tab page. Click
on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change the columns in the flexible page, press the Define
Flexible Data button ( ). This will bring a selection window where the set of variables can be edited.
Section 19.3 in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, describes the Variable Selection object
which is use to define the variables to be presented.

25.5.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)

In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available to the user.
These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the Output Calculation Analysis button ( ) located
on the main menu (a load flow must be calculated first). Output reports are described in Chapter 19:
Reporting and Visualising Results, section 19.4.

A Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a load flow calculation is executed
(see Section 49.4.6).

25.5.4 Diagram Colouring

When performing load flow calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-diagram in order to
have a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a loading above 90 % or if the
voltages of the busbars are outside the specified limits. In PowerFactory there is the option of selecting
different colouring modes according to the calculation performed. If a specific calculation is valid, then
the selected colouring for this calculation is displayed. As an example, if the user selects the colouring
mode Zones for No Calculation and Low and High Voltage/Loadings for the load flow calculation, then
the initial colouring will be according to Zones. However, as soon as the load flow is calculated, the
diagram will be coloured according to Low and High Voltage/Loadings. If the load flow calculation is
reset or invalid, the colouring mode switches back to Zones.

The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme also implemented, allowing colour-
ing elements according to the following criteria: 1𝑠𝑡 Energising status, 2𝑛𝑑 Alarm and 3𝑟𝑑 “Normal”
(Other) colouring.

Energising Status

If this check box is enabled “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation” elements are coloured according to
the settings in the “Project Colour Settings”. The settings of the “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation”
mode can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Alarm

If this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes will be available. It is important
to note here that only alarm modes available for the current calculation page will be listed. If an alarm
mode is selected, elements “exceeding” the corresponding limit are coloured. Limits and colours can
be defined by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

“Normal” (Other) Colouring

Here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contain all available colouring modes. The second list
will contain all sub modes of the selected colouring mode. The settings of the different colouring modes
can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

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Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion is optional and
will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all three criterions, the hierarchy
taken into account will be the following:

“Energising Status” overrules the “Alarm” and “Normal Colouring” mode. The “Alarm” mode overrules
the “Normal Colouring” mode.

25.5.5 Load Flow Sign Convention

By default, PowerFactory has the following load flow sign convention (Mixed Mode):

Branches:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the busbar is negative.

Loads:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the busbar is negative. Here, the
term load considers “General Loads”, “Low-Voltage Loads”, “Motors”, “Shunts/Filters” and “SVS”. A
synchronous machine stated as a “Motor” will have also this sign convention.

Generation:

Power Flow going out of the Busbar is negative while going into the busbar is positive. Here, the
term Generation considers “Generators”, “External Grids”, “Static Generators” and “Current and Voltage
Sources”. An asynchronous machine stated as a “Generator” will have also this sign convention.

25.5.6 Results for Unbalanced Load Flow Calculations

One of PowerFactory ’s strengths lays in the modelling and simulation of asymmetric networks with
individual phases (also neutrals). The unbalanced load flow calculation leads to phase/conductor
specific results. In addition unbalance factors for voltage, current and power are calculated.

The percentaged unbalance factor (for voltage) is calculated for node elements as ratio of the negative
and positive sequence voltage. The current unbalance factor is calculated similarly with negative and
positive sequence currents. It is evaluated for each side of all branch elements, where in addition the
power unbalance factor is calculated. It is defined as follows:
Let 𝑁 be the number of phases, and let
𝑁
1 ∑︁
𝑆ˆ = 𝑆𝑖
𝑁 𝑖=1

be the average complex power (at one end) of a branch element, where 𝑆𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, . . . ,𝑁 are the complex
powers on phases 1, . . . ,𝑁 . Let
𝑁
1 ∑︁
𝑆¯ = |𝑆𝑖 |
𝑁 𝑖=1

be the average of the absolute values of the powers on the different phases. Then the power unbalance
factor 𝑠𝑏 for the branch element 𝑏 is defined as
¯ max {|𝑆𝑖 − 𝑆|}.
𝑠𝑏 := (1/𝑆) ˆ
𝑖=1,...,𝑁

Note: The power unbalance factor is calculated for every side of all branch elements. Due to its
definition, the voltage and current unbalance factor however is only calculated for three phase
elements, where the transformation into symmetrical components is possible.

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For feeder elements, the unbalance factors of all assigned elements are analysed, the maximum and
average values identified and stored into dedicated variables. In addition the unbalance factors of the
feeding point (the branch element, from which the feeder starts) are available.

25.5.7 Update Database

In PowerFactory input (data that has been entered by the user) and output (parameters that have been
calculated) data is kept separate. Output data, such as the new tap positions following an automatic tap
adjustment calculation, does not overwrite the settings that the user originally entered, unless the user
specifically commands this, using the icon on the main toolbar.

Note: The corresponding input parameters of the database will be overwritten by the calculated values.

Updating the database may be performed for:

• Scaling factor of loads
• Transformer taps
• Capacitive Steps of Shunts/Filter

• P,Q of Loads
• P,Q of Asynchronous machines
• P,Q,V of Synchronous machines and Static Generators

Example:

A load-flow is calculated with the options Automatic tap adjustment of transformers and Automatic tap
adjustment of shunts enabled. The calculated tap and shunt positions may be seen in the single line
diagram, but it will be noticed that the input data parameter in the element data dialog is as originally
entered. If the icon is clicked, the input parameters are now overwritten by the calculated values
found on the single line diagram.

25.6 Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems

In general, if a solution can be found (in other words, the network is mathematically solvable), Pow-
erFactory will find a solution. In some cases the user may have made an error which will not allow a
solution to be found; such as a large load causing a voltage drop so large that a voltage collapse results.
In a real-world power system the same problem would be found.

When creating a network for the first time it is best to enter the data for only a small part or ’path’ of the
network and solve the network by calculating a load flow. PowerFactory has a data verification process
in which certain checks are performed, such as whether a line is connected between nodes of the same
voltage; and the correct voltage orientation of transformers, etc.

Typical reasons for non-convergence in the load flow are:

• Data model problem.

• Too many inner loop iterations.
• Too many outer loop iterations.

• Excessive mismatch.

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• Tap hunting.
Clearly this is not an exhaustive list of problems, but these are the main causes of non-convergence
and that will be discussed in this section.

25.6.1 General Troubleshooting

The place to search for the causes of the non-convergence problem is in the PowerFactory output
window. Here, there can be three different types of messages printed out, which are the following:

Info messages

Information detailing the load flow convergence (inner and outer loop iterations). Information of genera-
tors with reactive power compensation at output limit. Information on the total number of isolated areas
(see 25.6.3).

Warning messages

Warning messages do not need to be corrected for the load flow to solve, however they could give you
an indication of where the problem is. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in terms
of your system. Important warnings, such as “Exceeding Mvar limit range” may not be acceptable.
“Unsupplied Areas” messages indicate that an isolated area with “Consumers” (such as loads and
motors) is without a generator, power source or external supply.

Error messages

Error messages must be corrected for a load flow to solve. Error messages could be generated by
PowerFactory ’s data checking function, which include messages such as missing type!. In most
cases the messages have links to the data base and graphic. The following options can be performed
in order to trace errors:

• Use the Network Data Assessment tool ( ).

• Once errors have been detected, open the problematic element dialog window by double clicking
on the name directly from the output window. Or alternatively, right click mouse button over the
name and select edit, or edit and browse, or mark in graphic.

The amount of information being printed to the PowerFactory output window can be changed by the
user. Once error messages have been analysed and corrected and the load flow still does not solve,
the user may want to print more detailed information on the convergence progress.

Tick the Show Convergence Progress Report option found in the Outputs page of the load flow dialog
(refer to Section 49.4.6).

This will print messages to the output window that can provide clues as to where the convergence
problems may lie.

The single line graphic can also be coloured to show low and high voltages and overloadings. This will
also provide a good indication of possible problems. Look at the undervoltage nodes and overloaded
elements and investigate why they are overloaded; look at load setpoints, line lengths and line type data
(the impedances may be too high, for example).

Note: As explained above, there are 3 different types of messages that are printed to the output window:
warning, error and information messages. Only error messages must be corrected for a load flow
to solve. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in terms of your system, however
these do not need to be corrected for the load flow to solve. “Unsupplied Areas” means that an
isolated area with “Consumers” is without a generator, power source or external supply.

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If there is still no convergence then set the option Out of Service for most of the elements (see each
elements Basic Data tab). Following this, bring these elements back into service, one at a time, from
the source element downwards, performing a load flow calculation each time.

When experiencing large unbalances, such as when there are a number of single or dual phase
elements, or when using power electronics elements, select the Newton-Raphson (Current Iteration)
option on the Advanced page of the load flow dialog.

25.6.2 Data Model Problem

In PowerFactory, there are three different levels of data verification implemented:

Parameter Level

Checks the consistency of the input parameter; for example, entering a negative value in the length of
the line will prompt an error message. Other verifications implemented include checking if the parameter
imputed is within certain limits.

Object Level

Checks the consistency of the data being imputed from the component itself; for example, checking
if the magnetising losses of a transformers are less that the total magnetising apparent power (i.e.
magnetising current), checking if the inputting of the manufacture’s data results in a feasible torque-slip
characteristic, etc.

System Level

Checks the consistency of the data being imputed from a system point of view; for example, check-
ing if lines/cables are connected between the same voltage levels, checking if the HV/MV/LV side of
transformers is compatible with the voltage level of busbars, checking if there are missing types, etc.

Data model problems can normally be fixed easily as the output window message refers directly to the
element causing the problem.

Typical cases of data model problems are:

• missing type!: it indicates that input data (electrical data defined in types) is missing. In most
cases the messages have links to the data base and graphic.
• Check control conditions!: it normally appears when more than one controller (for exam-
ple a station controller) is set to control the same element, such as the same busbar. PowerFactory
will print the name of the controlled element to the output window. Starting from the controlled
element, access the controllers to fix the problem.
• Line connected between different voltage levels!

25.6.3 Some Load Flow Calculation Messages

• Grid split into 182 isolated areas

An “isolated area” indicates that a busbar or a group of busbars are not connected to the slack
busbar. An isolated generator or an isolated external grid forms an isolated area. An isolated area
refers basically to nodes.
Each isolated area is assigned an index (Parameter name b:ipat) and needs a load flow refer-
ence (slack) of its own.
These busbars can be found colouring the single line graphic according to isolated grids.

• 2 area(s) are unsupplied

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An “unsupplied area” is an isolated area with “Consumers” (such as loads and motors) without
a generator, power source or external supply. That is U=0 and I=0. Unsupplied areas belong to
the group of isolated areas. The unsupplied areas can be identified by displaying the following
parameter in the “Consumers” components (loads, synchronous/asynchronous motors):
– r:bus1b:ipat Gives the Index of the isolated area
– r:bus1:b:imode=0 Indicates there is no slack in the isolated area therefore indicating its
unsupplied.
– r:bus1:b:imode>0 Indicates the area is supplied.
• Outer loop did not converge. Maximum number of iterations reached
Fore some hints on this type of error refer to Section 25.6.5.

25.6.4 Too many Inner Loop Iterations

Too many inner loop iterations are “normally” related to voltage stability (voltage collapse) problems.
For example, a large load causing voltage drops so high that a voltage collapse results. Also very weak
connections resulting from faults or outages may lead to voltage collapse during contingency analysis.

The problem will not only be found in the simulation but would be found in the real world as well!

The main causes leading to a voltage stability problem can be summarised as follows:

• Excessive active power demand leading to a high voltage drop.

• Lack of reactive power compensation.
Diagnosis and Solution:

The main source of Information is the output window. Enable the Show Convergence Progress Report
option found in the Outputs page of the load-flow dialog. Analyse the convergence of the inner loop
iterations: check the progress in the load flow error for nodes and model equations:

• Are they increasing or decreasing?

• If the error is not continuously decreasing, it could be an indication of a voltage stability problem.
• Identify the element (load, generator) with high convergence error. Use the Mark in Graphic
option to identify the zone of the network having the problem.

Several possible countermeasures can be undertaken to fix the problem:

• Use the Iteration Control options on the load flow command (increasing the number of stairs as
the first option, typically to 3).
• Load shedding: disconnect the load identified as responsible for the high convergence error.
• Connect additional reactive power compensation.
• Using the flexible data page, check if there are any heavily loaded circuits, these indicate weak
connections.

Once the load flow converges, check if there are areas with voltages with high deviation from operating
voltages.

25.6.4.1 Excessive Mismatch

Where there is a large mismatch between demand and generation (> 15 %) the load flow is unlikely to
converge. This is typified by a large number of iterations followed by warnings or errors such as:

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No convergence in load flow! Equation system could not be solved.

Check Control Conditions!

Depending on the size of the mismatch, the failure might occur during the initial Newton-Raphson
or during subsequent outer loop iteration. There may also be a large number of maximum/minimum
reactive power reached and transformer tap statements.

Solution:

• Set the option Show Convergence Progress Report on the Outputs page and observe which
elements are having the highest mismatches. These elements should be closely checked.
• Check the mismatch on the Reference machine by performing a DC load flow as Dispatched
allowing for normal losses. Rebalancing the network might alleviate convergence problems.

25.6.5 Too Many Outer Loop Iterations

Outer loops iterations are required to calculate discrete tap positions of transformers, number of steps
of switchable reactive power compensation, etc. in order to match the voltage profile or reactive power
control specified by the user.

Too many outer loop iterations is referring to a solution that is too far away from the starting point (default
tap positions) to converge in the allowed number of outer loop iterations.

Diagnosis and Solution:

The outer-loop does the following:

• Increasing/Decreasing discrete taps.

• Increasing/Decreasing switchable shunts.
• Limiting/Releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive power limits.
If the outer loop does not converge, it can have the following reasons:

• Tap upper and lower limits are too close, so that the voltage can never be kept in the desired
range.
• The same with switchable shunts.
• Other toggling effects, for example synchronous machine limits and tap positions don’t find a
stable solution.
The main source of Information is the output window. Check first the following:
• Is the number of messages reducing with each outer loop iteration?
The following messages in the output window may indicate a problem and lead to a non-convergent
solution.

--------------------------------
’\....\Transformer.ElmTr2’:
Maximum Tap Position reached
--------------------------------

The message indicates that more/less reactive power is required at this location (the tap is at maxi-
mum/minimum position). The message indicates therefore an area in the network where a lack/excess
of reactive power is likely to happen.

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--------------------------------
’\....\Generator.ElmSym’:
Reactive Power Limit left
--------------------------------

This will lead to a convergence error. A load flow calculation without considering reactive power limits
may find a solution. Check then required reactive power at the generator.

--------------------------------
’\....\Generator.ElmSym’:
Maximum Reactive Power Reached
--------------------------------

Basically means that there is no regulation margin in the specified generators.

In general the results from the last iteration should be available to view on the output window.

• Is the mismatch always in the same (or similar) location?

• How far away from the solution was the original starting point?

All actions (except for shunt switching) are displayed in the output window by blue messages. Observing
these messages allows to conclude what the reason for the convergence problem was, for example
if a synchronous machine toggles between limited/released, the problem is related to this particular
machine.

• If no toggling can be observed, increasing the maximum number of outer iteration loops may help.
• If the load flow converges, improve the convergence of subsequent calculations by saving the tap
positions ( ).

If the load flow does not converge after a large number of iterations then other methods of improving
convergence are:

• Use the direct method on the advanced options page of the load flow command.
• Set the maximum tap changes per iteration to be a small number, for example 1. This will result
in PowerFactory not changing all tap changers at once by several steps but only by maximum of
1 step at once. In larger networks this is often improving the convergence.
• Perform a load flow without automatic taps and shunt adjustment. If the load flow does not
converge in this case, it could be an indication that the load is exceeding the voltage stability
limits, thus the load is too high.

25.6.5.1 Tap Hunting

Tap hunting can be easily recognised when one or more transformers oscillate between tap positions
until the number of outer loop iterations is exhausted. This is normally due to the transformer (controller)
target voltage dead band being smaller than the transformer tap step size.

This problem of no converging load-flow with the stepped tap changing method is caused by a slightly
different way of the iteration to reach the correct tap position and load-flow results. This might result in
a non-convergence in the outer loop, when the controller range (Vmax-Vmin) of the tap changer is near
to the value of the additional voltage per tap.

Solution:

• Change the minimum relaxation factor on the Advanced Options page of the load flow command
to a smaller value. This might help the load flow to converge.

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• Check if the dead bands of the target or controlled busbars of the corresponding transformers are
correctly set. Also check if the tap changer data on the load flow page of the transformer type is
correct.

• Disable the automatic tap changing of the transformers where tap hunting occur. Run the load
flow (it should converge in this case!) and then check the sensitivity of the tap changer increasing
and decreasing the tap position by one step. Verify the results against the dead band of the target
busbar.

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Chapter 26

Short-Circuit Analysis

26.1 Introduction

Power systems as well as industrial systems are designed so that loads are supplied safely and reliably.
One of the major aspects taken into account in the design and operation of electrical systems is the
adequate handling of short-circuits. Although systems are designed to stay as free from short circuits
as possible, they can still occur. A short-circuit condition generally causes large uncontrollable current
flows, which if not properly detected and handled can result in equipment damage, the interruption of
large areas (instead of only the faulted section) as well as placing personnel at risk. A well-designed
system should therefore isolate the short-circuit safely with minimal equipment damage and system
interruption. Typical causes of short-circuits can be the following:

• Lightning discharge in exposed equipment such as transmission lines.

• Premature ageing of the insulation due mainly to permanent overloading, inappropriate ventilation,
etc.
• Atmospheric or industrial salt “Build-Up” in isolators.
• Equipment failure.
• Inappropriate system operation.

One of the many applications of a short-circuit calculation is to check the ratings of network equipment
during the planning stage. In this case, the planner is interested in obtaining the maximum expected
currents (in order to dimension equipment properly) and the minimum expected currents (to aid the
design of the protection scheme). Short-circuit calculations performed at the planning stage commonly
use calculation methods that require less detailed network modelling (such as methods which do not
require load information) and which will apply extreme-case estimations. Examples of these methods
include the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 method [18], the ANSI method and the IEC 61363 method [9] for AC
short circuit calculation and the IEC 61660 method [8] and ANSI/IEEE 946 method [5] for DC short
circuit calculation. A different field of application is the precise evaluation of the fault current in a specific
situation, such as to find out whether the malfunction of a protection device was due to a relay failure or
due to the consequence of improper settings (for example an operational error). These are the typical
applications of exact methods such as the superposition method (also known as the Complete Method),
which is based on a specific network operating point.

Using the Complete Method it is possible to calculate results which take account of the procedures
outlined in Issue 1 (1992) and Issue 2 (July 2020) of the ENA Engineering Recommendation G74.

The short-circuit calculation in PowerFactory is able to simulate single faults as well as multiple faults
of almost unlimited complexity. As short-circuit calculations can be used for a variety of purposes,
PowerFactory supports different representations and calculation methods for the analysis of short-circuit
currents.

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This chapter presents the handling of the short-circuit calculation methods as implemented in Power-
Factory. Further background on this topic can be found in Section 26.2.

26.2 Technical Background

Beside load flow calculations, short-circuit is one of the most frequently performed calculations when
dealing with electrical networks. It is used both in system planning and system operation.

Typical application examples of short-circuit analysis in system planning include:

• Ensuring that the defined short-circuit capacity of equipment is not exceeded with system expan-
sion and system strengthening.
• Co-ordination of protective equipment (fuses, over-current and distance relays).

• Dimensioning of earth grounding systems.

• Verification of sufficient fault level capacities at load points (e.g. uneven loads such as arc
furnaces, thyristor-driven variable speed drives or dispersed generation).
• Verification of admissible thermal limits of cables and transmission lines.

Example applications of short-circuit analysis in system operation include:

• Ensuring that short-circuit limits are not exceeded with system reconfiguration.
• Determining protective relay settings as well as fuse sizing.

• Calculation of fault location for protective relays, which store fault disturbance recordings.
• Analysis of system faults, e.g. misoperation of protection equipment.
• Analysis of possible mutual interference of parallel lines during system faults.

AC short circuit calculation quantities available in PowerFactory are shown in Figure 26.2.1, also a
graphical representation of the AC short-circuit current time function is illustrated in Figure 26.2.2. Note
that the quantities relating to the IEC 61363 standard [9] and DC short-circuit quantities calculated in
DC short circuit standards IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946 are not shown in Figure 26.2.1.

Note: The current waveform for a DC short circuit calculation is dependent on the type of DC current
source(s), for more information refer to Section 26.2.5 and Section 26.2.6 and the relevant IEC
and ANSI/IEEE standards.

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Figure 26.2.1: Areas of Application of Short-Circuit Calculations

According to IEC 60909 [18] the definition of the currents and multiplication factors shown in Fig-
ure 26.2.1 are as follows:

• 𝐼𝑘𝑠𝑠 initial symmetrical short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value),
• 𝐼𝑏 symmetrical short-circuit breaking current (RMS),
• 𝐼𝑡ℎ thermal equivalent short-circuit current (RMS),
• 𝜅 factor for the calculation of the peak short-circuit current,
• 𝜇 factor for the calculation of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current,
• 𝑚 factor for the heat effect of the d.c. component,
• 𝑛 factor for the heat effect of the a.c. component, besides the above currents, the Complete
Method introduces the following current definition:
• 𝑖𝑏 peak short-circuit breaking current (instantaneous value).

Figure 26.2.2: Short-Circuit Current Time Function

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The fundamental difference between the assumptions used by the calculation methods is that for
system planning studies the system operating conditions are not yet known, and therefore estimations
are necessary. To this end, the IEC (and VDE) methods which use an equivalent voltage source at
the fault location have become generally accepted in countries using IEC based standards. For AC
fault calculation, the IEC 60909 [18] (and VDE 0102) methods work independently of the load flow
(operating point) of a system. The methods are based on the nominal and/or calculated dimensions
of the operating point of a system and uses correction factors for voltages and impedances, to give
conservative results. For the calculation of minimum and maximum short-circuit currents, different
correction factors are applied. However, it should be mentioned that both IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 do
not deal with single phase elements (except single phase elements in the neutral conductor).

Another very similar method for AC fault calculation is the ANSI method, predominately used in North
America but accepted in other countries as well. The ANSI method is based on the IEEE Standards
C37.010 [1] which is for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems (greater than 1000
Volts) and C37.13 [4] which is for power circuit breakers in low voltage systems (less than 1000 Volts).

Other short circuit calculation methods available in PowerFactory include:

• IEC 61363 [9]: Calculation of short-circuit currents on marine or offshore electrical systems such
as ships.
• IEC 61660 [8]: IEC standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary systems in
power plants and substations.
• ANSI/IEEE 946 [5]: ANSI/IEEE standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary
systems in power plants and substations.
For AC and DC short-circuit calculations in a system operation environment, the exact network operating
conditions are well-known. If the accuracy of the calculation according to approximation methods such
as IEC 60909 [18] is insufficient - or to verify the results of these methods - the superposition method
can be used. The superposition method calculates the expected short-circuit currents in the network
based on the existing network operating condition. If the system models are correct, the results from
this method are always more exact than the results of the approximation method (such as IEC 60909).
Often the system analyst must, however, ensure that the most unfavourable conditions are considered
with respect to the sizing of plant. This may require extensive studies when using a superposition
calculation method.

26.2.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Part 0/DIN EN 60909-0 Method

The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 part 0/DIN EN 60909-0 [18] calculation is a simplified short-circuit calculation
method which doesn’t require accurate system loading information to be present in the network model
in order to produce useful results. Unlike the complete method (see section 26.2.3), a preceding load-
flow calculation is not required. Instead, the system nominal voltage at the point of fault is increased
or decreased by a specific safety factor (the so called c factor) with the intention of producing either
conservatively high or conservatively low results according to the user’s specific requirement. Since
loading information is not considered, this method is particularly useful in the design stage of a project
where detailed operational data for the network will not yet be available. Where detailed operational
data for the network is available the complete method should produce more accurate results and may
be more appropriate.

Note: IEC 60909 [18], VDE 0102 and DIN EN 60909-0 are intended for usage with three phase
networks only.

The equivalent voltage source at the faulted bus is illustrated in Figure 26.2.3. The equivalent voltage
source method can be derived from the superposition method. The main simplifications are as follows:

• Nominal conditions are assumed for the whole network, i.e. 𝑈 𝑖 = 𝑈 𝑛,𝑖

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• Load currents are neglected, i.e. 𝐼𝑂𝑝 = 0.

• A simplified simulation network is used, i.e. loads are not considered in the positive and negative
sequence network.

• To ensure that the results are conservatively estimated, a correction factor, c, is applied to the
voltage at the faulted busbar. This factor differs for the calculation of the maximum and the
minimum short-circuit currents of the network.

Figure 26.2.3: Illustration of the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method

IEC Impedance Correction Factors

The short-circuit calculation based on the above simplifications may be insufficient for some practi-
cal applications. Therefore, the standards determine that in some specific circumstances additional
impedance correction factors should be applied to the physical impedances of the network elements.

As an example consider that the short-circuit contribution of a synchronous generator depends heavily
on the excitation voltage and on the unit transformer tap changer position. The worst-case value of this
impedance is considered by applying a correction factor (< 1).

This idea is illustrated in Figure 26.2.4. The correction factor c should be determined so that 𝐼𝑘′′ =
′′
𝐼𝑘,𝐼𝐸𝐶 . The IEC 60909 standard defines an equation for the correction factor for each element type.

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Figure 26.2.4: Principle of Impedance Correction (IEC/VDE Method)

As illustrated in Figure 26.2.1, IEC 60909 requires the calculation of the initial symmetrical short circuit
current in order to derive the rest of the physical quantities, each of which is a function of the following:

• R/X ratio,
• Machine characteristics

• Synchronous generator type of excitation system,

• Contact parting time,
• Type of network (if it’s radial or meshed),
• Determination if the contribution is “near to” or “far from” the short-circuit location,

Regarding the type of network, IEC 60909 describes three methods for the calculation of (peak short-
circuit current) in meshed networks which are defined as follows:

Method A: Uniform Ratio R/X The 𝜅 factor is determined based on the smallest ratio of R/X of
all the branches contributing to the short-circuit current.

Method B: Ratio R/X at the Short-Circuit Location For this method the 𝜅 factor is multiplied by
1.5 to cover inaccuracies caused by using the ratio R/X from a network reduction with complex
impedances.

Method C: Equivalent Frequency An equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑐 of the system as seen from

the short-circuit location is calculated assuming a frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 20𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency
𝑓𝑐 = 50𝐻𝑧) or 𝑓𝑐 = 24𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 60𝐻𝑧). This is the recommended Method
in meshed networks.

Note: In PowerFactory
methods B and C are available to the user. Method C is the one recommended in meshed
networks. For more information refer to Section 26.4.4

As the IEC 60909 standard includes a worst-case estimation for minimum and maximum short-circuit
currents, some PowerFactory elements require additional data. These elements are:

Lines In their type (TypLne), the maximum admissible conductor temperature (for minimum short-
circuit currents) must be stated. Line capacitances are not considered in the positive/negative
sequence systems, but must be used in the zero-sequence system.

Transformers Require a flag indicating whether they are unit or network transformers. Network
transformers may be assigned additional information about operational limits which are used for
a more precise calculation of the impedance correction factor. Unit transformers are treated
differently depending on whether they have an on-load or a no-load tap changer defined in the
transformer type (TypTr2).

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Synchronous Machines Subtransient impedances are used. Additionally, information regarding

the voltage range must be given.

Asynchronous Machines The ratio of starting current to rated current is used to determine the
short-circuit impedance.

For calculations according to IEC 60909 version 2016 and VDE 0102 version 2016, which additionally
include the handling of doubly-fed induction generators and full size converters, the following parameters
are included as well.

Doubly Fed Induction Generator kappaWD can be entered, which is used to calculate the peak
short-circuit current.

Doubly Fed Induction Generator iWDmax is the maximum instantaneous short-circuit current

Doubly Fed Induction Generator ratio RWD/XWD

Full Size Converter is modelled by a current source in the positive sequence. The current that
depends on the type of short circuit can be entered.

Refer to the IEC 60909 [18] standard to find detailed information regarding specific equipment models
and correction factors for each element.

26.2.2 The ANSI Method

ANSI provides the procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in the following standards:

• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010 [1], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13 [4] , IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers
Used in Enclosures.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard 141 [6], IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution of
Industrial Plants (IEEE Red Book).
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.5 [2], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Total Current Basis. (Standard withdrawn).

ANSI C37.010 details the procedure for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems consid-
ering a classification of the generators as either “local” or “remote” depending on the location of the fault,
as well as taking into account motor contribution. The procedure also covers first cycle and interrupting
time currents, with emphasis on interrupting time currents.

ANSI C37.13 details the procedure for power circuit breakers applied in low voltage systems (less than
1000 Volts), while mainly focusing on first-cycle currents, impedance of motors and the fault point X/R
ratio. Typically, fuses and low voltage circuit breakers begin to interrupt in the first half cycle so no
special treatment for interruptive current is given. It could be the case however, that nevertheless the
equipment test include a dc component specification.

Due to the differences in the high and low voltage standards, it would be understandable to say that
two first-cycle calculations are required. The first calculation would be for high voltage busbars and a
second calculation would be for low-voltage busbars.

In IEEE/ANSI Standard 141-1993 [6] (Red Book) a procedure for the combination of first cycle network is
detailed. There is stated that in order to simplify comprehensive industrial system calculations, a single
combination first-cycle network is recommended to replace the two different networks (high/medium-
voltage and low voltage). This resulting combined network is then based on the interpretation of the
ANSI C37.010 [1], ANSI C37.13 [4] and ANSI C37.5 [2] there given.

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Total and Symmetrical Current Rating Basis of Circuit Breakers and Fuses according to ANSI
Standards

Depending on the circuit breaker year of construction different ratings are specified. High-voltage circuit
breakers designed before 1964 were rated on “Total” current rating while now a day’s high-voltage circuit
breakers are rated on a “Symmetrical” current basis. The difference between these two definitions is on
how the asymmetry is taken into account. While a “Total” current basis takes into account the ac and
dc decay, “Symmetrical” current basis takes into account only the ac decay. To explain further these
definitions refer to Figure 26.2.5.

Figure 26.2.5: Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current

The DC component “DC” is calculated according to the following equation:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐷𝐶 = (26.1)
2

The RMS value of the ac component (RMS) is then calculated as:

𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑅𝑀 𝑆 = (26.2)
2.828

The total interrupting current in RMS is then:

√︀
𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑀 𝑆 2 (26.3)

From the above, Equation (26.2) corresponds to the “Symmetrical” current calculation and Equation
(26.3) to the “Total” current calculation.

Some of the main ANSI guidelines for the calculation of short-circuit currents are the following:

• The pre-fault busbar voltage is assumed to be nominal (1.0 p.u.).

• The fault point X/R ratio is calculated based on a separate resistance network reduction which is
latter used to calculate the peak and total asymmetrical fault current.
• Depending on the location of the fault, the generator currents being fed to the short circuit are
classified as “local” or “remote”. A remote source is treated as having only a dc decay, while a local

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source is treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this classification, corresponding

curves are used in order to obtain the multiplication factors.

According to ANSI standard, the following short-circuit currents are calculated:

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 symmetrical momentary (first cycle) short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑖 symmetrical interrupting short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝐼16𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current (RMS). Obtained
by applying a 1.6 factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚
• 𝐼27𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a 2.7 factor to
𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
• 𝐼𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current(RMS). Obtained
by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 according to the calculated X/R ratio,
• 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
according to the calculated X/R ratio.

26.2.3 The Complete Method

The complete method is a superposition method of short-circuit analysis which can produce more
accurate calculation results given realistic pre-fault loading of the system. The short-circuit results are
determined by superimposing the set of healthy load-flow results for the network state at the moment
before short-circuit inception (Figure 26.2.6a), with a set of results representing the system in the faulted
state (Figure 26.2.6b). In the faulted state all network voltage sources are shorted whilst an additional
voltage source is connected at the fault location injecting a voltage equal and opposite to the pre-fault
voltage at that location, as determined from the loadflow calculation.

The loadflow calculation will account for the excitation conditions of the generators, the tap positions of
regulated transformers and the switching status of the network according to the control options of the
associated loadflow command and the configuration of the models in the network.

Since accurate loading information is key for the accurate determination of fault currents, this method
is particularly useful for mature network models where detailed operational data for the network should
be readily available. For networks which are still in the design stage it may be more appropriate to
use another short circuit calculation such as the IEC60909 method (see section 26.2.1), as this should
produce more conservative results.

The superposition of the load flow and faulted state of the system is illustrated in Figure 26.2.6c.

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Figure 26.2.6: Illustration of the Complete Method procedure

The complete method is not constrained to three phase systems and may also be used for calculating
short circuits in unbalanced network representations. However, note that for unbalanced network
representations and indeed for unbalanced short circuits it must be initialised with an unbalanced
loadflow calculation.

The complete method additionally allows for the calculation of transient short circuit currents. In order
to consider this accurately it is necessary to provide additional data in the machine models included in
the network model. Further information on these parameters can be found in the associated technical
references.

The Complete Method is not a calculation carried out in accordance with any specific standard. It
is based on a more comprehensive set of data than is used by the simplified calculations of the
standards and should theoretically produce more accurate results for the subtransient (initial) short-
circuit currents. Just as the IEC 60909 standard derives additional result parameters from these currents
via the application of various factors the complete method does the same. However, where possible
these calculations are enhanced to take account of the additional transient results which are available.
These enhancements are documented in the Issue 2 (July 2020) of the ENA Engineering Recommen-
dation G74. However, some examples of how the complete short circuit calculation results have been
enhanced are also outlined below. The mentioned quantities can be identified in Figure 26.2.1.
• A more precise Peak Short-Circuit Current 𝑖𝑝 is calculated based on the accurate subtransient
short-circuit current (which is calculated using the complete method) and the R/X ratio (which is
based on the IEC 60909 standard[18]);
• The Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝐼𝑏 (RMS value) is calculated based on the subtransient short-
circuit current and the transient short-circuit current (both of which are calculated by the complete
method);
• The Peak Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝑖𝑏 is calculated from the RMS short-circuit breaking
current 𝐼𝑏 and the decaying d.c. component;

• The Thermal Equivalent Short-Circuit Current 𝐼𝑡ℎ is calculated based on the IEC standard, using

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the m and n factors (see Figure 26.2.1). The n-factor calculation uses the transient current instead
of the steady-state current;
• Additionally, loads can have a contribution to the short-circuit current, which can be defined in the
load element (Fault Contribution section of Complete Short-Circuit tab).
Using the Complete Method it is possible to calculate results which take account of the procedures
outlined in Issue 1 (1992) and further developed in Issue 2 (July 2020) of the ENA Engineering Recom-
mendation G74. The Issue 2 update introduced two additional short-circuit models for converter driven
plant, specifically a doubly fed induction generator model and a full size converter model. In PowerFac-
tory the configuration of these models is carried out in either static generator models ElmGenstat or
in a doubly fed induction machine models ElmAsmsc. With further information on the configuration of
these models available in the associated technical references.

26.2.4 The IEC 61363 Method

The IEC 61363 standard [9]describes procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in three-phase
AC radial electrical installations on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore units.

The IEC 61363 standard [9]defines only calculation methods for three phase (to earth) short circuits.
Typically marine/offshore electrical systems are operated with the neutral point isolated from the hull
or connected to it through an impedance. In such systems, the highest value of short-circuit current
would correspond to a three phase short circuit. If the neutral point is directly connected to the hull,
then the line-to-line, or line-to ship’s hull short-circuit may produce a higher current. Two basic system
calculation approaches can be taken, “time dependent” and “non-time dependent”.

According to the IEC 61363 standard [9], PowerFactory calculates an equivalent machine that feeds di-
rectly into the short circuit location. This machine summarises all “active” and “non-active” components
of the grid.

The short-circuit procedure in IEC 61363 [9] calculate the upper envelope (amplitude) of the maximum
value of the time dependent short-circuit (see Figure 26.2.2). The envelope is calculated using particular
machine characteristics parameters obtainable from equipment manufacturers using recognised testing
methods, and applying the following assumptions:

• All system capacitances are neglected.

• At the start of the short-circuit, the instantaneous value of voltage in one phase at the fault point
is zero.
• During the short-circuit, there is no change in the short-circuit current path.
• The short-circuit arc impedance is neglected.
• Transformers are set at the main tap position.
• The short-circuit occurs simultaneously in all phases.
• For generator connected in parallel, all generators share their active and reactive load proportion-
ally at the start of or during the short-circuit.
• During each discrete time interval, all circuits components react linearly.

The exact guidelines on how this is achieved is specified in the standard.

Because the standard considers specific system components and models (“active” and “non-active”)
some of the models that can be used in PowerFactory will have no description according to the standard
(such as External Grids, Voltage Sources, Static Generators, etc.). How these elements are considered
and transformed to a replacement equivalent machine is described in the Technical References Docu-
ment.

According to this method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

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• 𝐼”𝑘 initial symmetrical short-circuit current,

• upper envelope of short-circuit current 𝐼𝑘 (𝑡) ,

• 𝑖𝑑𝑐 (𝑡) decaying (aperiodic) component of short-circuit current,

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current,
• 𝐼𝑘 steady-state short-circuit current.

The calculating formulae and methods described produce sufficiently accurate results to calculate the
short-circuit current during the first 100 ms of a fault condition. It is assumed in the standard that during
that short time the control of the generators has no significant influence on the short circuit values. The
method can be used also to calculate the short-circuit current for periods longer than 100 ms when
calculating on a bus system to which the generators are directly connected. For time periods beyond
100 ms the controlling effects of the system voltage regulators may be predominant. Calculations
including the voltage regulator effects are not considered in this standard.

In PowerFactory besides the standard IEC 61363 [9] method, an EMT simulation method is available
which considers also the first 100 ms of a three phase short-circuit.

26.2.5 The IEC 61660 (DC)/VDE0102 part 10(DC)/DIN EN 61660 Method

The equivalent standards The IEC 61660 (DC)/VDE0102 part 10(DC)/DIN EN 61660 [8] describe
a detailed method for calculating short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary systems in power plants and
substations. Such systems can be equipped with the following equipment, acting as short-circuit current
sources:

• rectifiers in three-phase AC bridge connection.

• stationary lead-acid batteries.
• smoothing capacitors.

• DC motors with independent excitation.

The IEC 61660 standard [8] defines equations and equivalent circuits which approximate the time-
dependent fault contribution of different DC current sources. The standard also defines correction
factors and approximation methods to determine the total DC short circuit current at the point of fault. A
graphical representation of the DC short-circuit current time function of different DC sources is illustrated
in Figure 26.2.7.

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Figure 26.2.7: DC Short-Circuit Current Time Function of different sources

In accordance with standard IEC 61660 [8], PowerFactory calculates the total DC fault current by
considering all of the DC current sources feeding in to the short circuit location. How different elements
are considered and modelled is described in the Technical References Document. Figure 26.2.8 shows
the IEC 61660 standard approximation function which covers the different short circuit current variations.
The equations which describe the function are detailed in IEC 61660. There is no upper nominal voltage
limit defined for the application of this method.

Figure 26.2.8: IEC 61660 standard DC short-circuit approximation function

According to the IEC 61660 method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current

• 𝐼𝑘 quasi steady-state short-circuit current

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• 𝑡𝑝 time to peak
• 𝜏𝑟 rise-time constant

• 𝜏𝑑 decay-time constant
• 𝑇𝑘 short-circuit duration

26.2.6 The ANSI/IEEE 946 (DC) Method

The IEEE 946 standard [5] describes a recommended practice for the design of DC auxiliary power
systems for nuclear and non-nuclear power stations. The standard provides guidance on the selection
of equipment including ratings, interconnections, instrumentation, control and protection.

The IEEE 946 standard [5], is closely linked to General Electric’s Industrial Power Systems Data
Book [23]. The IEEE 946 standard includes examples for the calculation of short-circuit contribution
from a battery and a battery charger, whilst the GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book includes a
methodology for calculation of the DC fault contribution of Batteries, DC machines and Rectifiers. The
DC short circuit calculation in PowerFactory is in accordance with the approach taken in the IEEE
standard and the GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book. How different elements are specifically
considered and modelled is described in the Technical References Document.

According to the IEEE 946 method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current

• 𝐼𝑘 quasi steady-state short-circuit current

• 𝑇𝑛 network time constant
• 𝑅𝑅 rate of rise of short-circuit current

1.05 kV is defined as the upper nominal voltage limit for the application of this method.

26.3 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations

There are different methods of initiating the short-circuit calculation command ComShc in PowerFac-
tory, which may result in a different configuration of the command. These methods are described in
Sections 26.3.1 and 26.3.2.

26.3.1 Toolbar/Main Menu Execution

The short-circuit command may be executed from the toolbar or main menu in PowerFactory as follows:

• By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or

• By selecting the Calculation → Short-Circuit. . . option from the main menu.

If the user is performing the short-circuit for the first time (by using one of the above options), the short-
circuit command will be configured in a certain manner by default; that is the command will be set by
default to execute a short-circuit calculation on all busbars/terminals in the network. If a short-circuit
calculation has been already performed (the command exists in the study case) the settings displayed by
the short-circuit command will be according to the most recent short-circuit calculation. As an example,
if the user performs a short-circuit calculation according to ANSI for only one busbar in the system, the
next time the user executes again the short-circuit, the command will have the most recent settings, that
is, in this case according to ANSI and for the specified busbar.

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26.3.2 Context-Sensitive Menu Execution

The short-circuit command may be executed from the context-sensitive menu in PowerFactory by
selecting an element(s) in the single-line diagram, right-clicking and selecting one of the following
options:

• Calculate → Short-Circuit: performs a short-circuit calculation for each element selected by the
user. It should be noted that the short-circuit calculation for each element is carried out completely
independently of the short-circuit calculation for each other element. For this calculation, only the
following combinations of elements may be selected:
– Single or multiple terminals/busbars; or
– A single line; or
– A single branch.
If several terminals/busbars are selected for analysis, the results of each individual short-circuit
calculation will be displayed together on the single-line graphic.
• Calculate → Multiple Faults: performs a short-circuit calculation according to the complete method,
for the ’simultaneous’ short-circuit of all elements selected by the user. Any combination of bus-
bars, terminals, lines and branches can be selected for this calculation. Additionally, switch/circuit
breaker open/close operations can also be included in the calculation. When this calculation is
selected, the option Multiple Faults in the ComShc dialog will be automatically ticked.

26.3.3 Faults on Busbars/Terminals

The short-circuit command should first be called using one of the methods described in Sections 26.3.1
and 26.3.2. The simplest way to calculate several busbar/terminal short-circuits individually and to then
combine the results into one diagram is to select the option All Busbars (or alternatively, Busbars and
Junction Nodes) in the Fault Location section of the Short-Circuit Calculation ComShc dialog. Note that
to access this option, Multiple Faults in the dialog must be un-selected.

If the user would instead like to select from the single-line diagram a single busbar/terminal, or multi-
select several busbars/terminals for calculation, the dialog will be configured as follows:

• When only a single busbar/terminal is selected, and Calculate → Short-Circuit is chosen from
the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of dialog) is set to the selected
element.
• When two or more busbars/terminals are selected and Calculate → Short-Circuit is chosen from
the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of dialog) is set to a so-called
“Selection Set” SetSelect object, which contains a list of references to the selected busbars/ter-
minals.

In either case, various options for the calculation can be modified. Refer to Section 26.4 for a detailed
description of the options available. It should be noted that selecting or deselecting the option Multiple
Faults may change the selection of fault locations and may therefore lead to a calculation for locations
other than the busbars/terminals selected in the single line graphic. After pressing the Execute button,
the calculation is executed and, if successful, the results are displayed in the single line graphic. In
addition, a result report is available and may be printed out.

Once a selection of fault locations is made and the short-circuit calculation is performed, it is simple to
execute further calculations based on the same selection of elements. This can be done by the following
alternative means of executing the short-circuit calculation command:

• By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or

• By selecting the Calculation → Short-Circuit . . . option from the main menu.

The short-circuit setup dialog then shows the previously selected busbars/terminals in the Fault Location
section under User Selection.

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26.3.4 Faults on Lines and Branches

It is not only possible to calculate short-circuits on busbars and terminals, but also on lines and branches.
It should be noted, however, that only a single line or a single branch can be selected at a time, for each
short-circuit calculation. It is not possible to select multiple lines and/or branches for calculation. To
calculate a short-circuit on one of these types of elements, proceed as follows:

• From the single-line diagram, select a single line or a single branch where the fault should be
calculated.
• Right-click on the element and select Calculation → Short-Circuit . . . . The short-circuit command
ComShc dialog opens and the user can then define the location of the fault relative to the element’s
length (see Figure 26.3.1), including which terminal the fault distance should be calculated from.
It should be noted that the Short-Circuit at Branch/Line section of this tab is only available when a
line or branch has been selected for calculation.
• Clicking the button located in the Short-Circuit at Branch/Line section of the tab will enable the
user to select whether the fault location is defined as a percentage or as an absolute value.

Figure 26.3.1: Configuration of Line/Branch Faults in ComShc dialog

When a fault on a line/branch is calculated, a box containing the calculation results is displayed next to
the selected element.

26.3.5 Multiple Faults Calculation

Multiple faults involve the simultaneous occurrence of more than one fault condition in a network. This
option is only available for the complete method. To calculate simultaneous multiple faults, proceed as
follows:

• Select two or more elements (i.e. busbars/terminals, lines, ...) and right-click.
• Select the option Calculate → Multiple Faults. The Short-Circuits dialog pops up, displaying the
short-circuit event list. A 3-phase fault is assumed by default at all locations in the event list. Click
OK. The Short-Circuit command dialog then pops up. In this dialog, the Multiple Faults option is
ticked in combination with the complete short-circuit method.
• Finally, press Execute to start the calculation.

In cases where the event list has to be adapted to reflect the intended fault conditions (that is, not
necessarily the calculation of 3-phase faults), please proceed as follows:

• Open the short-circuit events object using one of the following methods:

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– In the Fault Location section of the short-circuit ComShc dialog, press the Show button (see
Figure 26.3.2; or
– Press the icon located on the main tool bar (just besides the short-circuit command
button); or
– In a Data Manager window, open the IntEvtshc object from the current study cases.

Figure 26.3.2: Accessing the Short-Circuit Events List

• A window opens up which shows the list of events (that is short-circuits at the selected locations).
When double-clicking on one entry in this list (double-clicking on the entire row), a window with a
description of the event is opened.
• The short-circuit event settings can now be modified. The list of fault locations consists of a “Short-
Circuit Event List”(IntEvtshc) object, which holds one or more short-circuit events (EvtShc). Each
of these events has a reference to a fault location (a busbar/terminal, line, etc.) and displays a
short description of the fault type. An example is shown in Figure 26.3.3.
• The user could add more fault locations to the “Short-Circuit Event List” (IntEvtshc) object by right
clicking on addition elements in the single line diagram Add to.. → Multiple Faults.

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Figure 26.3.3: A Short-Circuit Event (EvtShc)

Note: To re-use the event list (IntEvtshc) later, this object can be copied to a user-defined folder in the
Data Manager. This will prevent it from being modified during future calculations. When repeating
the calculation with the same configuration, the reference in Calculate → Multiple Faults can be
set to this object. The other option would be to copy the events to the Fault Cases folder located
in the “Operational Library/Faults” folder of the project. The user would then need to press the
From Library button (26.3.2).

26.4 Short-Circuit Calculation Options

The following sections describe the options available in PowerFactory ’s short-circuit calculation com-
mand. Some of these options are dependent upon the selected calculation method, therefore separate
sections dedicated to each method are presented.

26.4.1 Basic Options (All Methods)

The options presented in this section are common to all implemented calculation methods and are used
to define the general settings of the short-circuit calculation. The specific options for each method are
presented below in separate sections.

The sections of the short-circuit command dialog, which are common to all calculation methods are:

Method

PowerFactory provides the following calculation methods for short-circuit calculation:

• VDE 0102 [18] (the German VDE standard);
• IEC 60909 [18] (the International IEC standard);
• ANSI (the American ANSI/IEEE C37 standard);

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• complete (superposition method which considers the pre-fault load-flow results (see Section 26.2.3);
• IEC 61363 [9];

• IEC 61660 (DC) [8]; (the International IEC standard for DC short circuit calculation)
• ANSI/IEEE 946 (DC) [5] (the ANSI/IEEE standard for DC short circuit calculation).
The specific options for each of these methods are available on the Advanced Options page of the
short-circuit command ComShc dialog.

Fault Type

The following fault types are available:

• 3-Phase Short-Circuit
• 2-Phase Short-Circuit

• Single Phase to Ground

• 2-Phase to Ground
• 1-Phase to Neutral

• 1-Phase Neutral to Ground

• 2-Phase to Neutral
• 2-Phase Neutral to Ground
• 3-Phase to Neutral

• 3-Phase Neutral to Ground

• 3-Phase Short-Circuit (unbalanced)
The fault types with a neutral conductor should only be used for systems which are modelled using
neutral conductors.

Fault Impedance (Except for IEC 61363)

The fault impedance corresponds to the reactance and the resistance of the fault itself (such as the
impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). This can be defined by means of an enhanced model,
where line to line (𝑋𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐿), 𝑅𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐿)) and line to earth 𝑋𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐸), 𝑅𝑓 (𝐿 − 𝐸)) impedances are
regarded (note: requires option Enhanced Fault Impedance to be enabled). If the option Enhanced
Fault Impedance is not enabled, fault impedances are defined by their equivalent values, 𝑋𝑓 and 𝑅𝑓 .

Figures 26.4.1 to 26.4.3 illustrate the differences between the enhanced and the simplified represen-
tation of fault impedances for the following fault types: (i) 3-phase short-circuits; (ii) 2-phase faults to
ground; and (iii) 2-phase faults.

Figure 26.4.1: Fault Impedance Definition: 3-Phase Short-Circuit

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Figure 26.4.2: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase to Ground Fault

Figure 26.4.3: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase Fault

Show Output

Tabular result reports can be generated if the Show Output option of the dialog is enabled. The
command which generates this report is displayed in blue text next to the Command button. The
user can click on this button to select which type of report will be printed out. Just below the Command
button, blue text informs the user of the currently-selected report type. As an alternative to a tabular
report the user can also select a textual (ASCII) report which is written to PowerFactory ’s output window
when the short circuit command is executed.

Fault Location

The fault location selection options are:

At User Selection: In this case a reference to a single terminal/ busbar/ line/ branch or to a
selection of busbars/ terminals SetSelect, as explained in Sections 26.3.3 and 26.3.4must be
given.

At Busbars and Junction Nodes: For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network whose Usage is
set to Busbar or Junction Node, a short-circuit calculation is carried out, independently (one after
the other).

At All Busbars: For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network whose Usage is set to Busbar, a
short-circuit calculation is carried out, independently (one after the other).

If the option Multiple Faults has been ticked when the Complete Method is being used, a reference to
a set of fault objects (IntEvtshc), as explained in Section 26.3.5, must be set. This is done in the Fault
Location section of the dialog; using the Short Circuits reference.

Note: Multiple faults will only be calculated for the Complete Method, when the option Multiple Faults is
enabled. When this option is enabled, a short-circuit calculation is carried out for each individual

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fault location, simultaneously. When this option is disabled, cases where more than one fault
location have been selected (i.e. several busbars/terminals), a sequence of short-circuit calcula-
tions is performed (i.e. each short-circuit calculation is carried out independently of each other
short-circuit calculation).

26.4.2 Verification (Except for IEC 61363, IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946)

When enabled (Verification page), the user can enter thresholds for peak, interrupting and thermal
maximum loading. The Verification option will then write a loading report to the output window with
all devices that have higher loadings than the defined max. values. This report shows the various
maximum and calculated currents for rated devices. Rated devices include, for instance:

• Lines which have a rated short-time current in their line type which is greater than zero; and
• Breakers or coupling switches which have a type with a valid rated current.

26.4.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)

In general, please note that the calculation according to IEC 60909 [18] and VDE 0102 does not take
into account line capacitances, parallel admittances (except those of the zero-sequence system) and
non-rotating loads (e. g. ElmLod). Single phase elements are considered only if they are located in the
neutral conductor.

Published

This option offers a sub-selection for the selected Method, where the version of the standard to be used
can be selected according to the year in which it was issued. The most recent standard is 2016, however
1990 and 2001 are still available for the verification of documented results. If 2016 is selected, wind
farms (ElmGenstat), solar systems (both ElmGenstat and ElmPvsys) and asynchronous generators
(ElmAsm) will all be supported in the short-circuit calculation.

Calculate

The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimal or maximal short-circuit current. If external
grids are defined, the corresponding maximum or minimum value will be selected automatically. For
example if in the short circuit command you select “Calculate” according to “Maximum Short Circuit
currents”, the maximum short circuit value from the external grid is considered for the calculation. The
equivalent voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage and the voltage factor c. The voltage
factor c will depend on the voltage level and on the selection of the “Calculate according to. . . ” stated
in the short-circuit command.

Max. Voltage tolerance for LV systems

In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, this voltage tolerance is used to define the respective voltage
correction factor, 𝑐. The voltage tolerance is not used when a user-defined correction factor is defined.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Break Time is used to calculate the breaking current of a circuit breaker. For more
information on Break Time see Section 26.4.7. The value for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required
for the equivalent thermal current.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 26.4.1.

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26.4.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)

Generally, the Advanced Options page is used for settings to tune the various short-circuit calculation
methods. Familiarisation with the IEC/VDE standard before modifying these options is strongly recom-
mended.

Grid Identification

The calculation of the factor kappa is different in the cases of meshed or radial feeding of the short-
circuit. Normally PowerFactory will automatically find the appropriate setting. The option Always
meshed will force a meshed grid approach.

Voltage Factor c

The standard defines the voltage factor c to be used for the different voltage levels. In special cases the
user may want to define the correction factor. In this case, there are several options.
1. Standard defined table: the table defined in the corresponding version of the standard IEC60909/VDE
0102 will be used.
2. User defined equivalent voltage source factor: the explicitly entered equivalent voltage source
factor, which is displayed in the Advanced Options, will be applied to the voltage source at the fault
location. Note that a different factor can be entered for the maximum calculation as compared to
the minimum calculation by changing the calculation option on the basic options page. For the
impedance correction factor calculation, the table according to the standard will be used.
3. User defined table: equivalent voltage source factors can be entered in a user defined table.

4. User defined table and equivalent voltage source factor: adaptable user defined equivalent voltage
source factor table for application in calculation of impedance correction factors, together with
the possibility to enter the equivalent voltage source factor explicitly. This factor is displayed in
the Advanced Options and will be applied to the equivalent voltage source for the Short Circuit
calculation. Note that a different factor can be entered for the maximum calculation as compared
to the minimum calculation by changing the calculation option on the basic options page.

Asynchronous Motors

Whether the calculation considers the influence of asynchronous motors on short-circuit currents de-
pends on this setting, which may be selected to Always Considered, Automatic Neglection, or Confir-
mation of Neglection.
1. Always Considered - asynchronous motors will always be considered.
2. Automatic Neglection - asynchronous motors will automatically be neglected if its contribution is
not higher than 5 % of the initial short-circuit current calculated without motors.
3. Confirmation of Neglection - user will be informed via an input dialog if a motor contribution is not
higher than 5 % of the initial short-circuit current calculated without motors. Using the dialog the
user can choose if the asynchronous motor should be neglected or not.

Conductor Temperature

When activating the User-Defined option, the initial (pre-fault) conductor temperature can be set man-
ually. This will influence the calculated maximum temperature of the conductors, as caused by the
short-circuit currents.

Decaying Aperiodic Component

Allows for the calculation of the DC current component, for which the decay time must be given.
According to the IEC/IEC standard, methods 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐶 ′ can be selected.

The following nomenclature is used:

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• 𝑇𝑏 )Breaker Time (see Short-Circuit command)

• 𝑓 − 𝑛)Nominal frequency
• 𝐼𝑘 ”)Initial short-circuit current
Method B: Uses the complex calculated equivalent impedance of the network with a security factor of
1.15:

√ ′′ 𝑅
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 2 · 𝐼𝑘 · 𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎·𝑇𝑏 · 𝑥 (26.4)

Method C Uses the R/X ratio calculated with the equivalent frequency method. The equivalent fre-
quency is dependent on the breaking time (see Table 26.4.1). This method is recommended for
maximum accuracy.

√ 𝑅
−𝜔·𝑇𝑏 · 𝑥 𝑓
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2 · 𝐼𝑘′′ · 𝑒 𝑓 (26.5)

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑐 𝑓𝑐
= · (26.6)
𝑋𝑓 𝑋𝑐 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚

The ratio Rc/Xc is the equivalent impedance calculated at the frequency given by:

𝑓𝑐
𝑓𝑐 = · 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚 (26.7)
𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑚

Method C’ Uses the R/X ratio as for the peak short-circuit current, thus selecting the ratio fc/fn = 0.4.
This option speeds up the calculation, as no additional equivalent impedance needs to be calculated.

Peak Short-Circuit Current (Meshed network)

In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, the following methods for calculating kappa can be selected:

Method B’ Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location.

Method C(1) Uses the ratio R/X calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% of nominal frequency (20 Hz
for fn = 50 Hz, or 24 Hz for fn=60 Hz), based on the short-circuit impedance in the positive sequence
system.

Method (012) Uses an R/X ratio calculated at a virtual frequency like C(1). However, the impedance
of the system as seen from the fault location from which the ratio is calculated, will be based on a
combination of positive-, negative- and zero-sequence impedances, with the combination depending
on the fault-type carried out. This method is not mentioned in IEC 60909-0 but is demonstrated in IEC
60909-4.

Calculate Ik

The steady-state short-circuit currents can be calculated using different means to consider asynchronous
machines:

Without Motors Asynchronous motors will not be considered in the calculation of the current 𝐼𝑘 .
The motors will be treated as disconnected.

𝑓𝑛 * 𝑇𝑏 <1 < 2.5 <5 < 12.5

𝑓𝑐 /𝑓𝑛 0.27 0.15 0.092 0.055

Table 26.4.1: Breaking Times

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DIgSILENT Method Considers all asynchronous motors according to their breaking current. The
breaker opens after the maximum possible time.

Ignore Motor Contributions Partial short circuit contributions from motors will be displayed in the
associated branch elements feeding into the fault. However, these contributions will be ignored
for the calculation of the current flowing in the point of fault itself.

Consider Protection Devices

This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times.
To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disabled when protection devices do not
need to be analysed.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to change the way that the “max” result variables (e.g. m:maxIkss, m:maxIb, m:maxip
etc) of branch objects are calculated. If this option is activated, the more conservative, total current
flowing in the busbar, is used to determine the variables. Otherwise the variables are calculated as
described in the note below.

Note: Consider two external networks connected together by a branch element such as a circuit
breaker. For a three phase fault on either terminal of the circuit breaker the current flowing in
the fault will have a contribution from both external networks. However, the current flowing in the
circuit breaker will include a contribution from only one of the external networks. The maximum
current the circuit breaker could be exposed to (assuming a fault could be applied to either of its
terminals) will depend on which external network provides the most current and not on the total
current flowing in the fault. If a fault is applied at the connected terminal of a circuit breaker, the
maximum current seen by the circuit breaker can be evaluated as 𝑚𝑎𝑥([𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑟 −𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ ], [𝐼𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ ]).
The “max” parameters can be used for recording such maximum currents and these parameters
can then be compared against the manufacturer ratings of the circuit breaker. Alternatively, the
total current flowing in the fault (𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑟 ) may also be used as a conservative overestimate.

Automatic Power Station Unit detection

The IEC/VDE standard forces a different impedance correction factor to be applied to separate genera-
tors and transformers than that applied to a unit/block (power station) consisting of a generator including
its step-up transformer. PowerFactory tries to detect power stations. When this option is disabled,
block transformers must be marked accordingly by setting the Unit Transformer option available in the
VDE/IEC Short-Circuit page of the transformer element dialog.

26.4.5 Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Prefault Voltage

Value of the pre-fault voltage. In ANSI, the pre-fault voltage is the system rated voltage (1.0 p.u.).
Although a higher or lower voltage can be used in the calculation if operation conditions show otherwise.

Consider Transformer Taps

The ANSI standard optionally allows the current tap positions of the transformers to be considered. This
can be selected here.

NACD Mode

Depending on the location of the fault, ANSI classifies the different currents being fed to the short circuit
as “local” or “remote”. A remote source is treated as having only a dc decay, while a local source is
treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this classification, corresponding curves are used
in order to obtain the multiplication factors.

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In PowerFactory the ANSI short-circuit method has the option of selecting the NACD (No AC Decay)
mode.

The NACD factor is the ratio of remote current contribution to the total fault current: NACD = 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑒 /𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 .
This NACD factor is used to calculate the breaker currents, including the DC component of the current.
The remote current contribution required to evaluate the NACD factor is the sum of all remote generator
contributions (induction generators, synchronous machines, and external grids).

The calculation of the NACD factor can be very time consuming, as the contribution of each generator
is calculated individually. Therefore, different approximation methods can be selected, which represent
the most common interpretations of the ANSI standard:

Interpolated The NACD factor is calculated, and the correction factor for the asymmetrical fault
current is interpolated between the “dc decay only” and “AC/DC decay” curves with the following
equation: 𝑀 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐶/𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + (𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝐶/𝐷𝐶𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) * 𝑁 𝐴𝐶𝐷 If (NACD = 1) then only
the DC factor is used; if (NACD = 0) then only the AC/DC factor is used.

Predominant The the NACD factor is calculated. If the resulting factor is greater than or equal
to 0.5, then the “dc decay only” curve is used, which means that the remote generation is higher
than the local generation.

All Remote All contributions are set to ’remote’; the NACD factor is not calculated, but assumed
equal to 1 and only the “dc decay only” curve is used.

All Local All contributions are set to ’local’; the NACD factor is not calculated, but assumed equal
to 0 and only the “AC/DC decay” curve is used.

Current/Voltages for

The calculation mode for the currents and voltages to be evaluated:

LV/Momentary Evaluates the subtransient short-circuit currents.

LV/Interrupting Evaluates the breaker currents.

30 Cycle Evaluates the 30-cycle (steady-state) current.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 26.4.1.

26.4.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Calculate

This option is used to select the various currents (according to the ANSI standard) which are to be
calculated. The options are as follows:

• Momentary Current (Close and Latch Duties)

• Interrupting Current
• 30 Cycle Current
• Low-Voltage Current

Bypass Series Capacitance

Series capacitances may be optionally bypassed for the ANSI short-circuit calculation, or bypassed
depending on the type of short-circuit being calculated. The series capacitor bypass options are as
follows:

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• No Bypassing
• All Currents

• LV & Interrupting & 30 Cycle Current

• 30 Cycle Currents

X/R Calculation

The user may select between a complex number X/R ratio calculation, or a calculation which considers
R and X separately. The fault point X/R will determine the system dc time constant and consequently
the rate of decay of the transient dc current. Although in PowerFactory the X/R ration can be calculated
from the complex network reduction, using this approach will not insure a conservative result. In an
attempt to provide a conservative approach, ANSI C31.010 requires that the X/R ratio be determined
by a separate R network reduction.

Consider Protection Devices

This option will calculate measured currents for the selected protection devices and will evaluate tripping
times. To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disabled when protection devices do
not need to be analysed.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to change the way that the “max” result variables (e.g. m:maxIkss, m:maxIb, m:maxip
etc) of branch objects are calculated. If this option is activated, the more conservative, total current
flowing in the busbar, is used to determine the variables. Otherwise the variables are calculated as
described in the note in the corresponding paragraph from the IEC60909/VDE section (section 26.4.4).

26.4.7 Basic Options (Complete Method)

As opposed to the calculation methods according to IEC/VDE and ANSI, which represent short-circuit
currents by approximations, the complete method evaluates currents without using approximations. This
accurate evaluation of the currents takes into account the system conditions immediately prior to the
onset of the fault.

Load Flow

The pre-fault system condition used by the complete method can be determined either by the evaluation
of a load flow, or by means of a simplified method, which initialises the internal voltages of all compo-
nents that contribute to the short-circuit current with their nominal values, multiplied by a scaling factor,
𝑐.

The load flow command used to initialise the short-circuit calculation (when Load Flow Initialisation on
the Advanced Options page is selected, see Section 26.4.8) is displayed next to the button labelled
Load Flow ( ). The load flow command can be accessed and modified by pressing this button .
The load flow command displayed here is initially taken from the currently active study case.

Short-Circuit Duration

The value for the Break Time (when set to “Global”) is used to calculate the breaking current of circuit
breakers. Depending on the user selection, the value used for the break time within the calculation is:

global When set to “Global”, the breaking current is calculated according to the Break Time
specified in the short-circuit command.

min. of local When set to “min. of local”, the breaking current is calculated according to
the shortest Break Time of all circuit breakers (defined in the Complete Short-Circuit page of
ElmCoup objects) connected to the busbars being studied.

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local When set to “local” , the breaking current is calculated for each connected circuit-breaker
according to its own Break Time (defined in the Complete Short-Circuit page of ElmCoup ob-
jects), however, the busbar results will show the breaking current according to the shortest Break
Time of all circuit breakers.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Type, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in
Section 26.4.1.

26.4.8 Advanced Options (Complete Method)

Initialisation

The user may select to initialise the complete method by one of the following options:

• the load flow calculation referred to in the Load Flow field of the wordBasic Options tab; or
• the nominal voltages with a user-defined correction factor (c-Factor ). It should be noted that this
option is only available in the dialog when Load Flow Initialisation is not selected.

Peak, DC Currents, R/X ratio (ip, ib, idc)

This option allows the definition of the method used to determine the factor kappa (𝜅) and the 𝑅/𝑋𝑏
ratio, required for the calculation of the peak and the DC component of the short-circuit current. The
methods available correspond to those given in the IEC/VDE standard.

B Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location. In this case both ratios (𝑅/𝑋𝑝 for the calculation
of 𝜅, and 𝑅/𝑋𝑏 ) are equal.

Method C(1) Uses the ratio R/X calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% of nominal frequency
(20 Hz for fn = 50 Hz, or 24 Hz for fn=60 Hz), based on the short-circuit impedance in the positive
sequence system (as for Method C from the IEC 60909 standard). It should be noted that the
IEC correction factors are not considered in this case.

Method (012) Uses an R/X ratio calculated at a virtual frequency like C(1). However, the
impedance of the system as seen from the fault location from which the ratio is calculated,
will be based on a combination of positive-, negative- and zero-sequence impedances, with the
combination depending on the fault-type carried out. (This method is not mentioned in IEC 60909-
0 but is demonstrated in IEC 60909-4)..

Current Iteration

If the Current Iteration function is enabled, the reactive current contribution of static generator, PWM,
Doubly-Fed Induction Machine or Asynchronous Machine (set as Double Fed Induction Machine) is
calculated using the values of K factor and Max. Current. These two parameters are set inside the
Complete Short-Circuit page of such elements if Dynamic Voltage Support has been selected as Short-
Circuit Model. More information on this is available in the Technical Reference for the elements of
interest.

This iterative method is based on a fast current iteration, which typically requires 5 to 10 iterations.

Skip transient calculation

By default, transient and subtransient currents and associated parameters will be calculated when short
circuit analysis is carried out using the Complete method. However, the user now has the option to omit
the transient calculations if these results are not required, leading to a shorter execution time.

Consider Protection Devices

This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times.

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This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protection devices do not need to
be analysed.

Consider motors for min. short-circuit calculation

Motor contributions are usually ignored during a minimum short circuit calculation. However, with this
option the user can choose to consider the motor contributions.

Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents

This option is used to change the way that the “max” result variables (e.g. m:maxIkss, m:maxIb, m:maxip
etc) of branch objects are calculated. If this option is activated, the more conservative, total current
flowing in the busbar, is used to determine the variables. Otherwise the variables are calculated as
described in the note in the corresponding paragraph from the IEC60909/VDE section (section 26.4.4).

Overhead Line Modelling: Phase Matrices

For the unbalanced short-circuit calculation, PowerFactory always uses the phase component matrix.
The following options define which phase matrix is used:
• Untransposed: the short-circuit calculation uses the untransposed phase matrix.

• Symmetrically Transposed: the short-circuit calculation uses the symmetrically transposed phase
matrix for untransposed lines.
Calculate relay tripping with

This setting determines which result variables of the short circuit calculation are used for the calculation
of certain relay block tripping times, for certain fault calculations. In PowerFactory the default approach,
when using the complete short circuit method, is to consider the tripping of relays in response to subtran-
sient short circuit result parameters. The setting described in this section offers an alternative approach
for certain cases. The main application of this setting is for examining tripping times of overcurrent relays
with time delayed elements or a combination of time delayed elements and instantaneous elements, in
time overcurrent plots.

Note: Care should be taken when using this setting, as not all relay blocks and fault calculations react
in the same way to the setting. The setting affects blocks RelIoc, RelToc, RelChar, RelFuse and
RelUlim. Other blocks are unaffected by the setting. The setting does not directly alter the output
signals from any instrument transformers supplying relays; instead the outputs of the relay blocks
that are affected by the setting are directly adjusted. The setting only applies when individual fault
cases are being considered. The option should be set to ’subtransient’ when a short circuit sweep
is being carried out in relation to a time-distance diagram.

There are three options:

• Subtransient Values: some relay elements are not time delayed and react very quickly to short
circuits i.e. within the subtransient period following fault inception. For these relay elements it may
therefore be more appropriate to estimate their tripping time using subtransient short circuit result
values. This option is the default option and can be selected for those cases. Currents shown in
relay plots will represent the subtransient short circuit current.
• Transient Values: relay elements which are time delayed will not normally respond during the
subtransient time period following fault inception but will operate later, once the time delay has
elapsed. For these relay elements it may be more appropriate to estimate their tripping time using
transient short circuit result values. This option can be selected for those cases. Currents shown
in Time Overcurrent plots will represent the transient short circuit current.
• Mixed Mode: most relays consist of a combination of relay elements, some with instantaneous op-
eration and some with time delayed operation. If this option is selected, PowerFactory will evaluate
the tripping time of instantaneous or very fast acting elements against the subtransient calculation

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results while evaluating the tripping time of time delayed elements against the transient calculation
results. When selected, it is necessary to specify the duration of the expected subtransient period.
Any element that has a tripping time in excess of this setting in response to subtransient calculation
results will have its tripping time evaluated against the transient calculation results, while the
tripping times of the remaining elements will be evaluated against the subtransient calculation
results. In this case currents shown in Time Overcurrent plots can represent either transient or
subtransient currents. In cases where both currents are relevant, both will be shown on the same
plot.

26.4.9 Basic Options (IEC 61363)

Calculate Using

In that section the user could select between the options:

• Standard IEC 61363 Method

• EMT Simulation Method

With the first option the short-circuit is calculated according to the IEC 61363 standard [9]this is outlined
in Section 26.2.4. This short-circuit calculation method is only an approximation and therefore the
results are not exact. When selecting the EMT method PowerFactory calculates for each fault case a
three phase short-circuit with a fault impedance of 0 ohm on the selected locations. This additional, high
precision short-circuit calculation method provides further valuable information, and especially when
power systems objects must be considered, which are not covered by the IEC 61363 standard[9]. The
Break Time input parameter represents the contact separation time for circuit-breakers. The default
setting is 100 ms. If the EMT Simulation Method option is active the configuration of the Simulation and
also the Simulation Results are available. The Simulation option displays the *.ComSim dialog that is
described in more detail in Chapter 29 (RMS/EMT Simulations). The simulation time is set per default
to 160 ms. This is necessary because the short circuit is started after phase A voltage crosses zero
and because the first 100 ms after the short-circuit are displayed as results.

The Simulation Results pointer indicates where the results of the EMT short-circuit simulation will be
stored (ElmRes). Typically no changes are required. In another note, this EMT simulation setup (Initial
Conditions and Run Simulation command) is stored separately from the normal EMT simulation in order
to avoid confusion.

Fault Impedance

The Fault Impedance option is disabled since the IEC 61363 [9] standard considers the short-circuit
impedance to be zero.

Create Plots

By enabling the Create Plots option, the user can select between the following:

• Show only short-circuit currents at faulted terminal With this option selected, PowerFactory will
create automatically a time domain plot of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal, which
includes its upper envelope and DC component.

• Show all short-circuit current contributions With this option selected PowerFactory will create
automatically a time domain plot of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal and a plot
for all connected elements to the faulted terminal. Each created plot will consist of the short-circuit
current, the upper envelope and the DC component.

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26.4.10 Advanced Options (IEC 61363)

The settings available on the advanced options page of the IEC 61363 dialog will depend on the selected
calculation method.

Standard IEC 61363 [9]

With the standard calculation method the pre-load condition can be configured. The available options
are:

• use load flow initialisation: if this option is selected, a load flow calculation is first carried out (a
reference to the low flow command is shown). If the load flow is successful, the results are then
used to calculate the short circuit.
• use rated current/power factor: if this option is selected, the preload condition is obtained from
the rated values of the grid elements (no load flow calculation is executed).
• neglect preload condition: if this option is selected, no preload information is used to calculate
the short circuit.

Furthermore, the user will notice the option ’Consider Transformer Taps’. According to the standard
however, all transformers should be considered with their main position, therefore this option should be
normally disabled.

EMT Simulation Method

If the short-circuit is calculated using the ’EMT simulation method’, in the Advanced Options page the
user will have the option to assume the inertia as infinite, meaning that if selected, the acceleration time
constant of all rotating machines will be set to 9999 seconds.

26.4.11 Basic Options (IEC 61660 Method)

The Basic Options page of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialog provides options to set the fundamental
settings of the IEC 61660 DC short circuit calculation. The calculation according to IEC 61660 [8] can
be undertaken considering minimum and maximum fault conditions and a DC fault impedance.

Calculate

The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimum or maximum short-circuit current. For the
maximum short-circuit case the resistance of joints (in busbars and terminations) is ignored, the con-
ductor resistance is referred to 20∘ C, rectifier current limiting controls are disabled, decoupling diodes
are considered as either blocked (infinite impedance) or conducting (zero impedance) depending on
setting and batteries are assumed to be fully charged. For the minimum short-circuit case the conductor
resistance is referred to the maximum operating temperature, resistance of joints is considered, the
contribution of rectifiers is set at the rated short-circuit current, batteries operation is set at the minimum
voltage and individually specified resistances of decoupling diodes are considered.

The equivalent voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage and the pre-fault voltage factor.

Short-Circuit Duration

The Short-circuit duration (Tk_dc) is set here. The default value is 1 second.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in Section 26.4.1.

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26.4.12 Advanced Options (IEC 61660 Method)

Generally, the Advanced Options page contains settings applicable to the IEC 61660 calculation method.
Familiarisation with the IEC 61660 standard before modifying these options is strongly recommended.

Initialisation

This option is provided by PowerFactory to give the user more flexibility and represent an enhancement
of the calculation standard. The pre-fault voltage can be calculated via a load flow by checking the
Load Flow Initialisation check-box. In this case PowerFactory will run a load flow calculation to estimate
the pre-fault voltage. Alternatively to this user defined pre-fault voltage can be set using the Pre-fault
voltage factor.

If the minimum fault level calculation is selected the Joint Resistance for Lines input will become visible
and a user-defined joint resistance for bus terminations can be specified.

Apply Line Loop Impedance

If this option is selected the command will double the inductance and resistance of line elements used
in the calculation so as to account for the resistance and inductance of the return conductor.

Joint Resistance For Lines

This option is only considered for minimum short circuit calculations. That is why it will only appear if
the minimum fault current calculation is selected on the Basic Option page. If the Local value option
is selected the joint resistance is calculated geometrically for each line according to input parameters
entered in the line element and line type and according to the equation given in the standard. If the
Global value option is chosen, the resistance of each joint is given the value specified in the command.
It is assumed that a joint is present at each end of each line element. The geometry and resistance
of both of these joints is considered to be identical irrespective of whether a global value or local value
calculation is conducted.

26.4.13 Basic Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method)

The Basic Options page of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialog provides options to set the fundamental
settings of the IEEE 946 DC short circuit calculation. The calculation according to IEEE 946 [5] can be
undertaken considering minimum and maximum fault conditions and a DC fault impedance.

Calculate

The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimum or maximum short-circuit current. For the
maximum short-circuit case the following assumptions are applied:
• the resistance of joints (in busbars and terminations) is ignored.
• the conductor resistance is referred to 20𝑂 𝐶.

• rectifier current limiting controls are disabled.

• decoupling diodes are considered as either blocked (infinite impedance) or conducting (zero
impedance) depending on a setting in the individual model.
• batteries are assumed to be fully charged (maximum voltage).

For the minimum short-circuit case:

• the conductor resistance is referred to the maximum operating temperature.
• the resistance of joints is considered.

• the contribution of rectifiers is set by the rated short-circuit current.

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• battery operation is set to the minimum voltage.

• individually specified resistances of decoupling diodes are considered.

The equivalent DC voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage.

Short-Circuit Duration

The Short-circuit duration (Tk_dc) is set here. The default value is 1 second.

Note: The fields Method, Fault Impedance, Output and Fault Location are described in Section 26.4.1.

26.4.14 Advanced Options (ANSI/IEEE 946 Method)

Generally, the Advanced Options page contains settings applicable to the ANSI/IEEE 946 calculation
method. Familiarisation with the IEEE 946 standard before modifying these options is strongly recom-
mended.

Initialisation

The pre-fault voltage can be set via a load flow via checking the Load Flow Initialisation check-box.
Alternatively the pre-fault voltage is determined by the nominal bus voltage. The Joint Resistance of
Busbars input can be used to specify a user-defined joint resistance for bus terminations.

Using. . .

The calculation methodology can be defined with either the Approximation Calculation selection, which
performs the DC short circuit calculation according to the IEEE 946 standard or with the Superposition
Calculation selection, which performs a superposition calculation. In the case of the Superposition
Calculation, each DC source is treated individually and the contribution to the fault current is calculated
with other sources open circuit, the network is then represented by an equivalent resistance in series
with the source resistance. The Superposition Calculation method then determines the total fault current
using the superposition principal similar to the Complete Method (26.2.3).

26.5 Results Analysis

In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in tabular form or by
using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram colouring options which facilitate a
simplified results overview.

26.5.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram

Once a short-circuit calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in the single-
line diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each “side” of an element.

The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is associated. Several
predefined formats can be selected, as described in Chapter 9: Network Graphics, section 9.5. Re-
sult boxes can also be personalised as described in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results,
section 19.2.

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26.5.2 Flexible Data Page

Once a short-circuit calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the Open Network Model
Manager. . . button ( ) located on the main menu will open a browser window with a list of all classes
on the left side of the window that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any of the classes will
display all elements of that class that are currently used in the calculation in a table on the right side of
the window. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of the browser is the Flexible Data tab page. Click
on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change the columns in the flexible page, press the Define
Flexible Data button ( ). This will bring a selection window where the set of variables can be edited.
Section 19.3 in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, describes the Variable Selection object
which is used to define the variables to be presented.

26.5.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)

In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available to the user.
These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the Output Calculation Analysis button ( ) located
on the main menu (a load flow must be calculated first). Output reports are described in Chapter 19:
Reporting and Visualising Results, section 19.4.

A Show Output and Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a short-circuit
calculation is executed (see Section 26.4.1 and 26.4.2).

26.5.4 Diagram Colouring

When performing short-circuit calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-diagram in order
to have a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a loading above rated short-time
current or if peak short-circuit currents are higher than the specified values. In PowerFactory there is
the option of selecting different colouring modes according to the calculation performed. If a specific
calculation is valid, then the selected colouring for this calculation is displayed. As an example, if the
user selects the colouring mode “Areas” for “No Calculation” and “Loading of Thermal/Peak Short-
Circuit Current” for the short-circuit calculation, then the initial colouring will be according to “Areas”.
However, as soon as the short-circuit is calculated, the diagram will be coloured according to “Loading
of Thermal/Peak Short-Circuit Current”. If the short-circuit calculation is reset or invalid, the colouring
mode switches back to “Areas”. The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme
also implemented, allowing colouring elements according to the following criteria: 1st Energising status,
2nd Alarm and 3rd “Normal” (Other) colouring.

• Energising Status: if this check box is enabled “De-energised” or “Out of Calculation” elements
are coloured according to the settings in the “Project Colour Settings”. The settings of the “De-
energised” or “Out of Calculation” mode can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

• Alarm: if this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes will be available. It
is important to note here that only alarm modes available for the current calculation page will be
listed. If an alarm mode is selected, elements “exceeding” the corresponding a limit are coloured.
Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the Colour Settings button.
• “Normal” (Other) Colouring: here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contain all available
colouring modes. The second list will contain all sub modes of the selected colouring mode. The
settings of the different colouring modes can be edited by clicking on the Colour Settings button.

Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion is optional and
will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all three criterions, the hierarchy
taken account will be the following:

“Energising Status” overrules the “Alarm” and “Normal Colouring” mode. The “Alarm” mode overrules
the “Normal Colouring” mode.

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26.6 Capacitive Earth-Fault Current

In medium-voltage networks, resonant grounding can be used for suppressing transient ground-fault
currents, thereby continuing power supply during single-phase earth faults. The dimensioning of the arc
suppression coil (Petersen coil) depends on the capacitive earth-fault current of the grounded network
area. The exact compensation of the capacitive earth-fault current by an inductive coil current of equal
magnitude results in a minimum residual fault current.

In PowerFactory the capacitive earth-fault current of lines and cables in relation to the grounding device
impedance and its rated current can be displayed for each grounding area in the network model in a
pre-defined tabular report. Starting from a substation or node, a grounding area subsumes all parts of
the network that are connected in the zero-sequence system to this substation or node.

To access this functionality in PowerFactory :

• Open the Network Data Assessment command ( ) and select “Reports”

• Select “Capacitive earth current”
• Press Execute to generate the tabular report
For each grounding area, the following results are shown in individual columns:

• Grounding Area: the starting point for the search of connected components in the zero-sequence
system
• Number of lines: the number of lines belonging to the grounding area
• Ice [A]: the lumped-sum capacitive earth-fault current of the lines for each grounding area

• Number of grounding devices: the number of grounding devices for each grounding area
• Effective grounding: the type of effective grounding (isolated, compensated or solid)
• Grounding device: the grounding devices for each grounding area are listed

• Re [Ohm]: the grounding resistance for each grounding device

• Xe [Ohm]: the grounding reactance for each grounding device
𝑈𝑟
• Ir [A]: the rated current for each grounding device 𝐼𝑟 = √
3|𝑅𝑒 +𝑗𝑋𝑒 |
.

To output these results to Excel or to HTML click the icon and select either Export as HTML for
HTML output in the default web browser, or Export to Excel to export the results to an Excel workbook.

Note: If network element data is modified, the report is not automatically updated. The option Refresh
available via the icon must be used to update the report.

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Chapter 27

Contingency Analysis

27.1 Introduction

In Chapter 25 (Load Flow Analysis) the general aspects of load flow analysis and its main areas
of application are presented. Two perspectives are discussed: that of planning and that of system
operation; it is made clear that the behaviour of the system must always be analysed under both normal
and abnormal conditions.

The term “contingency analysis” is essentially referring to the analysis of abnormal system conditions.
In general, contingency analysis can be considered as the process of evaluating the network states
resulting from unplanned “outages” of single elements (such as transformers, busbars, transmission
lines, etc.) or groups of elements, in terms of post-fault loads and voltages.

Contingency analysis can be therefore used to determine power transfer margins or for detecting the
risk inherent in changed loading conditions. This chapter deals with deterministic contingency analysis.
The structure of this chapter is as follows:

• Section 27.2 gives a short overview of the contingency analysis functionality and associated
concepts.
• Section 27.3 looks at the Contingency Analysis toolbar and describes briefly what each button
does.
• Section 27.4 describes the various options of the Contingency Analysis command in detail.
• Section 27.5 looks at the standard reporting options available once the analysis has been run.
• Section 27.7 explains the different methods for creating contingencies.
• Section 27.8 goes into detail about the use of fault cases.
• The remaining sections cover various other aspects of Contingency Analysis such as Remedial
Action Schemes and managing variables to be recorded.

27.2 Short Overview

This section gives an overview of the Contingency Analysis functionality, together with some basic
concepts which are useful to know. More detail is available in the following sections.

Contingency Analysis is generally executed using from the Contingency Analysis toolbar (see 27.3),
where the Contingency Analysis command dialog allows the user to select which contingencies are to
be analysed and specify settings as required.

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There are two basic types of contingency analysis: AC, using an iterative AC load flow calculation,
or DC, using the DC load flow (which is faster and also useful for cases when AC convergence is
difficult). Contingency analysis consists of a base case load flow, then subsequent load flows where
each contingency is considered in turn in order to analyse its effect on the network.

The user will also see a third method in the Contingency Analysis dialog, namely “AC Linearised Cal-
culation”. This is a fast calculation method for contingency analysis, which represents the contingency
case by using equivalent injections to reduce the flow through the faulted area to zero. The injections
are calculated using a linearised estimate and the process avoids the need for a new load flow to be
run for the contingency case. Where the algorithm detects that the linear method is not suitable for
a particular contingency case it will revert to the standard method. The linearised method is faster
than the traditional contingency analysis using a full load flow, but it does not consider the response of
controllers and so is a more approximate method.

One important concept to appreciate is that of time phases. There are two basic options: Single Time
Phase and Multiple Time Phase. You will find a detailed explanation of this concept in section 27.4.3.

When executing the contingency analysis, you may notice in the output window some messages about
the Optimised and the Standard methods used in PowerFactory. The Optimised method makes use of
the existing Jacobian matrix from the base case and is used where possible, as it is faster; the Standard
method is required when topology changes mean that the matrix needs to be rebuilt, and it is somewhat
slower. This is all handled automatically by the Contingency Analysis function.

Once the analysis has been run, the in-built reports can be used to look at the results.

The remainder of this section provides some additional information which may be useful in understand-
ing how Contingency Analysis works.

27.2.1 Contingency Analysis Objects

Contingency Analysis is executed using the Contingency Analysis Command, ComSimoutage, which is
stored in the Study Case. The command will execute individual contingencies.

The contingency objects are called ComOutage. They can contain simply a list of elements to be “out-
aged” to represent a fault on the network, or - more commonly - references to Fault Cases (*.IntEvent),
which define the fault using one or more events, with associated times. Fault cases are stored in the
Operational Library.

27.2.1.1 Creating Contingencies before running the analysis

Contingency cases can be generated in three different ways:

• Via the definition and use of Fault Cases and Fault Groups; and/or

• Using the Contingency Definition (ComNmink ) command, via its toolbar icon ( )

• By selecting component(s) in the single-line graphic or filter, right-clicking and selecting Calculate
→ Contingency Analysis. . .

Contingency cases can be created using references to user defined Fault Cases and Fault Groups
(introduced in Chapter 14: Project Library, Section 14.3.4) from the Operational Library. By means of
a topological search, PowerFactory determines which circuit breakers must be opened in order to clear
the faults, and generates the corresponding contingency cases. See Section 27.8 for more details.

Alternatively, contingencies can be created using the Contingency Definition command, as described in
Section 27.7.1 (Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command).

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It is also possible to select elements via a graphic or filter, and then right-click Calculate → Contingency
Analysis. . . . The contingency container of the contingency command will then be populated by contin-
gency cases for each of the selected elements. Existing fault cases in the Operational Library will be
checked and any which are found for the selected elements will be used. Where no fault case is found
for a particular element, one will be created.

27.2.1.2 Dynamic Contingencies

For some applications, the contingencies of interest are very much dependent on the operational state
of the network. For example, faults on circuits which are already heavily loaded will be more significant
than faults on lightly-loaded circuits. The user has the option therefore to create contingencies “on the
fly”, so-called dynamic contingencies.

This is done via the Contingency Analysis dialog, and is described in more detail in Section 27.7.3. This
feature is particularly useful for contingency timesweeps (see 27.4.5), as the contingency requirements
may vary with time.

It is possible to use both static contingencies (as described above in Section 27.2.1.1) and dynamic
contingencies in one Contingency Analysis calculation.

27.2.2 Results Recording

Results from contingency analysis are stored in results files outside the project, in the workspace area
or vault (depending upon configuration). The results files are then referenced from within the project (so
that to the user they appear to be contained in the project) and they can be accessed for reporting or
for exporting to a range of different formats and locations.

Options within the Contingency Analysis command dialog (Recording of Results page) allow the user
to set voltage and loading limits to control the amount of information recorded, as well as specifying
variables to be recorded. Additional filters for results recording can be defined.

If the in-built reporting is used, this offers further filtering of results of interest to the user, including
maximum loading of branch elements, exceeded voltage limits, etc. Refer to Section 27.4 (Contin-
gency Analysis command and options) for further information on configuring the reporting settings, and
Chapter 13 Study Cases, Section 13.11 (Results Objects) for information on handling results objects
(ElmRes) in PowerFactory.

27.2.3 Configuring Network Restoration

In PowerFactory, there are options available for reconfiguring the network following a fault.

One option is the use of Remedial Action Schemes, described later in section 27.11.

Alternatively, the contingency analysis can be setup to consider (or not consider) predefined switching
rules of substations; refer to Chapter 11: Building Networks, Section 11.2.7 for further information. The
Switching Rule defines switching actions for different fault locations (arranged in a matrix) that can be
reflected at a certain time. These switching actions will always be relative to the current switch positions
of the breakers.

27.2.4 Visualisation

When contingency analysis is carried out by pressing Execute in the ComSimoutage command, the
user will be able to display results on graphics. The result boxes show in this case the results of the

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final load flow carried out at the end of the calculation. However, if the graphic is coloured using the
colouring option Voltages / Loading, the colouring for each element will reflect the result of the “worst”
contingency result for that particular element.

A useful option for visualising the effect of a single contingency is to execute it alone. Then the actual
network state resulting from that contingency, including the power flows and resultant voltages, will be
seen in the graphic. This is described in section 27.4.11.

27.3 Contingency Analysis Toolbar

To access the various contingency analysis related functions within PowerFactory, click on the icon
Change Toolbox and select “Contingency Analysis”. The figure below shows the functions available
on the Contingency Analysis Toolbar.

Figure 27.3.1: Contingency Analysis Toolbar Functions

27.3.1 Contingency Definition

This button gives access to the Contingency Definition Tool, which provides an easy method for the user
to generate fault cases or contingencies. See section 27.7.1.

27.3.2 Contingency Analysis Command

Once the contingencies have been set up, the ComSimoutage command can be configured as required
and executed. The configuration is highly flexible to cater for different users’ requirements. All the
options are described in section 27.4.

27.3.3 Contingency Comparison

A tool is provided to allow the user to compare the results of different contingency calculations. See
section 27.9 for details.

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27.3.4 Show Contingencies

This button can be used to look at the current selection of contingencies.

Normally these are presented as a single list, but if the Dynamic Contingencies option has been used
and dynamic contingencies have been generated, the contingencies are presented in a tree-structure
so that the static and dynamic contingencies are separately listed.

27.3.5 Show Fault Cases / Groups

This button gives access to the Faults folder of the Operational Library.

27.3.6 Remedial Action Schemes

This button gives access to the Remedial Action Schemes folder of the Operational Library. See
section 27.11 for a description of Remedial Action Schemes.

27.3.7 Edit Results Variables

For each element class relevant to the contingency analysis, there is a standard set of results variables
which are recorded in the results file (see section 27.10). The user can specify additional variables and
this button provides easy access to the variable definitions.

27.3.8 Tracing Buttons

For Multiple Time Phase calculations, a Trace function is available. See section 27.6 for details.

27.3.9 Contingency Analysis Reports

A set of in-built reporting scripts is available. These are described in Section 27.5.

27.3.10 Load Contingency Analysis Results

Once a contingency analysis calculation has been executed, it is possible to load results into memory
at a later time. This feature is described in Section 27.12.

27.4 Command dialog and Options

27.4.1 Basic Options

This section describes the options of the Contingency Analysis Command, and their purpose. Some of
the options are different depending on whether a Single Time Phase or Multiple Time Phase calculation
is being done, and these differences are indicated in the description.

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27.4.1.1 Calculation Method

• AC Load Flow Calculation. The contingency analysis uses an iterative AC load flow method to
calculate the power flow and voltages per contingency case.
• DC Load Flow Calculation. The contingency analysis uses a linear DC load flow method to
calculate the active power flow per contingency case.
• AC Linearised Calculation. This is a fast calculation method for contingency analysis, which
represents the contingency case by using equivalent injections to reduce the flow through the
faulted area to zero. The injections are calculated using a linearised estimate and the process
avoids the need for a new load flow to be run for the contingency case. Where the algorithm
detects that the linear method is not suitable for a particular contingency case it will revert to the
standard method. The linearised method is faster than the traditional contingency analysis using
a full load flow, but it does not consider the response of controllers and so is a more approximate
method.
• Linearised screening + AC Load Flow for critical cases. The contingency analysis will perform
two runs (if required). First it will use a linearised load flow method to calculate the active power
flow per contingency case; if for certain contingencies loadings are detected to be above a certain
threshold, then these cases will be recalculated using the iterative AC load flow method. The
choice of screening method and the criteria (thresholds) to be used for the AC recalculation of
critical cases are entered on the Screening page (see section 27.4.7).

27.4.1.2 Static Contingencies

The Static contingencies section of the Basic Data tab, as shown in Figure 27.4.1, allows the display,
addition and removal of the static contingencies selected for analysis.

Figure 27.4.1: Static contingencies Section of Contingency Analysis Dialog

• Show: displays a list of all defined contingencies.

• Add Cases/Groups: used to create the contingency cases (ComOutage objects) based on fault
cases and/or fault groups. A fault case contains events: one for the fault location, and (optionally)
others specifying post-fault actions. Fault groups contain a set of references to fault cases. In order
to use the Add Cases/Groups option, the fault cases and/or groups must have been previously
defined in the Operational Library. If these have been defined, when the Add Cases/Groups
button is pressed, a data browser listing the available fault cases/groups appears. The user can
then select the desired fault cases/groups from this browser and press OK. The corresponding
contingencies are then created automatically by PowerFactory. One contingency is created for
each selected fault case, and one contingency is created for each fault case referred to within
each selected fault group. For further information on fault cases/groups, refer to Section 27.8
(Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and Groups).
• Remove All: removes all contingency cases (ComOutage objects) stored in the contingency
analysis command.

27.4.1.3 Dynamic Contingencies

If the Dynamic contingencies option is selected, the user can then configure one or more filters for
generating dynamic contingencies during the contingency analysis. This feature is described in sec-

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tion 27.7.3.

27.4.1.4 Consider Remedial Action Schemes (RAS)

• Consider Remedial Action Schemes (RAS): If this option is enabled, all selected RAS (unless
Out of Service) will be applied during the Contingency Analysis calculation. See section 27.11 for
more information about Remedial Action Schemes.

The selection of RAS works in exactly the same way as the selection of Contingencies as described
above, with options to remove, add and view the selected RAS.

27.4.2 Recording of Results

27.4.2.1 Elements and variable selection

• Results for AC/DC: Depending on the calculation method selected, the reference to the corre-
sponding results file object (ElmRes) is defined. If, for example, the calculation method DC Load
Flow + AC Load Flow for Critical Cases is selected, two results file objects will be referenced (one
for AC calculations and another for DC calculations). The results stored in this file are filtered
according to the global threshold set in the Limits for Recording panel, and also according to the
individual limits defined within each component’s respective dialog (such as on the Load Flow
page of the element’s own dialog). For further information on results objects, refer to Chapter 13
Study Cases, Section 13.11 (Results Objects).

There are also three buttons which give the user direct access to the “results object” (*.ElmRes), which
is held inside the Study Case:
• The Element Filter button allows the user to set up or modify filters in order to prescribe for which
elements results should be recorded (for example, according to nominal voltage).
• The Variable Selection button allows the user to change the variable selection for the recording
of results. There is a default set of variables which are recorded during the analysis and it is
possible to add additional variables. It is also possible to remove variables, even those which are
normally included. This gives the user great flexibility but removing variables should be done with
care: if variables required by the in-built reports are removed, for example, those reports will fail
to run. For this reason, the third button is provided:
• The Add default variables button allows the user to restore all default variables to the selection
used for the recording of results.
The user can optionally record additional information about the contingency cases:
• Record additional result variables: If this is selected, information will be recorded for each
contingency to indicate the following outcomes:
– Processed (meaning that the calculation was run)
– Not solved (a subset of “Processed”; no converged solution)
– Inactive (not processed because no components interrupted; the elements may be already
out of service, for example)
– Causing grounding (not processed because events would cause network to become earthed)
– Causing islanding (results in isolated area(s) where the loads are still supplied)
– Causing blackouts (results in isolated area(s) where the loads are no longer supplied)
– Causing substation split or merge (results in a change in the number of coupled busbars in
at least one substation)
– Causing loss of load (at least one load is no longer supplied)
– Causing loss of generation (at least one generator is no longer connected)

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It is then possible to generate a summary report (a count of all these outcomes for the contingency
run) and/or a report which gives the detail at a contingency level. Refer to Section 27.5.1 for more
information about the reporting.

27.4.2.2 Limits for Recording

These parameters set the global threshold used to determine whether a calculated result is recorded
in the Results object. Whenever one of the defined constraints is violated, the calculated result (for the
corresponding contingency case and network component) is recorded.

• Different Limits for n-1 and n-k: If required, the limits can be set differently for different order
faults, that is, different thresholds can be specified for n-1 and n-k (k>1) faults.
• Recording limits:
– Record thermal loadings above (%) Only loadings exceeding this value will be recorded in
the results file for the corresponding component.
– Record voltages below (p.u.) Voltages lower than this value will be recorded in the results
file for the corresponding terminal.
– Record voltages above (p.u.) Voltages higher than this value will be recorded in the results
file for the corresponding terminal.
– Record voltage step changes above (%) Voltage changes (change as a percentage of
pre-fault) larger than this will be recorded in the results file for the corresponding terminal.

27.4.2.3 Restricted Recording of Contingency Results

• Do not record if base case is above If in the pre-fault load flow elements have loadings above
this value, then they are not recorded in the results.

27.4.3 Time Phases

The Time Phases page allows the user to change between Single Time Phase and Multiple Time Phase
and select appropriate settings according to the method.

Single Time Phase

Single Time Phase analysis uses a load flow calculation to assess the effect on the network of each of
the specified contingencies in turn, at a particular time after the fault or as a steady-state final condition.

The single time phase contingency analysis function first performs a pre-fault (base) load flow calcula-
tion. Following this, for each contingency it performs a corresponding post-contingency load flow, which
takes one or more primary components out of service. A final base case load flow is carried out at the
end of the calculation.

By default, all calculations will use the same load flow settings, these being those defined in the Load
Flow Calculation command (ComLdf ) in the Study Case. However, some settings can be changed
for the contingency case. For example, different Active Power Control methods may be used in the
base load flow and the contingency analysis (with one exception that active power control according
to secondary control in the contingency load flow is only supported if the base case load flow is also
secondary controlled).

The results of the single time phase contingency analysis correspond to the steady-state operational
points of the network being studied, considering each one of the defined contingencies at the given Post
Contingency Time, which is found on the Time Phases page of the Contingency Analysis command
dialog.

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It is important to mention here that if the load flow command being used by the contingency analysis
has Automatic tap adjustment of transformers or Automatic tap adjustment of shunts selected, they will
only be considered if their time constants are not greater than the current Post Contingency Time.

Likewise, events in the fault cases (see section 27.8) have times associated with them, and so will not
be considered if their times are later than the Post Contingency Time.

If the Consider Specific Time Phase flag is not enabled at all (and therefore there is no Post Contingency
Time defined), then these constraints do not apply and the outcome is effectively the eventual steady
state, with all actions taken.

The Post Contingency Time is also relevant if Thermal Rating objects that have short-term ratings are
being used. Short-term ratings allow circuits to be operated at a level higher than their normal rating for
a prescribed time. The Post Contingency Time is used to determine the applicable short-term rating for
reporting purposes.

Multiple Time Phase

As with Single Time phase, the multiple time phase contingency analysis function first performs a
pre-fault (base) load flow calculation. Following this, for each contingency one or more load flows is
calculated (depending on the number of time phases which have been specified). A final base case
load flow is carried out at the end of the calculation. All the results are stored, so that the state of the
network at each time phase can be reported.

The general principles described above also apply to Multiple Time Phase. The Multiple Time Phase,
however, allows the user to specify more than one time phase and each contingency will be analysed at
each of the requested time phases. The change in calculation results between one time phase and the
next will result not only from the relationship between the calculation time and tap controller /shunt time
constants, but also from the relationship between the calculation time and the time associated with the
events in the fault cases.

Multiple Time Phase calculations are always executed using the Standard method, so although it
is possible to use the Multiple Time Phase option with only one time phase being considered, for
performance reasons the Single Time Phase would be preferable in that case.

Each defined time phase uses a corresponding load flow calculation, and by default, this is the same
load flow calculation as that used for the base case load flow. If the option Allow different settings in
the Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Multiple Time Phases page is selected,
the user can define individual load flow commands for each time phase, as illustrated in Figure 27.4.2.
Access to each load flow command and its settings is via the button.

Figure 27.4.2: Different Settings for Base Case and Contingency Load Flows

There are some restrictions in which settings are allowed to be different between the different load flows
(i.e. base case and the various time phases). Specifically, there is a restriction regarding the use of the
Active Power Control option According to Secondary Control: Secondary Control can only be used in a
time phase if it is used in the base case load flow, and if Secondary Control is used for one time phase
it must be used for all.

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The Contingency Analysis time phases (which are essentially load flow commands) are stored within a
folder inside the ComSimoutage command and can be accessed in by clicking on the button next to
each defined time phase in the Calculation Settings section of the Time Phases tab; by doing so, the
edit dialog of the corresponding load flow command is opened.

Note: Transformer tap changer controllers and switchable shunts are only considered by a time phase
if their time constants are smaller than the current Post Contingency Time. The operational
thermal ratings of branch elements during a contingency (if ’short term’ thermal ratings (see
Section 14.3.11) have been defined) will also depend on the duration of the contingency (i.e.
the current Post Contingency Time).

27.4.3.1 Method

• Single Time Phase. Performs the contingency analysis for a single time phase.
• Multiple Time Phase. Performs the contingency analysis for multiple time phases.

27.4.3.2 Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow

• Use same settings. Uses the settings from the base case load flow for the contingency case load
flow.
• Allow different settings. Allows different settings for the base case load flow and the contingency
case load flow.

27.4.3.3 Calculation Settings for Single Time Phase

• Base Case Load Flow. Only available when option Allow different settings is selected. This is
a reference to the load flow command used to calculate the network operational point before the
simulation of contingencies. The settings of this load flow command can be edited by pressing the
button.

• Contingency Load Flow. Only available when option Allow different settings is selected. This is
a reference to the load flow command used to assess the network in contingency situations. It
takes account of the Post Contingency Time. The contingency load flow command referred to by
the Contingency Load Flow is always stored inside the contingency analysis command itself. The
settings of this load flow command can be edited by pressing the button. The Contingency
Load Flow command settings can be set to those of the currently used by the Base Case Load
Flow command by pressing the button.

Note: If no ’Contingency Load Flow’ command is defined, the ’Base Case Load Flow’ command is
used to asses the network under contingency situations. In this case the action of automatic
transformer tap changers and switchable shunt compensators is directly considered (provided
that the corresponding options are selected in the ’Basic Options’ page of the assigned load flow
command).

• Consider Specific Time Phase. Only available when option Use same settings is selected in the
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section. This option must be enabled to define a post
contingency time.
• Post Contingency Time (End of Time Phase) This value defines the time phase of the contin-
gencies. This means that all events with an event time less than or equal to this are considered in
the contingency.

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27.4.3.4 Calculation Settings for Multiple Time Phase

• Base Case Load Flow.

Only available when option Allow different settings is selected. This is a reference to the load flow
command used to calculate the network operational point before the simulation of contingencies.
The settings of this load flow command can be edited by pressing the button.
• Time Phase n
Lists the defined time phase(s). The button next to each time phase can be used to remove
the corresponding time phase. If the option Allow different settings has been selected on the Ad-
vanced Options tab, the Time Phase will have its corresponding load flow accessible by pressing
the button next to the defined time phase.
– Add Time Phase Opens an input dialog to define the new time phase by entering its Post
Contingency Time. If the option Allow different settings has been selected on the Advanced
Options tab, the previous load flow settings (i.e. those with the preceding occurrence in time)
will be used for the new time phase. In the case that there is no previous time phase load
flow, the base case settings will be used for the new time phase.
– Use Base Case Settings for All Copies the settings from the base case load flow to all time
phase load flows.
New time phases can be defined in the data browser by clicking on the Add Time Phase button.
Existing time phases can be deleted using the button. Note that after several time phases
have been defined, this list is then scrollable using the up/down arrow buttons ( ) available
in the dialog.
• Post contingency time for order identification
The order of the contingencies stored inside the command is calculated according to the time
defined in this field. Only the events (actions) taking place before this point in time are considered
when calculating the contingency order.

Note: In PowerFactory a region is defined as a set of topologically connected components. A

region is interrupted if it is energised (topologically connected to a network reference bus)
before a fault and de-energised afterwards. The order of a contingency corresponds to the
number of interrupted regions at the time of its calculation (i.e. the ’Post contingency time for
order identification’).

27.4.4 Effectiveness

Only available for Single Time Phase

The Effectiveness page of the contingency analysis command, allows the display, addition and removal
of quad boosters (or tap controllers containing quad boosters) and generators in order to calculate their
effectiveness.

27.4.4.1 Calculate Quad Booster Effectiveness

Quad Booster Effectiveness is a measure of the ability of a quad booster transformer to alter the power
flow on a given circuit. It is normally defined per tap as a percentage change or actual power flow
change. When this option is checked, the user has to define a list of transformers (quad boosters) or
tap-controllers to be considered in the analysis. If a tap-controller is selected, the effectiveness will
be calculated for the case where all the transformers associated with that tap-controller are tapped in
parallel. The following buttons can be used:

• Show: shows a list of the transformers/tap-controllers for which the effectiveness should be
calculated.

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• Add: adds references to transformers/tap-controllers for which the effectiveness should be cal-
culated. Only transformers where the additional voltage per tap is different to 0 and multiples
of 180 degrees will be listed (Load Flow page of the transformer type (TypTr2) Phase of du
parameter).
• Remove All: removes all references to transformers/tap-controllers for which the effectiveness is
currently calculated.

Two calculation methods are available:

• Linearisation of transformer tap changes: uses linearised load flow equations around the
operating point to derive sensitivities to quad booster tap positions.
• Discrete transformer tap assessment: actually solves the load flow at the current operating
point, then with the tap position increased by one tap and then with it decreased by one tap. The
change which decreases the overload on the branch is then stored as the sensitivity.
This method provides a more accurate assessment in cases when a strong dependence of the
impedance on the current tap position is present, which, e.g., may result from a user-defined
measurement report for the transformer.
For a DC calculation, the algorithm additionally checks whether the degree of dependence be-
tween the impedance and the current tap position is significant. If this is not the case the (faster)
linearisation algorithm is used.

27.4.4.2 Calculate Generator Effectiveness

Generator effectiveness is a measure of the ability of a generator to alter the power flow on a given
circuit. It is normally defined per MW injection (at the adjacent busbar of a generator) as a percentage
change or actual power flow change. When this option is checked, the user has to define a list of
generators to be considered in sensitivity analysis, the following buttons can be used for that purpose:

• Show Gen.: shows a list of the generators for which the effectiveness should be calculated.
• Add Gen.: adds references to generators for which the effectiveness should be calculated.

• Remove All: removes all references to generators for which the effectiveness is currently calcu-
lated.

27.4.5 Time Sweep

Only available for Single Time Phase

PowerFactory provides a Calculate Time Sweep option, whose settings allow the automatic modification
of the date and time of the active Study Case according to a list predefined by the user. The Time
Sweep calculation is designed for cases where the contingency analysis needs to be done for many
different times (for example, each hour of a day), to take into account different system conditions such
as changing load and generation.

Note: When enabled, the Time Sweep will automatically change the Date and Time of the active Study
Case. However, in order for the Study Case to activate the corresponding scenario automatically,
a Scenario Scheduler (IntScensched) object needs to first be created and afterwards activated.
Once the execution of the contingency analysis has finished, the Study Case date and time is
restored to its original setting. For more information on the Scenario Scheduler refer to Chap-
ter 16(Operation Scenarios)

To add study times to the list, first enable the Calculate Time Sweep option, then right-click anywhere in
the table and select Insert Rows (alternatively select Append Rows or Append n Rows). To modify the

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date and time, double-click on the corresponding Study Time cell. Additionally, the user has the option
to ignore previously defined Study Times by enabling the Ignore flag. This ensures that the contingency
analysis will not take into account the ignored Study Times in the calculation.

Planned outages

If this option is selected, the contingency analysis will automatically apply for each time-step any planned
outages (*.IntPlannedout) which are valid for that time-step.

The button Show Used Ones can be used to show a list of all currently considered outages. Only those
outages that occur during the defined simulation period on the basic data page are shown in this list.

The button Show All can be used to open the planned outages folder in a data navigator. From here it
is possible to see all outages that are defined within the project, including those that are not applicable
during the time sweep period.

27.4.6 Topology

27.4.6.1 General tab

Handling of busbar fault

• Open both local and remote breakers. For a bus fault, not only all local breakers which are
directly connected to this bus, but also relevant remote breakers will be opened to isolate this bus
and isolate the connected branches.
• Open local breakers only. Only the local breakers, which are directly connected to this bus will
be opened to isolate this fault..

Contingency Analysis for specific region:

If this option is selected, the analysis can be restricted to part of the network, defined by a selected
Grid, Area, Zone or Boundary. The rest of the network will be reduced and therefore only contingencies
containing elements within the monitored region will be executed; likewise only results pertaining to
elements within the monitored region will be reported.

If the reference bus does not lie within the monitored region, it will not be reduced, but be retained along
with the slack machine.

It is possible to extend the region using the parameter Region extension by k-neighbourhood, which
extends the monitored network from the cubicles at the edge of the region by the specified number of
elements, the default being 1. There is also an option to recalculate the base case load flow, or not,
after running the contingencies. This base case load flow will be for the entire system.

Consider Switching Rules of Substations.

If this option is selected, any predefined switching rules in substations will be considered. The Switching
Rule defines switching actions for different fault locations (arranged in a matrix) that will be done
right after the fault. During the preprocessing of the contingency analysis, a topology search will be
automatically carried out for each contingency to find out the interrupted elements. If any terminal in
a substation is identified as interrupted in a contingency, the corresponding switch actions specified by
the Switching Rule will be immediately applied after fault for that contingency. The additional execution
time required is negligible. These switching actions will always be relative to the current switch position
of each breaker. If the Switching Rule tries to operate a breaker which is already in that status, that rule
will be ignored. For more information on Switching Rules, refer to Chapter 11, Section 11.2.7.4.

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27.4.6.2 Advanced tab

Three options are available on the Advanced tab:

• Node Reduction Mode: By default, any unsupplied components, for example a transformer which
is switched out, will be removed from the calculation. On this page, an option is made available
for users to prevent unsupplied components from being removed, for example if they wish to be
able to include events or a RAS designed to switch in such components when the contingency is
calculated.
• Update Contingencies before running calculation: if this option is selected, the list of inter-
rupted elements for each ComOutage object will be updated. This provides additional information
but also results in an increase in total calculation time.
• Topology rebuild: If this option is selected, the network topology will be rebuilt prior to the base
case load flow, resulting in an increased total calculation time. If not selected, the topology rebuild
will only take place as required.

27.4.7 Screening

The options on this page are only available if the calculation method Linearised screening + AC Load
Flow for critical cases has been selected on the Basic Options page. With this option, a fast initial
screening of contingencies is carried out, and cases that are identified as critical are then re-run using
an AC Load Flow.

• Screening Method: The initial fast screening of contingencies can be carried out using one of
two methods:
– The normal DC load flow calculation
– The AC linearised calculation.
Either of these two methods gives a solution which is potentially less accurate than the normal full
AC analysis but have the benefit of being faster. Note that if DC screening is selected, the results
from the initial screening will be in the DC results file, whereas the critical cases will be in the AC
results file.
• Criteria for AC Recalculation of critical cases: Here the user specifies the criteria for identifying
the critical cases to be recalculated using the AC load flow method. Either or both options may be
selected.
– Simple loading criterion: The maximum loading of a component is greater than or equal to
the first value specified; for example 100% (parameter name: maxLoadAbs);
– Combined loading criteria: The maximum loading of a component is greater than or equal
to the second value specified; for example 80% (parameter name: maxLoad) and the max-
imum relative change of loading compared to the base case is equal to or greater than the
value specified; for example 5% (parameter name: stepLoad).
• Components to be ignored: There may be elements in a network for which high loading is
not considered important, and such loadings should not (on their own) make a contingency case
critical. The user can create a set of such elements so that they will not trigger a critical case.
This set of components is assigned via the Components to be ignored field.
• Ignore components that are overloaded in base case: If any component is loaded in the base
case above the maximum loading threshold for critical cases, it is probable that most if not all
contingencies would then cause a similar loading and so be considered critical. In that situation,
the screening does not make sense, and so the calculation stops with a warning. This flag allows
the user to override this action, with a request to ignore any loadings above the threshold for
components which were loaded above the threshold in the base case.
• Screen only recorded elements: This option can be used to ignore, for the purpose of screening,
loadings on elements which are not going to be recorded. It is useful if the element filtering option
is used (see 27.4.2).

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27.4.8 Output

Output per Contingency Case

• Short. Displays only the number of iterations required for each contingency case.
• Detailed. Displays the full load flow output per contingency case.
• Show triggered RAS for each contingency in the output window. If this option is enabled, a
message will be output each time a RAS is triggered during the analysis. The message includes
the name of the RAS as a hyperlink.

27.4.9 Linearised Calculation

The following options are only presented if the calculation method “AC Linearised Calculation” is se-
lected on the Basic Options page, or if screening is selected and “AC Linearised Calculation” is used as
the screening method.

Sensitivity threshold used for linearised method

For a calculation using the linearised method, sensitivities have to be stored in memory. In general
terms the more sensitivities values are stored, the more contingencies can be calculated using the
linearised method (therefore the faster the overall calculation), However, storing this data consumes
memory. The thresholds on this page enable the user to have some control over the memory usage by
setting thresholds for the storing of sensitivities.

• Minimal considered branch sensitivity: Expressed as a percentage with 0.000001 as a default.

• Minimal considered bus sensitivity: Expressed as a percentage with 0.000001 as a default.

27.4.10 Parallel Computing

Only available for Single Time Phase

The computation time required to perform a contingency analysis largely depends on the size of the
power system and the number of contingencies considered. For lengthy analyses, parallel computation
of contingencies speeds up the process by distributing the calculation effort over multiple processor
cores of the host machine or in a distributed network with a number of remote machines.

There are two types of settings associated with the Parallel Computing option.

The first and more general group of settings are the ones related to the management of the parallel
computation function (computing method and the assignments of parallel processes). Settings for
parallel computing are defined centrally by the Administrator, as described in Section 22.4. However, the
user can made certain modifications to these settings, via the User Settings dialog (see Section 7.11).
Therefore, on this page there is a link to the Parallel Computing page of the User Settings, from where
a further link to the Parallel Computing Manager will be found.

The second group of settings are the ones related to the execution of the contingency analysis; and
which are located in the Parallel Computing page of the contingency analysis command.

• Enable Parallel Contingency Analysis for AC, DC or Time Sweep. If the corresponding option
is enabled, the contingencies will be calculated in parallel; otherwise the contingency analysis is
executed in its default mode (i.e. sequential calculation).
• Minimum Number of Contingencies. The parallel contingency analysis will be started only if the
number of contingencies is greater than this setting.

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• Package Size for Optimised Method and Package Size for Standard Method. The master
distributes the contingencies to the parallel processes per package. The package size indicates
how many contingencies will be calculated by a parallel process each time. The contingencies
can be calculated using either optimised method or standard method. As the standard method is
much slower than optimised method, the package size of the standard method should be smaller
than that used for the optimised method to balance the calculation.

27.4.11 Calculating an Individual Contingency

To calculate an individual contingency, click on the Show button in the contingency analysis command
dialog (see Figure 27.4.1) to open the list of contingencies included in the analysis. From here the
user can right-click on a contingency of interest, and select Execute from the context sensitive menu.
Additionally, the corresponding element can be marked in the single line graphic by right-clicking on the
contingency object in the list and selecting Mark in Graphic from the context sensitive menu.

27.4.12 Representing Contingency Situations

Contingency Cases

Contingency cases (ComOutage objects) are objects used in PowerFactory to define contingency
situations within the analysed networks. A contingency case determines which components are put on
outage. When a contingency analysis (ComSimoutage) is executed, the contingency analysis command
considers each of the contingency cases stored inside it, taking the corresponding components out of
service and performing a contingency load flow.

As mentioned previously, the contingency cases used by a specific contingency analysis command are
stored inside the command itself. Contingency cases are created either by using Fault Cases and/or
Fault Groups (see Section 27.8), or via the Contingency Definition command ( , see Section 27.7.1).
Once the contingencies have been defined in the contingency command, the cases can be viewed by
using the Show button available in the dialog (see Figure 27.4.1). Additionally, the contingency cases
within the active study case’s contingency analysis command may be viewed by clicking on the Show
Contingencies icon ( ), located on the main toolbar (only available when the Contingency Analysis
toolbar is selected). In both cases a new data browser showing the defined contingencies is opened,
with the contingencies listed inside. By double-clicking on a contingency from the list, the corresponding
dialog for that particular contingency is opened (as illustrated in Figure 27.4.3). The dialog displayed in
Figure 27.4.3 shows the following fields:

• Name. Name of the contingency case.

• Not Analysed. If enabled, the case is not considered by the contingency analysis command.
• Number. An identification number given to the contingency and which is stored in the results.
This number can be used for reporting purposes.

• Fault Case. Reference to the fault case (if any) from where the contingency case originated.
• Fault Group. Reference to the fault group (if any) from where the contingency case originated.
This field is only available if the contingency case has an associated fault group.
• Events Used for this Contingency As shown in figure 27.4.3, the user can specify whether to
generate the events based on the fault case definition (automatically), or to use locally defined
events. If the user chooses to use locally defined events, then the ComOutage object which
defines the contingency (located in contingency command of the study case) can be modified
independently.
• Interrupted Components. This is a table showing the components put on outage by the contin-
gency case. The table, which is read-only, is automatically generated when the contingency case
is created.

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• Fault Type. Displays the fault type and the contingency order. See Figure 27.8.1.
• Contingency Analysis. Reference to the contingency analysis command where the contingency
case is stored.

The Mark in Graphic button highlights the interrupted components in the single line diagram.

Figure 27.4.3: Contingency Cases (ComOutage objects)

Normally, contingency cases (ComOutage objects) are analysed by the contingency analysis command
(ComSimoutage) in which they are stored. However, each contingency case provides the functionality
of a command itself, and can be executed individually using the Execute button at the top right of the
ComOutage dialog. In this case the actions taken by the circuit breakers, which must switch to clear
the fault, are shown in the single line graphic (only if the contingency case was created using fault
cases/groups).

Note: The ’Interrupted Components’ table is updated by the program each time the contingency anal-
ysis is executed.

For further information on contingency cases generated using fault cases and/or fault groups, refer to
Section 27.8 (Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and Groups). For information on contin-
gency cases created using the Contingency Definition (ComNmink ) command, refer to Section 27.7.1
(Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command).

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27.5 Reporting Results

27.5.1 Predefined Reports

The built-in Contingency Analysis reports are by default presented in tabular format, although many are
also available as ASCII reports. They are accessed via the Contingency Analysis Reports button ( )
in the Contingency analysis toolbar. This brings up the following dialog:

Figure 27.5.1: Contingency Analysis Reports dialog

27.5.1.1 Basic Options page

On this page, AC or DC results can be selected according to the calculations executed, and there is a
link to the relevant result file. The reports are selected on the other pages, so here on the Basic Options
page there is an overview of which reports are to be generated.

Timesweep reports

If the Time Sweep option has been used (see section 27.4.5), the panel called Study times will become
active. Two options are available:

• Study time summary: will result in reports containing the results from all study times; for each
result, the Study Time as well as the contingency is displayed. In addition, once the report has
been generated, the user may also select the individual study times from within the report.
• Single study time: provides a drop-down list of the study times, from which required study time
can be selected.

The following reports are available when the study time summary option is selected:
• Maximum Loadings
• Voltage Steps

• Maximum Voltages
• Minimum Voltages
• Non-convergent Cases
Advanced tab

On the Advanced tab, the user can change the format of the reports from Tabular to ASCII. Note that
some reports are not available in ASCII format.

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27.5.1.2 Loading and Effectiveness page

Loading Reports

• Worst loading violations: reports the greatest loading violation for each component (according
to the specified loading limit), considering all contingencies. Any such component is reported only
once, i.e. it is reported for the contingency causing this violation.
• All loading violations: all overloaded components (according to the specified loading limit) for
each contingency are displayed in a single list.
• Loading violations per case: all overloaded components (according to the specified loading
limit) for each contingency are displayed in separate lists (i.e. one list per contingency case).

A typical tabular report is shown below in Figure 27.5.2. Note the options to export to html or Excel
and the fields for selecting limits. In the individual columns, the usual filtering and sorting options are
available. Within the table, references to objects can be used to edit the object itself or mark it in graphic.

Figure 27.5.2: Tabular Report of Loading Violations

Effectiveness Reports

• Generator effectiveness: generators having an effectiveness greater than or equal to the speci-
fied value (%/MW) are displayed in a single list, with an indication of whether generation increase
or decrease reduces the overload.
• Quad-booster effectiveness: Quad-booster transformers (phase-shifters) having an effective-
ness greater than or equal to the specified value (%/tap) are displayed in a single list, with an
indication of which direction of tap change reduces the overload.

Filters

• Branches: report highest loading only: this can reduce the amount of reporting when the
network contains many branches consisting of multiple line elements.
• Suppress contingency violation if base case is violated: This is typically used to filter out
overloads which are inherent in the network and are of little interest.
• Loading threshold: results for elements loaded at or above this limit will be reported (subject to
the above two filters).

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27.5.1.3 Voltage page

Voltage Reports

• Voltage steps: all voltage deviations of terminals (between the base case and the contingency
case) for each contingency are displayed in a single list. Reports the highest voltage deviation of
terminals (between the base case and the contingency case) considering all contingencies. Any
such terminal is reported only once. Only terminals with the highest voltage deviation greater than
the specified maximum voltage step are reported.
• Voltage violations per case: all busbars with exceeding voltage (maximum or minimum) are
displayed in separate lists.
• All voltage violations, Maximum voltage: reports all voltage violations of a terminal (greater
than or equal to the specified upper voltage limit) considering all contingencies.
• All voltage violations, Minimum voltage: reports all voltage violations of a terminal (less than
or equal to the specified lower voltage limit) considering all contingencies.
• Worst voltage violations, Maximum voltage: reports the greatest voltage violation of a terminal
(greater than or equal to the specified voltage limit) considering all contingencies. Any such
terminal is reported only once (i.e. it is reported for the contingency causing this violation).
• Worst voltage violations, Minimum voltage: reports the greatest voltage violation of a terminal
(less than or equal to the specified voltage limit) considering all contingencies. Any such terminal
is reported only once (i.e. it is reported for the contingency causing this violation).

Filters
• Suppress contingency violation if base case is violated: This is typically used to filter out
voltage violations which are inherent in the network and are of little interest.

27.5.1.4 Summary page

• Non-convergent cases: the non-convergent cases of the contingency analysis are listed.
• Summary variables: If the option record additional result variables has been selected as de-
scribed in Section 27.4.2 above, this report can be used to see the summary of outcomes.
• Summary variables per contingency: Likewise, the summary variables can be shown at con-
tingency level. For contingencies which cause loss of generation and/or demand, the report also
includes the number of generation/load objects lost, together with the total MW and Mvar loss.

27.5.2 Customised reports

Although the tabular reports are already predefined, the user can modify them if required. The report
formats are accessed via the Format tab on the relevant page of the Report Contingency Analysis
Results dialog and using the right-arrow icon.

Alternatively, users can write their own reporting scripts, which directly access the results in the ElmRes
results file.

27.6 Trace Function for Multiple Time Phase and/or RAS

The Trace functionality allows the user to visualise the changing system state calculated in a Multiple
Time Phase contingency analysis, or in a contingency analysis which incorporates Remedial Actions
Schemes (RAS), using either Single or Multiple Time Phase.

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First the Contingency Analysis command is configured. Then the trace is initiated using the Start Trace
button ( ) on the Contingency Analysis toolbar. When this button is pressed, a dialog opens allowing
the user to select a contingency. Following the selection of a contingency by the user and pressing
OK, the contingency dialog is closed and the base case load flow is executed. The execution of the
first event(s) and all subsequent event(s) is triggered by pressing the Next Time Step button ( ) on
the main toolbar. At each time step the load flow calculation results and the state of the network
circuit breakers are displayed in the single line graphic. It should be noted that the Next Time Step
evaluates events according to their time of occurrence, and not according to the time phases defined
in the Contingency Analysis command. After the last time event(s) have been executed, the Next Time
Step button becomes inactive. The Stop Trace button ( ) can be pressed to clear the calculation.
Alternatively, the Trace button in each ComOutage dialog can be used to initiate the Trace for that
particular contingency.

Note that the Trace Function is only available for static contingencies, not dynamic contingencies (see
section 27.2.1.2)

27.7 Creating Contingencies

There is an important distinction to be made between contingencies which use fault cases and those
which do not:

If a contingency does not use a fault case, the “faulted” equipment is simply taken out of calculation. If
there is a fault case, the faulted equipment can be removed through the operation of circuit breakers
(either explicitly or by using in-built topology tracing). Consider the example in Figure 27.7.1 below,
where a fault on a transformer is being modelled. For realistic modelling, the use of fault cases is
generally recommended.

(a) Contingency without fault case (b) Contingency with fault case

Figure 27.7.1: Use of fault cases in contingency analysis

27.7.1 Creating Contingencies Using the Contingency Definition Command

The Contingency Definition command (ComNmink ) is used to automatically generate contingency cases
based on selected components. It is accessible via the Contingency Analysis toolbar using the
button. The Contingency Definition command can be used to automatically generate contingency cases
either for the complete system or from pre-defined sets of elements.

The Contingency Definition command offers the following options:

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27.7.1.1 Creation of Contingencies

To create contingencies as opposed to fault cases, this option is selected:

• Generate Contingency Cases for Analysis. Generates contingencies which are stored in the
contingency analysis command.

27.7.1.2 Outage Level

• n-1. Creates single contingency cases for each of the selected components.
• n-2. Creates contingency cases for every unique combination of two selected components.
• n-k cases of mutually coupled lines/cables. Creates contingency cases for every set of mu-
tually coupled lines/cables. If for example, three lines are modelled as having a mutual coupling,
by selecting this option a fault case is created considering the simultaneous outage of the three
coupled lines.

27.7.1.3 Network Components

There are three main options if selecting Network Components:

• Whole System Cases generated for the whole network, with options to choose which element
classes should be considered.
– Lines/cables. Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated
for all lines and cables (ElmLne objects) in the system.
– Transformers. Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated
for all transformers (ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4 objects) in the system.
– Generators. Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for
all synchronous generators (ElmSym objects) in the system.
– Series Capacitors. Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be gener-
ated for all series capacitors (ElmScap objects) in the system.
– Series Reactors. Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be gener-
ated for all series reactors (ElmSind objects) in the system.
• Selection This option allows the user to use a set of elements. Such sets are stored in the Study
Case.
• Filtered Elements This option allows the user to select elements according to a user-defined
filter. Using this option, it is possible for example to run a load flow and select elements based on
load flow results such as loading.

The selection of elements to outage in the Contingency Definition command can also be created by the
use of DPL scripts. Refer to the ComNmink methods in the DPL Reference.

When the Contingency Definition command is executed, it generates the corresponding contingency
cases according to the options and elements selected. The Contingency Analysis command, which
is automatically created inside the current active Study Case is then automatically opened, and the
analysis can be run. Note that when a new list of contingencies is created using the Contingency
Definition command, the previous content of the contingency analysis command is overwritten.

27.7.2 Creating Contingencies Using Fault

Cases and Groups

If fault cases are to be used to create contingencies, this can be done in various ways:

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1. First create fault cases then use them to populate the Contingency Analysis Command or
2. Select one or more objects and right-click, Calculate → Contingency Analysis or

3. Select one or more objects and right-click, Calculate → Execute single contingency

The creation and management of Fault Cases is described in detail in Section 27.8

For Option 1, the required fault cases are selected within the Contingency command dialog, as de-
scribed in section 27.4.1.2.

Option 2 enables one to populate the Contingency Analysis command with fault cases for the elements
of interest. If relevant fault cases already exist in the project, they will be selected. For elements for
which no fault cases exist, they will be created in the Faults, Fault Cases folder of the Operational
Library. To use the function, the element(s) are selected, then right-click, Calculate → Contingency
Analysis. The Contingency Analysis command will be presented, already populated with the required
fault cases, and the analysis can be run.

Option 3 offers the possibility of executing a single contingency case directly from a selected element
or element(s) without going via the contingency command dialog at all. This is slightly different from in
section 27.4.11, where the contingency has already been created and is being selected to be run on its
own. But the visualisation of the results is the same.

The purpose of the option described here is to be able to select an element or group of elements and
execute a relevant fault case. A fault case, possibly containing additional post-fault actions, may already
exist in the library and this is an easy way to find it and run it.

To use the function, the element(s) are selected, then the user should do right-click, Calculate →
Execute Single Contingency. If a suitable fault case exists in the Operational Library it will be executed
(if there is more than one, the user may choose which to use); if no suitable fault case exists then
one will temporarily be created and executed but not retained afterwards. In either case, the post-fault
results from the contingency are available on the graphics or via element filters.

27.7.3 Creating Dynamic Contingencies

Dynamic contingencies are contingency cases which are not defined before executing the contingency
analysis, but are generated “on the fly” by the contingency command, using criteria which have been
supplied by the user. It is possible to use both the normal static contingencies and dynamic contingen-
cies in one Contingency Analysis calculation.

The Dynamic contingencies option is selected on the basic data page and the user then defines one
or more filters. The default is a filter based on the loading in the base case load flow. During the
contingency analysis, contingencies are then created for any element which meets at least one of the
criteria. To avoid confusion with static contingencies of the same name, dynamic contingencies will be
named after the element but prefixed with an underscore (e.g. _Line01).

After running the analysis, the user can make use of the Show contingencies button on the Contingency
Analysis toolbar to see the contingencies, both static and dynamic (if any are created). In addition,
information about the contingencies created will be seen in the output window.

For the purposes of reporting, the dynamic contingencies are treated exactly the same way as static
contingencies.

Dynamic contingencies are particularly useful for contingency timesweeps (see 27.4.5), as the contin-
gency requirements may vary with time.

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27.8 Fault Cases and Groups

Contingency cases created from fault cases can be regarded as contingency situations produced in
a network as a consequence of the clearing of a fault. Fault cases without switching events (created
following the procedure described in Chapter 14: Project Library, Section 14.3.4: Fault Cases and Fault
Groups) are used to automatically generate contingency cases in the contingency analysis command,
by pressing the Add Cases/Groups button and selecting the desired objects from the data browser that
pops up.

For every selected fault case, the calculation automatically detects which circuit breakers must open
in order to clear the defined fault(s). All components which lose their connection to the network
reference bus following the switching actions that clear the fault(s), are regarded as ’interrupted’ and
are subsequently added to the Interrupted Components table of the corresponding contingency case.
In other words, these components are put on outage by the contingency case. Depending on the fault
defined in the fault case that generates a contingency, the Fault Type field in the contingency case dialog
(Figure 27.8.1) is set to:

• Busbar fault:
If the contingency originates from a fault on a busbar
• n-k fault:
With contingency order equal to k (where k >= 0). k corresponds to the number of network
regions (sets of topologically connected components) which are disconnected during a fault, by the
switching actions performed. It should be noted that the switching actions which are considered
depend on the post contingency time used by the update (this time differs between single- and
multiple time phase analysis).

Figure 27.8.1: Fault Type Field in the Contingency Case (ComOutage) Dialog

Note: In PowerFactory an interrupted component is a network primary element that is energised before
a fault and de-energised afterwards. A component is considered to be energised if it is topologi-
cally connected to a network reference bus. A region is defined as a set of topologically connected
components. Like components, regions can have energised, de-energised and interrupted states,
depending on their connection to a network reference bus.

Contingency cases can be created from fault cases/groups, which reside in the Operational Library, by
pressing the Add Cases/Groups button in the contingency analysis command (see Section 27.4.1 (Ba-
sic Options) and Figure 27.4.1). In the case of creating contingencies from fault group(s), a contingency
case will be generated for each fault case referred to in the selected fault group(s).

Note: The ’topological search’ algorithm used by the program to set contingency cases from fault cases
requires the explicit definition of at least one reference bus in the analysed system. A bus is
explicitly set as a reference if it has connected to it either a synchronous generator (ElmSym), or an
external grid (ElmXnet) with the option ’Reference Machine’ enabled (available on the element’s
’Load Flow’ tab).

27.8.1 Browsing Fault Cases and Fault Groups

There are two types of subfolders inside the Faults folder in the Operational Library : Fault Cases and
Fault Groups.

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In order to make a new folder of either of these types, left-click on the Faults folder and then press the
New Object button ( ) on the Data Manager toolbar. In the drop-down list, select whether a new Fault
Cases or Fault Groups folder should be created.

The Fault Cases folder holds every contingency (n-1, n-2, or simultaneous) defined for the system, as
described in Section 27.8.2 (Defining a Fault Case). Alternatively, several fault cases can be selected
and stored in a Fault Group, as described in Section 27.8.5 (Defining a Fault Group).

27.8.2 Defining a Fault Case from Network Element(s)

To define a fault case for an element in the grid, select it in the single-line diagram. Then right-click and
choose one of: Define. . . → Fault Case→ Single Fault Case or Define. . . → Fault Case→ Multiple Fault
Cases, n-1 (or Multiple Fault Cases, n-2) or Define. . . → Fault Case→ Mutually Coupled Lines/Cables,
n-k.

If Multiple Fault Cases, n-2 is selected, fault cases will be created for the simultaneous outage of every
unique combination of two elements in the selection. If the user selects Single Fault Case, a fault case
will be created for the simultaneous outage of all elements in the selection.

If Mutually Coupled Lines/Cables, n-k is selected, then fault cases will be created for the simultaneous
outage of each coupled line in the selection.

Alternatively, a filter can be used. This can be done (for example) with the help of the Open Network
Model Manager. . . button ( ), to list all elements for which outages are to be defined. These elements
can then be highlighted and the user can then right-click on the highlighted selection and choose
(for example) Define. . . → Fault Case. . . . The Simulation Events/Fault dialog opens, as shown in
Figure 27.8.2, where the user can enter the desired name of the fault case in the Name field.

On the Advanced tab of the Basic Data page of the same dialog, the user can create the corresponding
switch events, by clicking on the Create button.

Figure 27.8.2: Creation of Fault Case (IntEvt)

For further background on fault cases, refer to Chapter 14: Project Library, Section 14.3.4 (Fault Cases
and Fault Groups).

27.8.3 Defining Fault Cases using the Contingency Definition Command

Another way of creating a set of fault cases is to use the Contingency Definition Command. In sec-
tion 27.7.1, the use of this tool to create contingencies was described. In a similar way, it can be used
to create fault cases for the library. The same principles apply, but the user should select:

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• Generate Fault Cases for Library. With this option selected, when Execute is pressed, the
requested fault cases will be created in the Fault Cases folder (Operational Library, Faults).

27.8.4 Representing Contingency Situations with Post-Fault Actions

As a default, if a fault case is created for a fault it will just contain one or more short circuit events. In this
case, the Contingency Analysis uses a topological search to find which breakers need to be opened to
isolate the faulted elements.

But a fault case can define such switch operations explicitly and can also include additional switch
actions and other events to represent post-fault actions.

The types of events which are allowed in the contingency analysis as post-fault actions are:

• Load Event (EvtLod)

• Dispatch Event (EvtGen)
• Switch Event (EvtSwitch)
• Tap Event (EvtTap)
• Power Transfer Event (EvtTransfer )

The list of Events is displayed by clicking on the Events button in the fault case (IntEvt) dialog. Events
can be edited and/or deleted and new events can be created by using the New Object icon at the
top of the opened browser window.

If the post-fault actions which are going to be created include switch events, it is very important to
understand how these are handled within when a fault case is executed as a contingency:

Note: By default, a simple fault case created for a circuit, for example, will contain just a short-circuit
event for the relevant element(s). When the contingency is executed, topology tracing is used to
determine which circuit breakers need to be opened in order to isolate the faulted elements.
The user has an option to create these events within the fault case by using the Create button on
the Advanced tab. This is not normally needed but can be useful if the user wishes to change the
events in order to model some different switching behaviour.
The default behaviour of PowerFactory is to assume that if there are switch events present in the
fault case, the user wants only these switch events to be executed and no others. In other words,
it does not execute any additional switch events in order to isolate the elements. This means that
if the user has a fault case which contains just a short-circuit event, and then adds a single open-
switch event (to represent a post-fault action), this then would be the only switch to open. This of
course is not desirable.
So, if the user wants to ensure that the faulted element is isolated and the extra switch event is
considered, there are two possible approaches:
• Use the Create button to create all the events needed to isolate the faulted equipment (and
adjust if required), then add the extra switch event.
or
• Do not create the events, and instead select the “Always create switch events to clear the
faults” option on the Advanced tab of the fault case. Then the correct breakers will be opened
to isolate the faulted equipment and the post-fault actions executed.

Contingencies are created based on fault cases defined in the Operational Library. These fault cases
define the location of the fault events, and may also define post contingency actions taken to isolate
the fault and mitigate the effects of the outage of the component(s). Whenever a new contingency is
created, a link from the ComOutage object to the fault case is set. New contingencies can be created
in a Contingency Analysis command by clicking on the Add Cases/Groups button in the Configuration
section of the Basic Data page (see Section 27.4.1: Basic Options).

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27.8.5 Defining a Fault Group

To define a fault group, left-click on the Fault Groups folder. Then click on the New Object button ( ).
A Fault Group dialog will be displayed. In this dialog the user can specify the name of the fault group
in the Name field, and add fault cases to this new group using the Add Cases button. Click the Cases
button to view existing cases (if any) in the fault group.

Note: When a fault group is defined and fault cases are added to it, a reference is created to each of
these fault cases. The fault case itself resides in the Fault Cases subfolder. This means that if an
item in the fault group is deleted, only the reference to the fault case is deleted. The fault case
itself is not deleted from the Fault Cases subfolder.

27.9 Comparing Contingency Results

In order to compare contingencies in a fast and easy way, PowerFactory provides a Contingency Com-
parison function ( ). The Contingency Comparison function is only enabled if the user has previously
defined the contingency cases in the Contingency Analysis command, as explained in sections 27.7.1
and 27.7.2. The general handling of the Contingency Comparison function is as follows:

1. Define the contingency cases in the Contingency Analysis command (see sections 27.7.1 and 27.7.2).

2. Click on the Contingency Comparison button ( ). A window will pop up allowing the user to select
the required contingency cases (Figure 27.9.1). The selection can correspond to one, several, or
all contingency cases.

Figure 27.9.1: Selection of Contingency Cases for Comparison

3. By clicking on the OK button, the Comparing of Results On/Off button (Figure 27.9.2) is enabled
and the selected contingency cases are automatically executed.

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Figure 27.9.2: Comparing of Results Button

4. The single line graphic result boxes will display the results, based on the comparison mode and
the two compared cases. By default, the comparison is made between the Base Case and the
last selected contingency case in the list.
5. To change the comparison mode and/or the cases to be compared, click on the Edit Comparing
of Results button (Figure 27.9.2). The Compare dialog will pop up displaying the current settings.
To change the cases to be compared, click on the black arrow pointing down ( ) and select a
different case (Figure 27.9.3).

Figure 27.9.3: Selection of other Cases for Comparison

6. If the contingency analysis is defined with time phases, the compare dialog will have the option of
selecting the time phase.
7. Once the calculation is reset (for example by either making changes in the model or by clicking on
the Reset Calculation button), the comparison mode will be disabled.

Note that the comparison of contingency results feature is only available for static contingencies, not
dynamic contingencies (see section 27.2.1.2)

27.10 Managing variables to be recorded

In the Study Cases chapter, section 13.11, there is a description of how results variables are managed,
using the ElmRes object. For contingency analysis, a minimum set of variables for each element class

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is recorded, which is detailed in each relevant IntMon object, but it is possible to add additional variables
to these IntMon objects if required.

A further option to control the results being recorded is to use a user-defined filter within the ElmRes
object, as described below.

27.10.1 Using filters to enable selective results recording

Sometimes the user may only be interested in results for part of the network being analysed and so
wishes to record results selectively, based on the region of interest. For this purpose, it is possible
to introduce a filter into the contingency analysis ElmRes object. An advantage of this approach,
particularly with large networks, is that it reduces the size of the results file.

Results to be recorded may be filtered according to Grid, Area, Zone or Boundary. To create a filter,
select the ElmRes object in the study case and then press the New Object icon. From the drop-down,
select “General Filter (SetFilt)”.

Within the new filter, the Object Filter should be set to all elements. If results are to be filtered for a
specific grid, this can be selected directly using the down-arrow next to “Look in”. If an Area, Zone
or Boundary is to be used, first select the Boundary, Zone or Area in a Network Model Filter or Data
Manager, and copy it. Then within the filter, use the down-arrow next to “Look in” and select Paste.

Buttons are available on the Recording of Results page of the Contingency Command dialog, to allow
easy access to the ElmRes object.

27.11 Remedial Action Schemes (RAS)

An important analysis requirement for transmission system operators in particular is to study the man-
agement of the network when a fault occurs and post-fault actions have to be taken. One way to do this
is to create post-fault actions by adding events to the relevant fault cases, as described in section 27.8.4.
Using this approach, however, has its limitations: firstly, the post-fault action will always be executed for
these fault cases and secondly, if the same post fault action is appropriate for many contingencies, it
must be modelled separately for each.

The Remedial Action Schemes functionality takes a different approach. The concept is that there is a
library of Remedial Action Schemes (RAS), each of which consists of one or more trigger conditions and
one or more events which model remedial actions. The RAS are selected as required in the Contingency
Analysis command and then the remedial actions are executed for every fault case which meets the
trigger conditions.

27.11.1 Creating a RAS object

RAS are stored in the “Remedial Action Schemes (RAS)” folder of the Operational Library. When a new
RAS is created, the user will specify one or more trigger conditions and one or more events to represent
the remedial action(s). All triggers and remedial actions which have been created for a particular RAS
are stored as contents in the RAS and can be selected or not as required.

As an example, these are the steps required to create a simple RAS to model generation reduction for
a post-fault overload on a line:

Select the Contingency Analysis toolbar then click on the icon (Show Remedial Action Schemes).
In the RAS subfolder, use the New Object icon to create a new Remedial Action Scheme (Int Ras). The
RAS object is created and will automatically be given a unique Sequence number, used to determine

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the order of execution of RAS, should more than one be triggered for a particular contingency. These
sequence numbers can be changed by the user.

On the left-hand side of the IntRas dialog box, click on the Create Condition button. Use the drop down
arrow next to Element selection to select the line whose overloading is to act as a trigger. Using the
drop-down menu, select the Type of Condition as Loading continuous. The percentage loading can be
selected as required and the Check condition left as Post-Fault.

Now the Remedial action is created, for which the sequence of actions is slightly different. Firstly, on
the RAS dialog, select the type of event. For this example, it will be Dispatch Event. Then press the
Create button. In the new dialog box, select the generator which is to provide the remedial action and
the required change in active power, then press OK.

27.11.2 Trigger Conditions

Below is a list of possible trigger conditions. The trigger condition must be appropriate for the element
selected, otherwise an error message will be generated. The dialog box for the trigger also includes a
Check button for validating the trigger condition which has been set up.

• Energising status
• Switch status
• Voltage
• Voltage step
• Active power flow
• Loading (continuous)
• Boundary flow
• User-defined

The listed options are provided in order to enable users to easily set up triggers that are expected to be
most commonly used, but the User-defined option allows for more customer-specific requirements.

27.11.3 Logical combinations of triggers

If more than one trigger is created, they can be combined using an And or an Or operator. For more
complex combinations, the user can create logical gates using the Create gate button, and these also
allow criteria to be negated. Logical gates can be nested.

27.11.4 Remedial actions

Below is the list of possible Remedial actions, defined in terms of events. These are the standard events
allowed in Contingency Analysis fault cases. It is possible to define execution times for the events; this
will be taken into account in conjunction with the time phase of the analysis.

• Switch event
• Dispatch event
• Tap event
• Power transfer event
• Load event

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Note: A RAS may contain a number of triggers and remedial actions, but only those selected in the
dialog box are active.

27.11.5 RAS groups

RAS objects are stored in the Remedial Action Schemes (RAS) folder of the Operational Library. If an
existing project does not already have such a folder, it will be created automatically if the user creates
a RAS using the process described above. There are two subfolders: the RAS subfolder where the
RAS objects themselves are stored, and the RAS Groups folder, where groups of references to RAS
objects may be created. These RAS groups are analogous to the Fault Groups in the Faults folder (see
section 27.8.5) and are handled in a similar way.

27.11.6 Using Remedial Action Schemes in Contingency Analysis

RAS objects are not fault-case specific, but will take effect for any contingency which meets the trigger
conditions. Should the user wish a RAS to be fault-case-specific, this can be done by including a
relevant trigger (such as circuit breaker operation or change in energising status).

Because the RAS are not fault-case-specific, users may want to be selective about which RAS are
included in their calculations. One way to do this is to make use of the Out of Service flags on the RAS
objects themselves; this flag will be observed in all study cases.

However, the more usual way to determine which RAS objects are used during the Contingency Analysis
is to select the RAS and/or RAS Groups via the Contingency Analysis command dialog. This RAS
selection is then defined for the particular study case.

The relevant parameters for executing RAS are:

Consider Remedial Action Schemes (RAS) (Basic Data page)

If this option is enabled, all selected RAS (unless Out of Service) will be applied during the Contingency
Analysis calculation.

Show triggered RAS for each contingency in the output window (Output page)

If this option is enabled, a message will be output each time a RAS is triggered during the analysis. The
message includes the name of the RAS as a hyperlink.

Selection of RAS works in exactly the same way as the selection of Fault cases, with options to remove,
add and view the selected RAS.

27.11.7 Results and reporting

It is important to understand the way in which the Contingency Analysis handles the RAS and exactly
what results are available to the user after the calculation, either via the standard reports or directly from
the results files for customised reporting scripts.

27.11.7.1 Single Time Phase

With the single time phase calculation, the results which are recorded in the results file are always the
results of the contingency analysis after all triggered remedial action events have taken effect. This is the

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case regardless of whether the triggers can be determined prior to the fault case execution (topological
criteria) or are dependent upon analysis results.

With the Post-Contingency End of Time Phase option selected, the remedial actions executed will take
into account the execution times of the remedial action events: if this is longer than the specified Time
Phase time, the remedial action event will not be taken into account. If a Post-Contingency End of Time
Phase time has not been specified, all events in a triggered RAS will take place regardless of their
execution times.

In the results file, for each contingency executed, the triggered RAS objects are recorded (up to a
maximum of 10 RAS per contingency).

27.11.7.2 Multiple Time Phase

Using Multiple Time Phase contingency Analysis in conjunction with RAS operation allows the user to
evaluate in detail a sequence of events, for example if the entire remedial action scheme consists of a
number of events which are expected to occur after various times after they have been triggered. The
logic followed by the calculation can be illustrated by means of an example:

Use of two RAS to model post-fault generation changes

Consider a RAS called RAS1, which is intended to model the situation in which an overload on a line is
alleviated by reductions in generation:

1. A fault occurs which overloads line L. This triggers reduction in generation from two generators,
G1 and G2.

2. After 8 minutes, generator G1 reduces generation by 100 MW.

3. Five minutes later, 13 minutes after the fault, generator G2 reduces generation by 50 MW.

RAS1 will contain one trigger (1) and two remedial actions (2) and (3), which consist of Dispatch events
occurring at 8 minutes and 13 minutes respectively.

The user also creates RAS2, to model the fact that if the output from G1 is reduced below a certain level,
another generator G3 in a different part of the network should have its output increased to compensate.

1. The generation level at G1 goes below a prescribed threshold of, say 250 MW.
2. After 7 minutes, generator G3 increases generation by 100 MW.

RAS2 will contain one trigger (G1 generation drops below the specified level) and one remedial action,
which consists of a Dispatch event on generator G3 with an Execution Time of 7 minutes.

Let us assume that the user sets up a Multiple Time Phase calculation, with the following time phases
defined:

• 0 minutes
• 5 minutes
• 10 minutes
• 15 minutes
• 20 minutes

This will be the outcome:

0 minutes : Line L is overloaded. The trigger for RAS1 is activated, but nothing happens yet to reduce
the load.
5 minutes : Line L is overloaded. The trigger for RAS1 is already activated, but still nothing happens
yet to reduce the load because the first event only occurs 8 minutes after being triggered.

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10 minutes : Now that more than 8 minutes have passed after RAS1 was triggered, the first generation
change is taken into account and the active power on Line L is reduced. This drop in generation
at G1 also triggers RAS2.

15 minutes : Now that more than 13 minutes have passed, the second generation change is also taken
into account and the active power on the line is further reduced. However, it is not yet 7 minutes
since RAS2 was triggered, so the associated event on G3 has not yet taken place.
20 minutes : Now that it is more than 7 minutes since RAS2 was triggered, the associated increase in
generation at G3 will also be taken into account, resulting in the final state of the network for this
sequence of events.

Figure 27.11.1: RAS timings in Multiple Time Phase Contingency Analysis

This example illustrates some important points relating to Multiple Time Phase calculations with RAS:

• In a multiple time phase contingency analysis, if a RAS is triggered in one time phase, the
associated remedial action(s) will not have any effect until the next or later time phase, even if
the actions have zero Execution Time.

• If remedial actions have a non-zero Execution Time, the timing starts when the RAS is triggered,
not at time zero (unless of course, the first time phase studied is at 0s and the RAS is triggered at
that point).
• RAS are only triggered at calculation points. Thus, in the example above RAS2 is triggered
at the 10 minute point. If this were a real situation, the drop in generation at G1 would have
happened after 8 minutes and therefore triggered the timer for the RAS2 at that time (resulting in
G3 increasing output at 15 minutes), but we do not have a calculation point at 8 minutes, so the
trigger is at 10 minutes and the increase is not observed until the 20 minute timephase.

27.11.8 Visualising RAS using the Trace Function

It may be helpful to visualise the effect of Remedial Action schemes on a particular contingency by using
the Trace function (see 27.6). When the use of RAS is enabled in the Contingency Analysis command,
the Trace Function is available and the post-fault states can be seen first without and then with the

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triggered RAS(s) in a single time phase calculation, and similarly the complete sequence of events can
be followed in a multiple time phase calculation.

27.12 Load Contingency Analysis Results

This option is accessed using the icon on the Contingency Analysis toolbar. When a Contingency
Analysis is executed, the results are stored in the associated results file. However, once the calculation
has been reset, the results are no longer immediately available to be viewed on a diagram or in a
Network Model Manager.

The Load Contingency Analysis Results option makes it possible for the results to be loaded back into
memory, and summary quantities such as maximum loading viewed. To do this, use the icon to bring
up the dialog box, select the required results file (if not already selected) and Execute.

Results which have been loaded back into memory are indicated with a grey background. This acts as
a reminder to the user that these are previously-stored results and may no longer be consistent with the
current network model if the model has been changed in the interim.

27.12.1 Load Individual Contingencies

The loading of results into memory also offers a further possibility: results from individual continency
calculations can be loaded into memory, which then allows the contingency to be examined in more
detail on the graphic or in a Network Model Manager. To do this, use the icon to bring up the dialog box,
select the required results file (if not already selected), select the required contingency and Execute.

The advantage of this process, compared with executing individual contingencies as single contingen-
cies, is that various contingencies can be viewed without having to re-run the calculation,

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Chapter 28

Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

28.1 Introduction

PowerFactory includes the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation toolbox, a dedicated time varying load flow
calculation tool that can be used for medium to long term simulation studies. This tool completes a
series of load flow simulations spaced in time, with the user given the flexibility to select the simulation
period and the simulation step size. To achieve this, the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation makes use of
time based parameter characteristics (refer to Chapter 18), variations and expansion stages (refer to
Chapter 17), planned outages, simulation events and user defined time-dependent models.

The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation can be executed either sequentially (by default) or in parallel (via the
parallel computing options).

The parallel computation (refer to Section 28.3.5) increases calculation performance by making full use
of a machine’s multi-core processor architecture.

This chapter is divided into several parts. Section 28.2 covers the technical background of the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation. Section 28.3 describes how to execute a Quasi-Dynamic simulation, Section 28.4
discusses how to analyse the output of the simulation, while Section 28.5 describes the modelling
requirements and procedure for building user-defined Quasi-Dynamic Simulation models.

28.2 Technical background

The load flow calculation, detailed in Chapter 25 considers the network under a single set of operating
conditions. In most electrical systems, engineers are interested in the performance of the system
during worst case operational conditions. However, due to the complexity of the network, it might be
difficult to intuitively understand which operating scenarios and network states cause such conditions.
Consequently, to determine the worst case operating conditions, engineers often must run several
different load-flow simulations with a range of operating conditions. This is usually achieved by modelling
the network dependence on time because most operational parameters have an underlying dependence
on time. For example:

• Load is dependent on time due to daily and seasonal cyclic load variation.
• Renewable sources such as solar and wind generation vary with solar insolation and wind speed
which are in turn functions of time.
• Network variations, maintenance outages, faults and unscheduled outages normally have some
time dependence.
• Equipment ratings can also change due to the effects of wind and temperature.

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Often when considering load flow variation over time, it is not the variations on a timescale of seconds
(power system transients) that are of interest, but rather the behaviour of a network in timescales of
minutes/hours up to months/years. It is, of course, possible to run a time domain simulation (RMS
domain) with explicitly modelled dynamic controllers to simulate such a network (for more information
refer to chapter 29). Nevertheless, many of the time constants existing in stability models are much
smaller than the simulation time steps being discussed here (e.g. the synchronous machine short-
circuit time constants do not play any significant role in a medium- to long-term dynamic simulation,
although they are represented in stability type simulations). These additional modelling considerations
take a large computational effort and involve much unnecessary complexity if only the quasi-steady
state load flow conditions are of interest. Consequently, a reasonable and pragmatic approach is to
simulate so-called “Quasi-Dynamic” phenomena using a series of load-flow calculations with various
model parameters being time dependent. Furthermore, to fit with real-world applications where control
actions are executed based on the historical development (time dependence between consecutive time
points), Quasi-Dynamic simulation uses the concept of state variables which are defined by their time
derivative equations, as it is normally the case for time-domain simulations (refer to Section 28.5 for
more information and examples).

Consider a simplified power system network consisting of four loads, two conventional synchronous
machines and a solar photovoltaic power plant, linked by transmission lines. A single line diagram of
the network is shown in Figure 28.2.1.

Figure 28.2.1: Single line diagram of example network

In this case, the load would vary depending on the time of day, the solar output would vary also
depending on the insolation and consequently the conventional generators would be required to produce
varying levels of output to balance the system load and generation. The engineer might be interested to
see the line thermal loading and voltage in the network over a period of say one week or perhaps even
the seasonal variation over the course of one year. DPL or Python scripts could be written to achieve
this, however by making use of the built-in parameter characteristics in PowerFactory and using the
Quasi-Dynamic simulation tool, it is possible to complete such simulations very efficiently.

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Figure 28.2.2 shows an example of the type of output that can be generated using this tool. The
figure shows a clear cyclical pattern in the generation output, the line loading and the bus voltages.
After determining the critical cases of such a simulation, the engineer might also like to complete more
detailed RMS or EMT simulations on such cases to investigate potential short term issues. In this way,
the Quasi-Dynamic simulation can be a useful screening tool.

Figure 28.2.2: An example of weekly power flows in the example system calculated using the Quasi-
Dynamic simulation tool

28.3 How to execute a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

These are the steps taken when running a Quasi-Dynamic simulation:

• Defining the Result Variables to be monitored during the simulation. Refer to Section 28.3.1.
• Defining the Maintenance Outages and the Simulation Events to be applied during the simula-
tion. Refer to Sections 28.3.2 and 28.3.3.
• Running the simulation. Refer to Section 28.3.4.
• Plotting and analysing the results. Refer to Section 28.4.

Optionally, the following preparatory steps may need be taken into consideration:

• The setup of time characteristics for quantities that are time varying in the network. Refer to
Chapter 18 for more information on parameter characteristics.
• Configuring the network variations to model planned network changes. Refer to Chapter 17.

• Configuring the operation scenario to be applied during the simulation. Refer to Chapter 16.

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• Configuring the model controllers (via user-defined models). Refer to Section 28.5.

The following sections explain these aspects in additional detail.

28.3.1 Defining the variables for monitoring in the Quasi-Dynamic simulation

Before running the Quasi-Dynamic simulation, it is necessary to tell PowerFactory which variables to
record. To do this:

1. Click and select Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.

2. Click the button. A dialog will appear.

3. Select the type of results to be defined, either AC, AC unbalanced or DC. Note that the type
of variables being monitored should match the type of load-flow calculation being used for the
simulations.

4. Click OK. A tabular list showing the currently monitored variables will appear. By default Power-
Factory will record some default variables for Areas, Feeders, Grids, Terminals, Zones and Branch
elements.
5. Optional: Modify the default variables:
(a) Double-click the icon for the object. The variable browser dialog will appear.
(b) Navigate to the appropriate page and select variables from the desired variable set.
(c) Click OK to return to the tabular list of variables.

6. Optional: Add recorded variables for another type of element/s:

(a) Click the icon. A blank dialog will appear.
(b) To add recorded variables for all objects of a specific class (for example all PV systems):
i. Enter the object class in the Class Name field. For example to record variables for all PV
systems enter “ElmPvsys”.
ii. Press tab to update the dialog.
iii. Navigate to the desired page and select variables from the desired variable set.
iv. Click OK to return to the tabular list of monitored variables.
(c) To add recorded variables for a specific object:
i. Click the button.
ii. Choose Select . . . . A database navigation dialog will appear.
iii. Locate target object and select it.
iv. Press OK to open the variable selection dialog.
v. Navigate to the desired page, and select variables from the desired variable set.

7. Click Close to close the list of monitored variables.

28.3.2 Considering maintenance outages

In the Quasi-Dynamic simulation it is possible to consider planned maintenance outages - this can
also include planned generator derating. To do this the simulation uses the PowerFactory objects
IntPlannedout and IntOutage. For more information about defining planned outages refer to Sec-
tion 14.3.7.

To make the Quasi-Dynamic simulation consider the defined planned outages:

1. Select the Maintenance & Events page in the Quasi-Dynamic simulation command.

2. Check Planned Outages to automatically consider all outages during the simulation.

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3. Optional: Click Show Used Ones to show a list of all currently considered outages. Only those
outages that occur during the defined simulation period on the basic data page are shown in this
list.
4. Optional: Click Show All to open a data navigator on the planned outages folder. From here it
is possible to see all outages that are defined within the project. Note, even those outages that
would not occur during the simulation period are shown in this view.

28.3.3 Considering simulation events

28.3.3.1 Overview

Various events are supported by Quasi-Dynamic Simulation either being pre-defined or generated
via user defined Quasi-Dynamic Simulation models (QDSL models; see section 28.5). This section
provides an overview to the available simulation events and their usage, as they apply to Quasi-Dynamic
Simulation. See Chapter 13, Section 13.9 for a detailed description of each type. Out of all possible
events, the following are currently supported by Quasi-Dynamic Simulation:

• Dispatch event (EvtGen):

From the firing time on, the active- and reactive power of the selected model (used in the calcu-
lation, i.e., incorporating characteristics and scaling, etc.) is incremented by the entered values.
This means that, at any simulation point, the calculation value of the model is determined and if
the simulation time has passed the execution time of a dispatch event, this calculation value is
incremented again.
• External Measurement Event (EvtExtmea):
Used to set and reset values and statuses as well as communication failure and restoration of
external measurements.
• Load Event (EvtLod):
A load step event increments the calculated load demand values at every point after the firing
time. In particular, the absolute increment at a calculation time depends on the calculation value,
since a proportional step change is entered in the event.
• Message Event (EvtMessage):
If the execution time lies within the simulation period, the entered message is issued. Note that
this event type is fired only once! Also note that the message is only issued when Show detailed
output is selected in the QDS command.
• Parameter Event (EvtParam):
This event enables changing signal parameters (s:) and calculation parameters (c:) during the
simulation. It is also fired for every calculation point after its execution time.
• Stop Event (EvtStop):
If this event is fired, the simulation will finish the current step and then stop. Results will be
available until the stopping time and the calculation is valid.
• Switch Event (EvtSwitch):
The switch event is executed once after the execution time. It is never fired again, if another event
for the same switch exists that has a later execution time and the simulation time has passed this
later event firing time.
• Tap Event (EvtTap):
The calculated tap position of a transformer or shunt is determined for every calculation point.
If a tap event has its execution time after the simulation time, a decrease/increase by one tap is
executed or the tap is simply set to the selected value. Note that it is also fired for every calculation
point after its execution time.
• Outage Event (EvtOutage):
The outage event is executed once after the execution time. It is never fired again, if another event

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for the same element exists that has a later execution time and the simulation time has passed
this later event firing time.
• Transfer Event (EvtTransfer ):
Portions of active and/or reactive power can be shifted from one load to another or even multiple
other loads. It can also be used to shift power between static generators.

There are several ways to access Event objects:

• From the Data Manager, in the Events of Quasi-Dynamic Simulation object stored within the
currently active Study Case;
• From the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation ( ComStatsim) command, Maintenance & Events page, it is
possible to Select; ( ), Edit ( ) the currently selected Events of Quasi-Dynamic Simulation;

• From the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation toolbar by clicking the Edit Events icon. A list of all pre-
defined events will be displayed including the absolute execution time when the event will occur
and the related object.
To create a new user defined event, do the following:

• Click the Edit Events icon to open the Events of Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

• Use the New Object icon in the toolbar to create a new event.
• The event type can be chosen from the list in the selection dialog which pops up. Customisation
of each event object is done by following the event description provided in Section 13.9.

Remarks:
• Events for QDS have a different GUI from that for dynamic simulation events. In particular, only
events with a given (absolute) execution time within the calculation period will be fired.
• There is a difference between pre-defined events by the user and events that were fired by a
QDSL model (28.5.4). If fired by a QDSL model, an event is also contained in the Events of
Quasi-Dynamic Simulation folder until the calculation is reset. The firing is executed in the same
fashion as for pre-defined QDS events.

28.3.3.2 Use of events

• Simulation events flag - If the flag is set, PowerFactory considers and applies the relevant pre-
defined simulation events during the simulation. The relevant events are those pre-defined events
that occur in the specific time period (as defined in the Time period pane of the Basic Data page).
If this flag is not set then neither pre-defined nor QDSL events are triggered during the simulation.
• Show used ones - Shows a list of all currently considered events. Only those events that occur
in the defined simulation period are shown in this list.
• Show all - Opens the Data Manager on the events folder. From here it is possible to see all events
that are currently defined for this study case. Note, even those events that would not occur during
the simulation period are shown in this view.
• Remove all events - Removes all events within the events folder.

28.3.4 Running the Quasi-Dynamic simulation

To run a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation perform the following actions:

1. Click and select Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.

2. Click to open the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation dialog.

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3. Edit the Basic Options → Load Flow pane:

• Selection of Load Flow type to be used during each simulation time step:
– AC Load Flow, balanced
– AC Load Flow, unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC)
– DC Load Flow (linear).
• Settings: Click to edit and configure the Load Flow calculation settings used by the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation.

4. Edit the Basic Options → Time Period pane - the time period to run the simulation can be selected
as follows:
• Complete Day - a specific user defined day can be selected as simulation time range. The
day is chosen in the corresponding field Day
• Complete Month - a specific user defined month can be selected as simulation time range.
The month is chosen in the corresponding field Month
• Complete Year - a specific user defined year can be selected as simulation time range. The
year is chosen in the corresponding field Year
• User defined calculation times - specific user defined calculation times can be added for
the simulation (using the time format dd:mm:yyyy hh:mm:ss). The simulation will only be
executed at the defined calculation times. The User also has the option to ignore certain
points in time by activating the associated option.
• User defined time range - a customisable time period can be chosen for simulation by defining
the Begin and End time points (using the time format dd:mm:yyyy hh:mm:ss).
5. Edit the Basic Options → Step size - Sets the time step size of the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.
A fixed step size simulation algorithm is used for time advance. The step size is defined by the
Step (integer value) and the Unit. The Unit can be selected from the corresponding drop-down
list (Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Days, Months or Years).

6. Basic Options → Results - This field provides a link to the results object (ElmRes) that stores the
calculation results. A different results object can be selected if required.
7. Edit the Calculation Settings page:
• Consider time-dependent states of models - Set this flag to consider the time-dependency of
Quasi-Dynamic Simulation models (ElmQdsl).
• Max. number of control loops - If the flag Consider time-dependent states of models is set,
then the Max. number of control loops becomes relevant for the calculation. This number
is used to limit the number of control iterations of a Quasi-Dynamic user-defined model. For
more information refer to Section 28.5.3.

Note: The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation does not support the Parallel computing method if the
Consider time-dependent states of models flag in the Calculation settings page is set.

• Initialisation of load flow - the initialisation of the load flow can either be Based on previous
load flow results or a Full initialisation can be selected for each time step.
8. Configure the Output report:
• Off - No output report is printed to the Output Window.
• Short output - A limited output report for each load flow calculation is shown.
• Detailed output - This option displays more detailed information and a full load flow output
per time step in the Output Window.
9. Click Execute to execute the simulation.

10. If required, the simulation can be stopped before completion by clicking on the Break button ( )
in the main toolbar.

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Note: After starting the Quasi-Dynamic simulation, PowerFactory will determine the number of load-
flows required based on the entered Step size settings and print this information to the output
window. The total time it takes PowerFactory to complete the simulation varies depending on the
time period being simulated and the step size. A progress bar will be displayed at the bottom of
the PowerFactory graphical user interface.

28.3.5 Configuring the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation for parallel computation

PowerFactory supports the parallel execution of the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation. This is achieved via
the Parallel Computing page of the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation command dialog. A number of options
are provided in this page and described further below.

Parallel computation: This checkbox enables/disables the parallel computing feature. Tick this check-
box to enable parallel computing, un-tick it to disable the feature.

Minimum number points in time: The minimum number of time points needed for creating a parallel
process. If the actual number of time points is less than this parameter, the calculation will be carried
out sequentially (not in parallel).

Package Size: This parameter specifies how many time points will be distributed to a parallel process
(this is called one package). When a process finished its assigned package, the main process will
distribute the next package to this parallel process.

Note: Generally speaking, the package size is related to the calculation effort of one time point. If
the network is rather large and one time point for the load flow calculation is computationally
intensive, the package size should be small, otherwise in the end, it may happen that all other
parallel processes have finished the calculation while one single process will still be executing for
a long time to finish its whole package. On the other hand, if the calculation is fast for one time
point, the package size should not be too small, otherwise lots of execution of time will be wasted
in communication between the main process and parallel processes.

Parallel Computing Manager: The parallel computation settings are stored in a Parallel Computing
Manager object (SetParalman). Further information on the particular configuration is found in Sec-
tion 22.4.

Note: It is important to note that the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation does not support the Parallel computing
method if the Consider time/dependent states of models flag in the Calculation settings page is
set.

28.3.6 Configure the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation for real time simulation

QDS real time simulation can be executed if the option Real-time simulation is set to Synchronised by
system time. This option can be found within the Real time settings of the QDS command.
Furthermore the step duration can be adjusted, meaning that apart from the system time, one QDS time
step will be executed every entered time per step or using a Relative step duration with a percentage
Ratio between real time and calculation time. For proper real time simulations, it is recommended to set
the Step duration to relative, entering the percentage value of 100%.
The real time simulation capability can be applied if the OPC interface is used in QDS. Further informa-
tion about the OPC Interface can be found in chapter 24.13.

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28.4 Analysing the Quasi-Dynamic simulation results

The Quasi-Dynamic simulation results can be presented in tabular form using the built-in reports, and in
graphical form using the standard PowerFactory plot interface. Furthermore, PowerFactory also stores
summary statistics for every analysed variable. This section explains how to produce these three types
of output.

28.4.1 Plotting

To produce an output plot of the Quasi-Dynamic simulation results follow these steps:

1. Click the icon. A standard PowerFactory plot dialog will appear.

2. Select the desired variables in the curves section.

3. Optional: Adjust the plot options according to your preferences. Refer to Section 19.7 for more
information on configuring standard plots in PowerFactory.
4. Click OK to create the plot in a new page.

28.4.2 Quasi-Dynamic simulation reports

The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Report provides a means to summarise and examine system conditions
over the simulated time period. There are three different reports available:
• Loading Ranges;
• Voltage Ranges; and

• Non-convergent cases.
The loading ranges report shows the maximum and minimum loading of each monitored branch element
and also the time that each of these occurred.

The voltage ranges report shows the minimum and maximum observed voltages at each monitored
terminal and the times that each of these occurred.

The non-convergent cases report shows a list of all the cases that did not converge and the time that
they occurred.

To show the reports:

1. Click the icon. A dialog for configuring the reports will appear.
2. Choose the reports to be produced.
3. Optional: Enable a loading range filter. You can use this to only show branch elements that
exceeded a certain loading during the simulation. Note it is possible to alter the value of this filter,
in the report later on.
4. Optional: Enable a voltage range filter. Here you can enter a lower limit and an upper limit. Only
those terminals that had voltages recorded outside this range will show up in the report. It is also
possible to alter these values in the report subsequently.

5. Click OK to show the reports. They will be displayed in separate windows.

6. Optional: Click and choose Export to Excel or Export to HTML to export the results to Excel
or in an HTML format.

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28.4.3 Statistical summary of monitored variables

Conveniently, PowerFactory also calculates summary statistics for every monitored variable in the
Quasi-Dynamic simulation. The following quantities are determined automatically:
• Average (mean)
• Maximum
• Minimum

• Time of maximum
• Time of minimum
• Range

• Standard Deviation. Note this is population standard deviation calculated according to:
⎯
− 2
⎸ ∑︀ (︁ )︁
𝑥− 𝑥
⎸
⎷
𝜎= (28.1)
𝑛

• Variance = 𝜎 2
To show these results:

1. Click the icon and select the target object type of interest.
2. Click the Flexible data tab.
3. Click the icon to define the shown variables.

4. Ensure the AC Load Flow Sweep page is selected.

5. Select the desired variables. For example “avg” is the mean value of the variable during the
simulation and “std” is the population standard deviation.

28.4.4 Loading Results

This option is accessed using the icon on the Quasi Dynamic Simulation toolbar. When a Quasi
Dynamic Simulation is run, the results are stored in the associated results file. However, once the
calculation has been reset, the results are no longer immediately available to be viewed on a diagram
or in a Network Model Manager.

This Load Time Sweep Results option makes it possible for the results to be loaded back into memory,
and summary quantities such as maximum loading viewed, together with the individual load flow results
for a selected time. To do this, use the icon to bring up the dialog box, select the required date and time
and Execute.

Results which have been loaded back into memory are indicated with a grey background. This acts as
a reminder to the user that these are previously-stored results and may no longer be consistent with the
current network model if the model has been changed in the interim.

28.5 Developing QDSL models

PowerFactory allows the creation of user defined load flow and Quasi-Dynamic simulation models
(referred throughout the text as QDSL models) such to obtain customisable steady state behaviour

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of various power system equipment. This is done using the PowerFactory class objects TypQdsl and
ElmQdsl.

Furthermore, to fit real-world applications where control actions are executed based on historical devel-
opment, Quasi-Dynamic simulation extends the functionality of user defined models with the concept of
states. These state variables are defined by their time derivative equations, as it is normally the case for
time-domain simulations. There are several situations where the time dependency between consecutive
steady states must be considered. Examples include:
• Slow reacting equipment (e.g. slow varying generating units belonging to secondary control
equipment reacting in the range of hours on large setpoint steps);
• Slow reacting controllers - Control systems with time constants comparable to or greater than the
simulation time step (e.g. Transformer/shunt tap changers, etc.);

• Certain quantities might be time dependent but cannot be provided as a time characteristic, i.e.
the values over the whole simulated time range are not known apriori (prior to execution of the
simulation) but only a starting value is available. Consider for example the state of charge of a
battery system, fuel remaining/consumed in a diesel generator set, etc.

28.5.1 PowerFactory objects for implementing user defined models (TypQdsl

and ElmQdsl)

Two objects are available in PowerFactory for creating user defined models:
• Quasi-Dynamic Simulation model definition (TypQdsl, library type object). Represents the type
definition of a Quasi-Dynamic simulation model. It is referred throughout this Section as QDSL
type;
• Quasi-Dynamic Simulation model (ElmQdsl, network element object). Represents the network
model instance of a certain user defined model (of type TypQdsl). It is referred throughout this
Section as QDSL element.

28.5.1.1 Creating the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation model definition TypQdsl

A new QDSL type object TypQdsl may be created in the project library (default location is Library →
User Defined Models). The QDSL type must be edited and all the necessary scripting code must be
introduced.

To create a QDSL type (TypQdsl) do the following:

• Using the Data Manager, navigate to Library → User Defined Models) folder in the active project.
Use the New Object toolbar icon and select the object Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Type;
• Alternatively, using the Data Manager, right-click inside the Library → User Defined Models) folder
in the active project and select New. . . → Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Type from the context-
sensitive menu;

• Alternatively, if a QDSL element (ElmQdsl) is already available, one can open the element’s dialog
and create a new QDSL type by clicking on Select ( ) → New Project Type. This action will create
a new QDSL type within the project’s Library → User Defined Models folder.
The QDSL type (TypQdsl) dialog is divided in several sections with the following properties:

Basic Data page options:

• Variables table - Two variable types are available: state variables and parameters. Parameters
should be constants that define the particular specification of a model. States determine the
time-dependent behaviour. They are integrated with respect to their differential equations during

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Quasi-Dynamic simulations. All variables defined within this table are accessible from all model
scripts.
• Connected network elements - Specific PowerFactory objects can be used as referenced objects.
This table defines the names to identify them in the model scripts of a QDSL type (TypQdsl).
Member variables can be accessed within all model scripts as it is typically done within a DPL
script. The input/output flag defines the type of reference object. Set it to input if the referenced
object is used as measurement point (reading variables). Set it to output if the referenced object
is being controlled. This flag is particularly useful for dealing with the initialisation order of inter-
referenced user defined models (e.g. one ElmQdsl model QDSL1 may be controlled by a second
one, named QDSL2; in this case QDSL2 will be provided as a Connected network elements item
for QDSL1 and be set to “Input” type). Alternatively, QDSL1 could be set as an output of QDSL2.
Results page options:
• Results table - The list of result variables can be defined. All result variables are of type double.
Like state variables or parameters, result variables can be recorded in the results file of a Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation. In particular, their time-dependent character can be captured.
Initialisation page options:
• Initialisation script - The initialisation script defines part of the model behaviour. The script is used
to initialise the model state variables and other parameters (for details refer to Section 28.5.3).
Load Flow page options:
• All options within this page are used for all load flow based calculations (and are not specific to
Quasi-Dynamic Simulation).
• Linear Model flag - Check this flag if the load flow Equations script is representing a linear model
in its inputs and outputs (for further details refer to Section 28.5.3).
• Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations - As described in Section 28.5.3, the Equations script of the
load flow part does not allow direct access to any monitoring (m:) and calculation variable (c:). A
limited set of variables which can be accessed within the Equations script is provided for selection
within this table. Each class of network elements (PowerFactory class objects starting with “Elm”)
includes an extensive number of variables from which the user may choose the set of interest. To
insert one variable do the following:
– Insert an empty row in the table (if not there already)
– In the first column, type in the variable name/identifier to be used in the Equations script.
This name is arbitrary (but must be unique in the model) and is chosen by the user.
– Select the usage (second column) Input if the variable is a measurement (e.g. a remote
voltage measurement on a busbar) or Output if it is a controlled variable (e.g. the reactive
power setpoint of a static generator).
– In the Class name column type the class associated to the object (e.g. for a busbar, the class
is ElmTerm). If in doubt, one can open the dialog of any network element of the same class
and, in the dialog header, the path, element name and element class are provided (e.g. for a
static generator - “Grid\Static Generator.ElmGenstat”).
– Double click the empty field in the Variable name column and select from the list of available
variables the one which is of interest.
– If an input variable is selected, then the Bus/Phase name must also be selected. Double click
the corresponding empty field and select the appropriate bus/phase.
• Equations tab/script - The Equations script is one of the model scripts that define the model
behaviour. The script must contain the model’s inner loop load flow equations and during execution
of any given arbitrary inner loop it must be differentiable and the set of equations should be fixed.
(for further details refer to Section 28.5.3).
• Control tab/script - The Control script is one of the model scripts that define the model behaviour.
The script must contain the model’s outer loop load flow control equations (for further details refer
to Section 28.5.3).

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Quasi-Dynamic Simulation page options:

• Equations tab - The Quasi-Dynamic Equations script is one of the model scripts that define the
model behaviour. The script is executed once per time step and must contain the model’s time
derivative equations of all time-dependent quantities (state integration, etc.). For further details
refer to Section 28.5.3.
• Control tab - The Control actions for Quasi-Dynamic Simulation script is one of the model scripts
that define the model behaviour. It can be executed multiple times in order to achieve a steady
state control output at a certain time step. The script must contain the model’s outer loop Quasi-
Dynamic control actions, e.g. triggering of events or limitation of states. (for further details refer to
Section 28.5.3).

Note: The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation command (ComStatsim) does not consider by default the
time dependency of QDSL models (i.e. by default, the model scripts within the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation page of the QDSL type TypQdsl are not executed). The initialisation
and load flow scripts of the QDSL model will still be included in the calculation. This sim-
plification brings the advantage that, by default, the Quasi-Dynamic simulation contains a
set of decoupled load flows which can be independently executed (e.g. within a parallel
computation algorithm). To consider the time dependency of models, make sure that the flag
Consider time-dependent states of models in the Calculation Settings page of the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation command dialog is set.

Version page:

A number of version control fields are available, as follows:

• Company
• Author

• Version
• Last Modified
• Release Notes

28.5.1.2 Creating the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Model ElmQdsl (QDSL element)

Based on an already created QDSL type object TypQdsl (located in the project/global library folder)
any number of new QDSL elements can be created in the network folder, representing instances in the
power system of the type definition object. Similarly with dynamic models (DSL based), parameters in
the QDSL type object (TypQdsl) are only used as literals while in the QDSL element ElmQdsl actual
values of these parameters are assigned.

To create a new QDSL element, do the following:

• Using the Data Manager, navigate in the active project to Network Model → Network Data→
[Target Grid] folder (where [Target Grid] represents the network where the model is intended to be
deployed). Use the New Object toolbar icon and select the object Quasi-Dynamic Simulation
Model;

• Alternatively, from the single line diagram, right-click on any network element that shall be con-
trolled and select Define → Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Model. Then a QDSL type can be selected
or defined and the model is automatically created in the respective grid folder.

The QDSL element (ElmQdsl) dialog is divided in several sections with the following properties:

Basic Data page options:

• Model Definition - The intended QDSL type can be assigned here via the selection icons.

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• Out of service flag - Set this flag in order to disable the model. To enable the model this flag must
be unset.
• Parameters table - Out of the Variables table declared in the model definition Variables table, all
the parameters are listed here. Values for all parameters defined in the Variables table of the
QDSL type (TypQdsl) are assigned here.
• Connected network elements - Within this table, specific PowerFactory objects can be used
as referenced objects. Addressing a specific referenced object is done in the scripts via the
corresponding object name (declared in the QDSL type).

Load Flow page options:

• Network elements of inputs/outputs - Within this table, assignment of the referenced elements
is effected for the declared input/output variables within the QDSL type object, Load Flow page,
Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations table. Only network elements of the declared class (as
defined in the QDSL type) can be selected for a specific row.
Description page - A standard Description page is made available for version control purposes.

28.5.2 Overview of modelling approach

The two PowerFactory objects described above, QDSL type (TypQdsl) and element (ElmQdsl) provide
the framework of integrating a user defined Quasi-Dynamic Simulation model QDSL model.

The scripting language for all the model definition (TypQdsl) scripts is DigSILENT Programming Language
(DPL). Refer to Chapter 23 for a comprehensive description of DPL. Further documentation is available
within the DPL Reference which provides a full description of available functions. The DPL Reference
can be accessed in the PowerFactory program from the main menu at Help → Scripting References→
DPL. Functions that can be used within the QDSL model scripts are marked appropriately in the DPL
Reference documentation by a star (*) suffix (e.g. GetFromStudyCase*). There are functions (without
a star (*) marking) that are not available within the model scripts, e.g. the execution of a short circuit
ComShc command is not allowed. Besides the available DPL functions, there exist several functions
which are specific to QDSL model scripts only. They are listed and described in Section 28.5.4.

PowerFactory provides seamless integration of QDSL models within the Load Flow calculation and
the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation engines. This means that once a QDSL model is implemented it will
be active for both Load Flow (ComLdf ) and Quasi-Dynamic Simulation (ComStatsim) commands and
any other command which subsequently makes use of any of the two. A high level overview of the
integration of the user defined models within a PowerFactory project is shown in Figure 28.5.1. The
user is provided a high degree of flexibility in terms of interaction with the power system model via the
comprehensive scripting functionality. Any number of QDSL models can be created. Each model may
control one or several network elements. Moreover, each model may measure power system quantities
of one or several network elements. This allows development of complex control schemes applicable
for all load flow based calculations.

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Figure 28.5.1: Integration of QDSL models within the PowerFactory project

28.5.3 Algorithm flow of user defined Quasi-Dynamic Simulation models

The simulation procedure of a QDSL model that includes time-dependent state variables is shown in
Figure 28.5.2. Here, the time advance from a generic discrete absolute time point (𝑡𝑘 ) to the next time
point (𝑡𝑘+1 ) is exemplified, with 𝑡𝑘+1 depending on 𝑡𝑘 and the parameter Step provided in the Basic
Options page:

𝑡𝑘+1 = 𝑡𝑘 + 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝

Figure 28.5.2: QDSL models - Simulation Procedure

With reference to Figure 28.5.2, within a QDSL model the following blocks of user defined code may be
programmed in the QDSL type:

1. Initialisation block (A)

2. Load Flow Equations block (B)

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3. Load Flow Control block (C)

4. Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Control block (D)
5. Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Equations block (E)
In the following, a short description of the intended functionality of each block is given:

A. - Initialisation script:
• This script is used for the purpose of initialising the model state variables, the result variables
and parameters. Initialisation can be done with a constant value or via a calculation based
on certain network element parameters. Therefore, the user can even overwrite parameteri-
sation of parameters set in the QDSL element tables);
• This script is relevant for Load Flow calculation and Quasi-Dynamic simulation;
• When executing a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation (ComStatsim), this block is executed once for
each QDSL element only the first time the respective model is inserted into the calculation.
Insertion may happen at the beginning of the simulation or, if added within an expansion
stage, at the activation time of the expansion stage containing it. If a QDSL element is
outaged at a certain moment in time then, upon re-insertion at a subsequent instance, it will
be re-initialised. Any subsequent time steps occurring after the model insertion will have the
effect of bypassing the execution of the Initialisation block (i.e. will not be executed);
• When executing a simple Load Flow calculation (ComLdf ) this block is executed once before
running the load flow iterations;
• Within this script the user has access to a limited list of environment variables, i.e. ele-
ment parameters (e.g. battery:e:sgn) of elements being provided as Connected network
elements in the Basic Data page of the QDSL type TypQdsl. Neither monitoring variables
(e.g. m:P:bus1 of ElmGenstat) nor calculation variables (e.g. c:loading of ElmGenstat) are
available within this script;
• Signals of controlled models (e.g. s:id_ref of ElmGenstat) can also be initialised here.
B. - Load Flow Equations script:
• This script is used for solving the model load flow equations of a fixed state (e.g. determina-
tion of the battery power injection such that the load flow reaches steady state; neither the
charging mode nor the state of charge should change within this script);
• This script is relevant for Load Flow calculation and Quasi-Dynamic simulation;
• The equations must be differentiable in its inputs/outputs and fixed until the outer loop control
script is called;
• Monitoring variables are available here only via the Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations
table available in the Load Flow page of the QDSL type TypQdsl. A comprehensive number
of variables are made available for each build-in model type. Refer to the technical reference
of each power system model for a specific listing of available variables;
• The DPL function SetEquation is used to formulate the load flow equation of a certain load
flow model output. For each load flow model output (as explicitly defined in the Inputs/Outputs
for load flow equations table available in the Load Flow page of the QDSL type TypQdsl)
there must be exactly one SetEquation command that will characterise the output. Refer
to the specific function description for further information (e.g. Should a model contain five
output signals, then five SetEquation equations must be formulated - one for each output);
• Linear Model flag: the load flow Equations script is assumed to be linear in all inputs and
outputs. For such models, if set, there is a certain performance improvement that can be
obtained. Convergence behaviour must be checked on individual basis. Do not set this flag
if the model is not linear.
Note: For example, assuming that the load flow equation function of a certain model is
defined by:

𝑓 (𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡 ) = 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡 − 2 = 0
𝑑𝑓
= 1 = constant =⇒ model is linear, in the only output 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡

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Assuming the load flow equation function of a certain model is defined by equation below
(where 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 is a parameter):

𝑓 (𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡 , 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑢𝑟 ) = 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡 − (𝑢2𝑟 + 𝑢2𝑖 ) · 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 0

Calculating the first order derivative of the function with respect to its inputs:

𝑑𝑓
= 1 = constant =⇒ model is linear in 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑓
= −2 · 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 · 𝑢𝑖 = not constant =⇒ model is non-linear in 𝑢𝑖
𝑑𝑢𝑖
𝑑𝑓
= −2 · 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 · 𝑢𝑟 = not constant =⇒ model is non-linear in 𝑢𝑟
𝑑𝑢𝑟

C. - Load Flow Control script:

• This script checks for convergence of the load flow outer-loop control algorithm. The machine
state of the model may be changed here in order to reach a satisfactory operating point (e.g.
determination whether a battery is in charging or discharging operation modes depending on
measured network conditions, i.e. measured busbar voltage, measured power transfer via a
branch, etc.);
• This script is relevant for Load Flow calculation and Quasi-Dynamic simulation;
• Within this script, all monitoring variables and calculation quantities of referenced models or
DPL-retrieved models are available;
• Convergence criterion: by default, the algorithm decides internally whether the model triggers
an additional control loop by observing changes in result variables or states of the QDSL
model or the signals of the connected network elements controlled by the model. The thresh-
old triggering outer loops is defined in the load flow command. Alternatively, the user can take
control over the convergence decision by calling the DPL function SetControlLoopFinished.
D. - Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Control script:
• This script has a similar purpose as its Load Flow counterpart, i.e. to check for convergence
in the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation solution at time step 𝑡𝑘 ;
• This script is relevant for Quasi-Dynamic simulation only;
• With reference to the algorithm flow (see Figure 28.5.2), the script may be executed multiple
times until a steady state condition is reached within the Quasi-Dynamic loop (defined by
transitions “control change”, “convergent inner loop” and “convergent outer loop”). The script
is run once more at the end of the time step iteration, after the results have been saved for
time 𝑡𝑘 and the integration has been performed for time 𝑡𝑘 + 1 for the purpose of limiting the
newly integrated state variables, thereby ensuring feasible conditions for the next time step;
• Simulation events can only be generated within this script. Typically, after a simulation
event has been applied to the network one further iteration of the Load Flow loop should
be executed. Therefore, events are triggered immediately;
• Within one time step, a single event of a given type can be applied on a single target network
element by one QDSL element. Multiple events can be generated on different elements;
• Within this script, all monitoring variables and calculation quantities of referenced models or
DPL-retrieved models are available;
• Convergence criterion: by default, the algorithm decides internally whether the model triggers
an additional control loop by observing changes in result variables, state variables, triggering
of events etc. Alternatively, the user can take control over the convergence decision by calling
the function SetControlLoopFinished. Non-convergence is triggered when the maximum
number of outer loops is exceeded. This threshold is a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation command
parameter, available in the Calculation Settings page. (parameter “Max. number of control
loops”).

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E. - Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Equations script:

• This script is executed once per simulation time step and contains statements of all state
variables differential equations. It is the only location where state derivative equations may
be defined;
• This script is relevant for Quasi-Dynamic simulation only;
• Formulation of state derivatives is similar to the Dynamic Simulation Language (DSL) of the
Stability/EMT user defined models, i.e. each dot suffixed state variable represents the time
derivative of the corresponding state variable and must be assigned a single user defined
equation. For example, assuming that 𝑆𝑂𝐶 is defined as a state variable and represents the
percent state of charge of a battery, 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖 is the battery’s capacity in MWh, then:

SOC. = -Pset * 100. / (Eini * 3600.); ! slope of SOC

• It is possible to use derivatives of state variables in all QDSL scripts. Derivatives can be
accessed via a 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒 : 𝑑𝑡 statement (e.g. given a generic state variable 𝑥, the derivative
value is called using 𝑥 : 𝑑𝑡 or alternatively 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 : 𝑠 : 𝑥 : 𝑑𝑡). The format 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒. is only
allowed when defining the state derivative equation and never when retrieving the actual
value for further calculation;
• Within this script, all monitoring variables and calculation quantities of referenced models or
DPL-retrieved models are available;

28.5.4 Scripting Functions for Quasi-Dynamic Simulation

function description
CreateEvent Creates a simulation event with a certain execution time
CreateMultiLoadEvent Creates a simulation load event defined for multiple loads
GetSimulationTime Retrieves the current simulation time
GetStepSizeSeconds Returns simulation step size in seconds
SetEventParameter Function used to set a certain event parameter
SetEquation Defines the load flow equation of one load flow output variable
GetEquationMismatch Retrieves the current value of the SetEquation of a certain index
Enables the user to govern the outer loop behaviour of the
SetControlLoopFinished
Control scripts
IsOutaged() Checks if element is outaged

Table 28.5.1: Overview of DPL functions for Quasi-Dynamic simulation

CreateEvent

Creates an event of a given type for the Quasi-Dynamic simulation. This event exists only
temporarily in the study case folder of the Quasi-Dynamic simulation and will be deleted when
the calculation is reset. Note that events can only be created in the Control script (for the Quasi-
Dynamic simulation) of QDSL models. For further details about QDS-Events, please refer to
section 28.3.3. object CreateEvent(string eventType, [double executionTime])

Arguments:

eventType (obligatory) : Type of event to be created, e.g., EvtGen, EvtParam, EvtSwitch, etc.
executionTime (optional) : Execution time for the event (in seconds since 00:00 01.01.1970GMT).
If not set, the current simulation time is used.

Return value:

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If successful, the event that was created is returned.

Example:

The following example shows how a Dispatch event for a generator is created and executed at
the next time step:
1 double time;
2 object event, gen1;
3 set setGens;
4

5 time = GetSimulationTime();
6 event = CreateEvent('EvtGen', time+1);
7

8 setGens = GetCalcRelevantObjects('ElmSym');
9 gen1 = setGens.First();
10

11 if ({event<>NULL}.and.{gen1<>NULL}) {
12 SetEventParameter(event, 'loc_name', 'GenEvtQDSL');
13 SetEventParameter(event, 'p_target', gen1);
14 SetEventParameter(event, 'dP', 1.0);
15 SetEventParameter(event, 'dQ', 2.0);
16 }
17

CreateMultiLoadEvent

Creates a load event for multiple loads during Quasi-Dynamic simulation. This event exists only
temporarily in the study case folder of the Quasi-Dynamic simulation and will be deleted when
the calculation is reset. Note that events can only be created in the Control script (for the Quasi-
Dynamic simulation) of QDSL models.

object CreateMultiLoadEvent(set setOfLoads, [double executionTime])

Arguments:

setOfLoads : Set of all loads to be considered by the event.

executionTime (optional):Execution time for the event (in seconds since 00:00 01.01.1970GMT).
If not set, the current simulation time is used.

Return value:

If successful, the event that was created is returned.

Example:

The following example shows how a multi-load event is created and scheduled for the current
time step:
1 object load,
2 event;
3 set setLoads,
4 allLoads;
5

6 allLoads = GetCalcRelevantObjects('ElmLod');
7 load = allLoads.First();
8 setLoads.Add(load);
9 load = allLoads.Next();
10 setLoads.Add(load);
11 event = CreateMultiLoadEvent(setLoads);
12

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13 if (event<>NULL) {
14 SetEventParameter(event, 'loc_name', 'MultiLoadEvent1');
15 SetEventParameter(event, 'iopt_type', 0);
16 SetEventParameter(event, 'dP', 1.0);
17 SetEventParameter(event, 'dQ', 2.0);
18 }
19

GetSimulationTime

Get the current simulation time during Quasi-Dynamic simulation (in seconds since
00:00 01.01.1970GMT).

double GetSimulationTime ()

Arguments: -

Return value:

Returns the current simulation time (in seconds since 00:00 01.01.1970GMT).

GetStepSizeSeconds

Get the Quasi-Dynamic simulation step size in seconds.

double GetStepSizeSeconds ()

Arguments: -

Return value:

Returns the step size in seconds.

SetEventParameter

Setup the parameters of a (temporary) event created during Quasi-Dynamic simulation by a

QDSL model.

bool SetEventParameter(Object event, string paramName, int|double|string|object value)

Arguments:

event: Event whose parameter shall be modified.

paramName: Parameter name to be modified for event object.

value: New value to set for parameter paramName of event object.

Return value:

Returns non-zero if setting the parameter failed.

Example:

Refer to example of CreateMultiLoadEvent.

SetEquation

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Equations are formulated and solved in the form f(x)=0. The number of equations for a QDSL
model is equal to the number of outputs defined. Here the currently calculated value for the
equation of a certain index is set. This function must be called for every index 0,...,(number of
outputs-1). Note that this function can only be called in the load flow Equations script of QDSL
models.

bool SetEquation (int eqIdx, double eqValue)

Arguments:

eqIdx:The index of the equation to set the value (zero-based).

eqValue:The currently calculated value to set for the equation.

Return value:

Returns non-zero if setting the equation value failed.

Example:

The following example shows how an equation f(in, out):=out-in = 0 can be formulated and solved
for one input in and one output out.
1 SetEquation(0, in-out);

The variable 𝑖𝑛 represents in the example above an Output signal as declared within the Load
Flow page of the QDSL type, table Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations. The variable 𝑜𝑢𝑡
represents the setpoint value to be obtained within the load flow inner loop by the variable 𝑖𝑛.
The variable 𝑜𝑢𝑡 is typically calculated within the Equations script. Example, where 𝑢 and 𝑖𝑛 are
defined in Table 28.5.2 and 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 is a parameter:
1 double out;
2 out = Prated * u ;
3 SetEquation(0, in-out);

Name Usage Class name Variable name Bus/phase name

in Output ElmGenstat pset
u Input ElmGenstat u1 bus1

Table 28.5.2: Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations of QDSL type

GetEquationMismatch

Equations are formulated and solved in the form f(x)=0. The number of equations for a QDSL
model is equal to the number of outputs defined. Here the currently calculated value for the
equation of a certain index is obtained.

double GetEquationMismatch(int eqIdx)

Arguments:

eqIdx: The index of the equation to get the value (zero-based).

Return value:

Returns the value of the equation at index eqIdx on success. If not successful, this function
returns -1.

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Example:

The following example shows how the value of equation 0 can be obtained:
1 double mismatch;
2

3 mismatch = GetEquationMismatch(0);
4 printf('The error in equation 0 is %f', mismatch);
5

SetControlLoopFinished

Function enabling the user to govern the outer loop behaviour of the control scripts for the Load
Flow or Quasi-Dynamic simulation. If the function is not called the algorithm decides internally
whether the model triggers an additional control loop. If the function is called, the user can decide
when the model has converged.

bool SetControlLoopFinished (bool isFinished)

Arguments:

isFinished:
• 𝑖𝑠𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑! = 0 - This model will not trigger another outer loop.
• 𝑖𝑠𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 = 0 - The model has not converged satisfactorily yet. Another outer loop is demanded
by the user.
Return value:

Returns zero, if the control statement could be successfully set.

Example:

The following example shows how the user can decide whether another loop is necessary (in the
control script):
1 if (gen:m:P:bus1 > 1.0) {
2 gen:s:pset = 0.5;
3 SetControlLoopFinished(0);
4 }
5 else {
6 SetControlLoopFinished(1);
7 }
8

IsOutaged()

Function to determine whether or not an object is currently calculation-relevant, in-service and

not outaged (e.g., by a contingency).

bool object.IsOutaged ()

Arguments: -

Return value:

Returns one, if object is currently outaged.

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28.5.5 Example: Modelling a battery as a Quasi-Dynamic user defined model

This section does not intend to give a specification on modelling a battery system, but rather a high
level overview of a Battery model which can help the reader to understand the modelling requirements
within Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.

With reference to Figure 28.5.3 a very simple AC power system that contains a PV unit, an AC load
and an AC/DC converter interfaced battery unit is considered. In this arrangement, one possible
battery control strategy would be to measure the AC power flow through the supply line such that
the contribution of the battery system at a certain moment in time can be correlated with the generated
photovoltaic and the consumed load powers.

Figure 28.5.3: Example of Battery System considering branch flow measurement

Having knowledge of the power flow through the supply line, the actual power balance between the PV
system and the AC load can be easily calculated as:

𝑃𝑝𝑣 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠

A valid battery control strategy (refer to Figure 28.5.4) would be to verify the power throughput 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 .
For the periods when 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 is positive (hence the PV system is generating more power than the load
can consume) the battery system may charge to replenish the state of charge. For the periods when
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 is negative (hence the load consumes more power than the PV can generate) the battery system
may discharge to minimise the power net import from the supply network. A deadband may also be
introduced in order to avoid unwanted behaviour (using 𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑 and 𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 thresholds). Hence,
a charging/discharging operation mode can be identified based on the power flow through the supply

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line. This operation mode, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑃 is defined as below:

⎧
⎨1, battery charging
⎪
⎪
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑃 = 2, battery inactive (28.2)
⎪
⎪
⎩
3, battery discharging

Figure 28.5.4: Example of a generic battery control strategy

An important parameter of a battery model is the battery’s state of charge (expressed in %) and defined
as the percentual fraction of the energy still available in the battery (in 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ) over the total energy
when the battery is fully charged (denoted by 𝐶 and expressed in 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ). The state of charge is hence
a state variable of a battery model, with 0 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶 ≤ 100. In its most simple representation of a battery,
the time dependence of the battery’s state of charge 𝑆𝑂𝐶 can be defined by the following differential
equation:

𝑑 −𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 · 100
𝑆𝑂𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 · 3600
where 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 is the AC power (in MW) flowing through the battery branch, under the assumption of a
unity transfer efficiency between the AC and DC side of the battery converter system.

Further considerations must be taken in the QDSL model in order to limit the charging/discharging
modes of the battery depending on the current 𝑆𝑂𝐶 at any given moment in time. This operation mode,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝐸 is defined as below:
⎧
⎨1,
⎪
⎪ 𝑆𝑂𝐶 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝐸 = 2, 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 (28.3)
⎪
⎪
3, 𝑆𝑂𝐶 ≥ 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
⎩

where 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 are the maximum and the minimum allowed state of charge setpoints
respectively, and 0 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 100.

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The model state variables and parameters can be defined as provided in Table 28.5.3. These parame-
ters are accessible from all model scripts.

state variable SOC % State of charge

parameter Eini MWh Storage Energy Size
parameter SOCini % Initial state of charge
parameter SOCmin % Minimal state of charge
parameter SOCmax % Maximal state of charge
parameter Pstore MW Rated charging power
parameter PFullStore MW Pmeas where maximum charging is reached
parameter PStartStore MW Pmeas where charging starts
parameter Pfeed MW Rated discharging power
parameter PStartFeed MW Pmeas where discharging starts
parameter PFullFeed MW Pmeas where maximum discharging is reached
parameter orientation 1=terminal j is closest, otherwise -1

Table 28.5.3: Parameters and state variables of user defined Quasi-Dynamic model

The model results can be defined as below. The results include the operation modes 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑃 and
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝐸, which can be used in the model scripts as well (they can be updated over time, depending on
the grid situation):

Pmeas MW Measured power (PV and load)

chargeE Operation area w.r.t. energy
chargeP Operation area w.r.t. power
iniSOCoob Initial SOC out of bounds flag

Table 28.5.4: Results of user defined Quasi-Dynamic model

The Initialisation script (block A in Figure 28.5.2) must deal with initialising all the operation modes and
the initial state of charge of the battery, as shown here:
1 double pmeas;
2 SOC = SOCini;
3 pmeas = 0.; ! arbitrary value being provided; load flow has not been yet executed
4 ! measured power operation area
5 chargeP = 0.;
6 if ({PFullStore <= PStartStore}.or.{-PStartFeed <= -PFullFeed}) {
7 chargeP = 0; ! Error
8 Warn('PFullStore must be > than PStartStore and PFullFeed > than PStartFeed');}
9 else if (pmeas < PStartFeed) chargeP = 3;
10 else if (pmeas > PStartStore) chargeP = 1;
11 else chargeP = 2;
12 ! energy operation area
13 iniSOCoob = 0; ! Inside bounds
14 if (SOCmin >= SOCmax) {
15 chargeE = 0; ! Error
16 Warn('SOCmin must be < than SOCmax.');
17 }
18 else if (SOC > SOCmax) {
19 chargeE = 3;
20 iniSOCoob = 1;}
21 else if (SOC = SOCmax) chargeE = 3;
22 else if (SOC = SOCmin) chargeE = 1;
23 else if (SOC < SOCmin) {

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24 chargeE = 1;
25 iniSOCoob = 1;}
26 else chargeE = 2;

The load flow outer loop equations (Load Flow Control script, i.e. block C in Figure 28.5.2) are respon-
sible with changing the charging/discharging operation mode 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑃 such that the battery system is
operating on the correct region as defined in Figure 28.5.4. Additionally, the verification of the current
value of the state of charge 𝑆𝑂𝐶 must be considered by appropriately updating the 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝐸 operation
mode. Based on the previous considerations, the load flow control DPL script can be programmed as
shown here:
1 Pmeas = Pline*orientation - Pbatt; ! negative=load
2 ! measured power operation area
3 if (chargeP > 0) { ! Not initial error
4 if (Pmeas < -PStartFeed) chargeP = 3;
5 else if (Pmeas > PStartStore) chargeP = 1;
6 else chargeP = 2;
7 }
8 ! energy operation area
9 if (chargeE > 0) { ! Not initial error
10 if (SOC >= SOCmax) {
11 chargeE = 3;
12 if ({iniSOCoob = 0}.and.{SOC > SOCmax}) {
13 SOC = SOCmax;
14 }
15 }
16 else if (SOC <= SOCmin) {
17 chargeE = 1;
18 if ({iniSOCoob = 0}.and.{SOC < SOCmin}) {
19 SOC = SOCmin;
20 }
21 }
22 else {
23 chargeE = 2;
24 iniSOCoob = 0; ! Inside limits now
25 }
26 }

The load flow inner loop equations (Load Flow Equations) must consider a fixed state of the battery
model (i.e. the charge operation modes, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑃 and 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝐸, the state of charge of the battery
𝑆𝑂𝐶 and any other operational flags do not change within this script). The amount of power being
consumed/generated by the battery in the discharge/charge operation modes can be defined as below
using a linear function that considers a reduction factor depending on the value of 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 with respect to
four other thresholds ( 𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑 , 𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑 , 𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 and 𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 ):
⎧
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 +𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑
⎨𝑃𝑓 𝑒𝑒𝑑 · (1 − −𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑 +𝑃𝐹 𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑑 ), discharging
⎪
⎪
𝐹 𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 −𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠
𝑃 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 =
⎪ −𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 · (1 − 𝑃𝐹𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 −𝑃𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 ), charging
⎪
⎩
0, battery inactive

The measured and the controlled quantities of the QDSL model are, as shown in Figure 28.5.3, 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
and 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 . They are declared within the Load Flow page of the QDSL type as below. Further to that,
within the Load Flow page of the QDSL element the actual network elements (the battery element and
the supply line) will need to be assigned.

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 28.5. DEVELOPING QDSL MODELS

Name Usage Class name Variable name Bus/phase name

Pbatt Output ElmGenstat pset
Pline Input ElmLne Psum bus2

Table 28.5.5: Inputs/Outputs for load flow equations of QDSL type

Considering the previous observations, the Load Flow Equations script (block B in Figure 28.5.2) can be
defined using DPL as shown below. Note the use of the DPL function SetEquation, which provides the
statement for controlling the output power of the battery 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 (static generator element in PowerFactory )
to the calculated setpoint 𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛 . Note also the generator sign convention chosen when computing the
setpoint 𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛 such to comply with the requirements of the Static Generator element (positive 𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛
means discharging, negative 𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛 means charging, as in Figure 28.5.4).
1 double Pgen,
2 redFac;
3 Pmeas = Pline*orientation - Pbatt; ! negative=load
4 redFac = 1.0;
5 if ({chargeP = 3}.and.{chargeE >= 2}.and.{chargeE > 0}) {
6 if (Pmeas > -PFullFeed)
7 {redFac = 1 - ((Pmeas + PFullFeed)/(-PStartFeed + PFullFeed));}
8 Pgen = Pfeed * redFac; ! discharge = GEN, feeding
9 }
10 else if ({chargeP = 1}.and.{chargeE <= 2}.and.{chargeE > 0}) {
11 if (Pmeas < PFullStore)
12 {redFac = 1 - ((PFullStore - Pmeas)/(PFullStore - PStartStore));}
13 Pgen = -Pstore * redFac; ! charge = LOAD, storing
14 }
15 else {
16 Pgen = 0.;
17 }
18 SetEquation(0, Pbatt - Pgen);

The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Equations script (block E in Figure 28.5.2) must contain the statements
for the time derivatives and other time-dependent variables. In this case, the only time-dependent
quantity is the state of charge variable 𝑆𝑂𝐶. Hence, the Quasi-Dynamic Equations script contains this
DPL code:
1 SOC. = -Pbatt * 100. / (Eini * 3600.); ! slope of charge/discharge in %

The Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Control script (block D in Figure 28.5.2) is only a variation of the load
flow Control script (since no additional simulation events are generated), as shown below:
1 ! energy operation area
2 if (chargeE > 0) { ! Not initial error
3 if (SOC >= SOCmax) {
4 chargeE = 3;
5 if ({iniSOCoob = 0}.and.{SOC > SOCmax}) {
6 SOC = SOCmax;
7 }
8 }
9 else if (SOC <= SOCmin) {
10 chargeE = 1;
11 if ({iniSOCoob = 0}.and.{SOC < SOCmin}) {
12 SOC = SOCmin;
13 }
14 }
15 else {
16 chargeE = 2;

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 28.5. DEVELOPING QDSL MODELS

17 iniSOCoob = 0; ! Inside limits now

18 }
19 }

Implementing the model and running one simulation for a generic load curve, the results shown in
Figure 28.5.5 and 28.5.6 are obtained.

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 28.5. DEVELOPING QDSL MODELS

Figure 28.5.5: Power Flow and state of charge SOC behaviour during a one day simulation

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Figure 28.5.6: 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 - sum of PV and Load power [kW]; 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 - battery power output [kW]

28.5.6 QDSL Model Encryption

PowerFactory offers the possibility to encrypt the script code of a QDSL type (Quasi-Dynamic Simulation
Type). The encryption action can be initiated by pressing the corresponding button in the edit dialog of
the QDSL Type object. The encryption process will ask in a dialog for a password. The password will
be required for later decryption and is not needed for running simulations using the QDSL type. After
successful encryption, the code is hidden and only the name of the QDSL type itself can be changed.

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Chapter 29

RMS/EMT Simulations

29.1 Introduction

The RMS/EMT simulation functions available in DIgSILENT PowerFactory are able to analyse the
dynamic behaviour of small and large power systems. The underlying framework makes it possible
to model a wide range of complex systems, such as large transmission grids, renewable generation
plants or industrial networks, while taking into account electrical, mechanical and control parameters.

Transients, stability analyses and dynamic control problems are important during the planning, design
and operation of modern power systems. Such studies can be conducted using time-domain simulations
for varying time periods. A wide range of either ac, dc or ac/dc based systems may be necessary to
be analysed (e.g. transmission systems with detailed models of power plants, HVDC systems, power
electronics based generation, railway systems, variable speed drives motor start-up).

Transients in electrical power systems can generally be classified according to three possible time
frames of interest:

• short-term, or electromagnetic transients;

• mid-term, or electromechanical transients;
• long-term transients.

PowerFactory supports the following time-domain simulation methods (described in section 29.2):
• RMS balanced - A basic function which uses a symmetrical steady-state (RMS) network model
for mid-term and long-term transients under balanced network conditions (refer to Section 29.2.1);
• RMS unbalanced - A three-phase function which uses a steady-state (RMS) network model for
mid-term and long-term transients under balanced and unbalanced network conditions, i.e. for
analysing dynamic behaviour after unsymmetrical faults (refer to Section 29.2.2);
• Instantaneous values - An electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation function using a dynamic
network model for electromagnetic and electromechanical transients under balanced and un-
balanced network conditions. This function is particularly suited to the analysis of short-term
transients (refer to Section 29.2.3).
The simulation methods use an iterative procedure to solve AC and DC load flows at any given time point
(algebraic equations), along with the solution for dynamic model state variables (differential equations).

Before the start of a simulation, the user may configure what type of network representation should be
used in the simulation, what step sizes to use, which events to handle and where to store the results.

Upon start of a simulation, PowerFactory determines the initial conditions for all power system ele-
ments (including all controller units and mechanical components) based on a valid load flow calculation

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 29.1. INTRODUCTION

(described in Chapter 25).

The process of performing a dynamic simulation typically involves the following steps:

1. Calculation of initial values, including a load flow calculation (refer to Section 29.3)

2. Definition of result variables (refer to Section 29.4)

3. Definition of simulation events (refer to Section 29.5)
4. Execution of simulation (refer to Section 29.6)
5. Creation of simulation plots (refer to Section 29.7)

6. Exporting results (optional, refer to Section 19.6.1).

For all simulation methods, PowerFactory provides a Simulation Scan function which greatly simplifies
the task of monitoring power system wide variables (e.g. voltage, frequency, generator loss of synchro-
nism) and issuing corresponding actions. This function is documented in Section 29.8.

Based on the aforementioned sequential time domain simulation methods (RMS balanced, RMS unbal-
anced and EMT), PowerFactory supports the following co-simulation functions:

• Single/Multiple Domain co-simulation (described in Section 29.10)

• Co-simulation with external solver (described in Section 29.11)
Whenever dynamic models need to be analysed in frequency domain, the Frequency Response Anal-
ysis function can be employed, enabling users to create Bode or Nyquist plots. Refer to Section 29.12
for more information.

If time domain curves (e.g. simulation results) need to be analysed in frequency domain, PowerFactory
provides two signal frequency analysis functions, as documented in Section 29.13:
• Fourier Analysis, using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and
• Prony Analysis.
User defined dynamic models can be developed, configured and included in a dynamic simulation.
These models are based on the DSL framework, described in Chapter 30.

For equipment and controls whose physical dynamic behaviour is known (e.g. via test measurements)
the System Parameter Identification function can be used along with a non-parameterised simulation
model in order to obtain an accurate representation of the system. More details are available in
Chapter 31.

PowerFactory provides a dedicated toolbar for accessing the different dynamic simulation commands.
The toolbar can be shown by clicking the Change Toolbox button and selecting Simulation RM-
S/EMT. It is also possible to execute some of the fore mentioned functions via the main menu: Calcula-
tion → Simulation RMS/EMT. The following functions are available in the toolbar:

• Calculate Initial Conditions

• Start Simulation

• Stop Simulation

• Create Simulation Plot

• Initial Conditions for co-simulation

• Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver

• Save Snapshot

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 29.2. CALCULATION METHODS

• Load Snapshot

• Edit Result Variables

• Edit Simulation Events

• Edit Simulation Scan

• Calculation of Frequency Response

• System Parameter Identification

29.2 Calculation Methods

29.2.1 Balanced RMS Simulation

The balanced RMS simulation function considers dynamics in electromechanical, control and thermal
devices. It uses a symmetrical, steady-state representation of the passive electrical network. Using this
representation, only the fundamental components of voltages and currents are taken into account.

Depending on the models of generators, motors, controllers, power plants and motor driven machines
used, the following studies may be carried out:

• transient stability (e.g. determination of critical fault clearing times);

• mid-term stability (e.g. optimisation of spinning reserve and load shedding);
• oscillatory stability (e.g. optimisation of control device to improve system damping);
• motor start-up (e.g. determination of start-up times and voltage drops);

Various events can be included in the simulation, for example:

• start-up and/or loss of generators or motors;

• stepwise variation of loads;

• load-shedding;
• line and transformer switching/tripping;
• symmetrical short-circuit events;

• insertion of network elements;

• power plant shut down;
• variations of controller setpoint;

• change of any system parameter.

Because of the symmetrical network representation, the basic simulation function allows the insertion
of symmetrical faults only.

29.2.2 Three-Phase RMS Simulation

If asymmetrical faults or unbalanced networks have to be analysed, the three phase RMS simulation
function must be used. This simulation function uses a steady-state, three-phase representation of
the passive electrical network and can therefore compute unbalanced network conditions, either due to

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 29.3. CALCULATION OF INITIAL CONDITIONS COMMAND

unbalanced network elements or due to asymmetrical faults. Dynamics in electromechanical, control

and thermal devices are represented in the same way as in the basic RMS simulation function.

Asymmetrical electromechanical devices can be modelled, and single-phase and two-phase networks
can also be analysed using this analysis function.

In addition to the balanced RMS simulation events, unbalanced fault events can be simulated, such as:

• single-phase and two-phase (to ground) short-circuits;

• phase to phase short-circuits;

• inter-circuit faults between different lines;
• single- and double-phase line interruptions.

All of these events can be modelled to occur simultaneously or separately, hence any combination of
symmetrical and asymmetrical faults can be modelled.

29.2.3 Three-Phase EMT Simulation

Voltages and currents are represented in the EMT simulation by their instantaneous values, so that the
dynamic behaviour of passive network elements is also taken into account. This is necessary for the
following applications:

• DC and harmonic components of currents and voltages;

• Exact behaviour of inverter-driven machines;
• Exact behaviour of HVDC transmission systems;

• Non-linear behaviour of passive network elements such as transformer saturation;

• Over-voltage phenomena in switching devices;
• Lightning strikes and travelling waves;
• Analysis of the exact behaviour of protection devices during faults.

The high level of detail used to represent the modelled network means that all phases and all defined
events (symmetrical and asymmetrical) can be simulated. The EMT function can also be used for the
simulation of longer-term transients. However, due to the passive network elements being represented
dynamically, the integration step size has to be significantly smaller than in the case of a steady-state
representation and as a result, the calculation time increases.

29.3 Calculation of Initial Conditions command

The Calculation of initial Conditions command (ComInc) dialog allows the configuration of simulation
solver settings, such as the simulation type (i.e. RMS or EMT, balanced or unbalanced) and simulation
step size.

The available configuration pages of the Calculation of initial Conditions command dialog are:

• Basic Options: selection of simulation type (RMS, EMT; balanced, unbalanced), load flow com-
mand, results object, event list and reference system.
• Step Size: start time, integration step sizes and output step size can be specified here, along with
step size adaptation parameters.

• Solver Options: includes various iteration, integration, algorithm and event control parameters.

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 29.3. CALCULATION OF INITIAL CONDITIONS COMMAND

• Simulation Scan: simulation scan options.

• Noise Generation: defines parameters of the noise generation for stochastic applications.

• Real Time: defines parameters for real-time applications.

• Snapshot: save snapshot options.

29.3.1 Initial Conditions - Basic Options

The Basic Options are used to select the simulation type and the network representation. References to
the results object (described in section 29.4), the event list (described in section 29.5) and the load flow
command are available for inspecting or editing these objects, by clicking on the respective icon.

29.3.1.1 Basic Options - General

Verify initial conditions

If the initial conditions can be fulfilled, the power system will be in a steady-state condition. When the
Verify initial conditions option is enabled, then the condition dx/dt = 0 is checked for all state variables. If
one or more of the state variable derivatives does not equal zero, the power system may start ’moving’
from the very beginning of the simulation, even without the application of an external event. In this case
the user should carefully analyse the relevant controller or model and its defined initial conditions.

All warnings or error messages issued in the output window should be checked. Typical problems
include devices which are overloaded or operate above or below signal limits from the beginning of the
simulation.

An error message displayed in the output window may appear as follows:

Some models could not be initialised.

Please check the following models:
’Simple Grid AVR Common Model.ElmDsl’:
Initial conditions not valid !

Automatic step size adaptation

This option enables the step size adaptation algorithm, and can be used to considerably speed-up the
simulation. PowerFactory adjusts the step size to the actual course of the dynamic simulation. Based
on the local truncation error, PowerFactory calculates an optimal step size that keeps the numerical
error within the specified limit. A step size controller adjusts the integration step size. As a result, when
fast transients have decayed, PowerFactory automatically increases the step size and speeds up the
simulation process considerably.

In the case of events (external or internal), the step size is always set back to the minimum step size.
This way, the behaviour of the system during a transient event is represented with the best accuracy.

If the error exceeds the specified limit or the simulation does not converge with an integration step larger
than the minimum step, the simulation algorithm steps back and repeats the integration with a smaller
integration step in order to reduce the error or to achieve convergence.

Further parameters to adapt this algorithm are defined on the Step Size page (see section 29.3.2).

Reuse previous load flow results

When the calculation of initial conditions is carried out at the start of a simulation, a load flow needs to be
run. If many simulations are to be performed and therefore the initial conditions must be repeatedly re-
calculated, the repeated load flows could cause a considerable time overhead. If the option is selected,

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the load flow results from the calculation of initial conditions are retained and used in subsequent initial
conditions calculations.

29.3.1.2 Basic Options - Reference system

The reference defines the reference frequency for RMS simulation. Table 29.3.1 gives an overview of
the resulting reference frequency, depending on the settings for reference and reference system area.
The isolated areas refer to the isolated areas detected by the topology check of the load flow calculation.
Reference

• Element: the reference of the system is a single element.

• Centre of inertia: the reference is the calculated centre of inertia.
• Nominal frequency: the reference is constant throughout the simulation and equal to 1 p.u.

Reference system area

• Global: one single reference is used when executing the simulation. It should be used if the
separated areas are re-synchronised again later in the simulation.
• Local (individual in each isolated area): this is the default option. A local reference is selected for
each isolated area.

Reference
Isolated Areas of the same Isolated Areas of different
Reference System
nominal frequency nominal frequency
Area
Reference frequencies are cal-
culated for isolated areas of the
same nominal frequency. Isolated
The reference frequency is taken
areas of a different nominal fre-
Element Global from one reference element for
quency have a different reference
the whole power system.
frequency. Isolated areas of a the
same nominal frequency have the
same reference frequency.
The reference frequency is calcu- The reference frequency is calcu-
Element Local
lated for each isolated area. lated for each isolated area.
The reference frequency is calcu-
lated according to the centre of in-
The reference frequency is cal- ertia of all machines in the whole
Centre of culated according to the centre power system (irrespective of the
Global
inertia of inertia of all machines in the individual nominal frequencies of
whole power system. isolated areas, as the global ref-
erence frequency is expressed in
p.u.).
The reference frequency is calcu- The reference frequency is calcu-
lated individually for each isolated lated individually for each isolated
Centre of
Local area, according to the centre of area, according to the centre of
inertia
inertia of the machines of the iso- inertia of the machines of the iso-
lated area. lated area.
Nominal The reference is always 1 p.u. The reference is always 1 p.u.
N/A
frequency nominal frequency. nominal frequency.

Table 29.3.1: Reference systems for simulation

Reference system calculation method

If the option Element is selected from the Reference frame, the additional options are available:

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• Implicit: this calculates the angle in every iteration, i.e. introduces additional dependencies in the
system equations.
• Explicit: this uses the angle value calculated in the previous time step to avoid additional depen-
dencies.

After running initial conditions, the reference element(s) is (are) displayed in the output window (only if
the option Element was selected as reference).

Synchronous machine out of step detection

The out of step detection is based on the angle 𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑙 (rotor angle of the synchronous machine with
respect to the rotor angle of the local reference). It is functional only for RMS type simulations. Two
options are available:

• Out of step is detected when the rotor angle 𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑙 reaches the detection angle.
• Out of step is detected when the rotor angle 𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑙 changes by the detection angle from its initial
operating point.

The detection angle can be changed by the user and its default value is 360 degrees.

Calculate maximum rotor angle deviation

PowerFactory can also calculate the maximum deviation between the rotor angles of the synchronous
machines in the system. This variable, called dfrotx, can then be selected for display from the variables
of all synchronous generators in the system. It can be used as an indicator for the synchronous
operation of a large transmission system.

29.3.2 Initial Conditions - Step Size

In this page additional options are defined depending on whether the option Automatic step size adap-
tation on the Basic Options page is activated or deactivated.

29.3.2.1 Step Size - General

Integration step size

When using a fixed step size for the simulation, the integration step size for EMT or RMS has to be set.

• Electromechanical transients (RMS) (typical value: 0.01 s)

• Electromagnetic transients (EMT) (typical value: 0.0001 s

When using a variable step size, the following values should be entered:

• Electromagnetic transients / electromechanical transients: minimum step size for EMT and RMS
simulations, respectively.
• Maximum step size: maximum step size for the simulation.

Start time

The start time of the simulation. This is typically negative, allowing the first event to be analysed to take
place at t=0 s.

Note: When setting up time-domain simulations, it is very important to use the correct time steps in
order to be able to observe phenomena in the results. For the RMS simulation the minimum time

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step should always be smaller than the time constants in the system. In controllers one must
consider both the open-loop and the closed-loop time constants. For electromagnetic transients,
e.g. when analysing travelling waves, the smallest travelling time would be the upper limit for the
minimum time step.

In addition to the Newton-Raphson based algorithm for the solution of “weak” non-linearities (i.e. satu-
ration effects in synchronous and asynchronous machines), the simulation function allows interrupts for
the simulation of “strong” non-linearities (i.e. switches, two-slope transformer saturation or thyristors).
These interrupts can also occur between time steps.

In the case of this kind of interrupt, all time-dependent variables are interpolated to the instant of interrupt
and the simulation restarts at that point. This prevents numerical oscillations.

Enforced synchronisation

This option can be used to get simulation results at every specified time. E.g. if the period of the
enforced synchronisation is set to 1 s there will additional results at every second regardless of step
size.

Record results

It is often unnecessary to plot every single calculated time step, and this reduction in plotted data can
also result in a reduced simulation time. For this purpose the output sampling step for the output graphs
can be set, so that not every point in time throughout the simulation time will be plotted. By selecting
a larger output sampling step, the simulation process will speed up without influencing the calculation
process. It should be noted, however, that fast changes may not be seen in the reported results. The
following options are available:

• After interruption or lapse of output step: the results will be recorded at every output sampling
step which is defined by entering a sampling ratio.

• At synchronised point in time: the period defined in the enforced synchronisation field will be used
to determine the sampling step.

29.3.2.2 Step Size - Automatic Adaptation

If option Automatic step size adaptation is enabled on the Basic Options page, further step size options
are available on the Automatic Adaptation tab. These options are:

• Reset automatic step size at interruption: the step size is set to the minimum after any interruption
• Use maximum step size at start: this option can be selected to speed up the beginning of the
simulation.

• Advanced step size algorithm selected: if the option is selected, the step size algorithm is based
on the integration of the prediction error. In addition, the algorithm is looking for an optimal step
size. The options of this method are:
– Maximum prediction error (typical value: 0.01)
– Time constant for RMS/EMT Simulation
• Advanced step size algorithm not selected: if the option is un-selected, the step size algorithm
is based on the increase and decrease by speed factor and prediction error. The options of this
method are:
– Maximum prediction error (typical value: 0.01)
– Minimum prediction error (typical value: 0.001)
– Delay for step size increase (number of steps) (typical value: 10)
– Speed factor: increase (default value: 1.5)

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– Speed factor: decrease (default value: 2)

– Maximum increase of step size for RMS (typical value: 0.05 s)
– Maximum increase of step size for EMT (typical value: 0.001 s)

Note: The simulation time can be very sensitive to some of these parameters. For example, when the
maximum time step is increased, the duration of calculating transients may not always decrease.
If this time step is increased over an “optimal” time step the simulation time may increase as well.
It is strongly recommended to critically observe the simulation time and the results for different
simulation parameters.

29.3.3 Initial Conditions - Solver Options

The solver options may be used to tune the performance of the simulation algorithm. Less experienced
users are recommended to use the default values.

29.3.3.1 Solver Options - General

Integration control

• Maximum error for dynamic model equations (typical value: 0.1 %)

• Damping factor for RMS (typical value: 1)

• Damping factor for EMT (typical value: 0.99)

Note: The damping factor range is between 0 and 1. A value of 0 corresponds to use as numerical
integration method the Backward Euler (implicit) method. If set to 1 then the trapezoidal integration
(implicit) method is applied. A value between these two results in a combination of the two
methods.

If the simulation method is set to EMT, and the automatic step size adaptation option is selected, the
integration factors can be adapted by using the additional option Apply AC-adaptation.

Iteration control

• Maximum error for bus equations: the iteration error for bus equations depends on the nominal
power of the machines and the voltage levels. As an adequate starting value, should be set to:
errsm = 10*errlf, where errlf is the maximum acceptable load flow error for each node. Checking
is best done by plotting some voltages at generator busbars. If voltage steps are observed, the
value of errsm should be reduced.
• Maximum error for network model equations:
this error can be entered separately for the high, medium and low voltage level. The thresholds of
these levels can be defined in the project settings.
(typical value: 1 %)
• Maximum number of iterations: specifies the maximum number of iterations at each integration
step which are allowed to reach the maximum tolerable bus-error errsm. During the transient
simulation process, the typical number of iterations required is between 1 and 5. Under certain
conditions, i.e. after switching operations, up to 25 iterations may be observed. (typical value: 25)
• Iteration limit to recompute Jacobian matrix (typical value: 5)

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Simplifications

The use of these options will result in a faster simulation.

• Fast connection of A-stable models outputs: optimises the output equations formulation for A-
stable models.

• Fast convergence check: determines convergence via advanced heuristics instead of checking
each single equation.
• Fast computation of outputs: uses the last available output from the solution process instead of
recomputing each single quantity.

• Fast independent solution of network and dynamic models: determines convergence sequentially
and independently on network and dynamic models rather than simultaneously.

Note: A requirement for using the independent solution of network and dynamic models algorithm
is that “small” integration steps are used with respect to the dynamics involved.

29.3.3.2 Solver Options - Models

Initialisation

• Solve dynamic model equations at initialisation: the dynamic equations of the non-A-stable models
are solved at initialisation together with network and A-stable models which are always solved.
• Issue warnings for multiple initialisation of signals: a warning is issued when a DSL model input
signal is initialised by two different models.

A-stable integration algorithm

If this option is enabled, PowerFactory uses an A-stable numerical integration algorithm for models
to solve the simulation. In this case the dynamic model equations and network equations are solved
simultaneously. This algorithm is (slightly) slower for small step sizes but convergence is improved for
large step sizes. Typical applications are long-term simulations, in which the simulation step size is
increased considerably after fast transients have decayed. Another typical application is systems with
power electronics. Even if power electronics devices are usually equipped with very fast controls, the
A-stable algorithm still allows reasonable step sizes, at which the relaxation method would fail.

When using a conventional partitioned method (not an A-stable algorithm), the integration step size must
be adjusted to the eigenvalues of a system. Such a method means a mutual solution of dynamic model
equations and network equations until convergence is reached: this algorithm is fast for small step sizes
but fails to converge when the step size is increased. This is the best choice for classical transient
stability applications, but if excessively large step sizes are used, the numerical solution becomes
unstable, even if fast modes have fully decayed and are no longer apparent in the system.

With the PowerFactory A-stable algorithm, the step size can be adjusted to the actual course of all state
variables without considering numerical stability. When fast transients have decayed, the step size can
be adjusted to the speed of slower transients, etc.

If some very fast modes are not of interest, a large step size can be selected from the beginning, and
the algorithm will automatically smooth fast variations. A typical application of this type of algorithm is
the simulation of long-term phenomena, where it is necessary to increase the simulation step size to
the range of minutes, even if fast modes are present in the system.

However, if power electronics are involved, characteristic time constants can be extremely short (i.e.
1 ms), even if a stability model with steady-state equations for the electrical network is used. Hence,
using a classical integration algorithm would require the use of step sizes significantly smaller than the
smallest time constant of the system, otherwise it would be numerically unstable.

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Note: A requirement for using the A-stable integration algorithm is that only “true” input and output
signal variables are used for exchanging information between different models.

It is also possible to specify the usage of an A-stable algorithm for some element models only (i.e. not
for all models), so that it is possible to run only a portion of the models with the A-stable algorithm (for
example the power electronic converters or fast controllers). This option is available in the dialogs of
the elements.

With the A-stable algorithm, these systems can be analysed with reasonable step sizes. Hence, the
A-stable algorithm cannot be described as using simplified models but as a different type of numerical
integration algorithm.

There are three options available:

• Apply per element: the algorithm is applied only in the elements with the A-stable flag selected.
• Apply to all elements: the algorithm is applied to all the elements.

• Apply per element and composite model: the algorithm is applied to all the elements inside the
composite model if the A-stable flag is selected in at least one of those elements.

DSL

• Direct application of events: all internal DSL events stemming from select(), lim() and limstate()
functions are applied directly within one step.
• Fast direct interpolation of buffers: allows for faster interpolation of buffers (delay and movingavg)
which leads to better performance and convergence in simulations that may use integration steps
which are larger than the delay or the movingavg constants of the model.

29.3.3.3 Solver Options - Advanced

Event control

• Maximum number of repeat event loops: maximum number of times that a given integration step
can be repeated in order to schedule upcoming events. Once the maximum number is reached,
any further events will not be scheduled until the next step.
• Maximum number of zero-length interruptions: maximum number of times that an integration step
can be restarted after a zero-length interruption. Once the maximum number is reached, any
further zero-length interruptions will not be scheduled until the next step.
• Maximum number of reschedule event loops: maximum number of times that a rescheduling of
upcoming events can be called. Once the maximum number is reached, no further rescheduling
is allowed until the next step.

• Resolution factor : this parameter (kres) determines the time interval used to synchronise events.
PowerFactory executes all events that occur within a time interval of duration 𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑠 * 𝑑𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 at the
same instant in time. A value of 0 implies that events are executed precisely in time, but may lead
to slow simulations.

• Reset integration formula after reinitialisation of algebraic equations. If an event occurs, the
integration formula order is temporarily reinitialised to 1 to avoid numerical oscillations, before
being gradually restored to the specified value;
• Integration formula restoration steps after reset: number of steps used to gradually restore the
specified integration formula after a reinitialisation of its order to 1.

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Reinitialise algebraic equations at interruption

• Disable: if an interruption event occurs, the algebraic equations are not re-initialised at interruption
time;
• Enable for systems containing only AC elements: if an interruption event occurs, the algebraic
equations are reinitialised at interruption time if and only if the power system model contains
exclusively AC elements. If this is the case, it leads the solver to the calculation of v(𝑡− ) and v(𝑡+ ),
hence two values at the same time instant, one before the occurrence of the event, and one after.
The two generated value sets are stored in the result file at the same time point.
• Enable: if an interruption event occurs, the algebraic equations are reinitialised at interruption
time for all power system configurations, with or without DC elements. If enabled, it leads to
the calculation of v(𝑡− ) and v(𝑡+ ), hence two values at the same time instant, one before the
occurrence of the event, and one after. The two generated value sets are stored in the result
file at the same time point. If DC elements are existing in the system then results during the
interruption event may be inaccurate.

Behaviour at user-defined events

• Postprocessing: wait for the integration step to end, then apply event.
• Interruption: stop instantly and interpolate, then apply event.
• Repetition: apply event during step, then repeat the integration step.

Signal buffer

Number of additional signals that can be allocated during the simulation.

29.3.4 Initial Conditions - Simulation Scan

Different variables can be monitored during the simulation and events triggered accordingly by the use
of the simulation scan.

There are several types of simulation scan modules, described in detailed in section 29.8. For the
modules to be considered, the Active flag should be selected on this page.

New modules can be created by clicking on the Show button and then on the New Object ( ) icon.
The button Remove all will delete all the existing simulation scan modules.

29.3.5 Initial Conditions - Noise Generation

The Noise Generator element (ElmNoise) can be used in a transient simulation to produce a noise
signal based on random numbers. On the Noise Generation page of the ComInc dialog, the random
number generation method can be selected. The random number generator can be selected to Auto-
matic, which is the default value and the most commonly used.

Alternatively, the option User defined may be selected, in which case the random seed of the noise
generator can be entered manually. The information about the last used seed is also shown, so the
results of a former simulation can be reproduced exactly.

29.3.6 Initial Conditions - Snapshot

This page provides further configuration options for the Save/Load Snapshot functionality of the time
domain simulation. The Save/Load Snapshot is described in more detail in Section 29.9.

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29.3.6.1 Save snapshot via event pane

During the simulation it is possible to define events that can trigger saving a simulation snapshot. The
event required is a Save Snapshot event type (EvtSave).

This pane provides the user the possibility to choose the PowerFactory behaviour in the case of such an
event, by saving the snapshot:
• In non-persistent memory slot or
• In file.
If the option In non-persistent memory slot is selected then the simulation is saved only temporary in the
local memory. As such, the snapshot is lost upon closing the PowerFactory application. If the snapshot
is intended to be permanently saved, then the option In file needs to be chosen, along with a valid
directory path to be provided in the subsequent Directory field.

29.3.6.2 Load snapshot at initialisation

Activate this checkbox in order to load a snapshot at initialisation. The options are:
• From non-persistent memory slot or
• From file.
If the option From non-persistent memory slot is selected then the snapshot is loaded from memory,
as the last saved snapshot of the active study case. The snapshot is lost upon closing the Power-
Factory application. If the option From file is selected, then the snapshot is loaded from the particular
snapshot file.

The used snapshot stores and applies the following simulation settings (hence, the parameters within
the Calculation of initial conditions are ignored):
• Simulation method

• Network representation
• Integration step size parameters
An Info pane is available, displaying specific information regarding the used snapshot.

29.3.7 Advanced Simulation Options - Load Flow

There are further options which can influence the simulation process and its results. In the load flow
command dialog (ComLdf, see also Chapter 25: Load Flow) on the Advanced Options page, Simulation
tab, the influence of protection devices or various controller models can be selected to be ignored, in
which case the chosen models or protection devices will be ignored during the simulation as well as in
load flow and other calculations. This is illustrated in Figure 29.3.1.

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Figure 29.3.1: Advanced Simulation Options in the Load Flow command dialog

The options available for the consideration of protection devices are:

• none: no protection devices are considered in the calculations

• all: all protection devices are considered

• main: only protection devices in operation which are defined as ’main’ devices are considered.
• backup: only ’backup’ protection devices are considered.

For the controller models, there is the possibility to ignore all controllers and mechanical elements with
the option Ignore Composite Elements. If only some specific model types should be ignored during the
simulation, they can be moved from the left window Models Considered to the right window, Models
Ignored.

29.4 Results Objects

During an EMT or RMS simulation, a large number of available variables are changing over time.
Time dependent variables which can be monitored within a dynamic simulation fall into the following

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categories:
• Currents, Voltages and Powers

• Bus Results
• Signals
– Input signals - subcategory “IN” (e.g. for a synchronous generator, variable “ve” - Excitation
voltage)
– Output signals - subcategory “OUT” (e.g. for a synchronous generator, variable “ie” - Excita-
tion current)
– State variables - subcategory “STATE” (e.g. for a synchronous generator, variable “phi” -
Rotor Angle)
– Derivatives of state variables - subcategory “d/dt” and denoted by “state:dt”, where “state” is
the name of a state variable (e.g. for a synchronous generator, variable “phi:dt” - derivative
of Rotor Angle, i.e. rotor speed)
• Calculation Parameter

• Element Parameter
• Reference Parameter
To reduce the available data and to narrow down the number of variables to those necessary for the
analysis of each particular case, a selection of these signals for later use has to be defined.

Therefore, one or more results objects containing the result variables can be configured. The simulation
function needs the reference to a results object to store the results.

The command dialogs for calculation functions, that produce signals, have results object references, as
depicted in Figure 29.4.1 for the Initial Conditions dialog.

Figure 29.4.1: Results Object Reference

Such a results object reference refers to the currently used results object. The downward arrow button
( ) is used to select or reset the reference, or to edit the contents of the referenced results object.

The right-arrow button ( ) is used to edit the results object itself. When the button is pressed, the
ElmRes dialog is opened. It is possible to access to the list of variables stored inside the results object
by pressing the Variables button.

An easier way to edit or inspect the results object is to press the Edit Result Variables icon on the main
toolbar ( ), or to select the Calculation → Simulation RMS/EMT → Result Variables option from the
main menu. This will enable the user to edit the contents of the currently selected results object in
the Initial Conditions command dialog. Results objects (ElmRes) are covered in detail in Chapter 19
(Reporting and Visualising Results).

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Variables of different elements can be added to the results object for RMS and EMT simulations by
right-clicking on the element and selecting Define → Results for Simulation RMS/EMT. . .

This element will then be monitored during the simulation. A browser window is automatically opened,
and by double-clicking on the variable set icon ( ) of the relevant row, the variables of interest to be
recorded can then be selected. See also Section 19.6 (Results Objects).

Note: Most of the variables for RMS and EMT simulations are identical. Nevertheless there may exist
variables that are valid for EMT but not for RMS calculations. It is advisable to only use variables
for the calculation which is currently being performed.

Vector variables: certain models within PowerFactory may support vectors (refer to the Technical
Reference documentation of a specific model for more information). In such cases, vector variables use
1-based numbering as index. The syntax is: name of signal suffixed by colon suffixed by index e.g.
“s:gate:1” (the first index of signal “s:gate”) or “s:Ucap:20”(the twentieth index of signal “s:Ucap”).

29.4.1 Saving Results from Previous Simulations

The variables to be monitored are stored (by default) in the results object called “All calculations” within
the Study Case. The results of the variables in the current simulation are stored in this file also. If the
results of two different simulations are to be displayed, e.g. in one plot, there is the possibility to save
the results object of a previous simulation simply by copying the results object “All calculations” and
renaming it.

This can be done easily in the Data Manager, by copying and pasting the results object “All calcula-
tions” into the active Study Case folder. A second results object will be created with the name “All
calculations(1)”.

In the next simulation, the default results object “All calculations” will be overwritten with the new results,
but the copied results will not be modified and can be displayed together with the new simulation results
in one plot. For further information see Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, section 19.7
(Plots).

29.5 Simulation Events

This section provides a general description of Events, as they apply to time-domain simulations. See
Chapter 13: Study Cases, Section 13.9 (Events) for a detailed description of the event types.

There are several ways to access events objects:

• From the Data Manager, in the Simulation Events/Faults object stored within the Study Case.
• From the Calculation of Initial Conditions command, using the Show button on the Selection of
simulation events.

• From the Simulation RMS/EMT toolbar by pressing the Edit Simulation Events icon. A list of
the currently defined events will be displayed, including the set simulation time, when the event
will occur, and the related object. Note that a duration for a 3-Phase Short-circuit is not specified,
rather, another event is created to clear the fault.

When creating a new event, use the icon in the toolbar. The event type can be chosen from the list in
the element selection dialog which pops up, as shown in Figure 29.5.1 The events can also be modified
during a simulation by stopping the calculation, editing the events and continuing the simulation.

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Figure 29.5.1: Defining a New Simulation Event

An alternative way of defining events is as follows: upon calculation of the initial conditions ( ), or
when the simulation is already running, double-click on the relevant cubicles to create switch events.
Additionally, the user can right-click on an element and then select an element-related event such as
Define. . . → Switch Event, Define. . . → Load Event or Define. . . → Short-Circuit Event.

During a simulation all previous events (i.e. events which have already occurred), are shown in grey
and can no longer be edited or changed. When the simulation is finished or is stopped manually, the
events which are still to come in the simulation can be altered and new events can be created.

Note: At the end of a simulation the event list shows all events, in grey. They can no longer be modified
for this simulation, because the simulation could be restarted from this point on. To change the
events for a new simulation one must first initialise the calculation again ( ), so that the simulation
time is reset to the beginning.

EMT Simulation: Various options of triggering breaker close events

The breaker switching event (EvtSwitch) enables a circuit breaker to be closed:

• depending on execution time

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• at voltage zero crossing

• on minimum absolute voltage across contacts

• on maximum absolute voltage across contacts

• on maximum positive voltage across contacts
• on maximum negative voltage across contacts

Further customisation options are available when closing a breaker at voltage zero crossing or on
minimum absolute voltage across contacts, as shown in Figure 29.5.2.

Figure 29.5.2: Additional options for breaker close events

Load Event used on a selection of load elements

It is possible to apply a single load event (EvtLod) to multiple load elements by referencing a selection
object (SetSelect) as shown in Figure 29.5.3.

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Figure 29.5.3: Referencing multiple loads to a single load event

Parameter Event used on a selection of elements

It is possible to apply a single parameter event (EvtParam) to multiple elements by referencing a

selection object (SetSelect).

29.6 Executing the Simulation

Upon successful calculation of the initial conditions (i.e. execution of ComInc ), the icon on the
Simulation RMS/EMT toolbar will be activated and can be pressed to start the simulation.

The simulation is performed for the time interval between the start time defined in the initial conditions
command ComInc, and the stop time, which is specified in the simulation (ComSim) dialog. After a
simulation has finished, it may be continued by pressing the icon again, and entering a new stop
time. In this case, the stop time may also be entered relative to the current simulation time.

A running simulation may be interrupted by pressing either the icon or the icon on the main
toolbar. Additional events can be created and results may be viewed while the simulation is paused.
The simulation is then continued by pressing the icon again. Pausing and continuing the simulation
may be done as often as required.

The Run Simulation has a link to the initial conditions command used and additional options for the
displayed messages can be set in the display in output window and internal DSL warnings fields.

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29.7 Creating Simulation Plots

After a simulation is executed, the results can be visualised in a plot. Pressing the Create Simulation
Plot icon ( ) from the Simulations RMS/EMT toolbar opens the Insert Plot dialog where the typical
plots used for RMS/EMT simulation are displayed.

Further information about plot types and handling is available in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising
Results, subsection 19.7 (Plots).

29.8 Simulation Scan

Simulation scan modules can be defined and accessed as explained in section 29.3.4 or by using the
Edit Simulation Scan icon ( ) from the Simulations RMS/EMT toolbar. The available simulation scan
objects are described in the following subsections.

Note: After creating a new simulation scan module, the initial conditions should be executed with the
option Active on the Simulation Scan page enabled. Otherwise the modules will not be considered.

29.8.1 Fault Ride Through Scan Module

The Fault Ride Through (FRT) scan module (ScnFrt) monitors variables of various elements (e.g. the
voltage on a busbar) in the power system and continuously verifies these signals for validity against a
user defined FRT characteristic. Validity is defined by comparing the waveform of the measured signal
with the FRT characteristic and requiring the measured signal not to be below the characteristic longer
than a specific user defined period (which can be set to zero). The triggering of the comparison (i.e.
the scan start time) is done by comparing the measured signal with a constant threshold parameter.
The first time that the signal is lower than the threshold, the FRT scan module is triggered and the
two waveforms (measured signal and FRT characteristic) start to be compared one against the other.
Should the FRT scan module detect a FRT characteristic violation of the measured signal(s) then,
depending on user choice, the simulation can be stopped, or a message can be printed to the output
window (without simulation interruption).

The Fault Ride Through Scan Module options are described in the following sections:

29.8.1.1 Fault Ride Through Scan - Basic Options

Ignored

If this flag is set, then this scan module is not active.

Scan Location

• Whole System: applies the FRT scan module to all calculation relevant elements of the class
defined in Class name.

• User defined: applies the FRT scan module to a set of elements or to a single element. The set
or the single element can be selected using the associated drop down menu ( → Select...)
• Class name: elements matching this class name will be added to the monitoring list. If a single
element is chosen in the User defined field then the class is automatically selected.

Variable

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• Voltage: the voltage of the scan location will be monitored

• Other: a variable different than voltage should be monitored. The name of the variable has to be
entered and it must correspond to a valid variable name of the element class being monitored.

Limit Curve Type

• Lower limit: the curve will be set as the lower limit of the monitored variable

• Upper limit: the curve will be set as the upper limit of the monitored variable

Action

• Display message: if the limit is violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the limit is violated and a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window.
• Trigger: if the limit is violated, a trigger is activated and if an action is triggered, a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window. The trigger can be selected or edited with the and
buttons respectively.

Display Messages

• All: all the messages, including activation of the scan are printed in the output window.
• Violations only: only the violations of the FRT curve are printed.

29.8.1.2 Fault Ride Through Scan - Limit Curve

FRT Table

This table allows the user to insert the FRT characteristic using a set of points in format (time,value).
Each row corresponds to a single point on the FRT time characteristic. The characteristic is shown
under the table.

Activation threshold

This value sets the fault detection threshold. During a simulation (and provided that the FRT scan is
“active”), the first time that any of the monitored variables goes below the activation threshold, the FRT
scan module will issue a fault start event and report it to the output window.

Duration

Once a fault is detected, the value of the monitored signal(s) is compared to the FRT characteristic. If
the Duration is zero and once any of the monitored values is below the characteristic, the case is treated
as a FRT characteristic violation. If the Duration is not zero, the specific monitored value (that has been
triggering the fault detection) must remain below the characteristic for Duration seconds in order to treat
the case as a violation. The purpose of using a Duration parameter is to avoid spurious actions.

Multiple fault detection

By selecting this option, an additional threshold can be defined. This threshold will “reset” the fault
detections if the curve stays over the Reignition threshold, for a time defined in the Minimum duration
field.

29.8.1.3 Fault Ride Through Scan - Unbalanced Options

Unbalanced network representation

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The voltage to be measured is defined in this field, the following representations are available:
• PH-PH

• PH-N
• PH-E
• Pos. Seq.
• PH. Tech.

Phase Technology will use the representation defined in the busbar element. If a representation different
than the one recorded in the results file is selected, a warning will be issued and the recorded one will
be automatically selected.

Unbalanced fault detection

• Any phase crosses threshold: all phases are monitored using the same curve, as soon as one
phase crosses the threshold.

• All phases cross threshold: all phases are monitored using the same curve, as soon as all phases
cross the threshold.
• Each phase crosses threshold independently: each individual phase is monitored independently
as soon as the corresponding phase crosses threshold, i.e. three different fault detection mes-
sages will be displayed (if the Display Messages option in the Basic Option page is set to All)

Unbalanced violation

• Any phase violates limit: the violation is detected as soon as the first phase violates the limit.

• All phases violate limit: violation message is triggered when all the phases violate the limit.
• Each phase violates limit independently: each phase is evaluated independently, when the Action
is set to Display Message, messages for each phase will be printed in the output window.

29.8.1.4 Fault Ride Through Scan - Time Settings

Activation time

• The activation time, defined in Hours, Minutes and Seconds, represents the time in simulation
when the FRT Scan module should start the monitoring of variables. The values of monitored
variables prior to the activation time are ignored and not considered in the assessment.

• Time step: defines the sample time with which the scan is performed.

29.8.2 Frequency Scan Module

The frequency scan module (ScnFreq) monitors bus frequency.

29.8.2.1 Frequency Scan Module - Basic Options

Ignored

If this flag is set, then this scan module is not active.

Scan Location

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• All busbars: applies the frequency scan module to all the busbars (ElmTerm) relevant for calcula-
tion.
• User defined:only a set of elements or a single element is monitored.

Scan measurement

This module can be defined to measure either the Frequency or the Frequency gradient. The Nominal
frequency can be set to any frequency value.

Detection of multiple violations

If the simulation is not stopped, all the frequency violations will be detected, i.e. the curve is continuously
scanned.

Action

• Display message: if the limit is violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the limit is violated and a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window.
• Trigger: if the limit is violated, a trigger is activated and if an action is triggered a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window. The trigger can be selected or edited with the and
buttons respectively.

29.8.2.2 Frequency Scan Module - Limits

The limits for the frequency violation detection are set in this page. The Maximum and Minimum limits
should be defined.

29.8.2.3 Frequency Scan Module - Time Settings

Activation time

• The activation time, defined in Hours, Minutes and Seconds, represents the time in simulation
when the frequency scan module should start the monitoring of variables. The values of monitored
variables prior to the activation time are ignored and not considered in the assessment.
• Time step: defines the sample time with which the scan is performed.

29.8.3 Loss of Synchronism Scan Module

The loss of synchronism scan module (ScnSync) monitors the internal generator model signal “Out of
Step” of synchronous machines (ElmSym). The out of step detection can be defined on the Reference
System tab of the Basic Options page on the Initial Conditions command.

Scan location

Defines whether the scan has to be applied to the whole system, a selection of objects or a single
object.

Activation Time

Defines the time at which monitoring should start (till end) in Hours, Minutes and Seconds. Set the Time
step to define the intervals at which the scan should be performed.

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Action

• Display message: if the limit is violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the out of step signal is detected. The
corresponding message is displayed in the output window.
• Trip generator: if the signal out of step is detected, the generator that has lost synchronism is
disconnected, a corresponding message is displayed in the output window. After this event is
triggered, it is still possible to reconnect the generator.
• Trigger: a trigger is activated and if an action is triggered a corresponding message is displayed in
the output window. The trigger can be selected or edited with the and buttons respectively.
• Trip generator and set out of service: if the signal out of step is detected, the generator that
has lost synchronism is disconnected and set to out of service along with all associated controls.
Associated controls are all DSL elements (and only those ones) which are referenced into a slot
of a composite model whose Main slot is occupied by the target generator. A corresponding
message is displayed in the output window. After execution of this event, it is not possible to
reconnect the generator or any of the associated controls.

29.8.4 Synchronous Machine Speed Scan Module

The synchronous machine speed scan module (ScnSpeed) monitors speed of synchronous machines.
If a limit is violated, it displays message, stops the simulation, trips the generators that have violated the
limit or activates a predefined trigger.

Scan location

Define whether the scan has to be applied to the whole system, a selection of objects or a single object.

Speed settings

Maximum and Minimum speed limits are defined.

Activation time

• The activation time, defined in Hours, Minutes and Seconds, represents the time in simulation
when the variable scan module should start the monitoring of variables. The values of monitored
variables prior to the activation time are ignored and not considered in the assessment.
• Time step: defines the sample time with which the scan is performed.

Action
• Display message: if the limits are violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the scan module triggers. A corresponding
message is displayed in the output window.
• Trip generator: if the limits are violated, the corresponding generator is disconnected and a
message is displayed in the output window. After this event is triggered, it is still possible to
reconnect the generator.
• Trigger: a trigger can be assigned using this option. If the limits are violated, the trigger is
automatically activated. A corresponding message is displayed in the output window.
• Trip generator and set out of service: if the limits are violated, the corresponding generator is
disconnected and set to out of service. This option is particularly useful if disabling associated DSL
models is needed. A corresponding message is displayed in the output window. After triggering
this event, there is no possibility of reconnecting the generator.

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29.8.5 Variable Scan Module

The variable scan module (ScnVar ) monitors a selected element variable and triggers a display mes-
sage or stops the simulation if a defined limit is violated.

Scan Location

• Whole System: scans all calculation relevant elements of the class defined in Class name.
• User defined: applies the scan module to a set of elements or to a single element. The set or the
single element can be selected using the associated drop down menu ( → Select...)

• Class name: elements matching this class name will be added to the monitoring list. If a single
element is chosen in the User defined field then the class is automatically selected.

Variable

The name of the variable has to be entered and it must correspond to a valid variable name of the
element class being monitored.

Settings

Define the variables Maximum limit and Minimum limit.

Activation Time.

Define the time at which monitoring should start (till end) in Hours, Minutes and Seconds. Set the Time
step to define the intervals at which the scan should be performed.

Action

• Display message: if the limit is violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the limit is violated and a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window.
• Trigger: if the limit is violated, a trigger is activated and if an action is triggered a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window. The trigger can be selected or edited with the and
buttons respectively.

29.8.6 Voltage Scan Module

The voltage scan module (ScnVolt) monitors bus voltage and triggers a display message or stops the
simulation if a defined limit is violated.

29.8.6.1 Voltage Scan Module - Basic Options

Ignored

If this flag is set, then this scan module is not active.

Scan Location

• All busbars: applies the voltage scan module to all the busbars (ElmTerm) relevant for calculation.

• User defined: only a set of busbar or a single one is monitored.

Scan measurement

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This module can be defined to measure either the Voltage or the Voltage gradient during a specified
Time window.

Detection of multiple violations

If the simulation is not stopped, all the voltage violations will be detected, i.e. the curve is continuously
scanned.

Unbalanced network representation

The voltage to be measured is defined in this field, the following representations are available:
• PH-PH
• PH-N
• PH-E
• Pos. Seq.
• PH. Tech.
Phase Technology will use the representation defined in the busbar element. If a representation different
than the one recorded in the results file is selected, a warning will be issued and the recorded one will
be automatically selected.

Action

• Display message: if the limit is violated, a corresponding message is displayed in the output
window.
• Stop simulation: the dynamic simulation is stopped if the limit is violated and a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window.
• Trigger: if the limit is violated, a trigger is activated and if an action is triggered a corresponding
message is displayed in the output window. The trigger can be selected or edited with the and
buttons respectively.

29.8.6.2 Voltage Scan Module - Limits

Voltage

Define the Maximum limit and Duration (max. limit), and the Minimum limit and Duration (min. limit).

Recovery thresholds

• No thresholds: no recovery thresholds are considered.

• Individual thresholds for violation and recovery detection: different thresholds are defined for the
maximum and minimum voltage limits. The parameter Duration below/above the threshold defines
the minimum time the value has to be within the limits to be recognised as a recovery.
• Common threshold for violation and recovery detection: one unique value is defined as recovery
threshold.

29.8.6.3 Voltage Scan Module - Time Settings

Activation time

• The activation time, defined in Hours, Minutes and Seconds, represents the time in simulation
when the voltage scan module should start the monitoring of variables. The values of monitored
variables prior to the activation time are ignored and not considered in the assessment.

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• Time step: defines the sample time with which the scan is performed.

29.9 Save/Load Snapshot

When carrying out simulations in PowerFactory, it is possible to save the current simulation state for
later use. This can greatly increase productivity, especially if the simulation state has been obtained as
a result of a time-consuming simulation.

The Save Snapshot as well as the Load Snapshot actions can be performed easily from the Simulation
RMS/EMT toolbar. The snapshot can either be saved in memory, in which case the information is
lost once PowerFactory is closed, or in an external file, such that the simulation state can always be
recovered at a later date.

Note: The Load/Save Snapshot supports all built-in and DSL based models. Furthermore, all DLL
models generated via the C-Interface (as documented in Section 30.6.1) are also supported.

29.9.1 Saving a snapshot

Saving a snapshot can be done either manually or automatically.

In order to manually save a snapshot, do the following:

• Prepare a dynamic simulation and make sure that it initialises without errors;
• Run the simulation up to the time point which should be saved in the snapshot;

• Click on Save Snapshot icon in the RMS/EMT Simulation toolbar. Choose between the
following options:
– In non-persistent memory slot - the snapshot is saved in a temporary location in memory; as
such, the snapshot is lost upon closing the PowerFactory application;
– In file - the snapshot is permanently saved on the disk (or similar permanent storage device);
in this situation make sure to provide a valid directory path and corresponding file name for
the snapshot within the subsequent File field; using this option will enable users to load the
snapshot even after restarting PowerFactory.
In order to automatically save a snapshot, do the following:

• Define Save Snapshot events (EvtSave) in the simulation queue and set the event trigger time
to the simulation time instant at which the simulation will be saved. Save Snapshot events are
detailed in Section 13.9.10;
• Make sure that you have accordingly configured the options in the Calculation of Initial Condi-
tions (ComInc) dialog, page Snapshot. Further information on these options are available in
Section 29.3.6;
• Prepare a dynamic simulation and make sure that it initialises without errors;
• Run the simulation. The Save Snapshot event is triggered automatically and a snapshot is
consequently saved.

29.9.2 Loading a snapshot

Loading a snapshot can be done by executing the following steps:

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• Make sure that you have activated in PowerFactory the same project with the same study case
that has been used for saving the snapshot.
• Execute the Calculation of initial conditions and make sure that it has run successfully.

• Click on the Load Snapshot icon in the RMS/EMT Simulation toolbar and point to the snapshot
that is to be loaded. The snapshot can be available either in the memory (if the Save Snapshot
command has been previously executed and saved a snapshot in the non-persistent memory) or
on the disk. After selecting the snapshot click on Execute. The simulation state will be loaded and
the simulation initialised at snapshot time.
• Continue running the simulation from that point.

• All queued events that are defined after the saved execution time will be applied during the
simulation. All events defined for execution prior to the snapshot time will be disregarded.
• Result files are written with the starting time point equal to the snapshot time.

29.10 Single/Multiple Domain Co-simulation

This section provides guidance on the basic usage and configuration of the Single/Multiple domain co-
simulation tool. The terms and definitions used in co-simulation are detailed in Section 29.10.1. An
overview of the co-simulation concepts is given in Section 29.10.2. For information on how to configure
the co-simulation tool, Section 29.10.3 is to be followed. Information regarding the execution and plotting
of co-simulation results is provided in Section 29.10.4.

29.10.1 Terms and Definitions for Co-simulation

The most important terms needed for co-simulation are detailed below.
• Co-Simulation: Simulation in parallel of different sub-systems which form a coupled problem.
• Co-Simulation domain: The analysis domain of the coupled problem. Typically, for power sys-
tem analysis tools the co-simulation domains will be one of the three available time-domain
simulation methods, as described in Section 29.2.

• Simulation unit: A Simulation unit consists of one time domain simulator and its associated
power system model.
• Region: Within the Single/Multiple domain co-simulation, multiple simulation units can be in-
cluded, while the associated power systems model of each unit is referred to as a Region. This
is due to the fact that in the case of power system analysis applications the linking between the
simulation units is typically done at the border between physically separated regions of the power
system, as shown in Figure 29.10.1. Co-simulation domains are assigned individually for each
region.
• Neighbouring regions: A region 𝑖 is a neighbouring region with respect to region 𝑗 if at least
one electrical connection path exists between the two regions that does not cross through another
region.
• Interface elements: The intersection between the elements of a region and one of its neighbour-
ing regions defines the interface elements of the two regions.

Note: For a valid co-simulation, the following is required:

– the interface elements must consist only of AC line elements.
– it is not allowed to include dynamic models whose controls span across co-simulation
regions.

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• Boundary: Boundary objects (ElmBoundary ) are PowerFactory grouping objects which specify a
topological cut through the power network (refer to Section 15.3 for more information). Boundary
objects are used within co-simulation to define the interface elements of neighbouring regions.
The co-simulation Boundary is defined by a boundary object which cuts the power network via
all ac line elements which separate one region from all other neighbouring regions. As a conse-
quence, the number of co-simulation regions equals the number of co-simulation boundaries. The
elements of a co-simulation region are the interior region elements of the associated co-simulation
boundary object.

• Boundary branch: An interface element which is an ac line (ElmLne). Practically, boundary

branches are those ac line elements that are common between a region and one neighbouring
region.

29.10.2 Overview of the Single/Multiple Domain Co-simulation

PowerFactory provides an integrated co-simulation tool for executing time domain analysis of power sys-
tems. This Single/Multiple domain co-simulation tool is a fully integrated PowerFactory solution which
does not require any third party interfaces or software. From this perspective, the Single/Multiple domain
co-simulation is fundamentally different from the external solver based co-simulation tool described in
Section 29.11, where PowerFactory is intended to run in a co-simulation environment composed of one
or multiple third-party solvers.

Based on the standard dynamic simulation tool (presented in Section 29.2), PowerFactory supports the
following co-simulation domains:
• RMS balanced;
• RMS unbalanced;

• EMT.

Figure 29.10.1: Example of co-simulation domains and corresponding interface elements

In terms of possible domain configurations, the Single/Multiple domain co-simulation supports the
following choices:
• for single domain co-simulation:

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– RMS balanced - RMS balanced or

– RMS unbalanced - RMS unbalanced or
– EMT - EMT;

• for multiple domain co-simulation:

– RMS balanced - RMS unbalanced - EMT (as illustrated in figure 29.10.1) or
– RMS balanced - RMS unbalanced or
– RMS balanced - EMT or
– RMS unbalanced - EMT.

Note: None of the configurations above imposes a specific restriction on the number of definable
regions e.g. a RMS balanced - RMS balanced single domain co-simulation may have more than
two co-simulation regions. Each region is assigned to a single logical processor core; the number
of logical cores in a machine defines the maximum number of regions that can be used in a co-
simulation. As such, in terms of performance and flexibility, machines with a high number of cores
are better suited for execution of co-simulation runs.

Two co-simulation Methods are available, as follows:

• Implicit (exact approach): - this method provides accurate results compared with a normal se-
quential run. The method requires that the boundary between regions is defined on long enough
AC power lines such that it can account for the associated transmission delays. The AC lines must
be manually set to use the “Distributed parameter” model (available in the Basic Data page of the
line element dialog).
• Explicit (approximate approach): this method delivers reliable results (approximate, but not exact
in comparison with a sequential simulation) while providing further flexibility in the choice of the
boundary definition. The co-simulation interface can be defined on any set of AC lines without a
particular requirement on line length and the associated transmission delays.

29.10.3 Configuring the Co-simulation

A new calculation function has been developed for setting up a co-simulation, namely, the Initial con-
ditions for co-simulation (ComCosim ) command . This command must be successfully executed
before the actual co-simulation can be run (done via the Run simulation (ComSim ) command).
Practically, the co-simulation procedure is as follows:

• Set up boundary objects for each region;

• Assign boundaries and other configuration settings within the Initial conditions for co-simulation
command ComCosim (refer to Section 29.10.5 for more information);
• Configure simulation options for each region based on calculation of initial conditions (ComInc
) object(s);

• Define variable results for elements of interest;

• Execute the Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim ).
An example of a Multiple domain co-simulation configuration is shown in Figure 29.10.2.

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Figure 29.10.2: Co-simulation configuration options (example)

Further guiding notes:

• Boundary objects (ElmBoundary ) are used to define the co-simulated regions and thereby
the co-simulation interface. The interior region of each boundary needs to contain all elements
belonging to the specific co-simulation region. Boundaries need to overlap on the line element(s)
which represent the co-simulation border. As an example, Figure 29.10.3 shows a simple two
area power system interconnected via two AC lines, a candidate for a co-simulation based on
two regions. For this setup, the two AC lines need to be contained within both boundary objects
(overlapping elements), in order to correctly identify the co-simulation interface. In this example,
two boundary objects need to be defined; then the boundaries are assigned to individual regions
within the Initial conditions for co-simulation .
• Configuration of simulation options is done via the Initial conditions for co-simulation by editing
the default ComInc command (in the case of single domain co-simulation) or by assigning indi-
vidual ComInc command objects for each region (in the case of multiple domain co-simulation).
A user-defined common synchronisation period can be configured in the ComCosim command
which will define the rate by which regions are synchronised across the co-simulation interface(s).
Based on the two area example above, a multiple domain co-simulation could be configured as
shown in figure 29.10.2

• Definition of results follows the standard procedure adopted for a typical sequential dynamic
simulation. PowerFactory will automatically manage and organise the storage location of results
for a given element, depending on the region to which it belongs. At the end of a co-simulation
run, there will be one results file (ElmRes) for each region.

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Figure 29.10.3: Co-simulation example for a two areas interconnected power system

29.10.4 Performing a Co-simulation and Retrieving Results

To perform a co-simulation, execute the following steps:

• Make sure that the co-simulation has been successfully configured (refer to Section 29.10.3).
• Open the Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim ) command dialog:
– Go to the Basic Options page and select either the Single domain or the Multiple domain
co-simulation type.
– Configure the Synchronisation period appropriately. The synchronisation period will influence
highly the simulation results and the overall performance. The co-simulation domain choice
and the dynamic properties of the power system have a direct influence on the optimum
choice of the Synchronisation period.
– Configure other settings according to specific requirements (for a detailed description of
options refer to Section 29.10.5)
– Execute the Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim ) command. Prior to running
the co-simulation, the Initial conditions for co-simulation is to be executed. PowerFactory
automatically starts the required parallel processes and initialises the simulation in each
region.
• Execute the simulation using the Run Simulation (ComSim ) command. After the simulation
has been executed, results can be plotted, exported or post-processed as for any other dynamic
simulation.
• At the end of a co-simulation, the Results (ElmRes) object linked in the Basic Options page of the
Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim) has the following structure:

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– Region 1 - Results object(ElmRes): contains the results of all elements within Region 1.
– Region 2 - Results object(ElmRes): contains the results of all elements within Region 2.
..
.
– Region 𝑛 - Results object(ElmRes): contains the results of all elements within Region 𝑛.

• Visualise and analyse results. The simulation results of elements within each region can be shown
in a plot, as follows:
– Click the Insert Plot icon , choose a Curve plot and then OK.
– Under the “y-Axis” page, double-click on an empty field of the column Results file of the
Curves tabular list.
– Navigate inside the main co-simulation Results object (e.g. “All Calculations.ElmRes”) and
select the Results object which contains the network element of interest. Click OK.
– Under column Element select the relevant element.
– Under column Variable select the variable of interest. Click OK.

29.10.5 The “Initial conditions for co-simulation” (ComCosim) Command

The single/multiple domain co-simulation makes use of the Initial conditions for co-simulation command
. The command options are described below.

Basic Options page

Co-simulation type:
• Single domain (RMS-RMS,EMT-EMT): choice of a single domain co-simulation (with internal
solver)

• Multiple domain (RMS-EMT): choice of a multiple domain co-simulation (with internal solver)
• Co-simulation with external solver: this option configures PowerFactory to execute a co-simulation
based on an external solver (more information on this type of co-simulation can be found in
Section 29.11).
Number of selected regions for co-simulation: this field provides overview information on the number
of regions that have been already configured for use in a co-simulation; the regions are defined in the
Single/Multiple Domain page.

Method:
• Implicit method (exact approach): choice to apply an implicit co-simulation method;
• Explicit method (approximate approach): choice to apply an explicit co-simulation method;
Synchronisation period: via this field, a user-defined fixed synchronisation period between the co-
simulated regions can be provided;

Start time: field available for Multiple domain (RMS-EMT) option only; the simulation in each region is
initialised at the Start time;

Initial conditions: field available for Single domain (RMS-RMS,EMT-EMT) option only; a reference link
to a single Calculation of initial conditions (ComInc) command which is to be used for all regions of the
co-simulation;

Results: A selection link to the results file (ElmRes) which aggregates all co-simulation results of
elements is provided.

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Single/Multiple Domain page - Regions tab

Definition of regions: the regions to be used in the co-simulation can be defined within this tabular
list. In the case of a Multiple domain co-simulation, a specific Calculation of initial conditions (ComInc)
command can be assigned for each region in the Settings column. The domain used for each region
is shown in the Domain column, and can be changed within the corresponding Calculation of initial
conditions (ComInc) command (along with all other settings).

Single/Multiple Domain page - Transformation tab

Transformation settings: In the case of a Multiple domain co-simulation, this tab allows the conversion of
electrical quantities between the RMS and EMT domains to be appropriately configured. The following
options are available:

• Same transformation for all: Same transformation settings are used for all boundary branches
involved in the co-simulation; at the bottom of the dialog, the relevant RMS-EMT transformation
settings (SetTransf ) object is linked.
• Different transformation per region: For each set of two neighbouring regions one transformation
is assigned. All possible combinations are defined in the associated list.
• Different transformation per boundary branch: Each boundary branch may have its own transfor-
mation settings. All possible combinations are to be defined in the corresponding tabular list.

Note: Whenever available, the tabular list can be automatically populated by clicking on the button
Reset and load all. For each possible combination in the list, the Settings column can be con-
figured with RMS-EMT transformation settings (SetTransf ) objects. The current list is completely
removed by clicking on the button Clean up. Additionally, the Clean up command will also delete
the unused transformation settings (SetTransf ) objects, usually located inside the Initial conditions
for co-simulation command object.

Single/Multiple Domain page - Advanced tab

Update plots during simulation: Depending on this flag, the time domain plots which show co-simulation
results can be updated either during or at the end of the co-simulation run. For improved performance,
the flag should be un-checked.

Prediction for explicit method: A prediction algorithm is available for the explicit method;

Display messages of all regions: During the simulation run, if this flag is checked, then the output
window will include all generated messages of the simulated regions;

Reuse parallel processes: Check this flag if already-created parallel processes are to be re-used;

Parallel computation settings: A link to the parallel computation settings is provided. Further information
on the Parallel computation settings and the Parallel computing manager is available in Section 22.4.

Indication of used/available cores for co-simulation: Information is provided on the number of used and
available processor cores for a co-simulation run.

External Solver page: this page is relevant for the co-simulation with external solver. Refer to Sec-
tion 29.11 for further information.

29.11 Co-simulation with External Solver

This section provides guidance on the basic use and configuration of the External solver based co-
simulation tool. An overview of the co-simulation concepts is given in subsection 29.11.1. For infor-
mation on how to configure the co-simulation tool, subsection 29.11.2 is to be followed. Information

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regarding the execution and plotting of co-simulation results is provided in subsection 29.11.3. Two
commands are used extensively for co-simulation with an external solver:

• Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver (ComCosimsetup ) - detailed in Section 29.11.4

• Initial conditions for co-simulation command (ComCosim ) - detailed in Section 29.11.5

The terms and definitions used in this Section are identical with the ones used in the Single/Multiple
domain co-simulation. As such, for an understanding of various concepts like regions, boundaries,
simulation units and domains, refer to Section 29.10.1.

Co-simulation is based on a thin and open implementation of a peer-to-peer concept as described in

the following Specification.

The framework for Co-simulation supports any kind of combination of simulation methods:
• RMS balanced

• RMS unbalanced
• EMT

29.11.1 Overview of the External Solver Co-simulation

PowerFactory provides an open interface for distributed co-simulation that allows a single or multiple
third party simulation units to carry out a co-simulation with PowerFactory. The tool is designed for use
in two main applications:

• Co-simulation between PowerFactory and a third party simulation tool: power system models
developed in PowerFactory and others in a third party tool may be included in a combined co-
simulation.
• Distributed co-simulation between multiple PowerFactory applications: multiple PowerFactory
instances located in different locations can carry out co-simulations via a TCP/IP based network.

The Co-simulation with external solver is organised in three functional layers, as shown in Figure 29.11.1
and detailed below:
• Layer 1 - Communication protocol: The network communication layer is based on the TCP/IP
protocol.

• Layer 2 - Data exchange protocol: The data exchange layer is based on the widely accepted IEEE
C37.118 standard “IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor Measurements for Power Systems”.
• Layer 3 - Co-simulation protocol: The co-simulation protocol is a thin and open implementation of
a peer-to-peer (decentralised) co-simulation concept. The co-simulation specification documen-
tation is available here, thus providing a consistent framework of required steps and procedures
for any external tool developers wishing to support co-simulation with PowerFactory.
The Co-simulation protocol is versioned. The participating processes must use the same protocol with
the same version when running a Co-simulation.

The Co-simulation program flow is shown in Figure 29.11.2. It is organised as sequential activities,
such as “Setup”, “Configuration”, “Initialisation”, etc. The individual processes have to iterate through
the different activities in a synchronised way. That is, a process may only pass to the next activity if all
neighbouring processes finished the current activity successfully.

As in the Single/Multiple Domain Co-Simulation case (refer to Section 29.10), interface data is ex-
changed via the C37 channels at fixed time points in a synchronised way. A process will wait for all
neighbours to send the data for a given synchronisation time before continuing simulation beyond that
point in time.

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Figure 29.11.1: Co-simulation with external solver - underlying layers

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Figure 29.11.2: Co-simulation with external solver - program flow

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29.11.2 Prepare Case for Co-simulation with External Solver

On PowerFactory side, a project can be prepared for co-simulation with a third party solver by using
the command Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver (ComCosimsetup). An example of a configuration
setup based on a two area power system (refer to figure 29.10.3) is shown in figure 29.11.3.

Figure 29.11.3: Co-simulation with external solver - configuration options (example)

PowerFactory automatically performs a network reduction of the power system regions which are to
be simulated externally and also configures necessary voltage or current injection sources at the co-
simulation interface, as shown in figure 29.11.4. It is important to underline that the interface elements
must be a set of AC lines. The network reduction can be applied directly on the base network (existing
network model is permanently changed) or using a network variation for flexible management of the
power systems model (possibility to revert to the original network).

There are no specific requirements on the mandatory inclusion of the regions belonging to the external
simulation units i.e. it is not necessary to represent in detail all components existing in the external solver
co-simulation region (which are shown in figure below for illustrative purposes only). Nevertheless, a
minimum representation in the PowerFactory model of the external region(s) is required: the external
region must consist of the interface elements (e.g. AC line, relevant terminals) and the simplified
network equivalents. The load flow across the interface elements should also be configured such that it
correctly represents the initial starting point of the co-simulation.

The command Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver will create Co-Simulation In/Out elements (Elm-
Cosimext). These elements contain the following configuration data for linking to the external processes:
• TCP/IP configuration

• C37 signal definitions

Note: Co-Simulation In/Out elements (ElmCosimext) contain the definition of all signals for any simula-
tion method that might be applied on the local process (e.g. RMS, EMT). The channels opened to
the external process(es) during Co-Simulation execution depend on the local simulation method,
as well as on the simulation method of the remote process.

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Figure 29.11.4: Co-simulation with external solver - two area power system example

The steps for setting up a co-simulation with external solver are as follows:
1. Identification of the interface elements within PowerFactory: The user needs to identify the AC line
elements based on which the co-simulation interface will be set-up. This is a manual procedure.
2. Define the boundary associated with the local region. This is a manual procedure.

3. Define the boundaries associated with the external regions. This is a manual procedure.

4. Open the Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver command dialog . Detailed descriptions of
each option in this command are available in Section 29.11.4.

5. Select the Boundary associated with the local region.

6. Set the Local Port to an unused port on the local machine.
7. Add rows in the tabular list for as many external regions are defined. Assign in the Defining
boundaries column the boundary associated with each external region.

8. Select the corresponding co-simulation domain in the column Simulation method.

9. In the IP address and Port columns, assign the associated external simulation unit IP address
and port values.
10. Switch to the Output page and choose whether the command should save the network modifica-
tions in a network variation or directly in the existing network model.
11. Click on Execute.

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Note: It is assumed that a similar procedure is executed on the external simulation units as
well. For distributed co-simulation done exclusively with PowerFactory machines, i.e. if the
external simulation unit is PowerFactory then one will need to repeat the above steps on
each additional PowerFactory machine.

29.11.3 Performing a Co-simulation and Retrieving Results

To perform a co-simulation, execute the following steps:

• Make sure that the co-simulation case has been successfully prepared (refer to Section 29.11.2).

• Open the Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim ) command dialog and configure it
appropriately (for a detailed description of options refer to Section 29.11.5):
– Go to the Basic Options page and select the Co-simulation with external solver type.
– Configure the Synchronisation period appropriately. The synchronisation period will strongly
influence the simulation results and the overall performance. The co-simulation domain
choice and the dynamic properties of the power system have a direct influence on the
optimum choice of the Synchronisation period.
– Go to the External Solver page and configure the domain transformation settings. Set it to
Same transformation for all if a single configuration is to be applied.
– In the tabular list, edit/(double click on) each interface object (“Co-Simulation In/Out” Elm-
Cosimext):
* Basic Data page - Simulation in external process: select here the co-simulation domain
of the associated external process (i.e. third party simulation unit). The choices are:
RMS balanced, RMS unbalanced and EMT.
* Basic Data page - Input pane: The external simulation unit connection details are re-
quired here. Make sure that the IPv4 address and IP port fields are correctly configured,
as defined in the external simulation unit.
* Basic Data page - Output pane: The local simulation unit connection details are required
here. Make sure that the IP port field is correctly configured, as defined at step 6 of the
steps for preparing a case for co-simulation with external solver (refer to Section 29.11.2).
* Click OK.
• Then Execute the Initial conditions for co-simulation. PowerFactory automatically starts the
required parallel processes and initialises the simulation in each region.
• Execute the aforementioned Initialisation procedure on all external simulation units in a similar
fashion.
Note: In the case of a distributed co-simulation exclusively done with PowerFactory machines,
i.e. if the external simulation unit is PowerFactory, then Execute the Initial conditions for
co-simulation on the external simulation unit.

• Start the simulation on the local machine using the Run Simulation (ComSim ) command.
• Start the simulation on the external simulation unit.
Note: For distributed co-simulation exclusively with PowerFactory machines: start the simulation
on the external machine using the Run Simulation (ComSim ) command.

After the simulation has been executed, results can be plotted, exported or post-processed as for
any other dynamic simulation.
• At the end of a co-simulation, the Results (ElmRes) object linked in the Basic Options page of the
Initial conditions for co-simulation (ComCosim) contains the results of elements within the local
region. Results of elements belonging to external simulation units are not available in the local
simulation unit.

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• Visualise and analyse results. The simulation results of elements within each region can be shown
in a plot, as follows:
– Click the Insert Plot icon , choose a Curve plot and then OK.
– Under the “y-Axis” page, double-click on an empty field of the column Results file of the
Curves tabular list.
– Select the co-simulation Results object
– Under column Element select the relevant element.
– Under column Variable select the variable of interest. Click OK.

29.11.4 The “Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver” (ComCosimsetup) Com-

mand

The co-simulation with external solver makes use of the Prepare co-simulation with ext. solver com-
mand . The command executes a network reduction on all neighbouring regions of the local region
and introduces corresponding network equivalents (voltage or current injection elements). The changes
to the power system model existing in PowerFactory can occur via a network variation (default option,
changes can be easily undone) or by directly applying modifications to the existing network model.

Basic Options page

Boundary : Select here the boundary associated with the power system region that is to be simulated
on the local machine. This region is referred to as the local region.

Load flow: A reference link to the currently used Load Flow Calculation command is provided.

Local IP address: The local IP address is shown here.

Local port: The IP port for inbound connections can be configured here.

List of external regions: A tabular list is available in which regions simulated externally are to be defined.
Fill in the list with boundaries associated with all neighbouring regions of the local region.

Note: Although the external power system models do not need to be modelled in detail within Pow-
erFactory, the boundary elements and a small power system equivalent must be manually rep-
resented within PowerFactory for each external region (e.g. a Thevenin equivalent with a given
power flow setpoint). The power flow solution across the boundary should represent the intended
operating scenario in which the co-simulation is to be run.

Output page: defines the network reduction options:

• Create a new variation for reduced network :- the command will save all applied changes in a
separate network variation.
• Change existing network : - the command will save all changes directly in the existing network
model.

29.11.5 The “Initial conditions for co-simulation” (ComCosim) Command

The co-simulation with external solver makes use of the Initial conditions for co-simulation command
. As the command is described in detail in Section 29.10.5, only the relevant information regarding
the external solver based co-simulation is given here.

Basic Options page

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Co-simulation type: select the option “Co-simulation with external solver”.

Information message: the number of already configured neighbouring regions for co-simulation is
provided. The neighbouring regions are typically configured following the execution of the Prepare
co-simulation with ext. solver (ComCosimsetup) command.

Synchronisation period: via this field, a user-defined fixed synchronisation period between the co-
simulated regions can be provided;

Initial conditions: field available for Single domain (RMS-RMS,EMT-EMT) option only; a selection link
to a single Calculation of initial conditions (ComInc) command which is to be used for all regions of the
co-simulation;

Results: A selection link to the results file (ElmRes) which aggregates all co-simulation results of
elements is provided.

External Solver page

Transformation settings - this pane can be configured in order to appropriately represent the conversion
of electrical quantities between the RMS and EMT domains. The following options are available:

• Same transformation for all: A single transformation method is used for all boundary branches
involved in the co-simulation; at the bottom of the dialog, the relevant RMS-EMT transformation
settings (SetTransf ) object is linked.
• Different transformation per region: For each set of two neighbouring regions one transformation
is assigned. All possible combinations are defined in the associated list.

Note: Whenever available, the tabular list can be automatically populated by clicking on the button
Reset and load all. For each possible combination in the list, the Settings column can be con-
figured with RMS-EMT transformation settings (SetTransf ) objects. The current list is completely
removed by clicking on the button Clean up. Additionally, the Clean up command will also delete
the unused transformation settings (SetTransf ) objects, usually located inside the Initial conditions
for co-simulation command object.

29.12 Frequency Response Analysis

PowerFactory supports the computation of the frequency response of dynamic models implemented in
DSL. The calculation uses time-domain simulation and it is implemented within the Frequency Response
Analysis command (ComFreqresp).

Frequency Response Analysis is intended for use within dynamic systems which are linear and time-
invariant around their initial operating point. Non-linear and discontinuous behaviour of dynamic models
may affect the accuracy of results. Special care needs to be taken in order to make sure that:
• a flat start simulation is existing as a prerequisite;
• the operating point does not change throughout the simulation;
• any dynamic models which, around their operating point, are non-linear, contain variations over
time or generate discontinuities are excluded from the simulation.

29.12.1 Basic Usage

To perform a Frequency Response Analysis calculation two approaches are possible:

• Via the Simulation RMS/EMT toolbox in the main toolbar:

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– Click on the Calculation of Frequency Response icon

– The Frequency Response Analysis command dialog is shown.
• Via the Composite Model Graphic:
– Show the graphic of the Composite Model which contains the DSL model of interest.
– Right click one input signal of a slot containing the DSL model of interest and choose Calcu-
late → Calculation of Frequency Response. . .
– The Frequency Response Analysis command dialog is shown.
The Frequency Response Analysis calculation settings are configured using the command dialog via
the three available pages as below:
• Basic Data

• Output
• Advanced
These pages are described in detail in the following subsections.

Once the settings have been configured, the calculation can be started using the Execute button.

29.12.2 Basic Data Page

In the Basic Data page, the following settings are available:

Plots pane: There are two options for generating plots:

• Bode: Check this flag in order to generate a Bode Diagram.

• Nyquist: Check this flag in order to generate a Nyquist Plot.

Frequency analysis data pane: here the frequency range of interest, the frequency step and the
individual frequency amplitude by which the input signal is being tested can be configured.

• Step: the frequency step in Hz used by the frequency response analysis. This parameter will
impact both the frequency step by which the input signal is tested and the step in the output plots.
Note that this parameter is inversely proportional to the duration of one simulation window.
• Start at step: the frequency step at which the frequency response analysis starts. The input field
accepts a non-zero integer number. This parameter will impact both the minimum frequency at
which the input signal is tested and the minimum frequency of the output plots.

• Minimum frequency: the actual minimum frequency in Hz being used in the calculation is
displayed next to the Start at step input field. This parameter can only be changed by modifying
parameters Start at step and Step.
• End at step: the frequency step at which the frequency response analysis ends. The input field
accepts a non-zero integer number. This parameter will impact both the maximum frequency at
which the input signal is tested and the maximum frequency of the output plots.
• Maximum frequency: the actual maximum frequency in Hz being used in the calculation is
displayed next to the End at step input field. This parameter can only be changed by modifying
parameters End at step and Step.

• Amplitude: the amplitude of the input signal at minimum frequency defined as an absolute value.
Note that this parameter can be adjusted upwards/downwards such that the particular model being
tested does not go out of the initial linear operating range.

Simulation data pane: this is used for configuring the dynamic simulation used by the Frequency
Response Analysis command.

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• Initial conditions: the Initial conditions object being used is referenced within this field. Edit the
settings of the initial conditions according to the analysis requirements.

Note: Adjustments to initial conditions are possible and recommended in order to fine tune the
results. The calculation of initial conditions can be executed independently of the Frequency
Response Analysis in an initial stage in order to make sure that a flat start simulation is set
up. Note also that only fixed time step simulation is supported.

• Integration step size: the simulation integration step size in seconds is displayed. This value can
be changed via the Initial conditions object.
• Recommended value: the recommended value of the simulation integration step size. This
parameter is shown if (and only if) the simulation integration step size is larger than this value.
Simulation integration step sizes smaller than the recommended value are accepted but may lead
to larger execution times. Simulation integration step sizes larger than the recommended value
are accepted up to the Nyquist criterion limit but may lead to inaccurate results.
• No. of windows: the number of windows used for the simulation. For simulations in which
a flat start simulation is not possible, a larger number of windows is required, and proportional
to the decay time of the initial transients. The calculation of the Frequency Response Analysis is
executed using the simulation results of the last window, while the results of all other time windows
are not considered.

Note: Adjusting the number of windows is needed only if the simulation does not have a flat start.
If this is the case, then one simulation using the aforementioned Initial conditions should be
performed independently of the Frequency Response Analysis calculation. The simulation
time until steady state is obtained should be measured and divided by the duration of one
window of the Frequency Response Analysis. The number of windows must then be greater
than this value.

• Simulation duration: the total simulation time in seconds is displayed.

Transfer function input/output definition pane: this pane is used for the selection of input and output
signals of the transfer function(s).

• Composite Model: the composite model which contains the DSL model of interest (optional
setting). This field limits/filters the selection of the Input DSL model being used to the ones which
are contained within this composite model. This setting can be useful in case of a project with a
large number of DSL models.
• Input DSL: the DSL model whose input signal is defined within the transfer function(s). The Input
DSL selection window contains either all calculation relevant common models within the active
project (if no Composite Model is selected) or all calculation relevant common models located
within the Composite Model (if such a Composite Model has been defined in the above field).
• Input signal: the input signal of the transfer function(s). A drop down list containing all available
input signals of the Input DSL model is made available. From the given signal list, define the input
signal of the transfer function(s).
• Output signal(s): the number of output signals (if any) of the transfer function(s) is displayed.
These output signals are defined using the Add button, shown using the Show button and re-
moved using the Remove All button. The number of generated transfer functions equals the
number of selected output signals. Each transfer function has the same input signal while the
output signal may differ.
• Show button: the output signal(s) being used for the computation of the transfer function(s) along
with the model(s) to which they belong can be shown as follows:
– Click on the Show button;

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– Open the Variable Selection dialog corresponding to one of the elements shown in the list
(e.g. right click the corresponding row and select Edit);
– The output signal(s) are listed within the Selected Variables field.
• Add button: one or more output signals can be defined using the Add button as follows:
– Click on the Add button;
– Select the element which contains the variable of interest. If not shown directly in the se-
lection dialog, other calculation relevant elements can be chosen by using the item Signal(s)
from other elements.
– Open the Variable Selection window corresponding to this element (e.g. if available directly
in the selection dialog then double-click element’s icon)
– Identify the variable of interest (i.e. either within the Simulation RMS or in the Simulation
EMT page) and add it to the Selected Variables field.
– Click the OK button to add the variable

Note: The output signal(s) of the transfer function can be any calculation relevant variable,
not only output signals of DSL models. Nevertheless, do make sure that the output signal
has practical meaning within the context of the specific study.

• Remove All button: Use this button to remove all already selected output signals.

29.12.3 Output Page

The following general settings are subject to user configuration on the Output page:

Results: The object in which the Frequency Response Analysis results are stored.

Output stability margin indices: If selected, the gain and phase margin indices are calculated and
displayed in the output window. If the Nyquist plot option is checked in the Basic Data page then the
Module and Delay margins are additionally printed to the output window.

Note: • The Gain margin, in dB, is the reciprocal of the magnitude of the open-loop transfer function
calculated at the frequency at which the phase angle is −180° (i.e. the phase crossover
frequency).
• The Phase margin, expressed in degrees, is calculated as 180° plus the phase angle 𝜑 of the
open loop transfer function at the frequency at which the magnitude of the open-loop transfer
function is unity (i.e. the gain crossover frequency).
• The Module margin is defined as the minimum distance between the Nyquist trajectory and
the critical point (-1,0).
• The Delay margin, in seconds, equals the phase margin divided by frequency 𝜔𝜑𝑚 . The
frequency 𝜔𝜑𝑚 represents the frequency on the Nyquist curve at which the phase margin is
calculated. The Delay margin represents the time it takes for a line containing the complex
plane origin and the phase margin crossing point to rotate clockwise with frequency 𝜔𝜑𝑚 until
it overlaps the line containing the complex plane origin and the critical point.

Normalise output signal: The transfer function magnitude is calculated including the magnitude of both
the input and output signals. If unchecked, the input signal magnitude is disregarded in the calculation
of the transfer function. For almost all analysis types, this flag is checked.

Bode plot pane: A number of options are available for customisation of the Bode Diagram.

• Show original signal: The time domain simulated waveform of the transfer function output signal
is shown within the Bode Diagram along with the magnitude and phase of the transfer function.
The time domain waveform of the output signal can be useful when adjusting the Frequency

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Response Analysis parameters available in the Basic Data page (e.g. ensuring that the output
signal waveform is not saturated, etc.)
• Linear x-axis: The Bode Diagram is presented using a linear axis for the frequency.

Nyquist plot pane: A number of options are available for customisation of the Nyquist plot.

• Show original signal: The time domain simulated waveform of the transfer function output signal
is shown within the Nyquist plot along with the complex plane diagram. The time domain waveform
of the output signal can be useful when adjusting the Frequency Response Analysis parameters
available in the Basic Data page (e.g. ensuring that the output signal waveform is not saturated,
etc.)
• Show positive frequencies only: The Nyquist plot is drawn using only the results corresponding
to non-zero positive frequencies.

• Complementary sensitivity margin: A guiding circle is shown on the Nyquist plot. Let 𝑀 be the
inverse of the complementary sensitivity margin (𝑀 is known in literature as the magnitude of the
closed-loop frequency response of unity feedback systems) then on the Nyquist plot a circle of
radius |𝑀/(𝑀 2 − 1)| and centered on (−𝑀 2 /(𝑀 2 − 1),0) is added. In general, all points on this
circle represent constant values of magnitude of the complementary sensitivity transfer function
or, in the case of unity feedback systems, constant values of magnitude of the closed loop transfer
function (i.e. M circle).

29.12.4 Advanced Page

The following general settings are subject to user configuration in the Advanced page:

Consider simulation events: If ticked, then any pre-defined RMS- or EMT-simulation events/faults will
be executed during the Frequency Response Analysis. If unticked (default), any pre-defined RMS- or
EMT-simulation events/faults will not be executed during the Frequency Response Analysis.

29.12.5 Output Plots

Upon executing the Frequency Analysis command, new plots are generated automatically and shown
on a new page. Depending on the command settings, the following plots are presented:

• Bode Diagram:
– Transfer function magnitude plot (magnitude over frequency)
– Transfer function phase plot (phase over frequency)
– (optional) Output signal waveform (time-series of the output signal in the last time window)
• Nyquist Plot:
– Nyquist curve (complex plane representation)
– (optional) Output signal waveform (time-series of the output signal in the last time window)

29.12.6 Output Results Files

Calculation results of the time domain simulation are stored in one Results Object (ElmRes) located
by default in the currently active study case (a subfolder of the Study cases project folder). The default
name of the results object is “Frequency Response”. Calculation results of the transfer function are
stored in the Results Object stored within the Plot itself for both magnitude and phase angle.

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29.12.7 Application notes and guidelines

The procedure followed by the Frequency Response Analysis tool is as follows:

• Identifies the initial value of the input test signal by executing the Calculation of Initial conditions
without modifying the original system (step 1 in Figure 29.12.1). The initial value of the input test
signal will be stored and further used.
• Sets up a Fourier Source element and configures it. The configuration is done such that the
following injected signal components are programmed in the Fourier Source
– the initial value of the test signal (when the upstream model was connected); this initial value
is programmed as being the DC component of the Fourier source
– all other sinusoidal signal injections of the Fourier Source.
• Replaces the original link between the tested input signal in the tested model and any signal
coming from an upstream model (if any) - refer to step 2 in Figure 29.12.1. The Fourier source
output is then connected to the input test signal of the tested model thus opening any loop in the
original model. If the variable in which the input test signal to be injected is part of a closed loop,
then the user must create an additional input signal in the model that allows for the connection of
the Fourier source without opening the original closed loop.
• Runs a dynamic simulation
• Computes the FFT of the “input signal” 𝑢(𝑡). Computes the FFT of a second signal (regarded
as “output signal” 𝑦(𝑡)) from the simulation results (the user selects both input and output signals
from the command dialog; multiple output signals can be selected for the same calculation, which
results in multiple transfer function plots)
• Computes the quotient between the magnitude of the output/input FFT results at each calculated
frequency in the FFT.

• Computes the difference between the phase angles of the output and input FFT results at each
calculated frequency in the FFT.
• Displays a “Bode Plot” which contains the quotient of the magnitudes on one plot and the phase
angle difference in another plot as functions of frequency. This is regarded as the Bode plot of
the “transfer function” of the output/input pair. Alternatively, a Nyquist Plot can be generated, in
which the complex value of the transfer function for varying frequencies is displayed in the complex
plane.
Fourier (input test) signal definition in the Frequency Response Analysis

In the above, a two steps procedure is adopted for configuring and linking the Fourier Source signal with
the input signal under test, as depicted in Figure 29.12.1.

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Figure 29.12.1: Setup procedure of the frequency response analysis tool

As such, the implementation has no switch that makes the transition between the Fourier source and any
pre-existing upstream models (either DSL or of other type) that might be connected to that particular
signal. The initial value of the signal is identified from the calculation of initial conditions using the
original system, in which the Fourier source is not connected. This initial value is regarded as a bias
and programmed in the Fourier Source as a DC component (𝑢𝐷𝐶 ). The test signal 𝑢(𝑡) contains a
number of sinusoidal signal components, as further described:

𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝
∑︁
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑦𝐹 𝑂𝑈 𝑅𝐼𝐸𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑢𝐷𝐶 + 𝐴𝑖 cos(𝜔𝑖 · 𝑡 ± 𝜑𝑖 ),
𝑖=𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝

where:
• 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 is the parameter Start at step and 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 is the parameter End at step from the
calculation dialog described in Section 29.12.2
• 𝑖 is a given integer step between 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 and 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝

• 𝐴𝑖 is the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal component at step 𝑖

• 𝜔𝑖 is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal component corresponding to step 𝑖 and equal
to 𝜔𝑖 = 2𝜋(𝑀 𝑖𝑛𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 + (𝑖 − 1)𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝). 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 is the parameter Step from the calculation dialog
described in Section 29.12.2. Variable 𝑀 𝑖𝑛𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 is equal to 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 · 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝

• 𝜑𝑖 is the angular phase displacement of the sinusoidal signal injection at step 𝑖. The phase angle
is set constant to 𝜑𝑖 = 𝜋2 .
• in the equation above, a positive phase angle is chosen for every step 𝑖 = 𝑘 * 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝; a
negative phase angle is chosen for every step 𝑖 = 𝑘 * 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 + 1, with k an integer number,
𝑘 = 1.. 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝
2 .

The amplitude parameter of each frequency component 𝐴𝑖 is defined as such:

𝐴0 𝐴0
𝐴𝑖 = =
𝜔𝑖 /(2𝜋) 𝑓𝑖

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where 𝑓𝑖 is the frequency in Hz of the sinusoidal signal component at step 𝑖

The signal 𝑢(𝑡) has the following properties:

• the value of the signal at start time 𝑡0 = 0 is equal to 𝑢𝐷𝐶
• the value of the signal’s time derivative at start time 𝑡0 = 0 is equal to 0.

Practical application notes

Caution should be taken when parameterising the Frequency response analysis tool.

The following requirements need to be fulfilled:

• the analysed model is in a quasi steady-state operation point and that the excitation signal does
not move the operation point away to another one.
• the model is behaving linearly around its current operation point

The default value of the Amplitude parameter is set to 0.01 which sometimes might be too large to
maintain a linear operating point for the tested model. The maximum deviation of the test signal from
its DC bias is calculated as the sum of the magnitudes of all sinusoidal signal injections programmed in
the Fourier Source. As such, the norm of the test signal deviation fulfils:

𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝
∑︁ 𝐴0
||𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢𝐷𝐶 || <
𝑓𝑖
𝑖=𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝

Note: The optimal amplitude of the Fourier Source signal will depend on the typical range of the input
test signal and the degree of non linearity of the system (typically when signals are using a p.u.
system, then the Amplitude parameter should be relatively small e.g. 0.001 p.u.).

From the above, it is seen that for frequency step increments, the amplitude decays with a double linear
logarithmic characteristic, in which the characteristic will always intersect the frequency 1 Hz at 𝐴0 .
An example is provided in Figure 29.12.2, in which 𝐴0 = 0.01, 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 = 0.1𝐻𝑧, 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 = 1 and
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 = 100.

Figure 29.12.2: Amplitude variation along frequency

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For the above parameters, the resulting input test signal u(t) looks as in Figure 29.12.3 (where the DC
component is excluded):

Figure 29.12.3: Exemplary input test signal

The No. of windows parameter should also be carefully selected. The Frequency Response analysis
simulates the system for a time duration of 𝑡 = 𝑁𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑠 /𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 [𝑠]. The last 1/𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 seconds in the
simulation will be used by the command to compute the transfer function. In this period it is important
that any external perturbation of the simulation quantities are avoided. For example, slowly decaying
transients should have already been extinguished, various simulation events should not be triggered,
etc. Sometimes, whenever frequency response results seem implausible, it is recommended to increase
the No. of windows parameter to a larger value and test whether the generated results are the same. If
different results are obtained this is an indication that the simulation signal has not yet reached a steady
state for that particular time window.

Finally, it is recommended that an in-depth analysis of the equations of the tested model is performed
to ensure that the simulation model does not introduce self-triggered events and to asses the effect of
discrete non-linearities on the frequency response.

29.13 Frequency Analysis

PowerFactory supports two important options for performing signal frequency analysis:
• Fourier Analysis, using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and
• Prony Analysis.

Both these are offered in the Frequency Analysis command (ComFrequency ).

29.13.1 Prony Analysis Overview

While the FFT Analysis is commonly known, Prony Analysis is a calculation method which allows to
calculate a frequency decomposition of a given signal. Prony Analysis belongs to the general topic of
exponential data fitting. This field of research aims to find a sum of exponentials which fits best to a
given series. Prony Analysis and FFT differ in several respects:

• Prony Analysis is not limited to a discrete grid of frequencies, whilst FFT is restricted to discrete
frequencies, i.e. Prony Analysis detects the exact frequency of a certain harmonic.

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• Unlike FFT, Prony Analysis is able to detect and quantify harmonic wave trends in time, i.e.
increasing or decreasing waves (waves with damping) in the signal.

Prony Analysis decomposes a given signal into damped sinusoidal oscillations, the so-called modes
of a signal. In contrast to the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), where the algorithm considers predefined
frequencies, Prony Analysis determines the exact values for the modes (frequency, phase, etc.).

The Frequency Analysis Tool offers the possibility to apply Prony Analysis for a single Time Point or
over a predefined Time Range (using a smaller sized sliding window sweeping between the start and
end time references with a given step size).

Note: A Time Point is defined here and throughout Section 29.13 as a single set of time contiguous
data points of a waveform. The set is delimited by a start and an end time. Each Time Point is
called, in this context, a Window.
A Time Range is defined here and throughout Section 29.13 as a set of time contiguous data
points of a waveform. The set is delimited by a start and an end time and may include a finite
number of Time Points/Windows.

The result for a calculation at a single Time Point is presented in bar diagrams showing the amplitude,
damping and energy of each mode, see Figure 29.13.1. Calculation of Prony Analysis over a given
Time Range is useful to detect changes in harmonic, interharmonic or subsynchronous oscillations,
see Figure 29.13.2. Both figures below show an example of a generator current in a 60 Hz power
system in which a subsynchronous resonance is excited at t = 0.0 s. The subsynchronous resonance
causes a current component with a frequency of 39.7 Hz (ca. 20 Hz below fundamental frequency).
In addition there are current components with a frequency of 81.4 Hz (ca. 20 Hz above fundamental
frequency) and higher frequencies, which are well damped and therefore do not impact the system.

Figure 29.13.1: Prony Analysis results, three plots showing the magnitude, energy and damping of the
modes of a given signal for a single Time Point

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Figure 29.13.2: Prony Analysis calculated over a Time Range

29.13.2 Basic Usage

To perform a Frequency Analysis calculation several approaches are possible:

• Via the context sensitive menu:

– Make sure that at least one signal is shown in a plot (VisPlot)
– Right click on any area of the subplot and from the context sensitive menu choose Frequency
Analysis. . . . The mouse pointer will change appearance to .
– Move the mouse pointer to the time which corresponds to the starting point of the used data.
Left click and hold while moving the mouse pointer to the time corresponding to the end point
of the used data. Release the left click mouse button.
– The Frequency Analysis command Dialog is shown.
• Via the Plot toolbar
– Make sure that at least one signal is shown in a subplot (VisPlot) of a Plot Page (SetVipage)
– Click on the Frequency Analysis icon located on the Plots toolbar. The mouse pointer will
change appearance to .
– Move the mouse pointer to the time which corresponds to the starting point of the used data.
Left click and hold while moving the mouse pointer to the time corresponding to the end point
of the used data. Release the left click mouse button.
– The Frequency Analysis command dialog is shown.

The Frequency Analysis calculation settings are configured using the command dialog via three pages:
• Basic Options
• FFT

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• Prony Analysis
A more detailed description of each page is provided in the following subsections.

After configuring the Frequency Analysis settings, click on Execute to carry out the calculation.

29.13.3 Basic Options Page

In the Basic Options page, the following settings are subject to user configuration:

Calculation method pane: The two calculation functions are made available via this pane:
• Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
• Prony Analysis
Range of calculation pane: The Frequency Analysis command supports either the Single time point
or the Calculation over time options.

• Single time point: This range of calculation is supported for FFT and Prony Analysis. As input
data, a single Time Point is used.
• Calculation over time: This option is supported only by the Prony Analysis function. As input
data, a Time Range is used.

Note: As a prerequisite, the time range chosen for calculation over time (difference between End
Time and Start Time) must be larger than the corresponding time of the sliding window (the data
corresponding for reading a number of n samples where n is defined by parameter Size available
in the Prony Analysis page, Section 29.13.5.

Definition of range: If Calculation over time has been selected for Prony Analysis then the Definition
of range pane is shown with the following settings:

• Start time: Data range being used for calculation is defined by a start and an end time. The Start
time defines the point in time of the beginning of the Time Range with respect to the input variable
(as defined in the “Input Curves” field).
• End time: The End time defines the point in time corresponding to the last data point in the Time
Range.
• Estimated number of calculations: The number indicates an estimation of the total number of
Prony Analysis calculations. This number depends mainly on the Start time, End time (Basic
Options Page), the resampling and the Step size (of sliding window) (Prony Analysis Page)
parameters.

Note: In Prony Analysis , while moving (sliding) the Window over the defined Time Range with a certain
step size, the Calculation over time will run a Prony Analysis for each Window inside the Time
Range, as long as the Window fits inside the Time Range. For a trivial example, a signal is given
with evenly distributed data points with a sampling rate of 100 Hz. For the Prony Analysis based
on a Calculation over time the following options are set:
• Start Time = 0 s
• End Time = 1 s
• Size (of Window) = 40 samples
• No resampling
• Step size (of sampling window) = 20 samples
Based on this input data a number of 4 calculations will be executed on these Windows: (1)
0s-0.4s, (2) 0.2s-0.6s, (3) 0.4s-0.8s, (4) 0.6s-1.0s.

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Input curves: Input signals can be defined in the table “Input curves”. Prony Analysis or FFT will be
calculated for all curves with the same settings.

Delete unused frequency calculation results...: The Frequency Analysis creates a results file (.Elm-
Res) for each input curve and stores it in the subfolder “Signal Processing” of the currently active
Study Case folder. Removing the plots generated by Frequency Analysis from the plot page does not
automatically remove the previously generated results files. As a consequence, the “Signal Processing”
subfolder might get cluttered with a lot of unused objects (e.g. not shown in a plot, not used by a
dpl script, etc). PowerFactory keeps track of the results files which are currently in use by various
subplots and provides the possibility to clean up the “Signal Processing” subfolder. To do so, click on
the Delete unused frequency calculation results... button. A selection window containing all unused
results files is shown. To remove all unused files, select all objects and click OK.

29.13.4 FFT Page

The FFT page is organised in two tabs: General and Advanced. The following settings of the General
tab are subject to user configuration:

Window: The window pane configures the settings of the data used as input for the FFT calculation
with reference to the original signal.
• Size: This parameter sets the number of data samples being used by the FFT calculation. This
number fulfils the condition 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 2𝑘 where 𝑘 is a positive integer. If a different number is typed
in, then PowerFactory replaces it by the power of 2 number closest to it.
• Begin: This parameter sets the starting time of the data set used for the FFT calculation.
• End: This parameter cannot be directly set. Being based on the window Size and Begin parame-
ters, PowerFactory automatically displays the time of the last used data point.
Fundamental Frequency: Let 𝑛 be the size of the time window, let 𝑓 be the fundamental frequency,
and let 𝑟 be the sampling rate. Then, the following relation applies:
𝑟
𝑓=
𝑛

Note: In particular, if no resampling is selected, the algorithm uses the raw input signal and therefore
the sampling rate is given. In this case, the size of window 𝑛 and the fundamental frequency 𝑓
depend on each other. In contrast, if the signal is resampled, 𝑛 and 𝑓 can be chosen freely, while
the sampling rate 𝑟 is adjusted according to equation above (i.e. 𝑓 = 𝑟/𝑛).

Resample signal (with linear interpolation): Check this box to enable resampling of input data using
linear interpolation.

Sampling rate: Provided that the Resample signal (with linear interpolation) checkbox is ticked, the
sampling rate in Hz can be defined using this parameter.

Note: Resampling for FFT Analysis employs an equidistant resampling algorithm with linear interpola-
tion of the given data. This might be particularly useful if the input data is not equidistant. In the
case of subsampling, the Frequency Analysis results may be wrong due to aliasing effects.

The following settings of the Advanced tab are subject to user configuration:

Representation (magnitude) pane: This pane provides two options for computing the FFT magnitude
results as described below.

• Amplitude spectrum: The magnitude will remain unchanged if the Amplitude spectrum is cho-
sen.

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• RMS spectrum: For √ currents and voltages, the setting RMS spectrum results in magnitude
multiplication by 1/ 2.
THD-Calculation pane: A separate variable is stored in the results file representing the harmonic
distortion (HD). This variable is calculated based on the options set in this pane, as described below.

The square-root of the sum of the squared HD values will give the total harmonic distortion (THD).

• Based on RMS-values: The variable contains magnitudes relative to the RMS value of the
magnitude of the first 50 modes, i.e. relative to:
⎯
⎸ 50
⎸∑︁
⎷ 𝑀 𝑎𝑔(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑖 )2
𝑖=0

This result corresponds to the harmonic factor (HF) of the harmonic load flow calculation, compare
Section 36.2.4.
• Based on fundamental frequency values: The variable contains magnitudes relative to the
magnitude of the mode corresponding to the fundamental frequency.
This result corresponds to the harmonic distortion (HD) of the harmonic load flow calculation,
compare Section 36.2.4.

29.13.5 Prony Analysis Page

The Prony Analysis page is organised in two tabs: General and Advanced. The following settings of
the General tab are subject to user configuration:

Window pane: configures the sample Size, Begin and End times for a single Time Point used by the
Prony Analysis calculation with reference to the original signal.
• Size: this parameter sets the number of data samples being used by the Prony Analysis in a
single Time Point.
• Begin: if the Range of calculation is set to Single time point (refer to Section 29.13.3) then the
Begin parameter is made available for editing. This parameter sets the starting time of the Time
Point.
• End: if the Range of calculation is set to Single time point (refer to Section 29.13.3) then the End
time is shown, calculated based on the window Size, Begin parameters and the sample rate.

Number of modes: The total number of computed modes. This parameter is specified on a case-by-
case basis, considering the harmonic contents of the analysed signal. As a rule of thumb, being given
a signal containing a number of 𝑘 harmonics (including in 𝑘 the fundamental frequency as well), the
Number of modes should be chosen higher than 2𝑘 + 2.

Resample signal (with linear interpolation): Check this box to enable resampling of input data using
linear interpolation.

Sampling rate: Provided that the Resample signal (with linear interpolation) checkbox is ticked, the
sampling rate in Hz can be defined using this parameter.

Note: Resampling for Prony Analysis employs an equidistant resampling algorithm with linear interpo-
lation of the given data. This might be particularly useful if the input data is not equidistant. In the
case of subsampling, the Frequency Analysis results may be wrong due to aliasing effects.

Sort according to: For calculation over time, sorting of the modes becomes necessary. The sorting
can be done according to different criteria, such as energy or error impact. The modes are named

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mode 0, mode 1, ... according to the sorting algorithm. Modes with negative frequency are arranged
at the end (usually, half of the modes have negative frequency, as the modes should come in complex
conjugate pairs).

Note: Sorting affects the colouring of the plots as each colour in the plot corresponds to a mode.

When using the Calculation over time range of calculation, the resulting modes can be sorted according
to the following calculation variables:

• Energy
• Error impact
• Frequency

• Amplitude
• Damping
• Phase
Step size (of sliding window): If calculation over time is performed, the Step size can be adapted,
while the Begin parameter for the window is automatically set.

The following settings of the Advanced tab are subject to user configuration:

Set frequency to zero if absolute value of frequency is small: If the graphical representation is still
not satisfactory, this might be due to the fact that the mode being the DC part, will have a frequency
which is near zero, but not exactly zero - possibly sometimes positive, sometimes negative. Therefore,
as modes with negative frequency are arranged at the end, at some time points, the DC part is arranged
at the end, at other points it is arranged as expected. This leads to undesired colouring effects in the
plots. The settings provided on the advanced subpage of the Prony Analysis Set frequency to zero ...
will set the frequency to zero of all modes which have a frequency smaller than a given threshold. One
must be aware that this option will change the results, thus might increase the fit error. On the other
hand, the sorting of the modes should be more predictable with this setting enforced.
• Threshold: This parameter sets the threshold, in Hz, of the Set frequency to zero ... option.

29.13.6 Recalculation

The user may re-run an already performed calculation with slightly modified settings. For example, in
order to find good calculation parameters, the user may modify just a few settings, and leave the rest as
it is. In this case:

• Double click the plot where the frequency analysis results are displayed.
• A button Recalculate allows to open the Frequency Analysis command with all the previously
used settings for the calculation of the specific Frequency Analysis results. These settings are
stored in the previously generated results file (ElmRes).
• After adjusting the settings as required, the Frequency Analysis can be executed again.

Note: By default the old results file is overwritten. The user however can choose to generate a new
results file on the Basic Options page.

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29.13.7 Output Plots

Upon executing the Frequency Analysis command, new plots are generated automatically and shown
on a new page together with the original signals. Depending on the command settings, along with the
original signals, the following plots are presented:

• FFT Analysis:
– FFT magnitude plot (magnitude over frequency)
– FFT phase plot (phase over frequency)
• Prony Analysis (Single time point):
– Mode Magnitude plot
– Mode Damping plot
– Mode Energy plot
• Prony Analysis (Calculation over time) - For each input curve, two pages with five plots are
generated:
– Page 1: Signal to noise ratio (SNR) plot
– Page 2: Mode Frequency plot
– Page 2: Mode Damping plot
– Page 2: Mode Amplitude plot
– Page 2: Mode Energy plot

29.13.8 Output Results Files

Calculation results are stored in Results Objects (ElmRes) under the “Signal processing” subfolder of
the active Study case folder. Each Frequency Analysis of a curve leads to a new results object.

There are three types of results objects:

• Prony Analysis (time range) (stores results of Prony Analysis using Calculation over time)
• Prony Analysis (stores results of Prony Analysis using Single time point)

• FFT Analysis
For all above Frequency Analysis functions, the calculation settings are saved and stored in the corre-
sponding results file. This is particularly useful in case of performing a Recalculate action or in order
to document the applied settings for a particular result.

Calculated variables: Prony Analysis using Calculation over time

The x-Axis variable is:

• time: Time
The calculation variables per mode are listed below:

• freq: Frequency
• damp: Damping
• mag: Amplitude
• phi: Phase

• complConj: Complex conjugate mode (-1, if no complex conjugate exists)

• errImp: Error impact calculated as in (29.1).

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• energy : Energy of the mode (refer to (29.2) and (29.3)).

The calculation results for the whole analysis are:

• diffSup: Maximal error to input series (refer to (29.4)).

• errRms. RMS error to input signal.
• snr. Signal to noise ratio. (refer to (29.5); for voltages or currents, the prefactor 10 is replaced by
20 in (29.5).)

Calculated variables: Prony Analysis using Single time point

The variable on the x-Axis is:

• freq: Frequency
The calculation results per mode are:
• damp: Damping

• mag: Amplitude
• phi: Phase
• complConj: Complex conjugate mode (-1, if no complex conjugate exists)
• errImp: Error impact calculated as in (29.1).

• energy : Energy of the mode as in (29.2) and (29.3)

Calculation results for whole analysis: (same in each row)
• diffSup: Maximal error to input series as in (29.4).
• errRms. RMS error to input signal.

• snr. Signal to noise ratio as in (29.5).

Calculated variables: FFT Analysis

The variable on the x-Axis is:

• fnow: Frequency
The calculation results per harmonic order are:

• FFT_mag: Amplitude
• FFT_phi: Phase
• FFT_re: Real part

• FFT_im: Imaginary part

• FFT_HD: Harmonic Distortion
• FFT_PSD: Power Spectrum Density
Variable naming conventions: Prony Analysis generates “user defined variables” in the results files as
described above. For example, Prony Analysis using Calculation over time creates the following result
variables:
• mode0:freq(inputsignal). Refers to frequency of mode 0 of Prony Analysis of series “inputsignal”.
• snr(inputsignal). Refers to 𝑠𝑛𝑟 of Prony Analysis result of series “inputsignal”.

Variables generated from ComTrade files data are treated in an analogous way.

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29.13.9 General Recommendations on the Use of Prony Analysis

Prony Analysis is, as many other frequency analysis tools are, sensitive to the applied input signal and
configuration settings. Validating the obtained results may prove to be an iterative process where the
calculation performance indices are evaluated. Further on, corrections to the used settings are applied
and the calculation is redone in order to maximise the quality of obtained results. The following indices
should be observed after performing a Prony Analysis:

• snr - Signal to noise ratio. This performance index supplies information on the quality of the
calculated signal 𝑦ˆ(𝑡) (based on the decomposition results) as compared with the original signal.
A high value of the snr indicates a good correlation between the calculated signal 𝑦ˆ(𝑡) and the
original signal 𝑦(𝑡).
• diffSup - Maximal error to input series. Small values indicate a good fit.

• errRms - RMS error to input signal. Small values indicate a good fit.

Determining which modes are relevant to the calculated signal is done by evaluating the following
results:

• energy - Energy of the mode. This variable provides information on the energy contents of the
specific mode. A relative comparison between the energy of each calculated mode can suggest
whether a specific mode is relevant for the calculated signal or not. Modes with less energy may
be regarded as fictitious modes. Typically these modes have a low amplitude as well.
• errImp - Error impact. A small error indicates important modes.

Consider the example of analysing the phase currents of a thyristor based rectifier (within a HVDC
station) before, during and after a network voltage transient (short circuit on an AC bus nearby). In
this example, only one performance index is optimised (signal to noise ratio snr ). The resulting current
waveform (for one phase), i.e. the original signal is shown in Figure 29.13.3.

Figure 29.13.3: Original signal (AC phase current) to be processed by Prony Analysis

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The input curve has a sample rate of approximately 20 kHz, unevenly spaced. For the Prony Analysis
based on a Calculation over time the following options are set:
• Start Time = -0.8 s

• End Time = 1.2 s

• Size (of Window) = 50 samples
• Resampling at 5 kHz (generating evenly spaced data)

• Step size (of sampling window) = 20 samples

• Number of modes = 12
Based on this input data the Prony Analysis is executed, with the snr represented by the red curve
in Figure 29.13.4. The signal to noise ratio snr is low (between 5 and 13 dB). The snr deteriorates
further during the transient (it consistently drops in the 0dB range), which is to be expected, as the
parameterisation algorithm does not fit well the calculated signal to the original one especially when
transients appear (a large band frequency spectrum is present). Improving the calculated curve implies
tuning the calculation settings as much as possible. As one solution, the following changes are applied:
• Start Time = -0.8 s

• End Time = 1.2 s

• Size (of Window) = 100 samples - changed to fit into one fundamental frequency (50Hz)
• Resampling at 5 kHz
• Step size (of sampling window) = 50 samples - changed to lower the total number of calcula-
tions (it has no practical effect on improving the results themselves)
• Number of modes = 24 - enables the calculation to estimate the calculated signal based on
a higher number of modes, hence increasing the accuracy by reproducing a larger number of
frequency components of the original signal.
Based on this input data the Prony Analysis is executed once more, with the snr represented by the
green curve in Figure 29.13.4. A visible improvement is observed in both the steady state and the
transient ranges. Now, all other results of the individual modes can be confidently used further in the
analysis. Note that there are no standardised limits on the level of minimum snr for validating results,
moreover, the user being able to specify own requirements of pass/fail.

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Figure 29.13.4: Evaluation of signal-to-noise ratio for different Prony Analysis settings

The final optimised results are shown in Figure 29.13.5. The first 6 modes sorted according to their
energy are shown (the option Sort according to has been set to Energy ). The typical low frequency
harmonic current spectrum of the rectifier is observed. The 17th and the 19th harmonics are not
displayed as the energy contained is too low. Furthermore, the damping, amplitude and energy of each
mode of oscillation are quantified providing valuable insight into the actual behaviour of the rectifier unit
(along with its controllers).

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Figure 29.13.5: Prony Analysis on AC phase current of a thyristor rectifier before/during/after a three
phase short circuit

29.13.10 Quick Overview of Used Formulas

Throughout the Frequency Analysis command, a series of formulas are relevant for understanding the
various result variables. The goal of Frequency Analysis is to represent an input signal as a sum of
modes, where 𝑦(𝑡) is the original signal:

𝑛−1
∑︁
𝑦(𝑡) ≈ mode𝑘 (𝑡).
𝑘=0

In the case of FFT Analysis:

mode𝑘 = mag · 𝑒𝑖phi · 𝑒𝑖𝑡2𝜋freq .
In the case of Prony Analysis:

mode𝑘 = mag · 𝑒𝑖phi · 𝑒𝑖𝑡·(damp+2𝜋freq) .

Letting 𝑦ˆ(𝑡) denote the calculated signal, and 𝑦ˆ−𝑙 (𝑡) the calculated signal where mode𝑙 is removed:
∑︁
𝑦ˆ−𝑙 (𝑡) = mode𝑘 (𝑡).
𝑘̸=𝑙

The error impact of a mode mode𝑙 is defined as:

√︃∫︁
errImp𝑙 := 𝑦−𝑙 (𝑡)))2 𝑑𝑡.
(𝑦(𝑡) − ℜ(ˆ (29.1)

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The energy of a mode which has no complex conjugate in the representation of 𝑦(𝑡) is defined to be:
∫︁
energy𝑘 := |ℜ(mode𝑘 (𝑡))|2 𝑑𝑡 (29.2)

The energy of a mode which has a complex conjugate in the representation of 𝑦(𝑡) is defined to be:
∫︁
energy𝑘 := |2ℜ(mode𝑘 (𝑡))|2 𝑑𝑡 (29.3)

In general, the input signal will differ from the calculated representation:

diffSup := sup |ˆ
𝑦 (𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡)| > 0 (29.4)
𝑡∈Window

Another possibility to evaluate correctness is to determine the signal to noise ratio as calculated below:

√︁∫︀
𝑦ˆ(𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡
a := √︁∫︀
(𝑦(𝑡) − 𝑦ˆ(𝑡))2 𝑑𝑡

In many cases, the signal is relatively big with respect to noise. Therefore, it might be useful to consider
the signal to noise ratio on a logarithmic scale as below. This quantity is without dimension, however it
is defined to be in Decibel.

snr := 10 log(a)[𝑑𝐵] (29.5)

As the input data of the input signal comes in discrete measurements, almost all integrals above are
evaluated as sums.

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Chapter 30

Models for Dynamic Simulations

Time domain analysis are typically based on predefined system models. In the majority of cases the
standard IEEE definitions for controllers, prime movers and other associated devices and functions are
used. Refer to Appendix B Standard Models in PowerFactory for a description of the standard models
available in the DIgSILENT library.

For planning purposes, this approach might be acceptable. The predefined sets of parameters will allow
a favourable and reasonable behaviour of the analysed system. This approach is often also applied to
operation analysis, and the system should show a response similar to a real system.

For systems and configurations for which no IEEE models exist, such as wind generators, HVDC-
systems, etc., powerful tools for user defined modelling are required. For this purpose, highly spe-
cialised, exact models can be created in PowerFactory.

In cases when manufacturers are able to supply exact controller models including real parameters, the
system model can be improved by not using the IEEE standard models, but instead building a new block
diagram of the individual controller/mechanical system to represent the device. This facilitates highly
accurate system modelling.

Utilities and consultants often conduct system operation performance and optimisation studies, and
therefore have a clear need for accurate methods and tools for creating accurate transient models for
stability analysis.

This includes complex operation analysis and special component planning problems. This demand led
to the development of highly flexible and accurate DIgSILENT PowerFactory time-domain modelling
features.

Figure 30.0.1 provides an overview of the PowerFactory modelling approach, as discussed in this
chapter.

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Figure 30.0.1: Overview of Modelling Approach

30.1 System Modelling Approach

System modelling for stability analysis purposes is one of the most critical issues in the field of power
system analysis. Depending on the accuracy of the implemented model, large-signal validity, available
system parameters and applied faults or tests, nearly any result could be produced and arguments
could be found for its justification.

This is one aspect of the complexity of a transient stability study. The other aspect results from the often
large set of time-domain models that are required, each of which may be a combination of other models.
All these time-domain models are ultimately wired together into one large, single transient model from
which the basic set of system differential equations can be obtained.

Given this complexity of a transient analysis problem, the PowerFactory modelling philosophy is targeted
towards a strictly hierarchical system modelling approach, which combines both graphical and script-
based modelling methods.

The basis for the modelling approach is formed by the basic hierarchical levels of time-domain mod-
elling:
• The DSL Block Definitions, based on the “DIgSILENT Simulation Language” (DSL), form the basic
building blocks to represent transfer functions and differential equations for the more complex
transient models.

• The built-in models and common models. The built-in models or elements are the transient
PowerFactory models for standard power system equipment, i.e. for generators, motors, static
VAr compensators, etc. The common models are based on the DSL Block Definitions and are the
front-end of the user-defined transient models.
• The composite models are based on composite frames and are used to combine and interconnect
several elements (built-in models) and/or common models. The composite frames enable the
reuse of the basic structure of the composite model.
The relation between these models and the way that they are used is best described by the following

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example.

Suppose the frequency deviation due to the sudden loss of a fully-loaded 600 MW unit in a particular
network is to be analysed. Depending on the network and the required detail in the calculated results,
such analysis may ask for a detailed modelling of the voltage controllers, prime movers and primary
controllers, or any other important equipment for all large generators in the system.

Figure 30.1.1: Example of a Composite or Power Plant Model

Figure 30.1.1 shows a typical configuration of a synchronous generator with power system stabiliser,
voltage controller, primary controller, and prime mover model. The primary controller and prime mover
can be summarised as the primary controller unit model. To create this kind of model, the following
actions are required:

1. Transient models for each required controller type or unit type have to be defined (Model/Block
Definition).
2. For each generator, the transient models of the individual controller must be customised by setting
the parameters to the correct values (Common Model).
3. A diagram has to be made defining the connections between the inputs and outputs of the various
models (Composite Frame).
4. For each generator, the diagram and the customised transient models are to be grouped together
to define an unique ’composite’ generator model (Composite Model).

It may seem unnecessary to include steps 2 and 3: it would be possible to create customised transient
models for each generator directly, with ’burned-in’ parameter settings, and to link these models to a
generator without having to define a diagram first. This, however, would mean that one would have to
create a new voltage controller, for example, for each generator in the system.

Often the design of many of these voltage controllers will be similar. The above approach removes the
need to create copies of these controllers for each generator and avoids redundant copies of controllers
or whole generator models.

Here the same relationship as that between individual controller (Common Model) and controller defini-
tion (Model Definition) is used; this time between the generic power plant diagram (Composite Frame)
and the individual power plant (Composite Model). DIgSILENT PowerFactory uses two key objects in
creating composite models, which can be compared to the element definition of the different elements:
• The Common Model(ElmDsl) combines general time-domain models or model equations (a
Block Definition) with a set of parameter values and creates an integrated time-domain model.
• The Composite Model(ElmComp) connects a set of time-domain models inside a diagram (a
composite frame) and creates a ’composite model’.

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The following diagrams explain the relation between the Composite Model (which is using a Frame as
type) and the Common Model (based on a block diagram as type) in detail.

• The Composite Model(ElmComp), Figure 30.1.2, references the definition of a composite frame.
This composite frame is basically a schematic diagram containing various empty slots, in which
controller or elements can be assigned. These slots are then interconnected according to the
diagram, see Section Composite Block Definitions (part of Section 30.3.3: Defining DSL Models).
The slots in the composite frame are pre-configured for specific transient models.

• The schematic diagram in Figure 30.1.3 shows a Composite Frame (BlkDef ) which has one slot
for a synchronous machine, one for a primary controller unit (pcu slot), and one for a voltage
controller (vco slot). The composite model, which uses this composite frame, shows a list of
the available slots and the name of the slot. Now the specific synchronous generator, voltage
controller or primary controller unit model can be inserted into these slots.

• The synchronous machine that is used in the Composite Model is called a Built-In Model, see
Figure 30.1.4 This means that such elements are pre-configured elements which do not need a
specific model definition. Any kind of element which is able to provide input or output variables,
e.g. converters, busbars, etc, can be inserted into the slots.
• The voltage controller, and primary controller unit, however, are user-defined Common Models,
see Figure 30.1.5 The ’front-end’ of all user-defined transient models is always a common model
(ElmDsl), which combines a model definition with specific parameter settings. There are prede-
fined definitions as well, so that the user can create model definitions as required.
• The common model has a reference to the Model Definition (BlkDef ), which looks similar to
the composite frame (shown in Figure 30.1.6). Here different blocks are defined and connected
together according to the diagram. The input and output variables have to fit with the slot definition
of the slot that the model is defined for.

Not all slots of the composite model must necessarily be used. There can also be empty slots. In
such cases, the input of this slot is unused and the output is assumed to be constant over the entire
simulation. The usage of composite models with a composite frame, and the common model with its
Block Definitions are described in the next sections.

The design and creation of user defined common models using the “DIgSILENT Simulation Language”
(DSL) can be found in Section 30.3 (User Defined (DSL) Models).

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Figure 30.1.2: Example of a Composite Model Using the Frame “Frame_Generator”

Figure 30.1.3: Composite Frame “Frame_Generator”

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Figure 30.1.4: Generator “G1” (Built-In Model)

Figure 30.1.5: Example of a Common Model Using the Definition “vco_simple”

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Figure 30.1.6: Example of a Model Definition “vco_simple”

30.1.1 The Composite Model

A composite model element (ElmComp) can created using the New Object ( ) icon, located in the
toolbar of the Data Manager and selecting Composite Model from the available options. The next step
is to select the composite frame. The composite frame can be stored either in the global library or in
the local library, and is conceptually similar to a type definition for an electrical element. The composite
model then shows the list of slots in the composite frame.

Existing controllers or models can be assigned to a slot manually by right-clicking the slot and selecting
Select Element/Type. A data manger window will pop up and the user can then browse the grid for the
element to insert into the selected slot.

When inserting controller models into a slot, it is often the case that the controller element has not yet
been created. To create a new controller element select New Element/Type from the slot’s context-
sensitive menu. PowerFactory will automatically jump to the project Library and show a list of available
user defined models (ElmDsl).

Selecting a model definition from the project library or the global library will open the element dialog
of the newly-created common model, so that its parameters can be defined, similar to (for example) a
transformer element. If no suitable model is found, a Block Definition has to be selected prior to setting
the model parameters (see Section 30.1.2 (The Composite Frame) and Figure 30.1.6).

If an element is assigned to a slot, it is possible to edit the assigned element by simply right-clicking
and selecting Edit Element/Type. The right-mouse button menu entry Reset Element/Type will reset the
slot, so that it is empty again.

Note: Depending on the settings of the individual slot, the menu entry Reset Element/Type will not

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only clear the marked slot but also delete the built-in or common model, if it is stored inside the
composite model in the Data Manager. These settings are explained in detail in Section 30.1.2
(The Composite Frame).

A faster method for defining standard composite models is to right-click on an object in the single line
diagram and select Define. . . from the context menu of the element.

When a standard composite model is available for the selected object, a list of the available controllers
is shown. Selecting a controller will add it to the composite model, which is automatically created when
no composite model yet exists for the selected object.

Standard composite models are available for:

• The synchronous motor and generator;

• The asynchronous motor and generator;
• The static VAr system.
Slot Update

The Slot Update button in the composite model (ElmComp) dialog will re-read the slot definitions from
the composite frame and will cancel all invalid slot assignments.

A slot assignment is invalid when a model has been assigned to a slot which is not suited to receive
this kind of model, i.e. a voltage controller cannot be assigned to a slot defined for a primary controller
model.

All built-in models and common models which have been created for a specific composite model are
stored in that composite model itself. The contents of a composite model are shown in the Data Manager
where the composite model is treated as a normal database folder. Basic power system equipment,
such as synchronous machines or static VAr compensators, are normally not stored in the composite
folder, but in the grid itself.

The slot update will try to re-assign each model found in its contents to the corresponding slot. The
options defined for each slot are important, and are described in the paragraph Classification in Sec-
tion 30.1.2 (The Composite Frame).

Step Response

The Step Response button in the composite model (ElmComp) dialog will activate the Step Response
command (ComStepres).

Next to the references to the composite model, the template and the target directory, the two step
response tests, which will be created, can be specified. The study case to be activated can also be
selected. When Execute is pressed, PowerFactory will create a new folder in the current project named
Step Response Test. Figure 30.1.7 shows this folder in the Data Manager.

Figure 30.1.7: Step Response Folder in the Data Manager

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Inside the Step Response Test folder, a second folder is created, named according to the composite
model which is to be tested. Here the simple test grid can be found including only the generator, the
complete composite model and a load. Additionally there will be two new study cases in which a step
response for the AVR and the PCU, respectively, of the composite model can be tested.

The user can switch between these two study cases and previously-used study cases by activating and
deactivating them.

Note: There is now no longer any connection between the original elements and the new elements of
the composite model. Therefore, you can change any controller settings without changing your
network.

After testing the controller, the folder Step Response Test can be deleted completely without loss of
information in the original network.

30.1.2 The Composite Frame

A composite frame is a block diagram which defines two or more slots, their input and output signals,
and the connections between them. A composite frame is defined graphically by drawing it.

Drawing a composite model frame is similar to drawing a normal block diagram. The main difference is
that instead of common blocks, only slots may be used.

To create a new composite frame select the Insert New Graphic icon on the main toolbar (in the
graphics window) and then select Block/Frame Diagram and press Execute as shown in Figure 30.1.8
This new Block Definition will then be automatically created in the local library.

Figure 30.1.8: Creating a New Composite Frame

An empty diagram of the frame will appear in the graphics window. A slot is then created by selecting
the icon in the graphics toolbox and positioning the slot on the drawing surface by clicking once at
the desired location. This is similar to placing elements in the single-line diagram.

An empty slot will be drawn on the page. To define the slot’s input and output signals and different
parameters, edit the slot by double-clicking it.

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30.1.2.1 Name and Sequence

The name of the slot will appear later in the composite model dialog, and it is therefore recommended to
name this element according to which slot it will be assigned (e.g. ’vco slot’). The Sequence parameter
defines the order of the slots appearing in the composite model dialog.

30.1.2.2 Assigning a Block Definition to a Slot

A Block Definition (BlkDef ) can be assigned directly to a slot. This option will simplify the handling of
the slot and prevent errors due to miss-matched signal names of slot and assigned block.

To assign the external form of a Block Definition to the selected slot, edit the slot by double-clicking it
and choose the select button for the “Block Definition” in the dialog. Now the Block Definition can
be selected, e.g. the type of controller or built-in element, which should be assigned to this slot later.

As an example, if the newly-defined slot ought to represent a machine voltage regulator (AVR) in the
frame diagram, a predefined Block Definition can be chosen to insert the AVR model including input
and output signals to this slot. A controller should only be assigned to a slot, when only this type of
controller is to be inserted into this slot, and no other model can be.

When the Block Definition is selected, the input and output as well as limiting signals will disappear
from the slot dialog. The filter for the class name will automatically be entered. When clicking on the Ok
button, the slot will then show the right inputs and outputs according to the Block Definition.

Note: When a Block Definition is assigned directly to a slot, only the input/output signals are set
automatically. The internal equations/definitions of the Block Definition are not implemented in
the slot and the slot itself remains empty. There is always the need to create a common model,
which is the model inserted into the slot of the composite model. When the slot refers to an
outside Block Definition, beware that this reference is also inside your project. If the reference to
the definition is invalid or changed, the slot may be changed as well. Therefore, assign a block
very carefully.

30.1.2.3 Filter for

There is also the possibility to specify a filter for the class name and/or for the model name to be
inserted. This makes sense when (for example) only synchronous machines should be assigned to
the slot. In this case, the class name ElmSym* would be entered. PowerFactory then will only allow
the element class “synchronous machine” to be inserted into the slot. A filter for a specific (part of an)
element name can also be defined.

30.1.2.4 Classification

The classification options only affect the external behaviour of the slot.

Linear The slot representation in the frame diagram will be as a linear or non-linear model.
Automatic, model will be created When this option is activated, the function ’Slot Update’ (see Sec-
tion 30.1.1: The Composite Model) will automatically create a DSL model and ask for a Block
Definition from the library.

Local, model must be stored inside This option is activated by default. This means that when a Slot
Update is executed in the composite model, PowerFactory will only search for elements which are
stored inside the ElmComp. A reference to models which are stored outside, i.e. the synchronous
generator in a plant model, will be removed from the slot.

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Not all input or output signals of built-in elements or common models have to be used and defined in
the slot. A slot may only have an input or an output signal.

For example, the voltage or frequency of an AC voltage source ElmVac may be controlled by an external
function. Therefore, the slot for the source will only have two input signals u0 and f0. More information
about drawing composite frame diagrams can be found in Section 30.2.1 (Drawing Composite Block
Diagrams and Composite Frames).

30.1.2.5 Upper and Lower Limitation

Limiting Signals
There is also the possibility to enter ’limiting signals’. These signals are handled by PowerFactory
exactly like normal input signals. The difference is only in the graphical representation in the block
diagram. These signals will be shown as inputs on the top or bottom of the slot.

30.1.2.6 Variables

Input and Output Signals

The input and/or output signal(s) have to be defined for each slot. The available signal names for the
Built-In transient models (Elements) can be found in the Technical References Document

The given input and output signal names in this slot dialog have to match the input/output signals of the
given transient model exactly, or the signals will not be connected properly and an error message will
result.

Only after one or more input and output signals have been defined for a slot, is it possible to connect
the slot with signal lines to other slots. It is therefore recommended to first position and edit all slots and
to draw the signal connections thereafter.

30.1.3 The Common Model

The common model element (ElmDsl, is the front-end object for all user-defined Block Definitions.
This means that user-defined transient models, but also the block diagrams that are ready-shipped with
the PowerFactory program, cannot be used other than through a common model. The common model
combines a model or Block Definition with a specific set of parameter values. The common model
shown in Figure 30.1.9 uses the Block Definition “vco_Simple”.

Typically the model definition is implemented as a Block Definition, such as that shown in Figure 30.1.10.

A model definition contains block references which may in turn either point to a primitive Block Definition
(see Figure 30.1.11) or to a another composite Block Definition (see Figure 30.1.12). The structure of
the Block Definition is thus recursive and the user should check that this recursive structure does not
contain circular references to composite Block Definitions.

A primitive Block Definition contains one or more DSL expressions and forms a basic block for more
complex transient models. A description of how to use and create DSL models can be found in
Section 30.3 (User Defined (DSL) Models).

It is also possible to implement the model definition not as a Block Definition, but directly as a primitive
Block Definition (Figure 30.1.11), coded using DSL.

Each Block Definition generally has one or more parameters which can be changed to define the model’s
behaviour. Two kinds of parameters are supported:

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• Scalar parameters, i.e. amplification factors, offsets, setpoints, etc.

• Two and three dimensional array parameters, which are used in the DSL lapprox()/lapprox2() and
sapprox()/sapprox2() functions.

Figure 30.1.9: Common Model for the VCO

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Figure 30.1.10: Block Definition of the VCO, Using a Sub-Definition

Figure 30.1.11: Implementation of a basic first order limiter block, using a DSL routine

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Figure 30.1.12: Implementation of the controller, defining a sub-block

To create a common model, use the New Object ( ) icon in the toolbar of the Data Manager and select
Common Model. The block/model definition has to be selected first. Similar to the composite frame,
this definition is either stored in the global library or in the local library.

The common model then displays the list of available parameters and arrays from the block diagram,
as shown in Figure 30.1.13. All parameters are listed on the first page of the common model, and their
values can be specified there.

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Figure 30.1.13: Common Model with Parameter List

If the selected Block Definition uses one or more arrays in its definition, then these arrays are displayed
on the second page (for simple characteristics) and third page (for two-dimensional characteristics) of
the ElmDsl object. In Figure 30.1.14 an example is shown for an array definition.

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Figure 30.1.14: Common Model with Array List

The characteristics are defined as follows:

Characteristic In the row labelled ’Size’, insert the number of rows in the first cell; the number of
columns is set automatically. If the number of rows is changed, jump to the previous page and
back again to update the characteristic.
Two-Dimensional Characteristic In the row labelled ’Size’, insert the number of rows in the first cell
and the number of columns in the second cell. If one of these numbers is changed, jump to the
previous page and back again to update the characteristic.

30.2 The Composite Block Definition

A composite block diagram of the model definition is a graphical representation of a mathematical

transfer function, which produces one or more output signals as a function of one or more input signals.
A block diagram may also have limits (minimal and maximal values) as input signals.

A block diagram may thus be described as:

(y_0, y_1, ...) = function(u_0, u_1, ...)

where y_0, y_1, ... represent output signals 0, 1, ... and u_0, u_1, ... represent for input signals 0, 1, ....
These signals are all functions of time.

Block diagrams consist basically of the following elements:

• Summation Points which produce the single output y=(u_0+u_1+...)

• Multipliers which produce the single output y=(u_0*u_1*...)

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• Divisors which produce the single output y=(u_0/u_1/...)

• Switches which produce the single output y=u_0 or y=u_1
• Signal Lines which produce one or more outputs from one input: y_0 = y_1 =...= u
• Block References which are used to include other Block Definitions.

Block references can be looked upon as macros that insert a low-level Block Definition inside a compos-
ite block diagram definition. A block reference may either point to another composite Block Definition or
to a primitive Block Definition.

The PowerFactory program is shipped with a large set of primitive block diagrams for most common
controller elements like PID-controllers, Dead Bands, Valve Characteristics, etc., and can be found in the
PowerFactory tree under Database |Library|Models|Global_Macros. These predefined DSL primitives
may be copied and altered for specific needs.

A block reference is created by using the icon in the graphics toolbox. This creates an empty square
which can then refer to any existing Block Definition in the library.

Note: The composite frame and the model definition are very similar and their usage is almost identical.
When creating one or the other PowerFactory recognises the class when you place the first slot
or block. If you place a block () first, the icon for the slot will become inactive, so the user cannot
inadvertently mix up slots and blocks in one diagram. See also Section 30.2.1 (Drawing Composite
Block Diagrams and Composite Frames).

If the block type is selected, PowerFactory inserts all available parameters of the referred block. The
user may change the name of any parameter, however ensure that the order of the parameters is not
changed. The order is important so that the right parameter is assigned to the parameters inside the
Block Definition.

Signal lines are directed branches, connecting input and output signals. A single output line may be
branched off and connected to more than one input terminal.

After the block reference has been edited, it will show the input, output and limiting signal connection
points of the referenced Block Definition as one or more coloured dots on the left and right side,
respectively, on the upper and lower side of the box. Signal lines may then be connected to these
points. It is allowed to refer to the Block Definition more than once in the same block diagram. This way,
it is possible to use a particular PID-controller, for instance, twice or more in the same model definition.

An example of a simple block diagram, comprising a multiplier, a summation point and a standard PI
block, is shown in Figure 30.2.1.

Figure 30.2.1: Example of a Simple Block Diagram

When rebuilding a diagram (by pressing the icon), the DSL representation of the block diagram is
written to the output window. For the example block diagram in Figure 30.2.1, this results in the following
output:

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model o1 = ’MyBlock’(i1,i2;x1;Kp,Ti;yi)
s1 = ’\System\Library\Models\DSL\PI.BlkDef’(xe;x1;Kp,Ti;yi)
xe = i1*i2
o1 = s1+i2+i1

This simple example shows the whole meaning of the block diagram graphics: it is a convenient way to
define specific controllers, based on standard components.

However, it would also be possible to define exactly the same block diagram by entering the above DSL
script manually and thereby create a primitive Block Definition.

30.2.1 Drawing Composite Block Diagrams and Composite Frames

Although the composite block diagram and the composite frame diagram should be distinguished from
one other, they are drawn in the same way.

The basic distinction between a block diagram and a frame diagram is that the latter contains only slots
and signals, whilst the block diagram must not contain any slots.

A new block or frame diagram can be created in various ways:

• Selecting the main menu entry File → New or Ctrl-N and then selecting the option Block/Frame
Diagram from the New command dialog (ComNew);

• By clicking on the Insert New Graphic icon on the toolbar of an open graphic, and selecting
the option Block/Frame Diagram;
• By right-clicking on, or inside, a (library) folder in the active project in the Data Manager and
selecting New. . . → Block/Frame - Diagram from the context-sensitive menu;

• By using the New Object icon in the database manager and selecting Block Definition (BlkDef).

Note: The latter two options only create a Block Definition object (BlkDef), but no graphic. This method
is therefore not suitable for creating a composite block or frame diagram, but only for creating
primitive Block Definitions by entering the DSL code.

In the first two methods, a graphic will be created and will appear in the open graphics board. A new
graphics board will be created when no graphics board is open. The new block/frame diagram graphic
will show a single rectangular block, which depicts the block or frame. The name of the new diagram
will appear on top of the frame.

Inside this rectangle the following objects can be placed from the graphic toolbox for the block diagram:

Node objects:
• block references
• summation points
• multipliers
• divisors
• switches
• labels
• different kinds of graphical objects
Branch objects:

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• signals lines
Inside a frame diagram only the following elements are allowed:

Node objects:
• slots

• labels
• different kinds of graphical objects
Branch objects:
• signals lines

These objects can be selected from the Drawing Toolbox. The toolbox also has buttons for pure
graphical add-on objects (lines, polygons, rectangles, texts, etc.) as shown in Figure 30.2.2. It should
be noted that the availability of this toolbox is according to whether or not the graphic is ’frozen’ ( ).
When the graphic is not frozen, the toolbox is available, and likewise, when the graphic is frozen for
editing, the toolbox is hidden.

Figure 30.2.2: Block/Frame Diagram Objects

Note: When creating a frame or a Block Definition, PowerFactory recognises the type of definition when
you place the first slot or block. Because a composite frame diagram may only contain slots and
signal lines, creating a slot will disable all other node objects in the drawing toolbox. If you place
a block ( ) first, the icon for the slot will become inactive, so you can’t mix up slot and block
elements in one diagram.

30.2.1.1 Adding a Block Reference

Drawing the block objects and connecting them with signals is done in a similar way as is done with
elements in the single line graphic. A block reference is first displayed as an empty square which has to
be edited in order to assign a (low level) block diagram to it.

Because of lack of information about the number of inputs and outputs of the new block reference before
a (lower level) Block Definition is assigned to it, it is not possible to connect signals to the empty block.
It is therefore recommended to first draw all block references and to assign Block Definitions to them.
The block references then show all available input and output signal connections.

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A block reference is edited by right-clicking on it and selecting Edit from the context-sensitive menu, or
simply by double-clicking on it. The dialog as displayed in Figure 30.2.3 will pop up.

Figure 30.2.3: Block Reference dialog

Use the Select button ( in Figure 30.2.3) to select a model definition. Predefined standard block
diagrams for your usage are located in the folder Database / Library / Standard Models.

It is also possible to create a block in the graphical Block Definition by dragging Macros from the global
library or project library into the drawing area of the Block Definition, using the Drag & Drop functionality.

30.2.1.2 Adding Calculation Blocks

Summation Point

Every dot can be used as an input to the summation point. The sign of signals at summation
points can be changed by editing the summation point object. The “edit” dialog will pop up, where
any connected input connection can be inverted. It should be noted that not all dots have to be
used and only one dot can be defined as an output.

Multiplier

Every grey dot of this block can be used as an input or output of the multiplier. An output of three
input signals will thus be: out=(in_0*in_1*in_2). It should be noted that not all dots have to be
used and only one dot can be defined as an output.

Divisor

Every grey dot of this block can be used as an input or output for the divisor. The first input will be
the numerator and thus will be divided by the second (and if existing, the third) input. The order
of the signals will be clockwise beginning from the left. An output of three input signals will then
be: out=(in_0/in_1/in_2). Note that not all dots have to be used and only one dot can be defined
as an output.

Switch

Two input signals can be applied to this block, which will be connected to the output according to
the position of the switch. Additionally a control signal has to be connected to the top, which will
define the operation of the switch. If the control signal is 0.5 or less, the switch will stay in the

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displayed state, whereas a signal greater than 0.5 will cause the switch to change to the upper
signal and the other way round. In the edit dialog the zero position of the switch may be altered.

30.2.1.3 Connecting Signals

After drawing and defining the block references, slots or other node elements, they can be connected
with signal lines. After selecting the button from the graphical toolbox, a signal line is drawn by
first clicking on a ’from’ node (output of a block/slot), optionally clicking on the drawing surface to make
a non-direct connection, and finally clicking on a ’to’ node (input to a block/slot). The input and output
terminals of common blocks and other node elements are depicted as coloured dots (see Figure 30.2.4).

Figure 30.2.4: Block Signal Connections

• Green: Input
• Red: Output
• Blue: Min. Limitation
• Pink: Max. Limitation
• Gray: Every signal can be connected

The signal lines can also be edited in the corresponding dialog, which provides the possibility to change
the name of the signal.

30.2.1.4 Multi-Signal Connections

Signals normally connect a single output parameter with a single input parameter. Especially in the
case of three phase signals, as is often the case for voltage or current signals, multi-signal connections
may be used.

A multi-signal is defined by writing two or more signal names together, separated by semicolons, e.g
“I_A;I_B;I_C”. In Figures 30.2.5 and 30.2.6, the multi-signal output and input of two Block Definitions
are shown. Both blocks will show a single input or output connection point. They can be connected to
each other by a single signal line, as illustrated in Figure 30.2.7.

Figure 30.2.5: Output Definition of Block1

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Figure 30.2.6: Input Definition

Figure 30.2.7: Multi-Signal Connection

Note: The number of variables and their order in the output signal must be equal to the number of
signals in the input signal.

30.2.1.5 Block Diagram Input and Output Definitions

The composite block diagram normally has input, output and limiting signals of its own. Input signal
points are defined by starting a new signal line on the left, top or bottom side of the frame enclosing
block diagram. This will create a new input signal for the composite Block Definition.

New output signals are defined by ending a signal line by clicking on the right side of the enclosing
rectangle frame.

Signals, which are thus connected to the rectangular frame, have the following meanings:
• connected to the left side: Input

• connected to the right side: Output

• connected to the bottom side: Minimum Limitation
• connected to the top side: Maximum Limitation

Note: The names of the input and output signals must be the same as the names of the input and
output signals defined in the slot or block to which it is intended to assign the definition.

30.2.1.6 Resize

If a marked symbol has small black squares at its corners, it can be resized by left-clicking one of the
squares, as can be seen in Figure 30.2.8. The cursor will change to a double diagonal arrow, and
moving it (while holding down the left mouse button) resizes the object. Release the mouse when the
new size is correct.

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Figure 30.2.8: Resizing an Object

It is also possible to make the object(s) have a new size by clicking on one side of the marking box. The
marked object(s) will only resize in one direction in that case. This is not possible for all objects. Some
objects may only be resized with a fixed X/Y- ratio; some other objects cannot be resized at all.

30.2.1.7 Additional Equations

After the internal structure of the block diagram has been defined graphically, the block diagram itself
can be edited. This can be done without having to close the graphical representation of the block
diagram. By left or double-clicking the enclosing rectangular frame, the block diagram edit dialog will
pop up. This dialog will show all input, output and internal signals, as have been defined graphically.

On the Equations page, information and equations for the initialisation of the block can/has to be
entered. Additionally, the name and the unit of the parameters to be defined in the common model
can be specified (see also Section 30.3: User Defined (DSL) Models).

Additional DSL equations can be defined on the second page of the block diagram edit dialog.

30.3 User Defined (DSL) Models

System modelling for stability analysis purposes is one of the most critical issues in the field of power
system analysis. Depending on the accuracy of the implemented models, large signal validity, available
system parameters and applied faults or tests, nearly any result could be produced and arguments
could be found for its justification.

A simple example illustrates this. In a 10 GW power system the expected steady-state frequency
deviation when losing a fully loaded 2000 MW unit depends highly on the frequency dependency, K_f, of
loads. Assuming a total system droop of 7% and a K_f value of 0, the steady-state frequency deviation
will be approximately 700 mHz.

Now with a more realistic coefficient of 𝐾𝑓 = 5%/𝐻𝑧, the steady-state frequency deviation is expected
to be only 596 mHz. On the other hand, the frequency dependency might be slightly higher or lower,
but the non-linear characteristics of hydro turbine efficiencies and steam valve non-linearities could be
more relevant at a certain unit loading point. Consequently, as long as only one or two different loading
scenarios are considered, average values with reasonable simple models may give acceptable results
by tuning only some key parameters like the frequency dependency of loads or droop settings.

Thus system model structures and parameter settings are to be best evaluated against the following
main criteria:

System size Large and small systems have different “key parameters”. Referring to the above ex-

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ample, for a smaller power system the frequency dependency of loads is irrelevant, while in
large systems such as UCTE or UPS/IPS, frequency dependency may cover the spinning reserve
requirements totally.

Unit size Steady-state and transient behaviour of large units is more decisive for the overall system
response than smaller units which might have a very negligible effect on the total system.
System structure Independent of system and unit size, the system structure may be more relevant
than any other factor. This can be easily demonstrated when weak systems with a longitudinal
geographical extension or appropriate substructures are analysed.

System fault Most relevant to system modelling considerations are the applied faults and related
problems which are to be analysed. The analysis of system damping and PSS tuning will not
necessarily require the boiler dynamics to be considered. On the other hand, load shedding
optimisation and frequency restoration would not give appropriate results if mid- and long-term
characteristics of relevant system elements are neglected.

Study purpose In general, for systems which are in the planning stage, typical models and parameters
could be applied as long as there is no specific additional information available. However, a more
detailed representation is necessary for system extensions, where a detailed model representation
should form part of the performance specification. Special attention has to be paid to the analysis
of operational problems and operation optimisation. For these cases, detailed modelling of the
relevant components is critically important.

As soon as a detailed analysis and representation of system models is required, the subsequent
questions to be asked are:
• How can the structures and parameters of the model be determined?

• Are IEEE models and additional manufacturers’ block diagrams adequate and accurate?
• How could the available information be used within the power system analysis software?
The approach which is presented here and successfully applied in various projects can be called the
“Advanced System Modelling Approach (ASMA)”. Typical applications are:

• The analysis of controller problems and relevant malfunctions, especially under disturbance con-
ditions;
• Optimisation of control parameter settings;
• Modelling of unconventional system structures and control concepts often found in industrial
systems;
• Study applications for the design and specification phase of components and systems (e.g. power
system stabiliser, generator and HVDC controllers).
For the ASMA approach, the following steps are critically important:

Setup of system models Based on the fundamental equations of engineering and physics, the basic
algebraic and differential equations are to be set up according to the required degree of accuracy.
In addition, all parameters such as time constants and gains which could be also derived from
these basics, are to be calculated with the same degree of accuracy.

Performance of system tests In order to define all other parameters and, in particular, non-linear
characteristics, system performance tests are the best method. In the majority of cases, frequency
response tests will not permit the determination of any non-linear structure and its parameters.
Special test procedures, which do not interfere with normal operation, have to be applied to focus
on the steady-state characteristics, gains and time constants. These measurements are preferably
executed with a highly accurate digital transient performance measurement system.

System Identification Non-linear, multi-input and multi-output system identification techniques are
applied for system identification procedures. Typically, the mismatch between measured and
identified data should be smaller than 2%.

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Comparison of measurements and simulations Besides the analysis of subsystems and compo-
nents, overall system performance is to be compared with the theoretical model for all relevant
operating modes.

Of course, very strict application of the ASMA approach is not necessary for modelling relays and
less complex or digital control functions, as these are clearly defined by their appropriate general and
acceptance test documentation. However, independently of the analysed system, where the system
representation cannot be matched to a classical IEEE or any other standard model, there is a substantial
need for an easy to use and flexible method for the realisation of individual models.

30.3.1 Modelling and Simulation Tools

As already indicated, the most critical and decisive factor for reliable simulation results is the accuracy
and completeness of system model representation for identification and simulation purposes. Methods
for solving this task range from the classical and traditional way of using software which allows interfac-
ing of user-defined models at the FORTRAN/C level - typically via connection lists - to the block-oriented
approach which is based on the provision of predefined low-level block macros being connected at the
case definition level.

In addition, most modern commercially available general purpose simulation tools may be used for
flexible and specific system representation. Unfortunately, this approach does not adequately cover the
special electrical system load flow characteristics.

In order to provide a very flexible modelling and simulation tool, which forms part of a stability program,
a control system based simulation language was developed. The following describes the main features
of the DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL):

• The simulation tool falls into the category of Continuous System Simulation Languages (CSSL );
• DSL includes a complete mathematical description of (time-) continuous linear and non-linear
systems;
• The simulation tool is based upon common control and logic diagrams, leading to a non-procedural
language, as the sequence of elements can be chosen arbitrarily. In other words, a DSL model
can be converted into a graphical representation;

• Provision of flexible definition of macros, which could be: algebraic equations, basic control
elements like PID, PTn or even complete physical subsystems like valve groups or excitation
systems;
• Provision of various intrinsic functions such as: “select”, “lim”, “limits”, “lapprox”, “picdro” in order
to provide a complete control of models;

• Provision of various formal procedures for error detection and testing purposes such as: algebraic
loop detection, reporting of unused and undefined variables and missing initial conditions

30.3.2 DSL Implementation: an Introduction

The DIgSILENT Simulation Language is used to define new dynamic controllers which receive input
signals from the simulated power system and which react by changing some other signals.

DSL itself can be looked upon as an add-on to the transient analysis functionality of PowerFactory.
During the simulation, the model equations of the DSL models are combined with those describing the
dynamic behaviour of the power system components. These equations are then evaluated together,
leading to an integrated transient simulation of the combination of the power system and its controllers.

The DSL main interfacing functions are:

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Signal input and output channels: Any variable defined within the kernel (currently more than 2500)
and in a DSL model, can be accessed in a read-and-write mode. Main and sub-address features
are implemented allowing the access of any signal existing in the system or to build up complex
structures such as hardware-based modules taking equipment “rack” and “function card” struc-
tures into account.
Events: Conditions evaluated by DSL models may cause events to be sent to the program kernel where
they will be scheduled within the event queue.
Output and Monitoring: Conditions may trigger user-defined messages to be displayed in the output
window.

Figure 30.3.1: Structure of the PowerFactory DSL System

The structure of a DSL model is best explained by an example. This example considers a prime mover
unit model of a simple hydro turbine. This DSL model has been defined graphically, and contains
one embedded DSL macro. This embedded macro models a single integrator and is defined by
programming it.

The basic method for designing new DSL models is as follows:

1. A set of basic DSL models is created. These models implement simple, “primitive” controllers like
a “first order time lag” or a “PID” controller. The PowerFactory program is shipped with a large

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number of these primitive controller models. New primitives are created by programming their
differential equations and signal settings, using the DSL language.
2. The more complex controller is created graphically by drawing its block diagram. This kind of
block diagram normally uses references other DSL models which are thus combined into a more
complex controller. Controller references may be used to include DSL primitive models into the
complex model, but may also refer to other graphically defined complex models. Highly complex
controllers may thus be designed in a hierarchical way, by designing sub-models and sub-sub-
models, where the DSL primitives form the lowest level. Section 30.3.3 (Defining DSL Models)
describes these procedures in detail.

Figure 30.3.2: Diagram of a Simple Model of a Hydro Turbine

Figure 30.3.2 depicts the model definition that was used to define the hydro turbine model. The resulting
DSL code, as shown in the output window when a graphical Rebuild ( ) is performed is:

1. model Pt = 'pmu_hydro'(At,C;x1;Ti;)
2. pt_x = 'I.BlkDef'(xe;x1;Ti;)
3. i3 = i1/i2
4. i1 = At*At
5. i2 = pt_x*pt_x
6. i4 = xe*pt_x
7. xe = i3-C
8. Pt = pt_x-i4

The line numbers have been added for readability. The corresponding Block Definition shows:

Output Signals : Pt
Input Signals : At, C
State Variables : x1
Parameter : Ti
Internal Variables

The example describes a simple hydro turbine model with the input signals A_t and C and the output
signal P_t.

Figure 30.3.3: Graphical Representation of a DSL Model of an Integrator

Figure 30.3.3 depicts the graphical representation of the embedded primitive DSL model. This primitive

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model is included in the hydro turbine (in line 2 of the definition of the hydro). The DSL primitive
implements a single integrator and is programmed as follows:

1. model y = ’I’(xe;x1;Ti;)
2. [Ti] = ’s’
3. limfix(Ti) = (0,)
4. inc(x1) = y
5. inc(xe) = 0
6. x1. = xe/Ti
7. y = x1

Line 1 is generated by clicking on the Equations button in the block diagram dialog. Lines 2..7 were
entered manually.
The Block Definition dialog was used to set the following:

Output Signals : y
Input Signals : xe
State Variables : x1
Parameter : Ti
Internal Variables

30.3.2.1 Parts of a DSL Model

Both example DSL models show the two basic parts of any DSL model, primitive or complex:

1. The interface definitions

2. The DSL model description

Interface description

The interface defines the model name, names of input and output signals, model parameters and state
variables. These are shown in the output window in the model heading.

Example (line 1 from the hydro turbine model):

1. model Pt = ’pmu_hydro’(At,C;x1;Ti;)
The block diagram dialog further allows for the definition of limiting parameters and input signals, and
the classification of the model as a linear model and/or as a DSL macro.

Model description

The model description describes the DSL model, based on the signals defined in the interface. The
DSL description includes:

• Parameter descriptions: name and unit

• Allowed parameter ranges
• Initial conditions and functions which are used to calculate initial values.

• The algebraic relations which define the controller.

Example (the integrator):

2. [Ti] = ’s’ ! the unit of Ti is seconds

3. limfix(Ti) = (0,) ! Ti > 0
4. inc(x1) = y ! initially x1=y
5. inc(xe) = 0 ! initially xe=0

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6. x1. = xe/Ti ! equation 1: deltax1 / deltat = xe/Ti

7. y = x1 ! equation 2: y=x1

30.3.2.2 Advanced Features

The numerical integration of DSL models, interrupt scheduling and input-output signal processing is
handled automatically by the program kernel. In addition, if the output of a DSL model is an electric
current being added to the appropriate total bus current - which is the case if a load or generator model
is created - all Jacobian elements necessary for the iterative simulation procedure will be calculated
automatically.

Another useful feature of DSL is the algorithm implemented for numerical setup of the system matrix
for eigenvalue calculation purposes. Consequently, any model implemented at the DSL level will be
automatically taken into consideration when calculating the system eigenvalues or when applying the
modal network reduction approach (MRT). Of course, any signal limiting functions will be disabled
automatically for this calculation procedure.

In addition, inputs and outputs of model parameters, its organisation via windows menus etc. is also
derived automatically from the DSL model.

30.3.3 Defining DSL Models

A new DSL model is created either by entering the DSL code in the equation part of a Block Definition
(BlkDef ) object, or by creating a new Graphical Block Diagram. Both methods will result in a Block
Definition Object which holds the definition of the DSL model.

The Block Definition objects thus serve two purposes in the process of constructing a DSL model:

• They hold the definitions and parts of a graphically constructed composite Block Definition, and
the diagram graphic which was used to define the model;
• They provide the surrounding in which a new “DSL primitive” or “primitive Block Definition” can be
defined.

30.3.3.1 Composite Block Definitions

To create a new composite Block Definition:

• Use the main menu entry File → New or Ctrl-N and then select the option Block/Frame Diagram
from the New command dialog (ComNew).

• Use the Insert New Graphic icon on the toolbar (of the graphics window) and select the option
Block/Frame Diagram.
To access the dialog of the Block Definition (BlkDef ), double-click on the frame box surrounding the
diagram.

Complex Block Definition objects are conceptually similar to “Grid Folders” in the PowerFactory database
tree. They are defined by graphically defining a controller block diagram of which they will store the
graphical information and all logic parts. These parts include signals, small standard components
(adders, multipliers, etc.) or DSL primitives.

Although a complex Block Definition object is created graphically, it allows for additional DSL equations
to define those aspects of the controller that would be otherwise difficult to enter in a graphical way.

The graphical environment in which a complex block diagram is constructed, is not covered here. Refer
to Chapter 9 (Network Graphics (Single Line Diagrams)) for more information.

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30.3.3.2 Primitive Block Definitions

To create a primitive DSL Block Definition:

• Right-click on or inside a (library) folder in the active project in the Data Manager and select New. . .
→ Block/Frame-Diagram from the context-sensitive menu;

• Use the New Object icon in the database manager and select Block Definition ( BlkDef);

• Double-click a new/empty block reference in an open block diagram and then use the button
to select a Block Definition. Following this, use the icon to create a new Block Definition inside
the local library.

DSL primitives are the building blocks from which the more complex controller diagrams are composed.
A DSL primitive, for example, might implement a low pass filter, which may then be used to graphically
construct more complex controllers which include this kind of filter.

Unlike transformers or other power system components, which may be looked upon as "power system
primitives", a DSL primitive is only referred to by a complex block diagram and may thus be used in
more than one complex DSL model at the same time.

30.3.3.3 Block Definition Dialog

When creating a primitive DSL model or by double-clicking on the frame of a composite Block Definition,
a dialog will appear, where input and output variables, parameters, state variables and limiting signals
can be defined. Furthermore, additional equations, initial conditions of variables as well as names and
units of parameters can be inserted.

Basic Options page - General tab

Name: - the object’s name

Title: - a user defined title can be provided using this field

Model type pane:

• DSL model: This is the standard DSL model type. In this case the Macro option is used to identify
the Block Definition as a macro inside the library.
• Compiled model: Enabling this option will require the selection of the corresponding DLL file (of
the compiled model) in an input dialog. For more information see Section 30.6.1 (C Interface).

• MATLAB M-file model: Enabling the “Matlab” tag will show an input dialog, where a MATLAB (*.m)
file can be defined with which the Block Definition can communicate during a simulation. For more
information about the MATLAB interface see Section 30.6.3 (MATLAB Interface).
• Macro flag: Check this flag if the block definition is meant to be a DSL macro (refer to Sec-
tion 30.4.9 for more information on DSL macros).
• Display name: If the Macro flag is checked then this text field can be freely defined by the user.
The Display name is shown in the graphic representation of models which make use of this macro
(i.e. in block diagrams). If the Display name is empty then the object name of the block definition
is shown in the block diagrams.

Variables pane:
• Input and output signals have to be defined for internal use inside the Block Definition. The number
and their name will then appear in the graphical diagram when the block is used.
• State variables are needed when not only linear, but also differential, equations are used. Then
for every first-order derivative one state variable must be specified.

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• Parameters will appear in the common model dialog and can then be specified. The parameter
defined in the Block Definition will automatically be inserted in the Block Reference. The names of
the parameters can be different in the Block Reference and in the Block Definition. Only the order
must be identical.
• Internal variables are only used inside the Block Definition but can not be set from outside. Limiting
parameters/input signals pane:
– Upper/Lower limiting parameters: Constant parameters may be defined here for representing
a limitation parameter; a corresponding graphical representation of the limiting parameter is
applied when using a graphical block diagram which includes this model.
– Upper/Lower limiting input signals Input signals may be defined here for representing a lim-
itation signal; a corresponding graphical representation of the limiting input signal is applied
when using a graphical block diagram which includes this model.

Note: Guidelines for constructing variable names:

– characters allowed :
* small letters ( a − z )
* CAPITAL letters ( A − Z )
* digits ( 0 − 9 )
* underscore(_)
– blanks and commas are not allowed
– no special symbols other than underscore(_) are allowed
– first character should be alphabet or underscore
– variable name should not be reserved word (e.g. DSL function name)

DLL info pane (only for compiled model types):

• When a Compiled model is selected, this pane is shown and it will provide overview information
contained within the DLL. The information depends on the DLL file and interface type (e.g. C-
Interface or IEC-Interface)
• if a C-Interface based DLL file is used, then a Checksum field is also provided. This field, when
properly configured, represents the DSL checksum information of the original DSL block definition
used for generating the C-Interface source files.
DSL info pane:
• Checksum: The checksum of this model is shown. For compiled models their pre-programmed
checksum is shown. Whenever changes are applied to the model, PowerFactory will compare
the checksums of the compiled and the DSL model. In case the two checksums are different, a
corresponding information message will be shown.
Basic Options page - Advanced tab

Initialisation options pane:

• The Automatic calculation of initial conditions option enables PowerFactory to process any existing
“incfix()” statements within DSL models. More information about the “incfix()” statement can be
found here.

• Partial initialisation in case of deadlock :

• Configuration Script: A configuration script (DPL based) can be referenced here. The script
should reside within the Block definition object (BlkDef ) and will be run during the execution of the
Calculation of Initial Conditions command (ComInc). More information on its usage is provided in
Section 30.4.6.2.
Classification pane (only for DSL model types):

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• Level of the model enforces a certain prescribed behaviour of the DSL model equations. For
backwards compatibility reasons, DSL models may have a different level. The highest level that
can be selected represents the current (recommended) DSL level. For newly-created models the
highest level should always be used. The existing DSL levels are described in Table 30.3.1.
For DSL macros, this field will decide the behaviour of the macro syntax checks (e.g. “reset”
keyword is reserved in DSL level 6 and upwards for the reset function, whereas in lower levels,
the keyword will be allowed for variable declarations). For DSL common models, the level of the
referenced block definition will decide the model behaviour both at runtime as well as for the syntax
checks. Consequently, the block definition which makes use of the specific DSL macro will decide
(via its own Level parameter) the DSL Level of all DSL equations in the model.
• Linear : This user-defined flag is used to state whether the model is linear or non-linear. The
graphical representation of the block is changed accordingly in block diagrams i.e. a linear block
is illustrated using a single rectangle while a non-linear block is depicted using two concentric
rectangles. This field has no influence on the behaviour of the dynamic model during dynamic
simulation.

DSL Level Description

0 Model created in PowerFactory Build 57 or previous
1 List of all internal variables in header
2 DSL Level 1 plus user-defined sorting of parameters
3 DSL Level 2 plus lim function being precise in time
DSL Level 3 plus event function using boolean expression as condition:
4 event(boolean expression, . . . ), see Section 30.5.2. DSL Level 4 has been
introduced with PowerFactory version 13.2.
DSL Level 4 plus additional DSL syntax checks and improved warnings. DSL
5 Level 5 has been introduced with PowerFactory versions 15.2.9, 2016 SP4
and 2017.
DSL Level 5 plus newly developed additional DSL functions
• picontrol with variable non-windup limits,
• reset,
and improvements in behaviour of DSL functions
• loopinc, intervalinc and newtoninc,

• limstate and limstate_const,

6
• picdro and picdro_const,
• picontrol_const,
• and all DSL functions having min/max limits (internal check of max not
being smaller than min).
The improvements are linked with the DSL level to ensure that the dynamic
behaviour of existing models using previous DSL levels remains unchanged.
DSL Level 6 has been introduced with PowerFactory version 2020.

Table 30.3.1: List of DSL levels

Interpolation of internal variables: Set this option in order to update DSL internal variables during the
occurrence of interpolation events.

Note: By default, PowerFactory does not update the internal variables of a DSL model during the
occurrence of interpolation events. It is only inputs, outputs and state variables that are updated by
default. This behaviour is highly useful for improving the performance of the simulation, especially
in event rich simulation cases. Nevertheless, if stopping a simulation just after the occurrence of
an interpolation event, the recorded values of internal variables may be inaccurate. By activating

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this option, the PowerFactory solver will ensure that internal variables are recalculated always,
thus delivering accurate results of DSL internal variables - at the cost of simulation performance.
This option is particularly useful during the DSL model development stage, in which the internal
variables are used for debugging the model.

Compilation options pane:

• Author, Company, Copyright and Version fields are used to store corresponding information in the
compiled model file.

• Check for Compilation: this button is available only for DSL non-macro models of the highest level.
It checks that the syntax of the model complies with the requirements for compilation.
• Compile. . . : this button is available only for DSL non-macro models of the highest level which are
not encrypted. This button starts the automatic DSL-to-C Interface Converter. A syntax check
is first performed and then, if successful, the corresponding C and Microsoft Visual Studio files
are written. These files must be compiled with an external compiler, then the Compiled model
option must be selected in the Model type frame and the resulting DLL file must be specified in
the dialog. For simplicity, these models will be referred to hereafter as ’compiled models’. For
more information see Section 30.6.1 (C Interface).
Block Definition dialog - buttons

There are several buttons on the right side of the dialog:

Check:

“Check” will verify the model equations and output error messages if errors have occurred.
Otherwise the following message will occur:

Check ’\TestUser.IntUser\Windparks.IntPrj\Library
\Block Definitions\DFIG\Voltage Control.BlkDef’:
Block is ok.

Equations:

The “Equations” button will print the DSL equations to the output window, regardless of whether
they are defined graphically or on the Additional Equations page, as well as variable definitions.

Macro equat.:

This button prints the current Block Definition DSL equations (including the equations in the used
macros) to the output window.

Pack:

Pack will copy all DSL models (macros) used by a composite model definition to the folder “Used
Macros” inside the Block Definition. In this way there will now be references to other projects or
libraries outside the model. Beware: any further changes in the macro library have no influence;
the macros are copied and no longer linked to the library. Therefore, if an error occurs in a specific
macro it must be fixed separately in each packed block.

Pack-> Macro:

This command will reduce the entire model (including DSL blocks and additional equations and
macros) into one DSL model containing only equations. All graphical information will be lost. It
should be noted that this command is irreversible.

Encrypt:

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The Encrypt button is available after the Pack → Macro command has been successfully exe-
cuted. TheEncrypt command encrypts all equations inside the model, such that the equations
are no longer available to the user. This way, a model can be shared with any third party without
disclosing any confidential information that may be contained within its internal structure. It should
be noted that this command is irreversible and that no decrypt function is available.

Note: Encrypting a DSL Model

To encrypt a DSL model:
• Create a back up copy of the PowerFactory project, because the next steps cannot be
undone; alternatively export your project (as backup and for later use) before you do the
encryption of the model;
• Activate the project;
• Open the dialog window of the block definition you want to encrypt;
• On the right side press Pack: this copies all used macros into a sub folder of the block
definition;
• Then press Pack->Macro: this removes the graphics and packs all equations into one block
definition object. Macro references are removed afterwards.
• Afterwards, Encrypt should be active and can be press to encrypt the model.
• In addition it is recommended to delete the Graphic folder of the Frame to hide the graphical
information.

Block definition dialog - Equations page

On the Equations page the (additional) equations of the DSL model can be provided. Further infor-
mation such as the initial conditions of state variables and the name and unit of parameters can be
specified. For DSL macros, this field is used to provide all the DSL equations that describe the macro
functionality. Figure 30.3.4 shows the additional equations for the DSL model of the basic first-order
limiter block.

Figure 30.3.4: Block Definition dialog, Equations page

Block definition dialog - Description page

A general purpose Description page is available for each Block definition.

Block definition dialog - Version page

A Version page is available for each Block definition.

Copyright field: - This field allows to set a watermark/prove the ownership of a model. The field is
password protected and can be customized by the user. The following information is relevant:

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• The copyright can be configured by clicking the Set button. If done so, the copyright information
can be entered. After typing in the copyright text, click OK. A password entry dialog is afterwards
provided, in which a user defined password can be entered.

Note: The Set button is not available for block definition objects which have been created in a
PowerFactory version prior to PowerFactory 2019.

• The entered copyright information is protected via the password. This object and any further
copies of this object inherit the copyright information and the corresponding password.
• Copyright information can be changed at a later point in time by clicking the Change button and
providing the original password;
• Block definition objects which have been originally created in a PowerFactory version prior to
PowerFactory 2019 are not supporting the Copyright field (even if used/imported in PowerFactory
2019 or later).

• Block definition objects which are imported from a PowerFactory version equal to or greater than
PowerFactory 2019 inherit the Copyright field information.
The global library objects (e.g. DSL macros, DSL control models) support a versioning system. For
these objects, the following fields are relevant:

• Version: - a field that states the current object version.

• Change log: - a text field that provides a history change log of all previous versions.

30.4 The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL)

The DSL language is used to program models for electrical controllers and other components used
in electric power systems. As for any other simulation or programming language, a special syntax is
provided for the model formulation. This syntax is explained in the following sections.

30.4.1 Terms and Abbreviations

The following terms and abbreviations are used to describe the DSL syntax:

expr
• arithmetic expression, not to be terminated with a ’;’
• arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /

• constants: all numbers are treated as real numbers

• standard functions: sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), asin(x), acos(x), atan(x), sinh(x), cosh(x), tanh(x), exp(x),
ln(x), log(x) (base 10), sqrt(x) (square root), sqr(x) (power of 2), pow(x,y), abs(x), min(x,y), max(x,y),
modulo(x,y), trunc(x), frac(x), round(x), ceil(x), floor(x).
These standard functions are described in detail in Section 30.5 (DSL Reference).

• Parenthesis: (arithmetic expression)

All trigonometric functions are based on radians (RAD).

Example:
A = x1+2.45*T1/sin(3.14*y)

boolexpr

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• logical expression, not to be terminated with a ’;’

• Logical relations: <, >, < > (inequality), >=, <=, =.

• Unary operators: .not.

• Binary operators: .and. .or. .nand. .nor. .eor.
• Parentheses: logical expression
Example:
A = x1>0.and..not.x2 <= 0.7.or.T1=0.0

string
anything within ’...’ (single quotation marks).

Example:
vardef(Ka)=’p.u.’;’Controller Gain’

30.4.2 General DSL Syntax

Line length: The maximal line length is 80 characters. Longer lines have to be broken by using the ’&’
sign in the first column of the continuing line. A ’&’ sign in the first column joins the current row and its
preceding row.

Example:
x1. = select({at<>0} .and. {bt>=10},
& (1-sqr(x1)/sqr(at))/Tw, 0)

Line breaking cannot be used within names or strings.

Case sensitivity: All keywords, names, functions, variables, models, macros, etc. are case sensitive.

Blanks: All blanks are removed when the DSL code is processed. Exception: blanks in strings are
kept.

Comments: The “!” sign causes the remaining line to be interpreted as a comment. Comments are
removed when the DSL code is processed.

Example:
! comments may start at the beginning of a line
x1. = select(at<>0, ! comments may be used in broken lines
& (1-sqr(x1)/sqr(at))/Tw, 0)

30.4.3 DSL Variables

A DSL model may use five different types of variables:

Output signals: Output signal variables are available as input signals to more complex DSL models.

Input signals: Input variables may originate from other DSL models or from power system elements.
In the latter case, currents and voltages, as well as any other signal available in the analysed power
system, become available to the DSL model.

State variables: State variables are time-dependent signals generated and used within the DSL model
itself.

Parameters: Parameters are ’read only’ numbers which are set to alter the behaviour of the DSL model.

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Internal variables: Internal variables are defined and used in the DSL model to ease the construction
of a set of DSL equations.

The following rules may be helpful when interpreting warning and error messages:

• A state variable may not be simultaneously used as a state variable and an output variable; if
required, the use of an assignment like y=x1 is recommended.
• All parameters are real numbers.
• A special parameter “array_iiii” (with up to 4 digits i), with 2*iiii elements is provided to define
characteristics (see procedure “lapprox”).

• Only the derivatives of state variables can be assigned an expression.

30.4.4 DSL Structure

DSL models are constructed in three parts:

• The interface part, which states the model name, title, classification and variable set. This part is
set in the first page of the block diagram dialog;

• Definition code;
• Equation code.

The definition and equation code form the actual controller network definition and are treated in the next
sections.

30.4.5 Definition Code

Definition code in the equation part of a DSL model is used to define parameter properties and initial
conditions.

30.4.5.1 Unit and Parameter Description

vardef(varnm) = unitstring;namestring

Unit and name for variable varnm.

Examples:
vardef(Ton) = ’s’;’Pick up time for restart’ !defines unit and name
vardef(Ton) = ;’Pick up time for restart’ !only defines name
vardef(Ton) = ’s’; ! only defines unit

[varnm] = unitstring

Unit for variable varnm, maximum 10 characters wide.

Remark : A macro call causes error messages if the units of the substituted variables do not
match the defined units.

Example:
[Ton] = ’s’ ! defines unit

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30.4.5.2 Valid Value Ranges

limits(varnm) = [/( minimum value, maximum value ]/)

Defines the valid interval for variable varnm. Violations of the interval limits during simulation will be
reported:

limits(yt)=(,1] is equivalent to output(yt>1,

’Maximum exceeded: yt=yt>1’)

The “(” and “)” braces exclude the minimum or maximum value from the interval; the “[” and “]” braces
include them.

Examples:
limits(x)=[min,max] ! min <= x <= max
limits(x)=(min,max] ! min < x <= max
limits(x)=(,max] ! x = max
limits(x)=(min,) ! min < x

If required and if possible, the program automatically determines the smallest interval under several
intervals of the same variable.

Example:
limits(x)=(1,3) and limits(x)=(2,4] results in 2<x<3.

Macro models often define limits for certain variables. The model which uses the macro might also
define limits for the variables which are used in the macro calls. The “smallest interval” method thus
gives the calling model the freedom to redefine parameter limits without violating the internal macro limit
definitions.

The limfix(varnm) function is a variant of the limits(varnm) function which is evaluated only at initiali-
sation. Its usage is encouraged for performance reasons whenever varnm is constant throughout the
simulation.

30.4.6 Initial Conditions

30.4.6.1 Direct Setting of Initial Conditions

inc(varnm) = expr

Definition of the initial condition of variable varnm. If inc(varnm) is not defined, the normal
assignment expression will be evaluated (only possible if varnm is of the intern or input type).
If inc(varnm) is defined, it will be evaluated when the model is reset.

inc0(varnm) = expr

Definition of the initial condition of variable varnm, for unconnected output or input variables. This
variant of the inc() statement is used only when the variable varnm could not be initialised through
the initial condition of the connected input or output signal. The inc0() statement is thus used to
make open input or output terminals possible.

incfix(varnm) = expr

This variant of the inc() statement is valid only in connection with automatic initialisation and is
used to determine the initial values in ambivalent situations. With incfix, one or more variables
can be directly initialised so that other variables can be initialised automatically.

Example:

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An AVR model has two inputs, [upss , usetp ], and one output, [uerrs ]. Both inputs cannot
both be initialised automatically by the single output value, which is determined by the connected
machine. Therefore one of the inputs must be initialised as fixed, e.g. by incfix(upss)=0. The
initial value of usetp is now automatically determined, using upss=0.

30.4.6.2 Configuration scripts for initialisation

A DPL based Configuration Script can be optionally added to any DSL model. The script is executed
automatically by the command Calculation of Initial Conditions (ComInc) after the successful execution
of the load flow calculation and prior to the actual model initialisation.

The functionality of the Configuration Script is two-fold:

• it provides a flexible way of configuring DSL model parameters;

• it allows DSL models to issue customised output window messages i.e. via DPL output window
methods e.g. Info().
The Configuration Script is linked within a DSL model as shown in Figure 30.4.1. It can be set up by
following these steps:

• Creating a DPL script within the Block Definition (BlkDef ) object. Within the script, users may
define various Result variables. Those results whose names match DSL model parameters will be
considered for overwriting the values assigned to DSL parameters. That is, during the calculation
of initial conditions, the pre-existent values of the DSL model parameters will be overwritten by the
Configuration Script.

• Optional: the DPL script can be programmed to contain both Input parameters as well as External
objects.
• Referencing the DPL script to the Block Definition (BlkDef ) object, using the corresponding field
“Configuration Script” within Basic Options page → Advanced tab of the Edit dialog of the Block
definition object.
• Creating a new DSL common model (ElmDsl) within the Network Model folder of the project (e.g.
typically within one of the “Grid” folders). This action will automatically create a corresponding
DPL script that references the previously defined Configuration Script.
• Optional: It is possible to assign instance-dependent attributes to the Configuration Script. Each
DSL common model contains a DPL script that references the remote script of the Block Definition.
Those Input parameters and External objects which were previously defined within the remote
script (refer to the optional step above), will be available for editing for each DSL model that is
sharing the same Block Definition. This provides increased flexibility, allowing each model to be
differently parameterised. For example, it is possible to link different external objects to each
Configuration Script.

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Figure 30.4.1: Configuration Script functionality and inter-operation

Notes:
• The scripting language used for the Configuration Script is DIgSILENT Programming Language
(DPL). Refer to Chapter 23 for a comprehensive description of DPL. Further documentation is
available within the DPL Reference which provides a full description of available functions. The
DPL Reference can be accessed in the PowerFactory program from the main menu at Help
→ Scripting References→ DPL. Functions that can be used within the Configuration Script are
marked appropriately in the DPL Reference documentation with a star (*) symbol (e.g. GetFrom-
StudyCase*). There are functions (without a star (*) symbol) that are not available, e.g. the
execution of a load flow (ComLdf ) command is not allowed.
• Parametric changes made by the Configuration Script are non-persistent. When the simulation is
reset (e.g. by clicking the button Reset Calculation), the values of the modified DSL parameters
will be set back to their initial values - meaning that the Configuration Script does not permanently
modify project data.
• The values of modified DSL parameters can be displayed using the Data Manager. After the
successful execution of the Calculation of Initial Conditions, do the following:
– Using the Data Manager or the Network Model Manager, navigate to and identify the DSL
common model that contains the modified parameter;
– Left-click the DSL model and activate the Detail Mode from the toolbar;
– Left-click on the Flexible Data tab and then on the Variable Selection button from the toolbar.
The Variable Selection window will be shown;
– Switch to the page “Simulation RMS” or “Simulation EMT” (depending on the case), choose
the Variable Set to be “Calculation Parameter”;
– Select the modified parameter(s) in order to display them;
– Click OK and observe the parameter values being used (overwritten by the Configuration
Script).
• In Figure 30.4.1 above, an example is provided for the operation of a script. In this case, the
Configuration Script declares two result variables Kp and Ki. The Block definition contains three
parameters: Kp, Ki and Tm. This means that the script will overwrite only two model parameters:
Kp and Ki. In the figure, exemplary values are provided: for “DSL Common Model 1” parameter
Kp has an initial value of 3 and the script will overwrite it with the value 2. Similarly, parameter Ki
has an initial value of 0.1 and the script will overwrite it with the value 1. The overwritten values of
the parameters will be used for all subsequent calculations (e.g. initial conditions and simulation).

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Further value modifications of these parameters will still be possible during the simulation as for
any other DSL parameter e.g. via Parameter events (EvtParam). The script allows assignment
of instance-dependent attributes. It implies that, depending on the script’s code, each DSL
common model may be configured with individual values for the two parameters. Consequently,
the parameters Kp and Ki of “DSL Common Model 2” will have been assigned different values.
Note also that, at the end of the simulation, all modified parameters are automatically set back to
their initial values.

30.4.6.3 Iterative calculation of initial conditions

Three functions are available for determining initial values iteratively: loopinc, intervalinc, newtoninc.

These functions are used to find the initial value for one set of parameters if the initial values of another
set of parameters, which are functions of the first set of parameters, are known.

The iterative functions are used to find the (approximated) values for the unknown parameters for which
the known parameter take their initial value.

Note: The iterative calculation of initial conditions and its underlying functions are not-supported by the
C Interface compiler, described in Section 30.6.1.

loopinc(varnm, min, max, step, eps)

Performs a simple linear search for a single value for which the parameter varnm is closest to its
known initial value.

varnm = target variable, whose initial value is known

min = lower limit
max = upper limit
step = step size
eps = maximum error

Example:
inc(a) = loopinc(b, -5, 5, 0.01, 0.001)

• The initial value of variable a is searched for by evaluating parameter b, beginning at a=-5, ending
at a=5, with an increment of 0.01.
• Return value: the value of a for which the deviation of b from its known initial value, takes the
smallest value. A warning is given if the smallest deviation is greater than eps.
• Restriction: Can only be used on the right side of an inc() statement

intervalinc(varnm, min, max, iter, eps)

Performs an “interval-division search” for a single value for which the parameter varnm is closest
to its known initial value.

varnm = target variable, whose initial value is known

min = lower limit, max = upper limit
iter = maximum number of iterations
s = maximum error

Example:
inc(a) = intervalinc(b, -5, 5, 40, 0.001)

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Explanation:
The initial value of the variable a is searched for, within the interval [-5,5] by successively dividing
the interval as long as the deviation of the variable b from its initial value is less than eps. The
iteration stops if the maximum number of iterations is reached, and a warning is given if the
smallest deviation is greater than eps.

Restriction:
May only be used on the right side of an inc() statement

newtoninc (initexpr, start, iter, eps)

Performs a Newton iterative search for one or more parameters by minimising the errors in a set
of coupled equations.

initexpr = the expression which must equal the parameters whose initial value is sought
start = the starting value for the parameter whose initial value is sought
iter = the maximum allowed number of iterations
eps = the maximum allowed absolute error between initexpr and the parameter whose initial value
is sought.

Example:
qt0 = 0.5
eps = 0.000001
maxiter = 100
inc(hedr) = newtoninc(hw-sqrt(qedr)*(Rds+Rdr), hw,
maxiter, eps)
inc(qt1) = newtoninc(Pt1/(4*dh*eta1), qt0, maxiter, eps)
inc(qt2) = newtoninc(Pt2/(4*dh*eta2), qt0, maxiter, eps)
inc(qt3) = newtoninc(Pt3/(4*dh*eta3), qt0, maxiter, eps)
inc(qt4) = newtoninc(Pt4/(4*dh*eta4), qt0, maxiter, eps)

This example shows a part of the initial value definitions for a model where the initial values of
5 parameters (hedr ,qt1 ,..,qt4) are sought simultaneously by setting up a system of coupled
equations and solving that system by the Newton method so that, eventually:

√︀
ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟 ≈ ℎ𝑤 − 𝑞𝑒𝑑𝑟 × (𝑅𝑑𝑠 + 𝑅𝑑𝑟) (30.1)

𝑞𝑡1 ≈ 𝑃 𝑡1/(4 × 𝑑ℎ × 𝑒𝑡𝑎1) (30.2)

𝑞𝑡2 ≈ 𝑃 𝑡2/(4 × 𝑑ℎ × 𝑒𝑡𝑎2) (30.3)

𝑞𝑡3 ≈ 𝑃 𝑡3/(4 × 𝑑ℎ × 𝑒𝑡𝑎3) (30.4)

𝑞𝑡4 ≈ 𝑃 𝑡4/(4 × 𝑑ℎ × 𝑒𝑡𝑎4) (30.5)

The following guidelines should be considered:

• Add the initial conditions to the complex block, as opposed to each primitive (like a first-order time
lag).

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• The general initialisation “direction” is from right to left, i.e. the outputs are normally known and
the inputs (or setpoints) have to be determined.
• If initial conditions are not defined for a certain variable, the simulation equations are used instead.
It should be therefore enough to specify the initial conditions of the state variables and input
variables.
• The option Automatic Calculation of Initial Conditions requires configuring, but does not require
correct initial conditions for each state/input variable. The initial values are only used to initialise
the iteration process. The incfix-function can be used to determine the initial values in ambiguous
situations.
• Use the option Verify Initial Conditions to check if the initial conditions lead to the correct result.

30.4.6.4 Initialisation logic for multiple DSL blocks containing inter-dependent variables

Complex initialisation procedures involving multiple DSL blocks are supported.

30.4.7 Equation Code

Within the equation code, all equations necessary to build up the simulation models are included. The
set of equations defines a set of coupled differential equations which describe the transfer functions
between the input and output signals. These transfer functions may range from simple linear, single-
input single-output functions, to highly complex non-linear, non-continuous, multi-input, multi-output
functions.

DSL is used to describe the direct relationships between signals and other variables. Expressions
may be assigned to a variable, or to the first derivative of a state variable. Higher order differential
equations have to be thus split up into a set of single order equations by the introduction of additional
state variables.

30.4.8 Equation Statement

The equation statements are used to assign expressions to parameters, thus relating all parameters in
a set of differential equations.

Syntax:

varnm = expr

Assigns expression “expr” to variable “varnm”.

Examples:
y = sin(a)+3*x1
y = .not. x1>2 .or. a<=3

varnm. = expr

Assigns expression expr to the first order derivative of the variable varnm.
Examples:
x1. = (xe-x1)/T1
x2. = x1

Remarks
• DSL assignments may occur in any sequence. The sequence does not influence the evaluation
of the assignments.

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• All variables are of type floating point, even if assigned to a boolean expression, in which case the
value will be 0.0000 or 1.0000.
• When a variable z is used in a logical expression (i.e. y=.not.z), the logical 1 of z is tested by
evaluating (z>0.5):
y1 = .not.z is interpreted and equal to y1 = (z=<0.5)
There is no warning against mixing logical and non-discrete variables in expressions. Conse-
quently the following code will not cause a message to be emitted: depending on y, z will take the
value x1 + 4.0, or just x1:
y = .not. x1>2 .or. a<=3
z = 4.0*y + x1
• The assignment of a value to a variable takes place in an order which recognises the connections
between these variables. In the case of the following example, the second line will be evaluated
first, then line 1:
1. a = b+5
2. b = x1
3. x1. = 1
• Algebraic loops are not supported. In the following example, an error message will be displayed:
a = b+5
b = 2*a

• If there is no assignment to a variable varnm, varnm will keep its initial value. The right side
expression may not contain derivatives. Derivatives may only appear on the left side of the equal
sign. The first example is correct; the second is incorrect.
x1. = asin(a) ! Correct
a = sin(x1.) ! Not accepted

• Division by zero: the simulation solver automatically treats a division by zero as a division by a
small number (value used is 0.000001). On the other hand, within a compiled DSL model (see
Section 30.6.1), the division by zero is executed according to C-language specifications. As such,
𝑁 𝑎𝑁 (not a number) values may be generated for such cases. It is recommended to treat within
the DSL model any possible divisions by zero directly in the model equations e.g. replace “.../Ve”
with “.../max(0.000001,Ve)”.

30.4.9 DSL Macros

A DSL macro is a predefined DSL model, complex or primitive, which is meant to be included in higher
level DSL models. The block diagram edit dialog offers a ’Macro’ classification option which can be set
to mark the model as a macro.

A DSL macro is included in a higher level DSL model either by creating a block reference in the block
diagram graphics or by its explicit inclusion in a DSL equation.

Syntax:

varnm1,varnm2,...= macroname(i1, i2,...; s1, s2,..; p1, p2,...;i1, i2,...)

Assigns the output signals of the DSL macro macroname to the variables varnm1, varnm2 ,
... Assigns the input signals of DSL macro to the variables i1, i2,... The macro uses the state
variables s1, s2,... the parameters p1, p2,... and the internal variables i1, i2,...

Example: P1,P2 = ’\User\I.BlkDef’(i1,i2;s1,s2;T1,T2)

This example assigns to P1 and P2 the output of DSL model User ∖ I.BlkDef.

Macro calls are not supported within expressions, even if they only have one output variable.

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Correct example:
y = my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1) !

Incorrect example:
y = 3 * my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1) + 4

which should be replaced by:

y1 = my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1) y = 3 * y1 + 4

30.4.9.1 DSL Internal Macro Handling

A preparser substitutes each macro call with the equation code of the macro. The variables of the
macro DSL model are then replaced by the variables used in the macro call. The local variable names
of macros thus disappear after the preparation process.

30.4.9.2 DSL Models

In general, there are two basic types of DSL models possible:

1. Models of electrical devices such as generators, loads or HVDC systems. These models are
characterised by their principal output signal “complex device current”, which is injected to the
electrical grid at a certain busbar. However, in addition to the electrical device currents, there may
be any other variable defined as an output signal. A summary of the available variables of each
element can be seen in the Technical References Document.
2. Models with output signals which are not directly injected to the electrical network (general de-
vices). Among these types of models are prime mover units, voltage controllers, relays, calculation
procedures, etc.

30.4.10 Events and Messages

The DSL language provides procedures for the generation of an interrupt event and for sending mes-
sages to the output window:
• event(enable, trigger, ConfigurationString) generates a user defined event. Further information
is found in Section 30.5.2.
• reset(var, rst, val) generates DSL model internal events (user defined). Further information is
found in Section 30.5.2.
• output(boolexpr, message_string) outputs a message during the simulation. Further information
is found in Section 30.5.2.

Note: The events are accessed or created by opening the edit dialog of the common model (double-
click on the DSL model in the Data Manager), and then pressing the button Events in the
dialog. A list of events already defined inside this model is displayed. The events generated via
procedure event() are added to the project’s global event list. The events generated via procedure
reset() are not added to the project’s global event list (as they are considered internal DSL events).

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30.4.11 DSL Modelling Examples

30.4.11.1 Integrator Model in DSL

Continuous equation:

∫︁
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑦0 + 𝑦𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 (30.6)

Rewriting the continuous equation using the state variable x:

d
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑦𝑖𝑛 (30.7)
d𝑡

⎧
d
d𝑡 𝑥
= 𝑦𝑖𝑛
⎪
⎨
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥 (30.8)
⎪
𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 𝑦0
⎩

Finally the implementation in PowerFactory using DSL:

inc0(yin) = 0 !starts with 0 if no input signal is connected

inc0(yout) = y0 !starts with y0 if no output signal is connected
inc(x) = yout !starts with steady state
x. = yin
yout = x

30.4.12 Example of a Complete DSL Model

Thermal Double Reheat Turbine with Steam Storage

Controller Model:

model pt,ptmw =
'pmu_1 '(at,sgn,cosn,ngnum;x1,x2,x3,x4;Thp,
Tip,Tlp,alflp,Tspi)
[T1] = 's'
limfix(T1) = [0,)
limfix(alfhp) = [0,1]
vardef(alfhp) = ;'High pressure turbine ratio';
limfix(alflp) = [0,1-alfhp]
vardef(alflp) = ;'Low pressure turbine ratio ';
vardef(Tspi) = ’s’;'Boiler capacity time constant';
limfix(Tspi) = (0,)
vardef(Thp) = 's ';'High pressure turbine time constant ';
vardef(Tip) = 's ';'First reheater time constant ';
vardef(Tlp) = 's ';'Second reheater time constant '

inc(x1) = y/K
inc(xe) = y/K
inc(x4) = 1.0
inc(at) = pt

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inc(steamflow0) = pt
inc(ylp) = pt
x1. = selfix(T1>0,(xe-x1)/T1,0)
y = K*selfix(T1>0,x1,xe) ! if T1=0 => y=xe
steamflow = at*x4
x4. = (steamflow0 - steamflow)/Tspi ! boiler
yhp = PT1(steamflow;x1;Thp) ! high pressure part
yip = PT1(yhp;x2;Tip) ! medium pressure part
ylp = PT1(yip;x3;Tlp) ! low pressure part
pt = yhp*alfhp + ylp*alflp+ yip*(1.0-alfhp-alflp)
ptmw = pt*sgn*cosn*ngnum ! only for output purposes

The used macro ’PT1’ is defined as:

model y = 'PT1'(xe;x1;K,T1;)
x1. = selfix(T1>0,(xe-x1)/T1,0)
y = K*selfix(T1>0,x1,xe) ! if T1=0 => y=xe
inc(x1) = y/K
inc(xe) = y/K
[T1] = 's'
limfix(T1) = [0,)

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30.5 DSL Reference

30.5.1 DSL Standard Functions

DSL Function Short description Example

sin(x) sine sin(1.2) = 0.93203
cos(x) cosine cos(1.2) = 0.36236
tan(x) tangent tan(1.2) = 2.57215
asin(x) arcsine asin(0.93203) = 1.2
acos(x) arccosine acos(0.36236) = 1.2
atan(x) arctangent, atan(2.57215) = 1.2
result within (−𝜋/2,+𝜋/2)
atan2(y,x) principal value of arctangent of y/x, atan2(2.57215, 1) = 1.2
i.e. atan(y/x) shifted by ±𝜋 if x < 0, atan2(-2.57215, -1) = -1.9416
result within [−𝜋,+𝜋]
sinh(x) hyperbolic sine sinh(1.5708) = 2.3013
cosh(x) hyperbolic cosine cosh(1.5708) = 2.5092
tanh(x) hyperbolic tangent tanh(0.7616) = 1.0000
exp(x) exponential value exp(1.0) = 2.718281
ln(x) natural logarithm ln(2.718281) = 1.0
log(x) log10 log(100) = 2
sqrt(x) square root sqrt(9.5) = 3.0822
sqr(x) power of 2 sqr(3.0822) = 9.5
pow (x,y) power of y pow(2.5, 3.4) = 22.5422
abs(x) absolute value abs(-2.34) = 2.34
min(x,y) smaller value min(6.4, 1.5) = 1.5
max(x,y) larger value max(6.4, 1.5) = 6.4
modulo(x,y) remainder of x/y modulo(15.6, 3.4) = 2
trunc(x) integral part trunc(-4.58823) = -4.0000
frac(x) fractional part frac(-4.58823) = -0.58823
round(x) closest integer round(1.65) = 2.000
ceil(x) smallest larger integer ceil(1.15) = 2.000
floor(x) largest smaller integer floor(1.78) = 1.000
time() current simulation time time() = 0.1234
pi() 𝜋 = 3.141592... pi() = 3.141592...
twopi() 2 · 𝜋 = 6.283185... twopi() = 6.283185...
e() 2.718281... e() = 2.718281...

Table 30.5.1: DSL Standard Functions

Remark:

• Names of DSL standard functions are reserved. Note that DSL model variables may not have any
reserved name.

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30.5.2 DSL Special Functions

DSL Function Short description

aflipflop “Analog” flip-flop function
balanced Function returning the balanced/unbalanced network representation
delay* Delay function
event Multi-purpose simulation event function
flipflop Logical flip-flop function
gradlim_const* Gradient limiter function
invlapprox Inverse lapprox function
lapprox Linear approximation based on a single dimensional array
lapproxext Linear approximation based on a single dimensional array (function extension)
lapprox2 Linear approximation based on a two dimensional array
lastvalue* Function returning the last valid value of a signal
lim_const Nonlinear limiter function with constant limits
lim Nonlinear limiter function
Function used to print a warning message if a constant parameter is outside
limfix
limits
limits Function used to print a warning message if a parameter is outside limits
limstate_const State variable limiting function with constant limits
limstate State variable limiting function
movingavg* Moving average filter implementation
output Function used for generating output window messages
outfix Function used for generating output window messages only at initialisation
picdro_const Logical pick-up/drop-off function with constant pick-up/drop-off arguments
picdro Logical pick-up/drop-off function
picontrol_const Function used in PI controller implementations with constant non-windup limits
picontrol Function used in PI controller implementations with variable non-windup limits
reset Function used to reset state variables and constant internal variables
rms Function returning the RMS/EMT simulation type
sapprox Spline approximation based on a single dimensional array
sapprox2 Spline approximation based on a two dimensional array
select_const Conditional function with constant true/false expressions
select Conditional function
Conditional function applied based on constant boolean expression with
selfix_const
constant true/false expressions
selfix Conditional function applied based on constant boolean expression
time Returns the current simulation time
vardef Function assigning a text description and unit to a specific variable
file Obsolete function
fault Obsolete function
mavg Obsolete function

Table 30.5.2: DSL Special Functions

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*Buffer based DSL function

Note: • The behaviour/availability of certain DSL special functions may be affected by the DSL level,
as summarised in Table 30.3.1.
• Names of DSL special functions are reserved. Note that DSL model variables may not have
any reserved name.

aflipflop [back]

aflipflop (x, boolset, boolreset)

Analog flip-flop function (with internal state and memory of input value).

Arguments:

• x - Input value to be stored

• boolset - Set expression to be evaluated as true or false. True is evaluated if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 >=
0.5. False is evaluated if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 < 0.5.
• boolreset - Reset expression to be evaluated as true or false. True is evaluated if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 >=
0.5. False is evaluated if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 < 0.5.
Return value:
• If internal state=0 then return the current value of x
• If internal state=1 then the value of x from the instant when internal state changed from 0
to 1.
The internal state will change during simulation as described below:
• changes from 0 to 1, if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 is true and 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 is false (SET)
• changes from 1 to 0, if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 is false and 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 is true (RESET)

• remains unaltered in all other situations. (HOLD)

balanced

balanced()
This function provides the balanced/unbalanced network representation mode used during a
dynamic simulation.

Arguments: none.

Return value: 𝑦𝑜 calculated as below:

⎧
⎨1 if RMS balanced simulation is executed
𝑦𝑜 =
⎩0 if RMS unbalanced or EMT simulation is executed

delay [back]

delay (x, Tdelay)

Delay function. This is a buffer based DSL function. Stores the value of 𝑥 at the current simulation
time (𝑇 𝑛𝑜𝑤) and returns the value of 𝑥 at time 𝑇 𝑛𝑜𝑤 − 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 where 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 must evaluate to a
time-independent constant and may therefore only consist of constants and parameter variables.
If it is smaller than the integration step size, the latter is used. The expression 𝑥(𝑡) may contain
other functions.
Arguments:

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• 𝑥 - input to be delayed

• 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 - Amount (in seconds) by which the output of the function is delayed w.r.t. the input

Return value: Returns (at simulation time instant 𝑇 𝑛𝑜𝑤) the value of 𝑥 at time 𝑇 𝑛𝑜𝑤 − 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦.

Example:
y = delay(yi, 1.0)

Delays input signal yi by one second.

Note: Using a time delay which is lower than the simulation time step range adopted during a simulation
will lead to a warning message printed to the output window.

event [back]

event(enable, trigger, ConfigurationString)

This function can create or call any kind of simulation relevant event. The event function is
enabled if the value of 𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is greater than 0.5. If the function is enabled, an event is triggered
each time the value of 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 crosses zero on a rising edge (changes sign from - to + ).

Arguments:
• 𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 - Enabling condition, if evaluates to true then function is enabled, if evaluates to false
then function is disabled; if function is enabled, the event can be executed, depending on
the trigger signal. The value of 𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 should be set constant throughout the simulation.
• 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 - The 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 signal, which will enable the execution of the event at the instants
when the sign of the 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 argument changes from - to +.
• 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 - A text string that configures the event.
Return value: None.

The following configuration options are available:

Option 1: New event based on predefined/preconfigured event with optional specification of

variable and value to change and optional specification of dtime delay

event(enable, trigger, ’name=ThisParameterEvent dtime=delay value=val variable=var’)

or
event(enable, trigger, ’name=ThisEvent dtime=delay var_name=val’)

Option 2: New parameter event with specification of target slot, variable and value to change,
and optional dtime delay

event(enable, trigger, ’target=ThisSlot name=ThisParameterEvent dtime=delay value=val

variable=var’)

Option 3: New user-defined event type with specification of target slot, variable and value to
change, and optional dtime delay

event(enable, trigger, ’create=EvtParam target=ThisSlot name=ThisEvent

dtime=delay value=val variable=var’)
or

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event(enable, trigger, ’create=ThisEvtType target=ThisSlot name=ThisEvent

dtime=delay var_name=val’)

The 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 determines the details of the event call and which of the three options
(described above) will apply:

• string ThisEvtType (mandatory, only option 3)

Type of event to be created. To specify the type, use e.g. “EvtParam” for a parameter event
or “EvtSwitch” for a switch event, etc. (see section 29.5 for a list of available event types).
• string ThisSlot (mandatory, only options 2 and 3)
If “target=this” is defined, the event is applied to a signal of the present DSL model. If any
other name is given, the DSL interpreter checks the composite model where the present
DSL model (common model) is used and searches for a slot with the given name. The
event is then applied to the element assigned to that slot. The common model which calls
the event has to be stored inside the composite model.
• string ThisEvent (mandatory)
Name of the event created (option 3) or the external event to be started (option 1/2). The
external event must be stored locally in the DSL model. If “name=this” is set, a parameter
event will be created and executed automatically with the DSL element itself as the target.
• string ThisParameterEvent (mandatory)
Name of the parameter event created (option 3) or the external parameter event to be
started (option 1/2). The external event must be stored locally in the DSL model. If
“name=this” is set, a parameter event will be created and executed automatically with the
DSL element itself as the target.
• double delay (optional)
Delay time of the event after triggering (in seconds).
• double val (optional)
Value of the set parameter (only when “name=this” is set or when a parameter event is
created).
• string var (optional)
Variable name of the DSL model generating the event (if Option 1) or of the target element
(Option 2 and 3) (can be a parameter, state variable, internal variable or not connected
input signal) whose value will be set to “val” (only when “name=this” is set or when a
parameter event is created).
• string var_name (optional)
Name of the event’s variable that is to be changed (e.g. refer to Example 4 further below).
The parameter will be assigned the value “val” .
Remarks:
• For DSL level 6 or higher, if a DSL state variable or a constant internal variable needs to
be changed, it is recommended to use reset function instead.
• If the event()-definition according to options 2/3 is used, the create and target parameters
must be the first parameters of the 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔.
• The event command has changed from DSL Level 3 to DSL Level 4. With DSL Level 3
and smaller, a maximum number (MaxTrig) of trigger events was entered, event(MaxTrig,
. . . ) (with MaxTrig being set to 0, unlimited trigger events may be produced), instead of a
boolean expression for the condition, event(Condition, . . . ).
• The 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 contains assignments (e.g. ’target=ThisSlot’ or ’value=val’).
The first term in an assignment (e.g. ’target=ThisSlot’ or ’value=val’) represents a fixed
identifier which does not change (remains as specified above). The only exception is the
use of the ’var_name=val’ assignment, where the ’var_name’ identifier will be user-defined
(refer to example 4 below). The string of the first assignment term may not contain spaces.

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• The second term in a 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 assignment (e.g. ’target=ThisSlot’ or ’value=

val’) represents user-defined strings being assigned to the specific identifiers. The follow-
ing reserved keyword exists and can be used as described above: ’this’. The string of the
second term in the assignment may not contain spaces. For example, if the name of a
slot contains spaces, the following assignment is incorrect: ’target=Transformer Slot’. The
correct approach is to remove the spaces existing in the name of the composite frame slot
such that the string will not contain spaces e.g. ’target=Transformer_Slot’.
• The order of the assignments within the 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 is important for the correct
operation of the function and must be as specified above (refer to Options 1 - 3).
Example 1: The following example generates a new event based on predefined/precon-
figured event named “OpenBreaker”, which must be stored within the DSL common model
containing the code snippet. The “OpenBreaker” event must be already configured: target object
and action, i.e. close or open. A new event is triggered when 𝑦𝑜 changes sign from - to +. The
delay time is 0.2s.

event(1,yo, 'name=OpenBreaker dtime=0.2')

Example 2: The example below shows a clock made with DSL using the second event option(
, ,“name=this ...”) which automatically creates and configures a parameter event. The variable
named xclock will be reset to value val=0 within dtime=0, if the integrator output xclock is larger
than 1. The input signal is a clock signal with the time period Tclock. The identifier “this” is used
to apply the event on the same DSL model which issued this event.

inc(xclock)=0
inc(clockout)=0
xclock.=1/Tclock
reset_clock=select(xclock>1,1,-1)
event(enable,reset_clock, 'name=this value=0 variable=xclock')
clockout=xclock

Example 3: This example generates an event for the purpose of a simple under-voltage load-
shedding relay. The element in the slot “Load” will be disconnected with a switch event "EvtSwitch",
when the signal "u-umin" becomes positive. The event in the event list will be called “TripLoad”.
The default action of the EvtSwitch is “open”, therefore no additional arguments are needed. For
closing action the additional configuration “i_switch=1” has to be added. The common model has
to be stored inside the composite model, which has the slot named “Load”.

event(1,umin-u, 'create=EvtSwitch name=TripLoad target=Load')

Example 4: This example shows how an event is generated (which is not a parameter event) and
one of its parameters is being changes. This is possible by adding to the 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓 𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
the event’s parameter name followed by "=" and the assigned value afterwards. This example
generates an event that will decrease the tap position, because the parameter i_tap is set to 1.
Note that the use of the assignment ’value=1 variable=i_tap’ is not allowed in this case, because
’value=’ and ’variable=’ are operating only for parameter events (EvtParam):

event(enable, trigger, ’create=EvtTap target=TransformerSlot

name=TapEvent_Decrease i_tap=1’)

flipflop [back]

flipflop (boolset, boolreset)

Logical flip-flop function. Returns the internal logical state: 0 or 1.

Arguments:
• boolset - Set expression to be evaluated as true or false.

• boolreset - Reset expression to be evaluated as true or false.

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Return value: the internal state, with initial value assigned as boolset. The internal state will
change during simulation as described below:
• changes from 0 to 1, if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 is true and 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 is false (SET)

• changes from 1 to 0, if 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 is false and 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 is true (RESET)

• remains unaltered in all other situations. (HOLD)
Note that the initial condition 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 1 will cause an error message at initialisation.

gradlim_const [back]

gradlim_const(input,min,max)
The function implements a gradient limiter of the input argument. This is a buffer based DSL
function.

Arguments:
• input - input signal to be limited

• min - lower bound of gradient limit

• max - upper bound of gradient limit

Return value: yo, the gradient limited value of the 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡.

Example, where 𝑦𝑖 is the function’s input signal and 𝑦𝑜 is the gradient limiter output:

yi = sin(2*pi()*50*time())
yo = gradlim_const(yi,-314.15,150)

Figure 30.5.1: Gradient limiter example

invlapprox [back]

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invlapprox (y, array_iiii)

invlapprox (y, oarray_iiii)
Inverse lapprox with array.

Arguments:
• x - Input argument for y-axis value of characteristic

• array_iiii or oarray_iiii - Function characteristic (array) containing two columns (one for x-
axis and another one for y-axis). The array_iiii is used if the lookup array is to be defined
internally within the DSL common model. The oarray_iiii is used if the lookup array is to be
defined externally of the DSL model, using IntMat objects.

Return value: output 𝑥, calculated as the inverse of the linear approximation y=f(x), where f is
defined by the array_iiii/oarray_iiii. It should be noted that the lookup array must be sorted in
ascending order and the y-values should be monotonic in order to avoid possibility of multiple
solutions.

Note: DSL lookup Arrays/Matrices may be defined either directly within the DSL common model or
externally, using IntMat objects. The procedure of declaring that a certain variable is a DSL
array/matrix is done by naming the variable using a specific prefix, as described below:
• array_ - (e.g. “array_K”), internal array, this option will create an array characteristic for a
one dimensional function y=f(x), where 𝑥 and 𝑦 characteristic value pairs are defined in two
columns. The array characteristic will be possible to be defined within the DSL common
model (n.b. not within the block definition) should at least one such variable name exist.
Internal arrays may be defined in the tab “Advanced 1” of the “Basic Data” page of the DSL
common model edit dialog. The length of the array is defined via the entry in the left cell of
the first row. After adding the dimension an update is needed, this can be done by switching
back to the “Basic Data” page and then again to the “Advanced 1” page.
• matrix_ - (e.g. “matrix_WindPowerCoefficient”), internal matrix, this option will create a two-
dimensional characteristic for a two-dimensional function y=f(xr,xc), where 𝑥𝑟 and 𝑥𝑐 are the
row and column arguments and 𝑦 the function output value. The matrix characteristic is
defined directly within the DSL common model (n.b. not within the block definition) should at
least one such variable name exist. Internal matrices are defined in the tab “Advanced 2” of
the “Basic Data” page of the DSL common model edit dialog. The dimension of the matrix
is defined via the entry in the first two left cells of the first row. After adding the dimension
an update is needed, this can be done by switching back to the “Basic Data” page and then
again to the “Advanced 2” page.
• oarray_ - (e.g. “oarray_K”), external array, this option will use an external array characteristic
for a one dimensional function y=f(x), where 𝑥 and 𝑦 characteristic value pairs are defined
in two columns. The array characteristic must be defined within an external object of type
IntMat. The IntMat object has to be stored inside the DSL common model (i.e. as child
object). The object name must match the string following the “_”. If this is done, then
PowerFactory automatically assigns the array object to the variable 𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦_.... For example, if
“oarray_K” is declared in the DSL block definition parameter list, then the IntMat object must
be named “K” and stored inside the common model which defines variable “oarray_K”. A
combination of internal and external arrays (i.e. mixing array_ and oarray_ variables) within
a single block definition / common model is not supported. The “IntMat” object must have
proper dimensions, this means two columns and at least two rows for linear approximation
based functions and at least three rows in case of spline approximation functions.
• omatrix_ - (e.g. “omatrix_WindPowerCoefficient”), external matrix, this option will use an
external matrix characteristic for a two-dimensional function y=f(xr,xc), where 𝑥𝑟 and 𝑥𝑐 are
the row and column arguments while 𝑦 is the function output value. The matrix characteristic
must be defined within an external object of type IntMat. The IntMat object has to be stored
inside the DSL common model (i.e. as child object). The name has to match the string,
following the “_”. For example, in the case of “omatrix_WindPowerCoefficient” DSL variable,
the IntMat object would have to be named “WindPowerCoefficient” and stored inside the
common model. If this is done, then PowerFactory automatically assigns the matrix object to

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the variable 𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥_.... A combination of internal and external arrays (i.e. mixing matrix_-
and omatrix_ variables) within a single block definition / common model is not supported.
The “IntMat” object must have proper dimensions i.e. at least three columns and at least
three rows for linear approximation based functions and at least four rows and four columns
in case of spline approximation functions. The top row must contain the 𝑥𝑟 values, the left
column must contain the 𝑥𝑐 values. Both rows and columns must be defined in ascending
order for proper operation.

lapprox [back]

lapprox (x, array_iiii)

lapprox (x, oarray_iiii)
Linear approximation function.

Arguments:
• x - Input argument for x-axis value of characteristic
• array_iiii or oarray_iiii - Function characteristic (array) containing two columns (one for x-
axis and another one for y-axis). The array_iiii is used if the array is to be defined internally
within the DSL model. The oarray_iiii is used if the array is to be defined externally of
the DSL model, using IntMat objects. For more information on DSL lookup arrays and
matrices, refer to the note within the function invlapprox description.
Return value: output 𝑦, calculated as the linear approximation y=f(x), where f is defined by the
array_iiii. It should be noted that the array must be sorted in ascending order.

Example using internal array:

y = lapprox(1.8, array_valve)

Example using external array:

y = lapprox(1.8, oarray_valve)

lapproxext [back]

lapproxext (x, array_iiii)

lapproxext (x, oarray_iiii)
Same function as the linear approximation lapprox y=f(x), but instead to return a constant value
in case x is lower than the first given point in the array_iiii/oarray_iiii returns a value calculated
as follows: y = (yval(first point) + xe - xval(first point))*dy/dx (the derivative of the first interval is
used). The same logic is used if x is higher than the last point given in the lookup array. For more
information on DSL lookup arrays and matrices, refer to the note within the function invlapprox
description.

lapprox2 [back]

lapprox2 (xr, xc, matrix_iiii)

lapprox2 (xr, xc, omatrix_iiii)
Returns the linear approximation y=f(xr,xc) of a two-dimensional array, where f is defined by the
matrix_iiii/omatrix_iiii. xr represents the row value and xc the column value of the lookup matrix.
It should be noted that the axis must be sorted in ascending order.

Arguments:

• xr - Input argument for identifying the row position in the matrix_iiii

• xc - Input argument for identifying the column position in the matrix_iiii
• matrix_iiii or omatrix_iiii - Function characteristic (matrix) containing multiple rows and
columns. The matrix_iiii is used if the matrix is to be defined internally within the DSL
common model. The omatrix_iiii is used if the lookup array is to be defined externally of

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the DSL model, using IntMat objects. For more information on DSL lookup arrays and
matrices, refer to the note within the function invlapprox description.
Return value: 𝑦 the linear approximation y=f(xr,xc) of a two-dimensional lookup array.

Example:
y = lapprox2(2.5, 3.7, matrix_cp)

lastvalue [back]

lastvalue(input)
This function returns the value of the argument input at the last valid iteration (different time
stamp). This is a buffer based DSL function.

Arguments:

• input - input argument

Return value: the value of the argument input at the last valid iteration

lim_const [back]

lim_const (x, min, max)

Nonlinear limiter function that limits input x between min and max. Expressions min and max
must evaluate to time-independent constants and may therefore only consist of constants and
parameter variables. Its usage is encouraged (as opposed to lim) for simulation performance
reasons whenever min and max are constants.

Arguments:

• x - quantity to be limited within the upper and lower bounds.

• min - lower bound limit
• max - upper bound limit
Return value: 𝑦𝑜 as defined below:
⎧
⎨min, if x < min.
⎪
⎪
𝑦𝑜 = max, if x > max.
⎪
⎪
if min ≤ x ≤ max.
⎩
x,

Example:
lim_const(yi,YMIN,YMAX)
! limit variable yi between YMIN and YMAX
! with YMIN and YMAX being DSL parameters

lim [back]

lim (x, min, max)

Nonlinear limiter function with definition as for lim_const, but with variable min and max limits.

Example:
lim(yi,yi_min,yi_max)
! limit variable yi between yi_min and yi_max
! yi_min and yi_max are DSL variables (e.g. limiting input signals of
a macro)

limstate_const [back]

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limstate_const (x, min, max)

Nonlinear limiter function for creating limited integrators. Argument x must be a state variable.
Expressions min and max must evaluate to time-independent constants and may therefore only
consist of constants and parameter variables. Its usage is encouraged (as opposed to limstate)
for performance reasons whenever min and max are constants.

Arguments:
• x - state variable to be limited within the upper and lower bounds.
• min - lower bound limit (constant)

• max - upper bound limit (constant)

Return value: The value of the state variable x.

Example:
x1. = xe/Ti;
y = limstate_const(x1,X1MIN,X1MAX);
! with X1MIN and X1MAX being DSL parameters

Remark:

The limstate and limstate_const are allowed only once per state variable. Use internal variables
in case the limited state is needed in several equations.

limstate [back]

limstate (x1, min, max)

Nonlinear limiter function for creating limited integrators.

This function is similar to limstate_const but with variable min and max limits.

Example:
x1. = xe/Ti;
y = limstate(x1,xmin,xmax);
! with xmin and xmax being DSL variables

Remark: The limstate and limstate_const are allowed only once per state variable. Use internal
variables in case the limited state is needed in several equations.

limfix [back]

limfix(param)=(min, max)
Function used to print a warning message to the output window if a parameter is outside the
specified limits at initialisation. Brackets [ and ] are used to indicate the inclusion of the end point
in the allowed range; Parentheses ( and ) are used to indicate the exclusion of the end point from
the allowed range. The use of this function is encouraged (as opposed to limits) for performance
reasons whenever param is constant throughout the simulation or if the check should only be
performed during the initialization.

Arguments:
• param - parameter to be verified for upper and lower bounds.
• min - lower bound limit
• max - upper bound limit

Return value: None.

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Example:
limfix(K)=(0,1] !to warn if parameter K is <= 0 or > 1 at initialisation

limits [back]

limits(param)=(min, max)
Function used to print a warning message to the output window if a parameter is outside the
specified limits throughout the simulation. Brackets [ and ] are used to indicate the inclusion of
the end points in the range; ( and ) are used to indicate the exclusion of the end points from the
range.

Arguments:

• param - parameter to be verified for upper and lower bounds.

• min - lower bound limit
• max - upper bound limit
Return value: None.

Example:
!To warn if xpos <= 0 or if xpos >= 1 throughout the simulation:
limits(xpos)=(0,1)
!To warn if xpos <= 0 throughout the simulation:
limits(xpos)=(0,)

movingavg [back]

movingavg(input,Tdel,Tlength)
This function allows the modelling of a moving average filter.

Arguments:
• input - input argument

• Tdel - Time delay, in seconds

• Tlength - Buffer length, in seconds

Return value: It returns the moving average value of the 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 over a given time window of
duration 𝑇 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ. The window starts 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙 + 𝑇 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ seconds before the present time and
ends 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙 seconds before the present time. Variables 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑙 and 𝑇 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ must evaluate to time-
independent constants and may therefore only consist of constants and parameter variables.

output

output(boolexpr, message_string)
This function generates an output window message defined in the 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 depending
on the value of argument 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟. The value of 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟 is evaluated at each time step during
the simulation. The first time that this value is found to be true, the 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 is processed
and a message is sent to the output window. The output function is disabled afterwards until
the DSL model is reset, to prevent recurring messages. The parameters of the message can be
modified in the string by assigning a new value. The message_string may contain variables and
the special function num(boolexpr) or num(expr):
• Variable names which appear directly after an “=” sign will be substituted by their actual values;
hence, the line of code below may generate the message:

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maximum exceeded: yt=1.2 > ymax=1.0:

output(yymax,’maximum exceeded: yt=yt > ymax=ymax’)
• The num(expr) or num(boolexpr) will be substituted with the calculated value of the expression,
e.g.:
value=num(a+b) may produce value=3.5000
value=num(a+b) may produce value=3.5000

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.
• message_string - String delimited by single quotes
Return value: None.

outfix

outfix(boolexpr, message_string)
This function is a variant of the output function. It is evaluated only at initialisation. Its usage is
encouraged for performance reasons whenever 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟 evaluates to a constant throughout the
simulation.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.
• message_string - String delimited by single quotes
Return value: None.

picdro_const [back]

picdro_const(boolexpr, Tpick, Tdrop)

This function implements a logical pick-up-drop-off function commonly used when designing
protection schemes (e.g. fault detection, signal out-of-range, etc.). Arguments Tpick and Tdrop
must evaluate to time-independent constants and may therefore only consist of constants and
parameter variables. Its usage is encouraged (as opposed to picdro) for simulation performance
reasons whenever the Tpick and Tdrop arguments evaluate to time-independent constants.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.
• Tpick - pick-up time delay in seconds (constant)
• Tdrop - drop-off time delay in seconds (constant)
Return value: the internal logical state: 0 or 1. The state is evaluated as below:

• changes from 0 to 1, if boolexpr = 1 (i.e. true), for a duration of at least Tpick seconds
• changes from 1 to 0, if boolexpr = 0 (i.e. false), for a duration of at least Tdrop seconds
• remains unaltered in other situations.

Example:
picdro_const(u1-0.9 < 0, 0.005, 0.01)
! detection of under-voltage operation mode

picdro [back]

picdro (boolexpr, Tpick, Tdrop)

Logical pick-up-drop-off function useful for relays. This function is similar to picdro_const but with

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variable Tpick and Tdrop arguments.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.

• Tpick - pick-up time delay in seconds (may be variable)

• Tdrop - drop-off time delay in seconds (may be variable)
Return value: the internal logical state: 0 or 1. The state is evaluated as for picdro_const.

picontrol_const [back]

picontrol_const(state,min,max,prop_input)
The function is commonly used when developing a standard parallel structure of a non-windup PI
controller as shown in Figure 30.5.2 and described in IEEE 421.5 (2005) standard. In the figure,
Kp and Ki are constant parameters and input is an input signal. Its usage is encouraged (as
opposed to picontrol) for simulation performance reasons whenever the min and max arguments
evaluate to time-independent constants.

Figure 30.5.2: PI Controller Structure acc. to IEEE 421.5

Arguments:

• state - state variable of the integral part

• min - lower bound of controller output 𝑦𝑜

• max - upper bound of controller output 𝑦𝑜

• prop_input - PI Controller proportional part (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 * 𝐾𝑝)

Return value: yo, calculated as below:

⎧
⎨min,
⎪
⎪ if (prop_input + state) < min.
yo = max, if (prop_input + state) > max.
⎪
⎪
⎩
prop_input + state, otherwise.

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The argument state must be defined as a state variable, min and max arguments must eval-
uate to time-independent constants and may therefore only consist of constants and parameter
variables.

Additionally, this function limits the state variable based on the following considerations:

- if (prop_input + state) > max then state is frozen

- if (prop_input + state) < min then state is frozen

To implement the PI controller shown in figure 30.5.2, the following three DSL instructions need
be applied:

prop_input=Kp*input
state.=Ki*input
yo = picontrol_const(state,min,max,prop_input)

picontrol [back]

picontrol(state,min,max,prop_input)
The function is commonly used when developing a standard parallel structure of a non-windup PI
controller as shown in Figure 30.5.2 and described in IEEE 421.5 (2005) standard. This function
is similar to picontrol_const but with variable min and max arguments.

Remark: picontrol requires DSL Level 6 or higher.

reset [back]

reset(var,rst,val)
This function resets the variable 𝑣𝑎𝑟 to the value 𝑣𝑎𝑙 at specific instants during the simulation
depending on argument 𝑟𝑠𝑡. The event is triggered every time when the input signal 𝑟𝑠𝑡 crosses
the value 0.5 upon a rising edge. The reset procedure (unlike the event() function) is regarded
as being an internal DSL event, and so it only emits Output Window messages if the flag Display
internal DSL events is checked in the Run Simulation command dialog. The arguments 𝑣𝑎𝑟, 𝑟𝑠𝑡
and 𝑣𝑎𝑙 must refer to DSL model variable names declared within the DSL macro which calls the
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 function (domain is the DSL macro namespace).

Arguments:

• var - DSL model variable that is reset. The variable can be a state variable or a constant
internal variable (i.e. by constant it is understood that the internal variable has an initial
condition statement only).

• rst - Variable based on which the reset event is triggered.

• val - Upon triggering the reset event, the resetted variable 𝑣𝑎𝑟 will be assigned the value
of argument 𝑣𝑎𝑙. Argument 𝑣𝑎𝑙 can be a value, a DSL variable or a DSL function returning
a value.

Return value: None.

Examples:
!Reset the state variable 𝑥_𝑖𝑑 to 0 when input voltage drops below 0.9 p.u.
x_id.=(id_ref-x_id)/Tid
reset(x_id, u<0.9, 0)

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or

!Set the constant internal variable 𝑡_𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 to be equal with the simulation
!time when the internal variable 𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡_𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡 is activated
inc(t_fault) = 0
fault_detect = picdro(u<UMIN,0.005,0.005)
reset(t_fault, fault_detect>0, time())

Remarks:

• 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 function requires DSL Level 6 or higher (refer to Table 30.3.1 for more information). For
lower levels use event function instead.
• It is allowed to use multiple 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 functions targeting the same or different variables to be reset.
• If the 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑡 function is defined within the Equations page of a DSL model (i.e. not of a macro),
then the variable names are the DSL model variables (domain is the DSL model namespace).
rms [back]

rms()
Function retrieving the type of simulation being executed.

Arguments: none.

Return value: 𝑦𝑜 representing the dynamic simulation type:

⎧
⎨1 for RMS simulation (balanced/unbalanced)
𝑦𝑜 =
⎩0 for EMT simulation

sapprox [back]

sapprox (x, array_iiii)

sapprox (x, oarray_iiii)
Returns the spline approximation y=f(x), where f is defined by the array_iiii/oarray_iiii. It should
be noted that the array must be sorted in ascending order.

Arguments:
• x - Input argument for x-axis value of characteristic
• array_iiii or oarray_iiii - Function characteristic (array) containing two columns (one for x-
axis and another one for y-axis). For more information on DSL lookup arrays and matrices,
refer to the note within the function invlapprox description.
Return value: 𝑦, the spline approximation of y=f(x)

Example:
y = sapprox(1.8, array_valve) or y = sapprox(1.8, oarray_valve)

Note: The spline approximation should be used with care due to the risk of overshooting values.

sapprox2 [back]

sapprox2 (xr, xc, matrix_iiii)

sapprox2 (xr, xc, omatrix_iiii)
Returns the spline approximation y=f(xr,xc) of a two-dimensional array, where f is defined by the
matrix_iiii/omatrix_iiii. xr represents the row value and xc the column of the matrix.

Arguments:

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• xr - Input argument for identifying the row position in the matrix_iiii

• xc - Input argument for identifying the column position in the matrix_iiii

• matrix_iiii or omatrix_iiii - Function characteristic (matrix) containing multiple rows and

columns. The matrix_iiii is used if the matrix is to be defined internally within the DSL
common model. The omatrix_iiii is used if the array is to be defined externally of the DSL
model, using IntMat objects. For more information on DSL arrays and matrices, refer to
the note within the function invlapprox description.

Return value: 𝑦, the spline approximation of y=f(xr,xc).

Example:
y = sapprox2(2.5, 3.7, matrix_cp)

Note: The spline approximation should be used with care due to the risk of overshooting values!

select_const [back]

select_const(boolexpr, x, y)
Switch function used to output either argument x or y depending on the evaluation of argument
boolexpr. Arguments x and y must evaluate to time-independent constants and may therefore
only consist of constants and parameter variables. Its usage is encouraged (as opposed to select)
for performance reasons whenever x and y are constants.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.

• x - argument for true branch evaluation (constants)

• y - argument for false branch evaluation (constants)
Return value: x if boolexpr is true, otherwise y.

Example:
x1.=select_const(input>threshold, -1, 1)
! return -1 if input strictly greater than threshold
! return 1 if input smaller than or equal with threshold
! (evaluation of input and threshold as double numbers)

select [back]

select (boolexpr, x, y)
Switch function used to output either argument x or y depending on the evaluation of argument
boolexpr. The arguments x and y are allowed to be variable.

Arguments:

• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.

• x - argument for true branch evaluation (may be variable)
• y - argument for false branch evaluation (may be variable)

Return value: x if boolexpr is true, otherwise y.

Example:
x1.=select(xe1>xe2, xe1, xe2) !to select the biggest derivative

selfix_const [back]

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selfix_const(boolexpr,x,y)
Fixed switch function, returning x throughout the simulation if boolexpr is true at initialisation,
otherwise returns y. Arguments x and y must evaluate to time-independent constants and may
therefore only consist of constants and parameter variables. Its usage is encouraged (as opposed
to selfix) for simulation performance reasons whenever the x and y arguments evaluate to time-
independent constants.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.
• x - argument for true branch evaluation (constants)

• y - argument for false branch evaluation (constants)

Return value: x throughout the simulation if boolexpr is true at initialisation, otherwise y.

Example:
xramp.=selfix_const(T1>0, 1/T1, 0.0) !to avoid division by zero

selfix [back]

selfix (boolexpr, x, y)
Fixed switch function, returning x throughout the simulation if boolexpr is true at initialisation, else
y. The arguments x and y are allowed to be variable.

Arguments:
• boolexpr - Expression to be evaluated as true or false.
• x - argument for true branch evaluation (may be variable)
• y - argument for false branch evaluation (may be variable)

Return value: x throughout the simulation if boolexpr is true at initialisation, otherwise y.

Example:
x1.=selfix(T1>0, xe/T1, 0.0) !to avoid division by zero

time

time ()
Function that retrieves the current simulation time.

Arguments: none.

Return value: 𝑦𝑜, the current simulation time.

Example:
t=time()
y = sin(t) or
y = sin(time())

vardef [back]

vardef(var)
Function which assigns to argument variable var a text description and a unit. This function
may be applied only once to a certain variable, multiple use of vardef() statements on the same
variable will lead to error.

Arguments:

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• var - variable whose description and unit are assigned. The variable 𝑣𝑎𝑟 must be a variable
which has been already declared within the block definition.

Return value: None.

Example:

vardef(u1)='p.u.';'Positive sequence voltage'

Note: The function can be used on parameters, input and output signals, internal variables and state
variables. The unit and description strings are used in PowerFactory for various presentation
purposes (within plots, for data export) whenever the corresponding variable is recorded.

file

file (ascii-parm, expr)

OBSOLETE! Use an ElmFile object in the composite model instead.

fault

OBSOLETE! Use event function instead.

mavg

OBSOLETE! Use delay function instead.

30.5.3 DSL Global Library Macros

Refer to the DSL Macros Documentation for a description of the global library macros. The DSL Macros
Documentation is also accessible selecting Help → Technical References→ DSL Macros from the main
menu.

30.6 Interfaces for Dynamic Models

30.6.1 C Interface

PowerFactory provides the possibility of compiling DSL Block Definitions into C source files. The C
source files need to be compiled (using an external ANSI-C compiler) into a Dynamic Link Library (DLL)
in order to be used within a dynamic simulation. The C Interface provides the framework to create
dynamic models developed entirely in the C programming language. For simplicity, these models will
be hereafter referred to as ’C models’. Currently, the Microsoft©Visual Studio 2012 IDE is supported.
PowerFactory provides compiled models of all DSL models available in the “Standard Models” global
library database folder and those located in the “Standard Models” subfolder of the PowerFactory
installation (e.g. ’C:∖Program Files∖DIgSILENT∖PowerFactory XXXX∖Standard Models’).

30.6.1.1 C Interface Usage

Any DSL Block Definition may be compiled into a DSL C Interface model. As with any DSL model,
it is recommended that the Calculation of Initial Conditions of a DSL common model representing the
DSL Block Definition is performed and no internal DSL warnings are displayed during the simulation.
Creating a DSL C Interface model requires two steps:

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1. Creation of C source files from the DSL Block Definition; and

2. Compilation of source files into a DLL using an external compiler.

To create the C source files for an existing DSL Block Definition (which must be a non-macro, highest-
level Block Definition), the following steps are required:

• Open the Advanced tab of the Block Definition dialog as shown in Figure 30.6.1;
• As Compilation options fill in the Author, Company, Copyright and Version fields with relevant
information;
• An initial check of the model is required and can be performed by clicking on Check for Compilation
button. Check the output window for the verification status;
• When a Block is ok message is displayed in the output window, the code generation process
may be started by clicking on the Compile button;

• A folder selection dialog is opened with a newly-created model folder within the PowerFactory
workspace location;
• Click on OK. If the process completes successfully, a status message will be reported in the output
window (e.g. Model ’BlockName’ created and stored as ’C:∖Users∖user∖AppData
∖Local∖DIgSILENT∖PowerFactory xxxx∖Workspace.nnnnnn∖db∖User Models∖
BlockName∖MyModel.c’).

Figure 30.6.1: Block Definition dialog, Basic Data page, Advanced tab

The generated source files are listed below:

• digusermodel.c - dDLLMain declaration function;

• digusermodel.def - module-definition file containing one or more module statements that describe
various attributes of the DLL;
• digusermodel.h - contains necessary function prototype declarations;
• digusermodeladvanced.h - contains additional function prototypes;

• BlockName.vcxproj , where “BlockName” is the name of the DSL Block Definition from which the
source files have been created - Visual Studio 2012©project file;

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• MathConstants.h - contains various mathematical constant definitions;

• ModelInterface.h - declaration of advanced functions;

• MyModel.c - C source file containing function definitions of the dynamic model.

The typical process of compiling the source files into a DLL should be followed according to the
instructions of the external compiler. In Visual Studio 2012, the “BlockName.vcxproj” project file can
be opened. The user needs to make sure that the correct 32-/64-bit architecture is selected when
building the DLL in order to comply with PowerFactory requirements as follows:

• A 64-bit PowerFactory version requires a 64-bit compiled DLL;

• A 32-bit PowerFactory version requires a 32-bit compiled DLL.

After creating the DLL, the file can be readily used in PowerFactory. On the General tab of the Block
Definition dialog, check the “Compiled model” radio button. A folder selection text box is shown.
Introduce the file path (including the file name) in the text box or click on the “...” button to navigate
and select the DLL file. For future uses of the compiled model, PowerFactory stores the previously
compiled model directory path as default.

PowerFactory automatically loads the DLL and in the General tab of the Block Definition (shown in
Figure 30.6.2) it displays relevant information. The list of used variables (output and input signals, state
variables, etc.) is shown in the Variables area (non-editable) and a summary of the DLL-file is shown
in the “DLL info” area. The Source field states the name of the compiled model. The PowerFactory
version, creation date, author, company and copyright owner are shown. The checksum field contains
a 16-digit unique identifier of the original DSL model on which it has been based. If a DSL model is
defined as well, then the checksum of the DSL block will also be shown in the “DSL-info” area (below
the “DLL info” area). Based on the two available checksums, a direct comparison between the compiled
and the DSL model can be performed to verify their equivalence.

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Figure 30.6.2: Compiled model options

The model can be integrated in a Composite Frame in the same manner as a typical Block Definition
(as described in Section 30.2.1).

More information about the C Interface including the description of the C Interface Model and examples,
is available on the External C Interface for dynamic models, which can be accessed from the menu Help
→ Additional Packages.

30.6.2 External C Interface acc. to IEC 61400-27-1

It is possible to directly interface external models compliant with IEC 61400-27-1 Annex F specifications
(referred to in this section as IEC interface). The interfaced models can be used for both RMS and EMT
type simulations (provided they are appropriately designed and intended for the specific simulation
type).

The IEC 61400-27-1 Annex F specifies a common standardised binary simulation model interface which
can be interpreted by any third party software. The advantage to this approach is that the same
simulation model core equations (i.e. binary code) can be used in multiple simulation environments.

30.6.2.1 IEC Interface Usage

The user needs to make sure that the correct 32-/64-bit architecture is selected when building the DLL
in order to comply with PowerFactory requirements as follows:

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• A 64-bit PowerFactory version requires a 64-bit compiled DLL;

• A 32-bit PowerFactory version requires a 32-bit compiled DLL.

As shown in Figure 30.6.3 the user must assign the DLL-file path in the corresponding field of the
Basic Data page → General tab of the Block Definition. PowerFactory automatically loads the DLL and
displays relevant information. The list of used variables (outputs, inputs, parameters, etc.) is shown in
the Variables area (non-editable) and a summary of the DLL-file is shown in the “DLL info” area. The
Source field lists the model description (StaticExtSimEnvCapi → ModelDescription), the simulation type
(StaticExtSimEnvCapi → EMT_RMS_Mode) and the used sample time (StaticExtSimEnvCapi → Fixed-
StepBaseSampleTime). The Version field states the model version (StaticExtSimEnvCapi → ModelVer-
sion). The Created field provides the model creation date (StaticExtSimEnvCapi → ModelCreated).
The Author field provides the name of the model creator (StaticExtSimEnvCapi → ModelCreator ).

Figure 30.6.3: Compiled model options

The model can be integrated into a Composite Frame in the same manner as a typical Block Definition
(as described in Section 30.2.1).

Under Basic Data page → Advanced tab of the Block Definition the field Sample Time is available (with
unit in seconds). By default, the value of −1 will ensure that the pre-defined sample time (StaticExtSi-
mEnvCapi → FixedStepBaseSampleTime) is used in the simulation. A positive value of the field Sample
Time will override the pre-defined setting and use this specific value as model sample time within the
simulation.

Interface variable names: The DLL model developer is responsible with the correct definition of the
interface. Among others, all variables used in this interface must comply with the DSL variable naming
guidelines, as described here.

Note: It is important to note that the calculation of initial conditions procedure in PowerFactory ś RMS

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and EMT simulation is only partly supported by the IEC compliant models. That is, only forward
initialisation is possible: outputs and internal model variables or states are initialised based on
knowledge of input quantities only. Inputs cannot be initialised by an IEC compliant model.
It is important to note that, as with any other externally compiled models (e.g. based on digexdyn
or digexfun interfaces), the IEC 61400-27-1 compliant models are not supported by the Modal
Analysis Toolbox. The only exception is made by compiled models developed based on DIgSI-
LENT ś C Interface. (Further information on the DSL to C Interface can be found in section 30.6.1.)

30.6.3 MATLAB Interface

In addition to building controller models using the DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL), it is possible
to connect to MATLAB models via a PowerFactory -MATLAB interface. A DSL model (object class
BlkDef ) is defined in PowerFactory and set up to have a link to a MATLAB .m file. The DSL model must
have at least one output and at least one state variable. The MATLAB .m file returns the vector t and
the matrices x and y, where t represents a time-vector, x represents a matrix of state-variable values,
and y represents a matrix of output values. From these, PowerFactory calculates the derivatives of the
state variables and outputs. The numerical integration is conducted in PowerFactory. PowerFactory
calls MATLAB with every time step. MATLAB does not run a simulation in parallel with PowerFactory, it
simulates only one time step and returns two rows in t, x and y, which correspond to the initial and the
final times of that time step. The matrix x has as many columns as there are state variables, and the
matrix y has as many columns as there are outputs. PowerFactory calculates the derivatives and the
outputs at the beginning of the time step, and proceeds with the integration. In the following example
the initial time is 0 s and the final time is 0.01 s. There are two state variables, and two outputs.

[︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃
0 1.02 2.1 10 2
𝑡= ;𝑥 = ;𝑦 = (30.9)
0.01 1.03 1.9 11 3

PowerFactory calculates the derivatives from the time step and the initial and final values of the state
variables, e.g. , and obtains the outputs of the MATLAB model at the beginning of the time-step from
the y-matrix, e.g.

𝑑𝑥1 (1.03 − 1.02)

= (30.10)
𝑑𝑡 0.01 − 0
,and obtains the outputs of the MATLAB model at the beginning of the time-step from the y-matrix, e.g
𝑦1 = 10.

To use the MATLAB interface, it must be installed on the same computer as PowerFactory. When
the time-domain simulation in PowerFactory is initialised, it will start an instance of MATLAB the same
version that was used last.

The following section provides an example of integrating a MATLAB model with PowerFactory. In
the example a voltage controller is implemented first using a PowerFactory model (ElmVco__16) and
subsequently using an implementation in MATLAB Simulink. This example can also be found in the
Knowledge base: https://www.digsilent.de/en/faq-powerfactory.html.

30.6.3.1 Example Implementation of Voltage Controller

In this example the grid consists of two generators, one load and one line, as shown in Figure 30.6.4.

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Figure 30.6.4: MATLAB example grid

The simulation event is defined for the load, where the reactive power is increased after 0.5 seconds.

The complete example contains three files:

1. Matlab Example.dz is a PowerFactory file.

2. VCOtype16.m is a MATLAB M-file.
This file is an interface to the Simulink model, and it is used as a middle layer in the communication
between PowerFactory and Simulink.

3. vcotype16mod.mdl is a Simulink model and contains Simulink implementation of VCO type 16.

30.6.3.2 Built-in Model

In the base study case, the voltage controller models are represented by the built-in models VCO type
16 (ElmVco__16). The built-in VCO type 16 inside PowerFactory is one excitation control system with
simplified exciter. Both composite models use the AVR inside the IEEE-frame from the global library.
The generators have different VCO parameters set.

In Figure 30.6.5 the edit dialog of the ElmVco with the parameters of the AVR can be seen.

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Figure 30.6.5: Parameters dialog of the voltage controller

The model representation of the ElmVco__16 is indicated in Figure 30.6.6.

Figure 30.6.6: Parameters plot of the voltage controller

The plots resulting from the simulation (Figure 30.6.11) show busbar voltages and excitation voltage for
both generators. The results are stored in results files located under the “Results” folder of the relevant
study case.

30.6.3.3 MATLAB Model

In the second study case “Matlab” which is a modification of the base case, VCO type 16 is mod-
elled inside the Simulink package, instead of using a built-in model. The MATLAB console is started
automatically when running the simulation.

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To implement a MATLAB model into a current project in PowerFactory it has to be included into a frame
similar to a DSL model definition. This procedure is described in detail in the Section 30.6.3 (MATLAB
Interface). First a slot inside the frame has to be created, where the controller model should be inserted.
This is done exactly like for implementing built-in models or common models. Then a Block Definition
BlkDef has to be created inside the library. Instead of programming the transfer function using the DSL
code, there can now the definition of the MATLAB code be imported.

This can be done in the dialog of the Block Definition. When creating a primitive DSL model in the
library by:

• right-clicking a or inside a (library) folder in the active project in the Data Manager and selecting
New. . . → Block/Frame - Diagram from the context menu.

• using the New Object icon ( ) in the database manager and selecting Block Definition (BlkDef )

• double-clicking an new/empty block reference in an open block diagram and then use the
button to select a Block Definition. Then The icon can be used to create a new Block Definition
inside the local library.

Now open the dialog of the new BlkDef :

• by double-clicking on the frame of a composite Block Definition

• by double-clicking the definition in side the library or on its icon

Here input and output variables, parameters, state variables and limiting signals have to be defined.
Instead of inserting the equations to describe the different function blocks, a MATLAB file *.m can be
selected, when the option Matlab is activated.

The edit dialog of the Block Definition including the parameter definition and the selected file can be
seen in Figure 30.6.7 for the mentioned example.

Figure 30.6.7: Composite model using a special frame

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The model representation of the ElmVco__16 in the MATLAB Simulink package is shown in Fig-
ure 30.6.8

Figure 30.6.8: Parameters plot of the voltage controller

When the Block Definition is specified, a DSL model has to be created first. As described in Sec-
tion 30.1.3 (The Common Model), the common model element (ElmDsl, ) is the front-end object for
all user-defined Block Definitions. This means that all user-defined transient models including built-in
elements or MATLAB models cannot be used other than through a common model.

The common model then combines a model or Block Definition with specific set of parameter values.
The edit dialog of the DSL element now looks different to the built-in ElmVco. From Figure 30.6.9 can
be seen, that this dialog is similar to the normal DSL models. All time constants and other parameters
are the same as for the built-in VCO models.

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Figure 30.6.9: Parameters dialog of the MATLAB voltage controller

Figure 30.6.10 shows the composite model using the special frame with the generator ’G1’ and the
Matlab-AVR inserted into the slots.

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Figure 30.6.10: Composite Model using a special frame

These results from the simulation of the reactive power step using the built-in VCO model (dotted curves)
and using the MATLAB representation (solid curves) can be seen in Figure 30.6.11

Figure 30.6.11: Results of the transient simulation with the Built-In model

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30.6.3.4 The MATLAB File

The MATLAB file VCOtype16.m is an interface configuration for the Simulink model, stored in the
file vcotype16mod.mdl, and the PowerFactory DSL model. There the input and output signals, the
parameters and the state variables are defined, as described below. The transfer function is specified.

The contents of this file is listed here:

function [t, x, y] = VCOtype16

global U Tvm Usetp Upss Vska Tisp Ur1mx Ur1mn Vsex Efdmx
Efdmn ve1 x1 x2
options = simget(’VCOtype16mod’);
options = simset(’InitialState’, [x1,x2]);
[t, x, y] = sim(’VCOtype16mod’, [], options);

PowerFactory inserts the following variables into the MATLAB workspace:

U, Tvm, Usetp, Upss, Vska, Tisp, Ur1mx, Ur1mn, Vsex, Efdmx, Efdmn, ve1, x1, x2

Those variables are necessary to successfully run the Simulink model. There are three input signals
(U, Usetp, Upss), one output signal Uerrs and two state variables x1 and x2.

In each step of the PowerFactory simulation the Simulink model is completely evaluated. State variables
(’InitialState’) are assigned to Simulink model in each step of the simulation. For PowerFactory it is a
simple function call:

[t, x, y] = VCOtype16.

PowerFactory uses only one Simulink model for both generators. To avoid limitation of Simulink, which
allows only one instance of the model running at the same time, PowerFactory must send all parameters
in the each step of the simulation.

To find appropriate equations for the initial conditions you need to understand the construction of the
transfer function blocks in Simulink. To obtain this understanding you can replace the variables with
actual numbers in the MATLAB Simulink model, set the initial conditions, run it for a few seconds and
monitor the outputs of all transfer functions to see whether the model initialised correctly.

The MATLAB Simulink model (.mdl) and the interface file (.m) file may not have the same name.

The order of the state variables in the interface file’s statement “options = simset(’InitialState’, [x1, x2,
. . . . . . ])” is important; the order of the elements in the vector [x1, x2, . . . ] must be the same as in
the state variable vector constructed internally by MATLAB. To determine the order of the MATLAB
state variable vector the user may use the command “[sizes,x0,xstring]= ModelName” in the MATLAB
workspace, where ModelName is the name of the Simulink model (without the .mdl extension and
without inverted commas). The output of the string variable xstring contains the names of the dynamic
blocks in the Simulink model in the desired order. In the case of the above example the first state
variable is in the measurement block and the second state variable is in the integrator:

xstring =
...’VCOtype16_model/Measure/State Space’
...’VCOtype16_model/Integrator’

The names of the variables in the ’Initial conditions’ fields in the masks of the Simulink model dynamic
blocks is irrelevant.

The initial conditions are set within PowerFactory. Also, for the purpose of PowerFactory ’s model
checking mechanisms, the state derivatives equal to zero

The Simulink solver parameters are set to integrate over one small time step, e.g. start time = 0, end
time = 0.01, and step size = 0.01.

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The y-matrix returned by MATLAB contains the output variables. If more than one output variable
is defined in the DSL model, then those are sorted alphabetically before assigning the outputs from
MATLAB. For example, if there are two outputs “uerrs” and “output”, then the value from the first column
of the y-matrix is assigned to “output” and the value from the second column is assigned to “uerrs”.

30.6.3.5 Additional notes

DIgSILENT PowerFactory calls MATLAB using the programme identification keys “Matlab.Application”
and “Matlab.Application.Single”. PowerFactory will start that same MATLAB installation which was used
last.

Additional information on the calling of MATLAB is available on

http://www.mathworks.com

30.7 Developing User Defined Power Electronics Models for EMT-

Simulation

PowerFactory supports various, commonly used, power electronics (PE) based devices within several
built-in simulation models. For example:
• three phase line commutated converters are supported by the Rectifier/Inverter element (ElmRec)
and the HVDC-LCC element (ElmHvdclcc);

• three phase two-level and MMC type voltage source converters are supported by the PWM
Converter element (ElmVsc);
• three phase Static Var Systems can be built using the SVS element (ElmSvs).
There are many advantages of using built-in PowerFactory models for power electronics, ranging from
the simplicity in configuration to the full support of all relevant calculation functions. Nevertheless,
for power electronics equipment which is not directly supported by the built-in models or for which
various detailed studies require access to internal model components, PowerFactory provides users
the possibility to build customisable PE equipment. There are two main options when developing a user
defined PE equipment for EMT-simulations:

• Simulation model development as a submodel of a built-in element ;

• Simulation model development as an independent EMT model (neither belonging to nor devel-
oped under any specific built-in element).
If the PE equipment is developed within a built-in element, then it can be connected to the external
power system via predefined connection ports belonging to a submodel. These ports can be either
AC or DC and correspond to the output terminals of the built-in model. In case of three-phase AC
terminals, the corresponding connection ports will be “per-phase” e.g. an ABC-N terminal will have 4
connection ports, one for each phase plus the neutral wire. This user defined PE equipment model will
be operational during EMT-simulation only. The connection ports will enable an electrical connection
between the submode and the external power system immediately after initialisation. More information
is available in Section 30.7.1.

If the PE equipment is developed outside a built-in model, then the modelling approach is standard
as with any other detailed model: individual components are added to the grid and linked such that
the topology and configuration of the model is adequately represented. The connection between the
DC components and the AC part of the model or the external power system can be done by using
the AC/DC Connector element. All PowerFactory calculation functions will be operational in such a
situation. Nevertheless, the AC/DC Connector element will link the AC and DC sides (and thus enable
an electrical connection) only within EMT simulation, immediately after initialisation. More information
is available in Section 30.7.2.

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Note: DC components are typically used for PE models - in both modelling approaches, the power
electronics dedicated components (diode, IGBT, thyristor, MMC valve, etc) are DC elements.
Therefore, the PE models are intended to use “DC” components only (nevertheless, it is not
forbidden to add AC components, if special cases require it). The PE model can afterwards be
connected to the AC power system either by directly using AC/DC Connectors in the single line
diagram (i.e. when the PE model is developed outside a built-in element) or via the connection
ports of a submodel (when the PE model is defined within a built-in element). The DC elements
of the PE model are inter-connected by using DC nodes (terminals). Make sure that the rated
voltage of the internal DC nodes is appropriately set to a common value throughout the model.

30.7.1 Model development as a submodel of a built-in element

The following built-in elements are currently supported:

• PWM Converter element (ElmVsc and ElmVscmono)
• Static Var Systems element (ElmSvs)

When developing a PE model within a built-in element make sure to assign a submodel to one of the
supported network elements. To do so, follow these steps:
• From the single line diagram, right click on the built-in element;
• From the available options, select Define → Submodel... (if the element is not supported, then
this option will not be available);

• In the Submodel selection dialog click on the “Default submodel templates” folder.
• Select the Submodel template which corresponds to the element class of the built-in element e.g.
for a PWM Converter/2 DC connections element (of class name ElmVsc) the template is named
“ElmVsc”). Click OK;

• The Edit dialog of the Submodel is displayed. Click OK;

• The Submodel single line diagram is created based on the template. The connection ports are
automatically added to the diagram (with their corresponding DC terminals). All DC terminals
have the same default voltage set to 100 kV. Make sure to change this value accordingly when
developing the model.

After the submodel creation is complete, it is possible to add to the submodel diagram all relevant DC
components by using the Drawing toolbar (if the diagram is frozen, it needs to be un-frozen in order
to add elements). Any element can be added to the diagram, nevertheless, all modelling rules and
requirements existing in the standard model creation apply to this submodel as well. A selection of
these rules is provided below:

• Elements are linked between themselves using terminals;

• DC elements connect to DC terminals only - (typically, a submodel will contain only DC elements
and terminals);
• AC elements connect to AC terminals only;

• Whenever load flow calculation is executed, the submodel and its components will be included in
the calculation (but in a disconnected state, separated from the rest of the power system). This
means that the submodel must comply with the load flow data model requirements as well.

Note: Typically, the submodel will not contain any voltage sources and hence, the submodel will
be de-energised within load flow. Whenever voltage sources exist in the submodel, then the
load flow calculation will energise the submodel and the load flow will attempt to compute a
steady state operating point. Even in this situation, the submodel is still considered as being

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disconnected from the rest of the power system. On the other hand, the built-in model is
operational and will decide the power flows on its terminals. Therefore, the built-in element
to which this Submodel is assigned to will not be influenced by the submodel’s internal
representation and will continue to operate as defined within its Load Flow configuration
page.

For example, a three-phase, three-level (3L) neutral point-clamped (NPC) inverter can be defined for
the PWM Converter element (ElmVsc) by implementing the corresponding topology using a Submodel,
as shown in Figure 30.7.1. The model is available here. The AC and DC connection ports are used
to link the internal components with the elements to which the built-in element terminals are connected
in the power system (either AC or DC power system parts, depending on the built-in element and
corresponding terminals).

Figure 30.7.1: Three-level NPC converter example

The control system is designed such that each individual IGBT is controlled via its gate signal. Since the
individual gate signal of one IGBT element is a scalar, the total number of gate signals is relatively low
i.e. 12. Consequently, the control system does not require any vectors for transferring the gate signals to
the controlled elements, having therefore a typical DSL model structure as shown in Figure 30.7.2. Note
that the Converter slot is only required when the control system is intended to support also the control of
the built-in EMT-simulation model. This can be achieved, for example, whenever the Submodel element
is set to “Out of service”. In this case, the built-in element will ignore the Submodel and make use of the
dynamic controller’s output signals (i.e. the reference voltages) in order to internally generate the gate
signals. Within the example provided the built-in element is configured as a two-level, detailed converter
model (as an alternative choice).

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Figure 30.7.2: Three-level NPC converter - control structure

30.7.2 Model development as an independent EMT model

There are cases when there are no built-in elements that support the specific PE model configuration
(e.g. AC drives with multi-phase front ends). In such cases, the alternative is to directly develop the
simulation model within the single line diagram of a grid (ElmNet). When modelling as an independent
EMT model, make sure to use the AC/DC Connectors for connecting the DC components with the AC
part of the system. To do so, follow these steps:
• Choose a grid in which the PE model is intended to be developed (for models containing a large
number of components, a separate grid could be created);
• Within the single line diagram add corresponding AC/DC Connectors (ElmAcdconnector ) from
the Drawing Toolbar. If the PE model is a three phase system, then three AC/DC Connectors are
needed. The AC and DC sides of this element are correspondingly marked.
• Connect the AC/DC Connectors between an AC and DC terminals. It is assumed that the AC
terminals correspond to the external power system part and the DC terminals to the PE model
part. In the case of a multi-phase AC terminal, make sure to select the corresponding phase with
the relevant AC/DC Connector.
• Further expand the PE model topology starting from the available DC terminals. Use the available
DC components from the drawing toolbar (e.g. diodes, IGBTs, MMC Valves, DC current and
voltage sources, DC resistances and inductances).

• Each DC component is inter-connected with another one via a DC terminal. Use an internal node
bus type (i.e. dot terminal graphical representation) whenever useful.

Note: Since the PE model is developed directly within the single line diagram of a grid, the same rules
apply regarding data consistency as with any other DC part of an electrical system. The only
difference is that the AC/DC Connector acts as an open circuit during load-flow calculation (and
any other calculation except the EMT-Simulation).

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For example, a 22 module, MMC based, STATCOM model can be represented in detail by developing
the PE model directly within the single line diagram of a grid, as shown in Figure 30.7.3.

Figure 30.7.3: Detailed MMC STATCOM example - topology in wye

In this model, the most relevant DC components are:

• MMC Valve (ElmMmcvalve) and

• AC/DC Connectors, per-phase (ElmAcdconnector ).

The MMC Valve model is configured as a full bridge, detailed model (in such a case, 4 IGBTs and a
capacitor are represented internally). The model also supports the half-bridge configuration. For both
configurations, the model can be set up either as a detailed (one single bridge), detailed equivalent
circuit (𝑛 series connected bridges, individual IGBTs and module capacitors) or aggregated (𝑛 series
connected bridges, single capacitor, controlled voltage source). For the detailed and detailed equivalent
circuit variants, the IGBTs can be controlled individually. For the detailed equivalent circuit and aggre-
gated variants, one MMC valve element can represent 𝑛 series connected half- or full-bridges. More
detailed information is available in the corresponding Technical Reference of this element.

The per-phase AC/DC Connectors (depicted as reactors on the right hand side of the diagram) can be
configured to model a resistance and/or an inductance. The arm inductance is therefore included within
the AC/DC Connectors.

The right-most terminal is an AC bus and connects the detailed STATCOM model with the upstream
AC power system (optional STATCOM transformer, supply network, etc.) - refer to Figure 30.7.4 for an
example.

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Figure 30.7.4: STATCOM’s connected upstream network

The control of the STATCOM is more elaborate (refer to Figure 30.7.5) and requires the use of vector
based signals within the corresponding Composite Model as well as a detailed PWM switching strategy
for MMCs. Therefore, besides the typical DSL control system implementation, two important compo-
nents are additionally employed:
• Pulse generator element (ElmPulsegen) and
• Vector of Objects (IntVecobj)

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Figure 30.7.5: Composite Frame of the STATCOM Controller

The Pulse generator element (refer to the configuration in Figure 30.7.6) is used to generate an accurate
set of gate signals for each MMC valve within a given arm of the STATCOM (in total three Pulse
generator elements). The input of the model is the per-phase reference arm voltage that is to be
generated at the entire arm’s connection points. The output is a vector based signal (named gate_A /
gate_B / gate_C) which, in the case at hand, has size 4 · 22 = 88. For more detailed information, please
refer to the Technical Reference of the Pulse generator element (ElmPulsegen).

Note: Although the Pulse generator element demonstrates in this example the user-defined PE mod-
elling techniques outside built-in elements, the same Pulse generator element could be used also
for generating the gate signals for either (a) user defined PE models represented inside built-in
elements or (b) the PWM Converter built-in model (ElmVsc) if configured as a detailed, Type 4
model (refer to the Technical reference of the PWM Converter for more information).

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Figure 30.7.6: Pulse generator model (built-in element) for gate signal generation

The Vector of Objects element is used to distribute the generated gate signal vector to the individual
MMC valves. The element demultiplexes the input vector into either multiple scalars or sub-vectors,
depending on the size of the source and destination signals. The source signal is the incoming signal
connected to the corresponding slot of the Vector of Objects element within the Composite Frame. The
destination signal is the input signal stated within the corresponding slot of the Vector of Objects element
within the Composite Frame. This signal name must match one of the input signals of the controlled
elements. The destination signal can be either a scalar or a vector.

In the case at hand, the following applies:

• The source signal is the vector signal 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 of the Pulse generator element having a size 4 · 22 = 88
• The destination signal is stated within the Input Signals text field of the slot assigned to the
corresponding Vector of Objects element within the Composite Frame. The signal is named 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
and it represents the input signal of the MMC Valve element, having a size 4 (the MMC Valve is
configured as a Full Bridge);
• The destination elements are programmed within the configuration dialog of the Vector of Objects
element (refer to Figure 30.7.7). Within this dialog there are 22 individual MMC Valve elements
added.
• The demultiplexing logic is as follows:
– the first destination element is the MMC Valve element named “A01”; the first 4 indexes of the
source signal 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 will be assigned (in the same order) to the destination signal 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 (which
is a vector signal of size 4) of the MMC Valve “A01”.
– the second destination element is the MMC Valve element named “A02”; indexes 5 to 8 of the
source signal 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 will be assigned (in the same order) to the destination signal 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 (which
is a vector signal of size 4) of the MMC Valve “A02”.
– the procedure continues until: (a) all destination elements have been parsed or (b) the last
index of the source signal has been reached.

Note: The order within the configuration dialog of the Vector of Objects element is important! The
demultiplexing logic parses all these objects in ascending order (i.e. first element in the table is
processed first, second element is processed afterwards, and so on). The order can be changed
using buttons up and down: select a row and then click on one of these buttons - the MMC Valve
element will consequently be moved up/down.

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Figure 30.7.7: Distribution of the gate vector signal to the individual MMC valve elements

Note: Although the Vector of Objects element demonstrates in this example the user-defined PE mod-
elling techniques outside built-in elements, the same element could be used also for distributing
the gate signals to either (a) user defined PE models represented inside built-in elements or (b)
other applications, completely unrelated to EMT-simulation of power electronics (e.g. Power Plant
Controllers dispatching individual wind turbines within an RMS-Simulation).

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Chapter 31

System Parameter Identification

31.1 Introduction

The process of parameter identification for power system elements for which certain measurements
have been made is performed with the System Parameter Identification function using the icon . The
ComIdent command object is a high performance non-linear optimisation tool, which is capable of a
multi parameter identification for one or more models, given a set of measured input and output signals.
This identification is principally performed in the following way:

• A Measurement File object (ElmFile) is created which maps the raw measured data onto one or
more measurement signals. These signals may contain measurements from the network, from
elements or response signals. The measured data can be either a text file or a result object
(ElmRes) from another simulation.
• The measurement signals can be used as inputs by models of the power system elements for
which one or more parameters have to be identified, or they may be used to control voltage or
current sources. It is also possible to excite the system with simulation events (such as parameter,
switch or short circuit events).
• The output signals of the power system elements are fed into a comparator together with the
corresponding measured signals. The comparator (ElmDiff ) is thus given the measured response
on the excitation and the simulated response of the element models.
• The comparator calculates an objective function, which is the weighted sum of the differences
between the measured and the simulated response, raised to a whole power (by default to the
power of 2).
• The ComIdent command will collect all objective functions from all comparator objects in the
currently active study case and will minimise the resulting overall objective function. To do this,
the ComIdent command is given a list of parameters which are to be identified. The objective
functions are minimised by altering these parameters.

This whole process is visualised in Figure 31.1.1.

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Figure 31.1.1: The identification principle

Of course, Figure 31.1.1 only visualises the principle of the identification. All details of the PowerFactory
identification functions are described in the following sections. Some hints on selecting the proper
algorithm are given in section 31.4. Advice in case of stagnation can be found in section 31.5.

31.2 Performing a Parameter Identification

For performing a parameter identification there are three main components needed:

• The parameter identification command

• The controls, for defining the parameters which should be optimised
• The comparison object, for calculating the objective function which should be minimised
These major components are described in the following sections. First of all the interface of the
parameter identification function is described.

The identification process is executed by the ComIdent command. This command can be opened by
the icon on the main menu. This icon can be found on the RMS/EMT Simulation toolbar which is
accessed by selecting the Change Toolbox icon ( ).

31.2.1 Basic Options

The Basic Options page allows the selection of the Identification type; there are currently two types
supported:
• Load Flow
• Simulation

The Load Flow option allows the optimisation of load flow relevant parameters based on load flow
calculations. If this option is selected then the Optimised calculation will point to the load flow command
from the study case. The Additional command will be blank.

The Simulation option allows the optimisation of any simulation relevant parameter. The simulation
method used can be either an RMS- or an EMT simulation. In this case the Optimised calculation

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will point to the Calculation of initial conditions (ComInc) dialog from the active study case. The
Additional command will point to the Run Simulation (ComSim) command from the active study case.
The commands can be accessed by pressing the arrow button ( ).

Also on the Basic Options page is the selection of the Optimisation method offered. The following
algorithms can be selected, described in detail in section 31.3:
• Particle Swarm Optimisation
• Nelder Mead

• DIRECT (dividing rectangles)

• BFGS
• Legacy (Quasi-Newton)

Below this selection it can be configured whether the modifications done by the parameter identification
command should be recorded in the existing network (with its active variations and operation scenarios)
or in a new variation. It is important to note that the parameter identification command can modify any
numerical value in the active project. This includes also type data which is out of the range of the
variation recording (as long as the type is not stored in the grid). Using the option Create new Variation
can fail to record the modification if an operation scenario was active and the changed parameter
belongs to the operational data!

Finally on the Basic Options page, the Maximum number of iterations and the Maximum number of
objective function evaluations (not for the Legacy method) can be entered. These are the two major
stopping criteria. A refined configuration for the stopping criteria can be done on the Stopping criteria
page, as described in section 31.2.8. The parameters are also described in this section.

31.2.2 Controls / Compared Signals

The page Controls / Compared Signals offers access to the controls and the comparison object(s). The
controls define which parameter from which object will be identified. The comparison object calculates
the objective function signal which will then be minimised by the ComIdent.

Control A new Control can be created by pressing the button Add new control. This will then show
a new control of the type IntIdentctrl. At first an Element has to be selected. This can be any object
which has an impact on the calculation results (either load flow or dynamic simulation, depending on
the selected calculation type). After this the name of the parameter has to be entered. For some object
classes (such as ElmDsl) a drop down list with the available parameters is displayed; for other elements
the parameter name has to be entered manually. The parameter name can be found by opening the
object and then hovering the mouse pointer over the input field. The parameter name will be shown in a
balloon text. After entering the correct parameter name the actual value of this parameter is displayed
below the input field.

The optimisation can be improved by entering Constraints. After ticking the checkboxes the Lower
bound can be entered, which has to be smaller than the initial value of the selected parameter. The
Upper bound has to be larger than the initial value of the selected parameter.

Some of the algorithms can make use of a Mesh size definition (see section 31.3 for algorithm details).
Select for this the option User defined mesh size and enter a proper value for the Mesh size.

Each control has also the out of service option. The control will be ignored if this checkbox is selected.

All defined Controls can be displayed by pressing the button Show and edit controls in the ComIdent.
This will display a compact list with all existing Controls. The data can be modified like in the Data
Manager by selecting whole columns. New Control objects can be defined by pressing the “New Object”
button .

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Comparison Object The objective function value (i.e. the cumulated difference between measured
data and simulated data) is calculated inside a Comparison object of the class ElmDiff. At least one
comparison object is required for the execution of the System Parameter Identification command. A
new ElmDiff can be created by pressing the button Create new comparison object. This will open a
selection window for the location. An active grid (or any sub folder) has to be selected as location. The
System Parameter Identification command will not consider the ElmDiff if it is stored outside the active
grid!

The comparison object can be set out of service on the Basic Options page. Also an exponent can be
entered to weight the objective function. The Simulation page allows to enter pairs of signals which will
be used for the objective function calculation. A new pair can be added by right clicking into free space
and then selecting Append Row(s). In each row two elements have to be selected. For each element
the signal has to be defined which is used for comparison. The signal cell will show a drop down list
after selecting the element. For some elements it is possible to manually overwrite the signal name (this
may be necessary if the proper signal was not displayed in the drop down field). After defining a signal
pair, which consists usually of a measured and a simulated signal, a weight has to be entered into the
last column. This allows an individual weighting of the different signals. Entering a zero will exclude this
signal pair from the objective function calculation.

In the lower section of the Simulation page a Weighting signal can be connected. This will allow a
time dependent weighting of the objective function signal. Via this it is possible to exclude sections of
the simulation or to emphasise other parts. Select for this an Element which has the weighting signal
as output. This is typically either a custom common model or a measurement file object (ElmFile).
Then enter the name of the Signal. The measurement file object can either connect measured data
(COMTRADE or measurement file format) or it can read from another result object (ElmRes).
The option Backward initialisation of signals can help to solve initialisation issues if the simulation model
requires the compared signal for initialisation. In this case the simulated signal has to be connected as
Element 2 / Signal 2. With the option Backward initialisation of signals enabled the initial value from
Signal 1 will be available on Signal 2 for initialisation.

The Load flow page of the comparison object is very similar to the Simulation page. The major
difference is that the load flow identification has no time relation. Therefore there is also - beside the
definition via signals in the lower section - the possibility to directly enter a Comparison with reference
value. For this only the simulated signal has to be selected via Element and then Signal. The measured
value can be directly entered as Reference value.
It is important to note that only some elements which are considered for load flow calculation should
be selected on this page. Selecting a common model will result in an error. The measurement file
object (ElmFile) can also be used; remember in this case to enter a proper Load Flow Time in the
measurement file element on the load flow page.

The objective function 𝑒 for load flow is calculated as the sum of powers of the absolute errors:

𝑛
∑︁
𝑒= |(𝑚𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 )𝑤𝑖 |𝑝 . (31.1)
𝑖=1

The objective function 𝑒 for simulation is calculated as the time integral over the sum of powers of the
absolute errors:

∫︁ 𝑛
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∑︁
𝑒= |(𝑚𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑐𝑖 (𝑡))𝑤𝑖 |𝑝 𝑑𝑡. (31.2)
𝑡0 𝑖=1

where

• 𝑚𝑖 is the measured response (e.g. Signal 1)

• 𝑐𝑖 the simulated response (e.g. Signal 2)
• 𝑤𝑖 is the weighting factor (i.e. for the difference signal nr. 1)

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• 𝑝 is the power

31.2.3 PSO (Particle Swarm Optimisation)

The options on this page will be displayed if the proper Optimisation Method was selected on the Basic
Options page. For details about the algorithm and the associated options see section 31.3.2.

31.2.4 Nelder Mead

The options on this page will be displayed if the proper Optimisation Method was selected on the Basic
Options page. For details about the algorithm and the associated options see section 31.3.3.

31.2.5 DIRECT (DIviding RECTangle)

The options on this page will be displayed if the proper Optimisation Method was selected on the Basic
Options page. For details about the algorithm and the associated options see section 31.3.4.

31.2.6 Random Number Generation

The options on this page will be displayed if the proper Optimisation Method was selected on the Basic
Options page.

Algorithm: Where needed, random numbers are generated using a pseudorandom number generator.
It accepts a so-called seed. This is an integer used to initialise the internal state of the generator. Same
seeds lead to the same pseudorandom number sequences the generator produces. Therefore, a seed
should be set if one wants reproducible results.

Parameters:
Seeding type: Two options: automatic and user defined. If automatic, a random seed will be drawn. If
user defined is selected the number given in the following parameter will be used to seed the random
number generator.

Seed: Used as a seed for the random number generator if user defined. Should be set if results must
be reproducible.

31.2.7 Gradient Calculation

The option on this page will be displayed if a gradient based Optimisation Method was selected on the
Basic Options page.

Algorithm: Let 𝑒𝑖 ∈ R𝑑 be the i-th canonical base vector of 𝑅𝑑 , i.e. 𝑒1 = (1, 0, 0, ...), 𝑒2 = (0, 1, 0,...), ...

31.2.7.1 Forward Differences

Partial derivatives are calculated by the formula

𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑒𝑖 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝜕𝑖 𝑓 (𝑥) ≈ (31.3)
𝛿
with a small 𝛿 > 0.
For calculation of the gradient, this requires 𝑑 + 1 function evaluations.

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31.2.7.2 Centered Differences

Partial derivatives are calculated by the formula

𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑒𝑖 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝛿𝑒𝑖 )
𝜕𝑖 𝑓 (𝑥) ≈ . (31.4)
2𝛿
This is more accurate than the forward differences, but also needs more function evaluations: For
calculation of the gradient, this requires 2𝑑 function evaluations.

Parameters:

Method for the numeric calculation of gradient (on page Gradient calculation): Forward or Centered
Differences according to the above description.

31.2.8 Stopping Criteria

Algorithm: The solvers will stop their iterations as soon as one of the stop criteria is satisfied. “As
soon as” thereby means “at the end of an iteration, as soon as they are satisfied”.

Parameters: The following parameters for stopping criteria can be set for all solvers.

Maximum number of iterations: Self explaining. For the Legacy solver, this equals the maximum
number of function evaluations.

Maximum number of objective function evaluations: The most important parameter for how long
the solver will run. It translates much more directly to execution time than the maximum number of
iterations because the number of evaluations made in one iteration differs a lot, depending on the solver
and/or dimension.

Target objective value: If the solver finds an objective value ≤ this threshold, it will stop and return this
value as the optimum.

Minimal improvement in given number of iterations: Requirements for the minimum progress the
solver has to make may be defined here.

Number of iterations The number of iterations considered for the two following options may be speci-
fied here: Let 𝑁 denote this number of iterations.

Minimal absolute improvement of objective value: Min. abs. improvement of values since 𝑁
iterations.

Minimal relative improvement towards target objective value: Similar to the previous one, but
relative: Since 𝑁 iterations, the distance to the target value specified in the parameter Target objective
value must have decreased by this fraction.

31.2.9 Output

The Output page of the ComIdent allows a fine tuning of the information which will be written to the
output window during the execution. It enables the user to configure recording in a result object (class
ElmRes). The output window information can be controlled via the output per iteration options:

• Off: No information will be written to the output window

• Short: With this option, only the current iteration number together with the objective value (summed
output of all ElmDiff ) will be written to the output window.
• Detailed: With this option, the output of the calculation command used (load flow or dynamic
simulation) will also be written into the output window. This can result in a lot of data, especially if

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the simulation is running into convergence issues.

For the second and third choice is also the option output choice of parameters available. If this option
is ticked then the currently used set of parameters (see section 31.2.2) is also printed to the output
window.

The option record iterations will create a new result object (class ElmRes) with the name Parameter
Identification which is located in the currently active study case. The result object will contain one row
per iteration of the ComIdent. The columns will contain the following data for the ComIdent:
• Evaluation (b:eval)
• Iteration (b:iter)

• Failed calculation (b:failedCalc)

• Objective function value (b:objectiveValue)
• Best objective function value (b:bestObjective)
• Iteration with best objective value (b:iterBestObjective)

• Evaluation with best objective value (b:evalBestObjective)

The result object will also record the parameters used for each evaluation.

The recorded data can either be used for showing the convergence of the identification process in a plot
(select for this the result object in the first column in the plot configuration) or it can be used for further
scripted analysis. Exporting the data via the ComRes is of course also supported.

31.3 Algorithms

31.3.1 Problem Description

The goal of parameter identification is to find (global) minima of functions 𝑓 : Ω → R under the following
circumstances:
∏︀𝑑
• The domain Ω of 𝑓 is a bounded or unbounded box R𝑑 ⊇ Ω = 𝑅𝑑 ∩ 𝑖=1 [𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ] with −∞ ≤ 𝑎𝑖 <
𝑏𝑖 ≤ +∞.
• 𝑓 can be evaluated in arbitrary points 𝑥 ∈ Ω.
• No properties of 𝑓 are known, including information about continuity and differentiability, convexity,
number of local minima, etc. In particular, the gradient of 𝑓 is not available analytically.

User input:
• A starting point 𝑥0 ∈ Ω
• Optional: a “suggested mesh size” (one per dimension). It can be seen as the minimum resolution
at which one sees all relevant features of the function, or the inverse of the factor that the
dimension has to be multiplied with in order to have “normal” length scales.

Some solvers may rely on properties like differentiability of 𝑓 ; however, these are not guaranteed.

31.3.2 Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO)

Particle Swarm Optimisation uses a set of particles evaluating the objective function while moving
around in the search space. The movement of the particles is influenced by

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1. their current velocity,

2. their memory of the best location they have found so far,
3. knowledge about good locations found by other particles they are in contact with.
These three criteria are weighted (including some randomness of the weights). There exist various
communication patterns for point 3 leading to the different topologies supported in PowerFactory .
Additionally, special events are supported, such as beaming of particles.

Algorithm: Particle Swarm Optimisation operates with a cloud of points - the particles - that are
scattered over the search space and move in it as a swarm, i.e. they communicate with each other
about where to go in order to find small function values.
Nomenclature: Let 𝑥𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏 be the location where the so far best function value was seen. Let accordingly
𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑖 be the best value that particle 𝑖 has seen by itself, and 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑐
𝑖 be the best location that the particles,
with which particle 𝑖 communicates, have seen. Depending on the exact variant of the algorithm, this
can be different groups of particles, ranging from a few to all other particles (in which case these are
equal to the global best location). Let finally 𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 be the current position of particle 𝑖, and 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑟 it’s
velocity, i.e. the displacement since the previous iteration.

The algorithm:

Initialise the swarm, then iterate the following loop until stopped:
1. Particles communicate with each other, i.e. their information about objective function values of
neighbours are updated according to the communication strategy used.
2. The particles move to their next locations, i.e. the 𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 and 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑟 are updated.
3. Evaluation of the objective function at the new particle locations.
4. One or more special events may be triggered.
Communication strategies:
• Ring: Each particle has two neighbours such that the communication topology becomes cyclic.
• Stochastic Star: Every particle communicates with every other particle. At each iteration, each
particle decides randomly and independently, for which dimensions it wants to ”listen“.
• Communication via reference set: A reference set of locations is maintained. Particles commu-
nicate via the reference set.

Moving strategies:
• Standard: Let 𝑤𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 , 𝑤𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 , 𝑤𝑙𝑜𝑐 and 𝑤𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏 be different weights. Then the update of the next
position of the particles is given by:
𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 = 𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 + 𝑤𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 * 𝑢𝑖1 · 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑟
+ 𝑤𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 * 𝑢𝑖2 · (𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑖 − 𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 )

+ 𝑤𝑙𝑜𝑐 * 𝑢𝑖3 · (𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟

𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 )

+ 𝑤𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏 * 𝑢𝑖4 · (𝑥𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏

𝑖 − 𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑖 ),

for all particles 𝑖, where 𝑢1 to 𝑢4 are random numbers drawn uniformly from the unit interval (0,1).
• Cyber Swarm: Similar to the standard moving strategy. However, a reference set of locations is
maintained and this information is used for the update of the locations of the moving particles.

Special events: Beam particles to randomly chosen new locations if some given criteria are satisfied.

Parameters:

PSO Variant Three main types are available:

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• Ring:
– Ring communication strategy
– Standard moving strategy
• Stochastic Star:
– Stochastic star communication strategy
– Standard moving strategy
• Cyber Swarm:
– Communication via reference set
– Cyber swarm moving strategy

Number of particles The number of particles may be automatic or user-defined. In case of “Automatic”,
the algorithm calculates a reasonable number of particles for the problem under consideration. User
defined can be any number ≥ 2, but numbers smaller than 10 or larger than 60 should not be chosen
without a special reason.

Movement of particles The following parameters define the weights for the moving strategies.

Weight for momentum The weight for the momentum, i.e. the current velocity, in the moving step. It is
best to be chosen between 0 and 1.

Weight for personal best result The weight for the personal best. If modified it should best be not
larger than 3.

Weight for local best The weight for the local best locations, which are the main guiding solutions in
the Ring and the Stochastic Star variant. If modified it may be chosen best not larger than 5.

Weight for global best (Only for the Cyber Swarm variant) The weight for the global best solution. This
is the best member of the reference set. Suitable choices like for Weight for local best.

Beaming strategy Settings for the beaming events:

Beam particle after n iterations without improvement. n = Maximum number of successive itera-
tions in which a particle doesn’t improve its personal best, until it is beamed to another location.

Beam all after m iterations without improvement. m = Maximum number of successive iterations in
which the global best value ever seen by the whole swarm - 𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏 - is not improved. After this, the whole
swarm is scattered again around in the search space by beaming all particles to new locations.

Number of evaluations for the exploration of valleys If > 0, the beaming trajectory is scanned for
possible still unexplored side valleys, and this number of function evaluations is used to try to walk
further down into these side valleys. A number of 0 here means that the particles will just be beamed to
their new locations.

Cyber Swarm Configuration Two parameters to modify the maintenance of the reference set for the
cyber swarm algorithm.

Weight for quality in reference set This is the weight for the criterion “quality”, i.e. low function values,
for the maintenance of the reference set. The other criterion is “diversity”, i.e. distance between the
members of the reference set.

Cardinality of reference set The size of the reference set.

31.3.3 Nelder Mead

Algorithm: First, the initial simplex is constructed around the starting point, resulting in 𝑑 + 1 points
called the vertices of the simplex. The objective function is evaluated at the points, i.e. at the vertices
of the simplex. Then the iterations are done as follows:

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1. Check if simplex is collapsed and has to be restarted or if a linesearch has to be performed.

2. Sort the values of the simplex vertices.
3. Calculate the gravitational centre of the face opposite to the worst point (which is a (𝑑 − 1)-
dimensional simplex itself). Call it 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 .
4. Reflect the worst point at 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 and evaluate:

𝑥𝑟 := 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 + 𝜚 · (𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 − 𝑥𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 ); 𝑓𝑟 := 𝑓 (𝑥𝑟 ). (31.5)

𝜚 is a fixed value.
5. If 𝑓𝑟 is better than the best vertex of the simplex, expand further -

𝑥𝑒 := 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 + 𝜉 · 𝜚 · (𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 − 𝑥𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 ); 𝑓𝑒 := 𝑓 (𝑥𝑒 ) (31.6)

with 𝜉 some given value - and replace the previously worst vertex by the better point among
{𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥𝑒 } and go to step 1.
6. If 𝑓𝑟 was still better than the second best vertex replace the previously worst vertex by it and go to
step 1.
7. if 𝑓𝑟 was at least better than the previously worst vertex, calculate an outer reflection point -

𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 := 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 + 𝛾 · (𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 − 𝑥𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 ); 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 := 𝑓 (𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (31.7)

with 𝛾 some given value - and replace the previously worst vertex by the better point among
{𝑥𝑟 , 𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 } and go to step 1.
8. If 𝑓𝑟 was not even better than the previously worst vertex, calculate an inner reflection point -

𝑥𝑖𝑛 := 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 + 𝛾 · (𝑥𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑡 − 𝑥𝑜𝑝𝑝 ); 𝑓𝑖𝑛 := 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖𝑛 ). (31.8)

If now at least this brought an improvement in comparison to the worst vertex, replace the latter
one by 𝑥𝑖𝑛 and go to step 1.

9. If not, shrink the simplex towards its best vertex, i.e. vertex 𝑥𝑖 is replaced with 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎 · (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 )
with 𝜎 some given value.
Behaviour in case of simplex collapse: If the simplex shrinks too much, it may be restarted. For
restart its extents are multiplied by a factor. It may additionally be rotated in a uniformly random fashion.

Linesearches: Linesearches may be triggered when specific conditions are met. The direction of the
linesearch has two contributions:
1. Gradient of the simplex.
2. The displacements from one point in the history to the next one.

These contributions are then weighted according to the settings and added.

Parameters:

Restart in case of simplex collapse Whether to restart it when it collapses or just to end the optimi-
sation. Collapsing might mean that the solver found a local minimum, especially in low dimensions. In
general, though, it is advisable to activate this, as it can get the simplex out of local minima (and stopping
in higher dimensions (more than 5 or so) often doesn’t even mean that there was a local minimum).

If no improvement since last restart, expand simplex Whether or not to expand the simplex when
repeatedly restarted from the same point. Recommended to activate.

by a factor of The factor by which the simplex extents are multiplied. A negative value is advised to
mirror the simplex and look into other directions.

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Rotate it in a random fashion at every restart Whether or not to rotate the simplex upon restart. This
is considered more explorative than constructing it just along the coordinate directions. For settings of
random number generation: see section 31.2.6.

Linesearches in moving direction (recommended in dimensions >= 20) Whether or not to perform
the above described linesearch-add-on. In high dimensions, this can be useful, because the simplex
spends more time finding a good direction rather than moving into it. The linesearch can then detect
this moving direction and go directly into it. In lower dimensions, though, the simplex moves quite well
on its own.

Trigger linesearch after given number of improvements... One of the possible conditions to trigger
linesearch.

... or after N iterations without improvement. N = Further possible condition to trigger linesearch.

Required effectiveness compared to previous simplex search Quantity determining the effect of the
linesearch on the simplex displacement.

Weight of simlex based gradient for search direction Weight, with which the gradient of the simplex
enters the direction of the linesearch.

31.3.4 DIRECT

The method “DIviding RECTangles” natively works on bounded domains, evaluating the function at
the nodes of a hyperrectangle grid covering the search space, and iteratively refining this grid in the
“potentially optimal” regions. If the function is known to be Lipschitz continuous, the potentially optimal
hyperrectangles in an iteration can be identified based on the function evaluations prior to that iteration.

Algorithm: This implements the DIRECT algorithm from

Lipschitzian Optimization Without the Lipschitz Constant

by Jones, Perttunen and Stuckman,
(Journal of Optimization Theory and Application, Vol 79, No. 1, October 1993)

It begins by normalising the search space into the hypercube [0,1]𝑑 . The transformation is affine
linear, except in case of unbounded domains. The solver evaluates at the centre of the hypercube
as initialisation of the following iteration loop:
1. Determine the set of potentially optimal (hyper)rectangles. A rectangle is potentially optimal if
there exists an 𝐿 > 0 such that, if this 𝐿 is assumed to be the lipschitz constant of 𝑓 , based on
the function values on the rectangle centres, this rectangle contains the point where the smallest
function value is still possible (based on centre value and rectangle diameter).

2. Select from these rectangles the ones that promise a relative improvement of the currently known
best function value of at least 𝜀 > 0 (assuming the respective lipschitz constant), i.e. the ones that
satisfy
𝑓𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 − 𝜀 · |𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 |. (31.9)

3. In each of these rectangles, evaluate the function on new centre points: these centre points
are those found by going one third of the rectangle length in the coordinate axis directions on
those coordinates along which the rectangle is longest (so these are between 2 and 2d points per
rectangle).
4. Subdivide the rectangles along the dimension determined in the previous step. There often is a
choice on how to subdivide them (for example, a square can be divided into thirds horizontally or
vertically). In those cases, subdivision is done such that the biggest subrectangles will contain
the best function values found in the previous step. (This is because they will be more likely to be
further examined in the future because of a larger diameter)

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Parameters:
Minimal relative improvement for potential optimality This is the 𝜀 in the algorithm above. Bigger
values emphasize global search more, smaller values make the solver focus more on exploitation of
good regions it already found.

31.3.5 BFGS

Algorithm: A limited memory variant is provided. The algorithm maintains an approximation 𝐻 of the
Hessian matrix and works in the following way:

𝐻0 = 1𝑑×𝑑 (identity matrix)

𝑠𝑛 = − 𝐻∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛+1 = result of linesearch in direction 𝑠𝑛
1
𝜚𝑛 =
⟨∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛+1 ) − ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 ⟩
(︁ )︁
𝐻𝑛+1 = 𝐻𝑛 − 𝜚𝑛 (𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 )(∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛+1 ) − ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 ))𝑇 𝐻𝑛
(︀ )︀(︀ )︀𝑇
+ 𝐻𝑛 ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛+1 ) − ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛
(︂⟨ )︂
⟩ 1 (︀ )︀𝑇
+ 𝜚2𝑛
)︀(︀
∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛+1 ) − ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 ), 𝐻𝑛 (∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛+1 ) − ∇𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )) + 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛
𝜚𝑛

Before the linesearch, though, it is checked whether 𝜕𝑠𝑛 𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 ) < 0 (so if there is expected decrease). If
not, 𝐻𝑛 is reset to the identity matrix.

Parameters: Settings for gradient calculation, see 31.2.7.

31.3.6 Legacy (Quasi-Newton)

Algorithm: This solver exists mainly for legacy reasons; it was the only available algorithm in older
PowerFactory versions and implements a version of the Quasi-Newton method.

Parameters: No parameters to set.

31.4 What solver should I pick? (Pros and Cons of the different
solvers)

The following subsections give a description of the strong and the weak points of the solvers:

31.4.1 PSO - Particle Swarm Optimisation

PSO is quite a robust solver that optimises relatively well on a large variety of problems. It is therefore
a good choice if you don’t know much about your optimisation problem. In case of “easy” problems,
though (for instance, convex functions), gradient based solvers like BFGS will probably be faster in
convergence to the optimum.

31.4.2 Nelder-Mead

Also a relatively robust solver when the restarting option is active (on by default), and is especially good
in low dimensions. In dimensions above 20, performance decreases noticeably, though.

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31.4.3 DIRECT

This is a global optimiser, which means that with a sufficient number of function evaluations, it will find
the global optimum in the specified bounds. However, the needed number of function evaluations can
be very high, especially in high dimensions, or if the bounds are set unnecessarily wide (or the mesh
size too big). It is therefore a good choice for a thorough examination of the search space when you are
sure about reasonable bounds and you can afford doing many function evaluations, but other solvers
get stuck in local minima. Another possibility is to run DIRECT with a moderate number of function
evaluations, and then start another, more local solver with the resulting parameters as the starting
point.

31.4.4 BFGS

This gradient-based solver is fast on “easy” problems like convex, differentiable functions, and perfor-
mance decrease in high dimensions is relatively moderate. However, it does not handle well functions
with a “rougher surface”, i.e. functions that have many local minima and/or discontinuities, piecewise
constant functions, etc.

31.4.5 Legacy (Quasi-Newton)

Another gradient-based solver, provided mainly for backward compatibility. Offers optimisation in di-
mensions ≤ 49 only. For higher dimensions and the general case, take one of the above.

31.5 What can I do if a solver has difficulties in finding good

parameters?

Obviously, relaxing your stopping criteria (such as allowing more iterations and function evaluations)
potentially leads to better optimisation results.
The major possibility that you have when a solver has difficulties in the optimisation, though, is to try a
different solver. They are quite different in their approaches, so a problem that challenges one solver
might be solved with less effort by another one. See also section 31.4.
In addition, here is an overview of what could be good ideas if you keep the same solver:

31.5.1 PSO - Particle Swarm Optimisation

As PSO is stochastic, it might yield better function values already when restarted with a different random
seed. You can also try a different starting point for the optimisation. Another idea is to increase
the beaming frequency by entering smaller values for the parameters “Beam particle after n iterations
without improvement. n = ” and “Beam all after m iterations without improvement. m = ” and a larger
one for “Number of evaluations for the exploration of valleys”. This can allow the swarm to jump out
of local minima again. Alternatively, you might also want to try a different PSO variant, like the Cyber
Swarm, that searches more slowly, but also more thoroughly.

31.5.2 Nelder Mead

Nelder-Mead is sensitive to its starting point, so you could try a different one.
In general, make sure the restarting option is active, unless your problem is low-dimensional and you
just want to walk down into the nearest local minimum. If you are unsure if your suggested mesh size is
reasonable, start with a small one and set the parameter “If no improvement since last restart, expand

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simplex by a factor of” to a larger value, like 10.0 or 15.0.

If you optimise in higher dimensions (more than 10 or 20), you can try enabling the “Linesearches in
moving direction” option with its settings.

31.5.3 DIRECT

DIRECT crucially depends on reasonable bounds and mesh sizes: If a parameter has lower and upper
bounds specified, the solver thoroughly examines the range between them, so giving an unnecessarily
wide range slows the solver down significantly. If a parameter is unbounded below or above (or totally
unbounded), the solver examines the area around the starting value most intensively, with the intensity
of the examination decreasing exponentially with distance to the starting point. The radius of intensive
search then depends linearly from the suggested mesh size, so again, reasonable values here are very
helpful to the solver.
If you optimise in high dimensions, be aware that DIRECT, as a global optimiser, is necessarily relatively
slow. You might run it a little and then switch to another, more local solver (see section 31.4).

31.5.4 BFGS

If the solver stopped by itself (i.e. not by the stopping criteria you gave, such as maximum number
of function evaluations), you most likely found a local minimum of the function. Restarting the solver
then does not make sense. What you can do is try a different starting point for the optimisation, or pick
another solver.

31.5.5 Legacy

Try a different starting point or pick another solver. Lbfgs and Bfgs, for example, are similar algorithms,
but often more accurate.

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Chapter 32

Modal Analysis / Eigenvalue

Calculation

The Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis calculates the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a dynamic multi-machine
system including all controllers and power plant models. This calculation can be completed at the
beginning of a transient simulation or at a time step when the simulation is stopped. Note that some-
times in the literature Modal Analysis is referred to as Eigenvalue Calculation or Small Signal Stability.
Throughout this chapter the calculation will generally be referred to as Modal Analysis.

This chapter provides a brief background on the theory of Modal Analysis, followed by a detailed
explanation on how to complete such an analysis in PowerFactory. The various methods of analysing
the results are also presented.

32.1 Theory of Modal Analysis

The calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is the most powerful tool for oscillatory stability studies.
When doing such a study, it is highly recommended to first compute the “natural” system oscillation
modes. These are the oscillation modes of the system when all controller and power plant models
are deactivated so every synchronous machine will have constant turbine power and constant excita-
tion voltage. After determining these ’natural’ modes, the effects of controllers (structure, gain, time
constants etc.) and other models can be investigated.

After the initial conditions have been calculated successfully, which means that all time-derivatives of
the state variables should be zero (the system is in steady state), or the simulation has been stopped
at a point in time, the modal analysis calculates the complete system A-matrix (or at least a selection of
it) using numerical, iterative algorithms. The representation of the electrodynamic network model can
either be symmetrical or unsymmetrical, depending on the choice of a balanced or unbalanced RMS
simulation.

The computation time for the Modal Analysis is approximately proportional to the number of state space
variables to the power of three. Considering, that most power system objects and models will contain at
least several states (perhaps up to a dozen or more for some complex controllers), the calculation time
can rapidly increase as the size of the system being considered increases. For this reason, alternative
methods for calculating the system eigenvalues and eigenvectors must be used when the system grows
very large. PowerFactory supports two types of analysis methods.

A multi-machine system exhibits oscillatory stability if all conjugate complex eigenvalues making up
the rotor oscillations have negative real parts. This means that they lie in the left complex half-plane.
Electro–mechanical oscillations for each generator are then damped.

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More formally, assuming that one of the conjugate complex pair of eigenvalues is given by:

𝜆𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑖 (32.1)

then the oscillatory mode will be stable, if the real part of the eigenvalue is negative

𝜎𝑖 < 0 (32.2)

The period and damping of this mode are given by:

2·𝜋
𝑇𝑖 = (32.3)
𝜔𝑖

(︂ )︂
1 𝐴𝑛
𝑑𝑖 = −𝜎𝑖 = · ln (32.4)
𝑇𝑝 𝐴𝑛+1

where 𝐴𝑛 and 𝐴𝑛+1 are amplitudes of two consecutive swing maxima or minima respectively.

The oscillatory frequencies of local generator oscillations are typically in the range of 0.5 to 5 Hz. Higher
frequency natural oscillations (those that are not normally regulated), are often damped to a greater
extent than slower oscillations. The oscillatory frequency of the between areas (inter-area) oscillations
is normally a factor of 5 to 20 times lower than that of the local generator oscillations.

The absolute contribution of an individual generator to the oscillation mode which has been excited as
a result of a disturbance can be calculated by:

𝑛
⃗ =
∑︁
𝜔(𝑡) 𝑐𝑖 · 𝜑⃗𝑖 · 𝑒𝜆𝑖 ·𝑡 (32.5)
𝑖=1

where:
⃗
𝜔(𝑡) generator speed vector
𝜆𝑖 i’th eigenvalue
𝜑⃗𝑖 i’th right eigenvector
𝑐𝑖 magnitude of excitation of the i’th mode of the system (at
t=0) (depending on the disturbance)
𝑛 number of conjugate complex eigenvalues (i.e. number of
generators - 1)

In the following c is set to the unit vector, i.e. c = [1, ..., 1], which corresponds to a theoretical disturbance
which would equally excite all generators with all natural resonance frequencies simultaneously.

The elements of the eigenvectors Φ𝑖 then represents the mode shape of the eigenvalue i and shows the
relative activity of a state variable, when a particular mode is excited. For example, the speed amplitudes
of the generators when an eigenfrequency is excited, whereby those generators with opposite signs in
Φ𝑖 oscillate in opposite phase.

The right eigenvectors Φ𝑖 can thus be termed the “observability vectors”. The left eigenvectors Ψ𝑖
measures the activity of a state variable x in the i-th mode, thus the left eigenvectors can be termed the
“relative contribution vectors”.

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Normalisation is done by assigning the generator with the greatest amplitude contribution the relative
contribution factor 1 or -1 respectively.

For a n-machine power system, n-1 generator oscillation modes will exist and n-1 conjugate complex
pairs of eigenvalues 𝜆𝑖 will be found. The mechanical speed 𝜔 of the n generators will then be described
by:

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
𝜔1 𝜑11 𝜑21 𝜑𝑛1
⎢ 𝜔2 ⎥ 𝜑12 ⎥ 𝜑22 ⎥ 𝜑𝑛2 ⎥
⎥ · 𝑒𝜆1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 · ⎢ ⎥ · 𝑒𝜆2 𝑡 + . . . + 𝑐2 · ⎢ ⎥ · 𝑒𝜆𝑛 𝑡
⎢ ⎢ ⎢
⎣ · · · ⎦ = 𝑐1 · ⎣ (32.6)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
··· ⎦ ⎣ ··· ⎦ ⎣ ··· ⎦
𝜔𝑛 𝜑1𝑛 𝜑2𝑛 𝜑𝑛𝑛

The problem of using the right or left eigenvectors for analysing the participation of a generator in
a particular mode i is the dependency on the scales and units of the vector elements. Hence the
eigenvectors Φ𝑖 and Ψ𝑖 are combined to a matrix P of participation factor by:

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
𝑃1𝑖 𝜑1𝑖 · Ψ𝑖1
⎢ 𝑃2𝑖 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜑2𝑖 · Ψ𝑖2 ⎥
𝑃𝑖 = ⎢
⎣ ··· ⎦ = ⎣
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (32.7)
··· ⎦
𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝜑𝑛𝑖 · Ψ𝑖𝑛

The elements of the matrix 𝑝𝑖𝑗 are called the participation factors. They give a good indication of the
general system dynamic oscillation pattern. They can be used to determine the location of eventually
needed stabilising devices to influence the system damping efficiently. Furthermore, the participation
factor is normalised so that the sum for any mode is equal to 1.

The participation factors can be calculated not only for the generator speed variables, but for all variables
listed in Table 32.1.1.

Name Unit Description

s:speed p.u. Speed
s:phi rad Rotor-angle
s:psie p.u. Excitation-Flux
s:psiD p.u. Flux in D-winding
s:psix p.u. Flux in x-winding
s:psiQ p.u. Flux in Q-winding

Table 32.1.1: Variables accessible for eigenvalue calculation

When are modal analysis results valid?

A modal analysis can be started when a steady-state condition is reached in a dynamic calculation.
Normally, such a state is reached following a load-flow calculation, followed by a calculation of initial
conditions. However, it is also possible to do a balanced/unbalanced RMS simulation and start a modal
analysis after the end of a simulation or during a simulation when you have manually stopped it.

Although, the modal analysis can be executed at any time in a transient simulation it is not recommended
that you do so when the system is not in a quasi-steady state. This is because each modal analysis is
only valid for a unique system operating point. Furthermore, the theory behind modal analysis shows
that the results are only valid for ’small’ perturbations of the system. So although you can complete
a modal analysis during a large system transient, the results obtained would change significantly if
the analysis was repeated a short time step later when the operating point of the system would be
significantly different.

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32.2 How to Execute a Modal Analysis

The Modal Analysis command may be initiated by:

1. Using the toolbar selection button to choose the Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis toolbar.
2. Selecting the Calculation → Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis option from the main menu.

To quickly complete the modal analysis and capture all eigenvalues using the default options, one can
press Execute in the subsequent dialog box and the calculation will start. All the options for the Modal
Analysis command are explained in the following sections.

Internal Calculation Procedure

When executing the Modal Analysis command by pressing Execute, the configured simulation state will
be used or recalculated (depending on the configuration settings). Then the modal analysis constructs
a system matrix from the load-flow and the dynamic data. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are
calculated directly from that matrix. During this process, PowerFactory automatically linearises all
relevant power system models.

32.3 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Command

Within this section, the configuration settings of the Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis command are described,
based on their appearance in the command dialog.

32.3.1 Basic Options

32.3.1.1 Calculation method

QR/QZ-Method: Use the QR/QZ eigenvalue calculation method. Further configuration options are
provided within the Algorithm page (refer to section 32.3.2).

Note: The QR method is the “standard” method used in power system analysis. This method, originally
developed by J.G.F Francis, can compute eigenvalues of widely differing magnitudes for
higher-order systems. The QZ algorithm, on the other hand, is a numerically backward stable
method for computing generalised eigenvalues problems. Both methods calculate all of the
system’s eigenvalues.

Selective method(Arnoldi/Lanczos): Use the Selective method for eigenvalue calculation. The Selec-
tive method can be configured in further detail via the available options within this dialog (see information
provided in section 32.3.1.3) and via the Algorithm page (refer to section 32.3.2).

Note: The Selective method (known as the Arnoldi/Lanczos method) only calculates a subset of the
system’s eigenvalues based on various constraints related with a particular reference point. This
method is often used in very large systems, where the use of either QR or QZ methods could be
very time consuming. The Selective method is especially useful if the user knows the target area
of interest for the eigenvalues.

32.3.1.2 Operating Point for Calculation

Use current time in active simulation: If a simulation has already been executed, then apply this
option in order to use the system state at the current simulation time as basis for the eigenvalue

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calculation.

Note: Various system states can be obtained depending on the active simulation:
• If only the Calculation of initial conditions command has been executed, then the system
state used will be the one at initialisation;
• If a simulation is run until time 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑚 , the system state will be chosen at that particular time.
In all cases, a correct calculation of the eigenvalues can be done only if the system state is in an
equilibrium point, whereas all transients should have already been extinguished.

Recalculate initial conditions: The system state used for the calculation is obtained by executing a
pre-configured Calculation of initial conditions command. The command is provided as reference link
next to this option and can be modified accordingly.

The Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis supports balanced and unbalanced RMS simulation methods. More in-
formation about the options in the Calculation of initial conditions command can be found in Chapter 29:
RMS/EMT Simulations, Section 29.3.

32.3.1.3 Basic configuration of Selective method (Arnoldi/Lanczos)

Complex reference point (RP): Complex plane reference point defined using real part and imaginary
part/damped frequency, as below.
• Real part ( 𝜎𝑅𝑃 )
• Imaginary part ( 𝜔𝑅𝑃 )

• Damped frequency (equal with 𝜔𝑅𝑃 /2𝜋 )

Selection of eigenvalues closest to RP: The selective method determines eigenvalues closer to the
reference point using one of three different measures for closeness. The options are:

• Based on magnitude: eigenvalues whose magnitudes are closest to the magnitude of the refer-
ence point.
• Based on imaginary part: eigenvalues whose imaginary parts are closest to that of the reference
point.
• Based on real part: eigenvalues whose real parts are closest to that of the reference point.

This option can be further clarified using a diagram as shown in Figure 32.3.1. The three eigenvalue
pairs are as follows:

• A; -0.8 +/- 1.4. Magnitude 1.61

• B; -0.7 +/- 1.5. Magnitude 1.65

• C; -0.5 +/- 2.0. Magnitude 2.06

Say the reference point was set to the origin (0,0. Magnitude 0). Then using the first method above,
the closest eigenvalue pair would be A because this pair has a magnitude closest to the magnitude
of the reference point. Using method 2, the closest pair would also be A because this pair has the
smallest imaginary part with respect to the imaginary part of the reference point. Finally, using the third
method, the closest pair would be C because this pair has a real component closest to the real part of
the reference point.

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Figure 32.3.1: Illustration of different eigenvalue selection methods

Number of Eigenvalues: The maximum number of calculated eigenvalues. Using this parameter it is
possible to limit the total number of eigenvalues calculated by the Selective method. An eigenvalue pair
is defined as one eigenvalue mode for this calculation.

32.3.2 Algorithm

32.3.2.1 General

Calculate

• Left Eigenvectors (Controllability): calculates the left eigenvectors that are used to identify the
Controllability, i.e. the contribution of a variable to the activity of a particular mode. This option is
enabled by default.
• Right Eigenvectors (Observability): calculates the right eigenvectors that are used to identify the
Observability, i.e. the degree of activity of a state variable when a particular mode is excited. This
option is disabled by default.
• Participation Factors: calculates the participation factors for each state variable, these measure
the relative participation of the state variable in the mode. This option is disabled by default.

Note: The Controllability, Observability and Participation Factors for any mode can be visualised using
the Mode Phasor Plot or Mode Bar Plot described in Section 32.4.2.

Algorithm options for QR/QZ-Method If the QR/QZ-Method is selected in the Basic Options page,
then specific customisation settings are provided here.
• QR method using system reduction: Use this option to use the QR method for the analysis. If,
for any reason, the QR method fails to generate a solution, then the QZ method is automatically
employed as fallback option.
• QZ method for generalised system: Use this option to apply the QZ method directly. The
calculation using this method is slower compared to the QR method. The option should only be
used, when it is known that the QR-method will fail for the evaluated system.

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Algorithm options for Selective method If the Selective method is selected in the Basic Options
page, then specific customisation settings are provided here.
• Initialisation of Arnoldi Iteration: the start vector of the iterative algorithm can be here customized.
The user may choose to use a random start vector or a standard unit vector(s) to initialise the
Arnoldi algorithm.
• Eigenvalue convergence tolerance: this parameter sets the eigenvalue convergence tolerance
within the calculation.

32.3.2.2 Advanced

Advanced options for QR/QZ-Method

• Identification of Eigenvalues - consider identical if distance smaller : Use this parameter to specify
the tolerance for eigenvalues when its eigenvectors are associated. Left and right eigenvectors
are calculated separately in PowerFactory.
• Omit eigenvalues if eigenvector-transformation fails:
Advanced options for Selective method
• Direct construction of A-matrix (as in V13.2): Legacy option, used to reproduce results generated
with PowerFactory version 13.2. Unless specifically required, it is recommended not to use this
option in any newer version.

32.3.3 Results

Recording filter for eigenvalues: Settings to restrict the recorded eigenvalues:

• Oscillatory modes only : record only modes which have non-zero imaginary part;
• Unstable modes only : record only modes which are on the right half side of the complex plane
• Min. real part / Max. real part: constrain eigenvalue results within a minimum/maximum real part
range
• Min. imag. part / Max. imag. part: constrain eigenvalue results within a minimum/maximum
imaginary part range
• Min. magnitude / Max. magnitude: constrain eigenvalue results within a minimum/maximum
magnitude range
• Min. damp. ratio / Max. damp. ratio: constrain eigenvalue results within a minimum/maximum
damping ratio range
Report filtered out eigenvalues in output window: Set this option in order to report to the output
window any eigenvalues which have been filtered out by the Recording filter for eigenvalues.

Results: A reference link to the Results object is provided. The Results object can also be changed
here, if needed.

32.3.4 Output

32.3.4.1 Output to MATLAB files

The Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis results can be exported to a MATLAB readable file format (sparse matrix
file). The user can select which results are to be exported. A short explanation of several of the exported
matrices is provided below.

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The system representation of a non-linear dynamic system can be described in general terms using two
nonlinear functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, as below:

ẋ = 𝑓 (x,v)
0 = 𝑔(x,v,v̇)

where x is a vector of 𝑛 state variables, v is an 𝑚 length vector containing algebraic variables such as
passive power network variables and control variables of DSL models.

The linearised combined control and passive power system can be expressed using a set of equations
containing the partial derivatives of the state variables and network quantities, as follows:

[︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃
I 0 ∆ẋ J Jxv ∆x
= xx (32.8)
0 M22 ∆v̇ Jvx Jvv ∆v

where:

• I is the identity matrix (𝑛 by 𝑛), M22 is an 𝑚 by 𝑚 matrix.

• Jxx (𝑛 by 𝑛 matrix) contains partial derivatives of a differential equation to the state variables;
• Jxv (𝑛 by 𝑚 matrix) contains partial derivatives of a differential equation to the network quantities;
• Jvx (𝑚 by 𝑛 matrix) contains partial derivatives of an algebraic equation to the state variables;
• Jvv (𝑚 by 𝑚 matrix) contains partial derivatives of an algebraic equation to the network quantities.

Note: Matrix M22 is normally zero, but not always, e.g. components in the DC power system contain
the DC voltage derivative, etc.

In a more concise representation, the linearised power system can be expressed as below:

[︃ ]︃ [︃ ]︃
∆ẋ ∆x
M =J (32.9)
∆v̇ ∆v

where J (𝑛 + 𝑚 x 𝑛 + 𝑚) is the Jacobian matrix.

Based on the above, the system matrix Amat can be defined as below:

Amat = Jxx − Jxv Jvv −1 Jvx (32.10)

For the system matrix Amat , the following is true:

∆ẋ = Amat · ∆x (32.11)

Note: The input (B), output (C) and feedforward (D) matrices of a state space representation of a
system are not used within the linearised power system formulation, hence they are not available
within the Modal Analysis calculation.

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The data that can be exported externally are:

• System matrix Amat : file Amat.mtl;

• System eigenvalues: file EVals.mtl;

• Left eigenvectors: file lEV.mtl;
• Right eigenvectors: file rEV.mtl;
• Jacobian matrix J: File Jacobian.mtl;

• M matrix: file M.mtl;

• Participation factors: file PartFacs.mtl.
Along with the above files, a description of the rows and columns for the Jacobian J and the system
Amat matrices is provided within two text documents named VariableToIdx_Jacobian.txt and Vari-
ableToIdx_Amat.txt, such that the corresponding states or algebraic variables can be identified.

The exported files are in an ASCII sparse matrix format “.mtl”. For conversion into a full matrix format in
the MATLAB environment, please refer to the MATLAB documentation (e.g. H = spconvert(D); full(H)).
To import and expand a sparse matrix in MATLAB, execute, for the example of the system matrix and
the right eigenvectors, the following commands:
» load Amat.mtl;

» load rEV.mtl;
» Amat = full(spconvert(Amat));
» rEV = full(spconvert(rEV));
Using the commands above, the variables 𝑟𝐸𝑉 and 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑡 should have been loaded in the MATLAB
workspace as full matrices/vectors. A short list of useful MATLAB commands is provided below, de-
pending on the calculation type.

QR Method: this method is the only one which computes the system matrix Amat .
• To verify the j’th right eigenvector, the following applies:

Amat · rEV(j-th column) = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠(j-th column) · rEV(j-th column) (32.12)

MATLAB code (returns the difference between the left and right terms):

» Amat*rEV(:,j)-Evals(j)*rEV(:,j)

• To verify the j’th left eigenvector, the following applies:

lEV(j-th column)* · Amat = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠(j-th column) · lEV(j-th column)* (32.13)

MATLAB code (returns the difference between the left and right terms):

» (conj(lEV(:,j))’ * Amat)’-Evals(j)*conj(lEV(:,j))

Note: The left eigenvectors require an additional conjugation before being used

• To verify the eigenvalues, the following commands need to be entered:

» D=eig(Amat)
» D=eig(Amat,M)

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QZ and Arnoldi Methods: these two calculation methods do not generate the system matrix Amat .
• To verify the right eigenvectors, the following applies, where D is a diagonal matrix containing the
eigenvalues:

J · rEV = M · rEV · D (32.14)

MATLAB code to verify the j-th right eigenvector (returns the difference between the left and right
terms above):

» Jacobian *rEV(:,j)-M *rEV(:,j) *Evals(j)

• To verify the left eigenvectors, the following applies, where D is a diagonal matrix containing the
eigenvalues:

lEV* · J = D · lEV* · M (32.15)

MATLAB code to verify the j-th left eigenvector (returns the difference between the left and right
terms above):

» transpose(conj(lEV(:,j))) *J - EVals(j) *transpose(conj(lEV(:,j))) *M;

• To verify the eigenvalues, the following command needs to be entered:

» EIGEN=eig(Jacobian,M)

32.3.4.2 Output

The calculation command provides output window information. The contents can be customised as
follows:
• Short: brief output window messages documenting only the main steps in the calculation;
• Detailed: the calculation generates detailed information, useful sometimes for debugging various
scenarios.

32.3.4.3 Report DSL models containing buffers or external function

This option will generate a message if a DSL model is using any of the buffer based DSL functions
(e.g. delay, movingavg, lastvalue) or an external DLL model (based on digexdyn, digexfun or
IEC61400-27-1 interfaces).

Note: C-Interface DLL models (i.e. compiled DSL models), described in 30.6.1, are not reported by this
option, unless a buffer based DSL function is used within this model. The reason is that C-Interface
DLL models are behaving within Modal Analysis identically as a DSL model (uncompiled).

It should be noted that for buffer based functions and external DLL based models the linearisation
algorithm will generate a linear equation of the linearised output of the form Δ𝑦Δ𝑦𝑖 = 0, where 𝑦𝑜 and 𝑦𝑖
𝑜

are the output and the input of the buffer based function (or of the external DLL), respectively. The buffer
based functions are marked accordingly with a '*' symbol within table 30.5.2. Whenever such functions
are reported, it is recommended to verify the specific models in order to ensure correctness of results.

Note: One example in which the use of buffer based functions does not affect Modal Analysis results
is the case when the function is being applied to a not connected input signal or to a time-
independent constant expression. In such a situation the result is clearly correct since the lin-
earised equation should be zero. If these functions are directly applied within a control feedback

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path (e.g. on signals like voltage, current, power or others) then the eigenvalue analysis may lead
to inaccurate results. Further investigations are recommended in these cases.

More information about DSL Models is available in chapter 30: Models for Dynamic Simulations.

32.4 Viewing Modal Analysis Results

There are several ways to visualise the results of the modal analysis, including using the built-in
plots within PowerFactory, using the Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Results command, visualising the
eigenvalues in the single line diagrams or using the predefined reports to print the result in the output
window. This section describes these options.

32.4.1 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Results Command

The modal analysis results can be displayed in a convenient data browser specially designed for working
with these results, which is accessible by clicking on the Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis Results icon ( )
from the Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis toolbar. The options of this command are explained below.

Show Modes

When the option Modes is selected from the Shown values field, a table with the calculated variables
for each eigenvalue is displayed (see figure 32.4.1). The variables and the corresponding equations for
an eigenvalue 𝜆 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 are shown in table 32.4.1.

Name Unit Equation

Real part 1/s 𝜎
Imaginary part rad/s 𝜔
√
Magnitude 1/s 𝜎 + 𝜔2
2

Angle deg 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛2(𝜎/𝜔)

Damped Frequency Hz |𝜔/2𝜋|
Period s |2𝜋/𝜔|
Damping 1/s −𝜎
√
Damping Ratio −𝜎/ 𝜎 2 + 𝜔 2
Damping Time Constant s 1/|𝜎|
|2𝜋𝜎/𝜔|
Ratio A1/A2 𝑒

Table 32.4.1: Variables calculated for each eigenvalue

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Figure 32.4.1: Result variables for each mode

Show States

When selecting the option States from the Shown values field, the user can choose to show the state
variables of one mode, of all oscillatory modes or of a group of modes. In this way it is easier to identify
all the modes where a particular state variable participates.

The results in the eigenvalue Modes or States tables can be then sorted and filtered as show in
figure 32.4.2, where the states in which the speed of a certain generator participates are further filtered
to show just modes with a damping ratio less than 10 %.

Figure 32.4.2: Results Filtering

It is also possible to display the list of state variables of a particular mode from the modes result table
by right clicking on a mode and selecting Show → State results

Exporting the results from the Eigenvalues or States tables

The results shown in the Modal Analysis data browser can be exported to an external software program
(such as a spreadsheet tool) following these steps:

1. Select the data to be exported. To select all data press ctrl-A.

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2. Click on the Copy (with column headers) icon ( . Alternatively right-click within the selection and
choose the option Spread Sheet Format → Copy (with column headers).
3. Open the external software and paste the data from the windows clipboard.

32.4.2 Modal Analysis Results in Built-in Plots

There are three special plot types in PowerFactory for visualising the results of a modal analysis
calculation: the eigenvalues plot, the mode bar plot and the mode phasor plot.

Each type of plot can be automatically created by clicking on the Create Plot icon ( ) and selecting
the desired plot type from the Insert Plot dialog. The Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis plots are shown in
figure 32.4.3.

Figure 32.4.3: Selection of the Modal Analysis plots

32.4.2.1 Eigenvalues Plot

Eigenvalues plots are inserted by choosing Eigenvalues plot from the insert dialog shown in figure 32.4.3.
The plot will appear in a new window. Note, that each time the option is selected, a new plot window
will be created.

Interpreting the Eigenvalues Plot

An example of an eigenvalues plot is shown in figure 32.4.4.

The Eigenvalue Plot displays the calculated eigenvalues in a two axis coordinate system. For the vertical
axis, it is possible to select among the imaginary part, or the damped frequency of the eigenvalue. The
horizontal axis shows the real part.

Stable eigenvalues are shown in green (default) and unstable eigenvalues in red (default). Each
eigenvalue can be inspected in detail by double clicking on it; this will bring up a pop-up dialog where
the index, the complex representation, the polar representation and oscillation parameters of the mode
can be viewed.

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Figure 32.4.4: The Eigenvalues Plot

Editing the Eigenvalues Plot

All settings that control the appearance of the eigenvalues plot can be accessed by double clicking on
an empty area of the plot. The options available are:
• Appearance: here the colour of the stable and unstable eigenvalues can be adjusted. Is also
possible to decide whether to display the plot legend and the stability borders. The so-called
Stability Borders option shades the area of the plot containing all the modes shown on the plot. It
is not an area of stability as such.
• Filter Options: here the display of eigenvalues on the plot is restricted according to defined criteria.
Eigenvalues can be restricted by range (independently in either the x or y axes) by selecting the
Restrict Range option. The Restrict Indexes options allows the user to choose, from the complete
list of eigenvalues, a limited subset to display on the plot. Alternatively, just the oscillatory modes
can be displayed by choosing the option Show Oscillatory Modes.
• Scale: here the range of the plot (x and y axis limits) can be defined. Also by enabling the Adapt
Scale option, the x and y axis tick marks will be displayed as integer values, rather than floating
point numbers. For example, the axis marks will be 10.0, 20.0 and 30.0 rather than 9.7988,
19.5976 and 29.3964.

Damping Ratio Constant

A constant showing a predefined damping ratio can be added into the plot by right clicking on the plot
and choosing Constant damping ratio line. The use of this constant, shown in figure 32.4.5, simplifies
the graphical identification of the less damped modes. The damping ratio constant is automatically
adapted when changing the y-axis between Damped Frequency and Imaginary Part.

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Figure 32.4.5: Damping Ratio Constants in Eigenvalues Plot

32.4.2.2 Mode Bar Plot

Mode bar plots can be inserted by choosing Mode bar plot from the insert dialog shown in figure 32.4.3.
When this option is selected, an edit dialog of the plot will open, with the following options available:

Editing the Mode Bar Plot

• Mode Selection: to choose the mode displayed on the plot. The observability, controllability or
participation factors will then be displayed for this mode. Note that it is also possible to enter the
real and imaginary values if the mode index is not known; PowerFactory will then automatically
select the closest mode.

• Shown values: to select to display either the Controllability, Observability or Participation Factors
for the selected mode.
• Filter Options: to choose to restrict the display of variables on the plot according to defined criteria.
Displayed variables can be restricted to a minimum contribution by selecting the Min. Contribution
option, or for greater control the variables to display can be selected manually by selecting the
User Defined States option and manually choosing the variables to display.
• Appearance: to adjust the colour and style of the bars and choose to show the plot legend and
also the annotation (value) for each bar.
• Scale: configures the mode bar plot scale. If the Auto scale checkbox is ticked, then the plot is
autoscaled. Otherwise, the plot bar limit can be specified in the corresponding Bar limit field.

Interpreting the Mode Bar Plot

An sample Mode Bar Plot is shown in Figure 32.4.6. The Mode Bar Plot displays the controllability,
observability or participation factors of variables for a user selected eigenvalue in bar chart form. This
allows easy visual interpretation of these parameters.

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Figure 32.4.6: Example Mode Bar Plot

The mode bar plot can also be obtained in one of the following ways:
• From the eigenvalues plot: right click on a mode and select Create bar plot → Controllability/Ob-
servability/Participation.

• From the modal analysis modes result: right click on a mode and select Show → Bar plot→
Controllability/Observability/Participation.
Note that the observability and participation factors are only shown if these calculations were enabled
in the Modal Analysis command as described in Section 32.3.2.1.

32.4.2.3 Mode Phasor Plot

Mode phasor plots can be inserted by choosing Mode phasor plot from the insert dialog shown in
figure 32.4.3. When this option is selected an edit dialog of the plot will open, with options available as
explained below. Note, every time this option is selected, a new plot window will be created.

Editing the Mode Phasor Plot

All settings that control the appearance of the Mode Phasor Plot can also be accessed by double clicking
on an empty area of the plot. The dialog that appears is very similar to the dialog for the Mode Bar Plot
and the Mode Selection, Filter Options, Appearance and Scale can be altered in the same way. There
are some additional options:

• Cluster: enabling this option will cluster variables with a angular separation less than the param-
eter entered. A cluster shares the same diagram colour.
• Show only points: if this parameter is enabled, the vectors will appear as points on the diagram
rather than arrows.

• Show unit circle: the unit circle can be removed from the plot by disabling this option.
• Auto scale: if the Auto scale checkbox is ticked, then the plot is autoscaled. Otherwise, the plot
radius can be specified in the corresponding Radius field.

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Interpreting the Mode Phasor Plot

An example of a mode phasor plot is shown in figure 32.4.7. The mode phasor plot displays the
controllability, observability or participation factors of variables for a user selected eigenvalue in polar
form. Variables are grouped and coloured identically if their angular separation is less than a user
defined parameter (default 3 degrees).

Figure 32.4.7: The Mode Phasor plot

The mode phasor plot can also be obtained in one of the following ways:
• From the eigenvalues plot: right click on a mode and select Create phasor plot → Controllability/
Observability/Participation.

• From the modal analysis modes result: right click on a mode and select Show → Phasor plot→
Controllability/Observability/Participation.
Note that the observability and participation factors are only shown if these calculations were enabled
in the Modal Analysis Command as described in Section 32.3.2.1.

32.4.2.4 Export a Modal Analysis Plot

Any of the modal analysis plots can be exported for use in an external software program. To export a
modal analysis plot follow these steps:

1. From the main PowerFactory file menu, choose the option File → Export Graphic. A Save As
dialog will appear.
2. Choose an appropriate File name and disk location and click Save.

Note: The process of exporting multiple plots can be automated using a DPL or Python script. More
information is available in the DPL and Python References.

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32.4.3 Eigenvalues Results in Single Line Diagrams

After the execution of the Modal Analysis command, it is possible to draw the eigenvectors of a particular
mode directly on a graphic (single line, overview or geographical diagram), with options to show right
eigenvectors, left eigenvectors or participation factors.

The eigenvectors can be drawn using the Draw Eigenvectors Arrow command ( ) from the Modal
Analysis toolbar or directly from the desired mode in the eigenvalues plot. The arrows will only be
drawn if the corresponding generator, or the substation/site where the generator belongs, is displayed
in the graphic.

32.4.4 Modal Analysis Results in the Output Window

The modal/eigenvales analysis results can be displayed in the output window using the Output of
Results command, accessible by clicking on Output Calculation Analysis icon ( ) from the main toolbar
or via the menu Output → Output Calculation Analysis.

The following options are available when selecting the Modal/Eigenvales Analysis from the command:

Modes

A report of all the calculated eigenvalues is printed in the output window.

Left Eigenvectors (Controllability)/Right Eigenvectors (Observability)/Participations

Selecting any of these options changes the dialog format to the one shown in figure 32.4.8. The
available options are:

• Mode Selection: the index of a specific mode can be selected. Alternatively the modes can be
Filtered by specifying the maximal damping and maximal period.
• Variable Selection: the variables to be displayed are selected
– Show all is used to show all variables (for example, speed, phi, psiD)
– Min. contribution is used to filter the displayed variables according to their contribution.
– User Defined States provides greater control over which variables are displayed. The button
Show shows the currently selected variables. More variables can be added using the Add
button whereas all variables can be removed by using the Remove All button.

Note: The Detailed check-box shows the bar chart in the report, whereas the normal report shows only
numerical values.

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Figure 32.4.8: Output of Results Command

32.4.5 Modal Analysis Results in the Data Browser

The Data Manager and Network Model Manager can be used to view the participations, controlla-
bility or observability for power system elements such as synchronous machines after completing an
modal/eigenvalues analysis. This option should only be used if none of the previous ways of presenting
the results is satisfactory.

To use the data browsers to see the modal analysis results, the following steps should be followed after
a modal analysis is executed:

1. Choose the mode index (eigenvalue) and state variable:

• Click on the Set Eigenvalue icon from the modal/eigenvalues analysis toolbar.
• Choose the Eigenvalue index for which the results are to be displayed.
• Choose the State Variable to view the results for by using the drop-down selection menu.
• Press the Execute button. It will appear as if nothing has happened - this is normal.
2. View the results in the browser:
• Select the synchronous machine icon from the object filter menu.
• Define the flexible data page by clicking on the corresponding icon ( ).
• From the Modal Analysis page choose the Variable Set Calculation Parameter.

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• In the Available Variables window, scroll to near the bottom until you see the variables p_mag
(Participation, Magnitude) etc. Holding shift select this variable and all eight other variables
down to rEVec_mags (Observability, Magnitude signed).
• Click on the variables or on the right arrows icon between the Available Variables and
Selected Variables windows.
• Press the OK button. Now you can scroll to the right in the flexible data page to view the
values of these variables.

Note: The results can only be displayed for one eigenvalue and variable at a time. For instance,
eigenvalue 3 and speed. Using the Modal Analysis Results Command (section 32.4.1) is easier.

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Chapter 33

Protection

33.1 Introduction

PowerFactory enables the user to define a protection scheme by integrating protective devices into the
system defined by a project’s network model. The software can be used to assist with the coordination of
protective devices and for generating graphical representations of protection system characteristics. A
relay model library is available in the “Protection Devices” folder of the DIgSILENT library which contains
models of both generic and manufacturer-specific relays. The following plot types are supported by
PowerFactory to assist in the visualisation of the protection system performance:

• Current vs time plots (Time-overcurrent plots, section 33.4)

• Impedance plots (R-X diagrams, section 33.6)

• Relay operational limits plots (section 33.7)

• Distance vs time plots (Time-distance diagrams, section 33.8)
• Differential plots (section 33.10)

• Short circuit sweep plots (section 33.12)

Furthermore, PowerFactory allows for the creation of single line diagrams within which, the locations
of the protection devices can be illustrated. (for general information on single line diagrams refer to
Section 33.2.3)

The relay models in PowerFactory are fully integrated with many of the standard calculation functions
included in the software. Notably:

• Load flow calculation (chapter 25)

• Short circuit calculation (chapter 26)
• Dynamic simulations using the RMS calculation or the EMT calculation (chapter 29)

• Arc flash calculation (chapter 34)

However, there are also a number of protection specific calculation commands available which are
accessible via the Protection and Arc-Flash Analysis toolbox. The available commands are located in
the sections of this chapter as follows:

• Short circuit sweep command (section 33.11)

• Distance protection coordination assistant (section 33.13)
• Protection Audit (section 33.15)

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• Short Circuit Trace (section 33.16)

• Protection Graphic Assistant (section 33.17)

This chapter will describe how to setup a network model for protection analysis, how to use PowerFac-
tory ’s protection analysis functions and plots and how to output results from the analysis in convenient
settings reports.

The following section presents a general introductory overview of protection modelling within PowerFac-
tory. Although it is not a pre-requisite for the user to have an understanding of the internal modelling
approach in order to use PowerFactory ’s basic protection functions, an understanding will help the user
to appreciate the structure of the dialogs encountered when setting up a protection scheme. Users who
wish to move straight into the creation of a protection scheme may wish to skip this section.

33.1.1 The modelling structure

Protection devices form a group of highly complex and non-uniform power system devices. Any program
tasked with modelling these devices faces a difficult dilemma. On the one hand, the relay models should
be as flexible and versatile as possible to ensure that all types of protection relays can be modelled with
all of their features. On the other hand, the relay models should be as simple as possible to reduce the
amount of work and knowledge needed to define power system protection devices.

This dilemma is solved in PowerFactory by modelling protection devices using a tiered approach con-
sisting of three different levels. These levels are:

• the relay frame

• the relay type
• the relay element
Each of these levels fulfil a different role in the modelling of a protection device. Figure 33.1.1 shows
the relation of these three levels graphically.

Figure 33.1.1: Modelling structure for protection devices

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33.1.2 The relay frame

The relay frame specifies the general relay functionality using a diagram where functional blocks known
as slots are connected by signals. Slots for timers, measurement and logic elements can be defined.
It defines how many stages the relay consists of and how these stages interact. However, the relay
frame contains no mathematical or logical functions, rather these are specified by the internal types
referenced by the slots.

Each slot is defined by the number of input and output signals. The signal lines define how the slots
are interconnected. Relay frames are similar to the frames of composite models and are created in the
same way. See Chapter 30: Models for Dynamic Simulations, Section 30.1.2 (The Composite Frame)
for more information. Figure 33.1.2 shows an example of a relay frame for a two stage overcurrent
relay. The illustrated relay frame contains a measurement slot, two instantaneous overcurrent slots
(each representing one stage of the overcurrent relay) and a logic slot. Connections between slots are
illustrated by lines with arrowheads.

Figure 33.1.2: Typical relay frame

33.1.3 The relay type

The relay type associated with a specific relay frame, is defined by selecting a block definition for each
slot of the frame. Assigning a block definition to a slot converts the slot to a block, representing a
mathematical function which describes the behaviour of a physical element. For example, the type
of filter used for processing the input signals, or the type of relay operating characteristic. Because
many relays support more than one type of characteristic, a set of characteristics or functions can be
defined. In addition, the relay type specifies the ranges for the various relay settings, including whether
the parameters are set continuously or in discrete steps.

The relay type defines the library information for a specific manufacturer’s relay, which does not yet

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have any settings applied to it. The complete information described in the data sheet and manual is
contained in the relay type. An advantage of this split concept is the possibility of re-using a relay frame
for more than one relay type.

Figure 33.1.3 shows the type dialog associated with an instantaneous overcurrent slot as an example.
Parameters that normally cannot be influenced by the user, like the Pick-up Time, are defined in the
type as well.

Figure 33.1.3: Type dialog of an instantaneous overcurrent block

33.1.4 The relay element

The relay element models the actual relay in a power system. It refers to a relay type in the library,
which provides the complete relay structure including the setting ranges for all parameters. The actual
settings of the relay, for example, the reach or the pick-up settings, are part of the relay element settings,
considering the range limitations defined by the relay type.

CT and VT models are the input link between a relay element and the electrical network. For the
relay output, a tripping signal is sent directly from the relay element to a circuit breaker in the network.
To simulate busbar protection, differential protection, or tele-protection schemes, a relay element can
operate more than one circuit breaker.

Figure 33.1.4 shows the block element dialog belonging to the type dialog in Figure 33.1.3.

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Figure 33.1.4: Element dialog of an instantaneous overcurrent relay

33.2 How to define a protection scheme in PowerFactory

This section describes the procedures necessary for defining a protection scheme within PowerFactory.
It begins with a brief overview of the procedure followed by detailed instructions for how to define
protection devices within the PowerFactory model.

33.2.1 Overview

Before starting the modelling of a protection scheme, it is necessary to construct a model of the network
to be protected. See Section 11.2.

A protection scheme is defined by adding relays (or fuses) and their associated instrument transformers
at appropriate places within the network model. After adding the device models, the settings can
be manually adjusted, by using the automated coordination tools and plots, or by importing the relay
settings directly from StationWare (refer to Section 24.14).

The PowerFactory protection modelling features have been designed to support the use of “generic”
relays or “detailed” models of relays based on manufacturer specific devices.

For “generic” relays, PowerFactory includes a global library containing some predefined generic relays,
fuses and instrument transformers that can be used to design schemes without requiring specific details
of a particular relay manufacturer’s range of products. This can be useful during the early stages of the
definition of a protection scheme. By creating a model with generic protection devices, the user can
confirm the general functionality of a scheme before relay procurement decisions are finalised.

For detailed definition and analysis of protection schemes, it is recommended to use detailed relay
manufacturer specific models. DIgSILENT offers many such models from the user download area on
the DIgSILENT website. Of course, with thousands of different relay models in existence and more
being created, in some instances a model will not exist. In such cases, advanced users can define their
own relay models or contact DIgSILENT support for further advice.

The following section will explain how to add predefined protective devices (generic or manufacturer
specific) to a network model.

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33.2.2 Adding protective devices to the network model

Protection devices in PowerFactory must be placed within cubicles (refer to Section 4.6.4 for more
information on cubicles). There are several methods to add or edit the protection devices in a cubicle:

1. Through the protection single line diagram. Refer to Section 33.2.3.

2. Right-clicking on a switch-symbol (New devices):
(a) Right-click a switch symbol in the single line graphic as illustrated in Figure 33.2.1. This will
show a context sensitive menu.
(b) Choose New Devices → Relay Model. . . /Fuse. . . /Current Transformer. . . /Voltage Transformer. . . .
A dialog for the chosen device will appear.
3. Right-clicking a switch symbol (Edit devices):
(a) Right-click a switch symbol in the single line graphic as illustrated in Figure 33.2.1. This will
show a context sensitive menu.
(b) Choose the option Edit Devices. A dialog showing the devices currently within the cubicle
will appear.
(c) Click the icon. A dialog will appear.
(d) Choose the desired device type.
(e) Click OK and the dialog for the new device will appear.

4. Through the protected device (line, transformer, load etc):

(a) Double-click the target element to protect. A dialog showing the device basic data should
appear.
(b) Click the button next to the end of element where you want to place the protective device.
For a line element this will say “Terminal i/j” and for a transformer this will say “HV/LV-side”.
A menu will appear. See Figure 33.2.2 for example.
(c) Click Edit Devices.
(d) Click the icon. A dialog will appear.
(e) Choose the desired device type.
(f) Click OK and the dialog for the new device will appear.
5. Through the substation:
(a) Open a detailed graphic of the substation. Refer Section 11.2.7 for more information on
substation objects.
(b) Right-click the specific part of the substation where you would like to add the relay. A context
sensitive menu will appear. See Figure 33.2.3 for an example substation showing possible
locations where protection devices can reside.
(c) Choose New Devices or Edit Devices and follow the remaining steps from 2b or 3c respec-
tively. The areas which can be right clicked in a typical detailed substation graphic are ringed
in Figure 33.2.3.

After completing one of the methods above, the created device also must be configured. Usually
this involves selecting a type and entering settings. Further information about configuring overcurrent
protection device elements is explained in Section 33.3 and distance protection devices in Section 33.5.

Note: When adding a protection device by right-clicking on a switch (Method 2), ensure the element
connected to the switch is not already selected. Otherwise, you will create devices at both ends
of the element. If you select the switch successfully, only half of the connected element will be
marked when the context sensitive menu appears.

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Figure 33.2.1: Adding a new relay to a single line diagram

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Figure 33.2.2: Editing line protection devices

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Figure 33.2.3: Adding a new protective device to a detailed substation graphic

33.2.3 Graphical representations of protection devices in single line diagrams

Depending on the task at hand it may be useful to show graphical representations of relay models in
one or more single line diagrams. Users will commonly find themselves in one of two positions:

1) The network model already contains the protection devices of interest and the user simply want to
show the already existing devices in the single line diagram.

or

2) The user is about to start the process of adding new protection devices to the network model and
they wish to add graphical representations of the protection devices to the single line diagram as part
of this set-up process.

In the first instance, existing protection devices located within cubicles can be manually or automatically
added to the diagram using the Diagram Layout Tool tool (refer to Section 11.6).

In the second instance, protection devices can be added to the model as described in the remainder of
this section.

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An example of a complete protection single line diagram is shown in Figure 33.2.4. In this diagram the
protection relays are indicated with the “R” inside a rectangle, current transformers as a brown circle
with the measured circuit underneath and voltage transformers as a brown circle with a semi-circle
above and a line connecting to the measured bus. Black lines between the measurement transformers
and the relays show the connection of the secondary side of the instrument to the relay.

Figure 33.2.4: An example protection single line diagram

33.2.3.1 How to add relays to the protection single line diagram

To add a relay to the protection single line diagram:

1. Open an existing network diagram.

2. Click on the button on the drawing toolbar.

3. Click on the cubicle or switch where the relay should be placed.
4. Optional: click and drag to reposition the relay to an alternative location.

Note: The relay icon in the protection diagram can also be resized. Select the relay and then click and
drag from the corner of the device.

33.2.3.2 How to add current transformers to the protection single line diagram

To add a current transformer to the single line diagram:

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1. Open an existing network diagram.

2. Click on the button on the drawing toolbar.
3. Click on the cubicle or switch where the device should be placed.
4. Click on the relay to connect the secondary side of the CT.

Note: Before placing current transformers in the single line diagram it is recommended to first place the
relays to which the secondary side of the device has to be connected, in the diagram.

33.2.3.3 How to add voltage transformers to the protection single line diagram

To add a voltage transformer to the single line diagram:

1. Open an existing network diagram.

2. Click on the button on the drawing toolbar.
3. Click on the bus where the primary side of the VT should connect.
4. Click on the relay to connect the secondary side of the VT.

Note: Before placing voltage transformers in the single line diagram it is recommended to first place
the relays to which the secondary side of the device has to be connected, in the diagram.

33.2.3.4 How to add combined instrument transformer to the protection single line diagram

To add a combined instrument transformer to the single line diagram:

1. Open an existing network diagram.
2. Click on the button on the drawing toolbar.
3. Click on the cubicle or switch where the device should be placed.
4. Click on the relay to connect the secondary side of the CT.
5. Click on the relay to connect the secondary side of the VT.

Note: Before placing combined instrument transformers in the single line diagram it is recommended
to first place the relays to which the secondary side of the device has to be connected, in the
diagram.

33.2.3.5 How to connect an instrument transformer to multiple relays

In some cases it might be desirable to connect a CT or VT to multiple relays. To do so follow these

steps:

1. Open an existing network diagram.

2. Click on the button on the drawing toolbar.
3. Click on the CT or VT that requires another connection.
4. Optional: Click at multiple points within the single line diagram to create a more complicated
connection path.
5. Click on the target relay for the connection.

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33.2.4 Locating protection devices within the network model

Protection devices can be added to the network model by placing them in the single line diagram directly
as described in Section 33.2.3. However, in cases where the devices are not drawn directly in the single
line diagram, there are several methods to highlight the location of the devices in the single line diagram.
This section describes these methods.

33.2.4.1 Colouring the single line diagram to show protection devices

The single line diagram can be coloured to indicate the location of protective devices. To do this:

1. Click the button on the graphics toolbar. The diagram colouring dialog will appear.
2. Check the box for 3. Other.

3. Select Secondary Equipment from the first drop down menu.

4. Select Relays, Current and Voltage transformers from the second drop down menu.
5. Click OK to update the diagram colouring. The cubicles containing protection devices will be
coloured according to the legend settings.

33.2.4.2 Locating protective devices using the object filter

To locate protection devices using the built-in object filters follow these steps:

1. Click the icon from the main toolbar. The Network Model Manager, which lists all calculation
relevant objects, will open.

2. Click for relays, for fuses, for current transformers or for voltage transformers on the
left side of the window to show a list of all calculation relevant objects of one class in a tabular list
on the right side of the window.
3. Right-click the icon of one or more objects in the list. A context sensitive menu will appear.

4. Select Mark in Graphic. The cubicle/s containing the object/s will be highlighted in the single line
diagram.

33.3 Basics of an overcurrent protection scheme

Section 33.2.2, explained the initial steps required to add a protective device to the network model.
When a new device is created within a network model there are a number of parameters to define in the
dialog which appears. This section will describe the basic steps required to specify these parameters
for overcurrent relays and fuses.

The following section, 33.4 describes the use of the main tool for analysing overcurrent protection
schemes, the time-overcurrent diagram.

33.3.1 Overcurrent relay model setup - basic data page

The basic data page in the relay model (ElmRelay ) dialog is where the basic configuration of the relay
is completed. Generally it is required to complete the following steps:

• Select the relay type (generic or manufacturer specific). Refer to Section 33.3.1.1.

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• Select the instrumentation transformers. Refer to Section 33.3.1.2

• Enter the relay settings. Refer to Section 33.3.1.3.

33.3.1.1 Selecting the relay type

To select a generic relay type from the relay basic data page:

1. Click on the icon. A menu will appear.

2. Choose Select Type. . . . A data page will appear. Click on the button DIgSILENT Library to
access the global library on the left side of the page.
3. Navigate into the sub-folders under “Relays” and select the required relay type.
4. Click OK to assign the relay type. Note that the basic data page of the relay will now show many
different slots which are based on the configuration of the relay type.

To select a project relay type from the relay basic data page:

1. Click on the icon. A menu will appear.

2. Choose Select Type. . . . A data page will appear. Click on the button Project Library to access
the project library on the left side of the page.
3. Locate the relay either within the local library, or within any “Relay Library” in the user area.
4. Click OK to assign the relay type. Note that the basic data page of the relay will now show many
different slots. These are the functional protection blocks such as time-overcurrent, measurement,
differential, impedance and so on, which contain the relay settings. The number and types of slots
within the relay is determined by the relay type selected.

33.3.1.2 Selecting the relay instrument transformers

If there were some instrument transformers within the cubicle when the relay was created, then these
will automatically be assigned to the appropriate slots within the relay. However, if it is desired to select
an alternative instrument transformer then follow these steps:
1. Right-click the cell containing the instrument transformer. A menu will appear.
2. Choose Select Element/Type. . . . A data browser will appear showing the contents of the relay
cubicle.
3. Select an alternative instrument transformer here, or navigate to another cubicle within your
network model.
4. Click OK to choose the instrument transformer.
If the cubicle where the relay was created does not contain any current transformers, then a Create CT
will appear at the bottom of the dialog. If the relay also has at least one VT slot, a Create VT button will
also appear. By clicking on these buttons it is possible to create a VT or CT and have them automatically
assigned to vacant slots within the relay. For instructions for configuring a CT refer to Section 33.3.3
and for configuring a VT refer to Section 33.3.4.

33.3.1.3 Entering the relay settings

To edit relay settings:

1. Locate the desired slot that you would like to modify. You may need to scroll down to locate some
slots in complicated relay models.

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2. Double-click the target slot. The dialog for the clicked element will appear.
3. Enter or modify the settings.

33.3.1.4 Other fields on the relay basic data page

There are several other fields on the relay basic data page:

Application This field is for documentation and searching purposes only.

Device Number This field is also for documentation and searching purposes only.
Location By default these fields give information about the relay location within the network model
based upon the cubicle that it is stored within. However, it is possible to select an alternative
Reference cubicle. If an alternative reference cubicle is selected, then the relay will control the
switch within this cubicle. Furthermore, changing the reference location will also affect the auto-
matic assignment of instrument transformers and the cubicle where any instrument transformers
created using the Create VT or Create CT buttons will be placed.

33.3.2 Overcurrent relay model setup - max/min fault

currents tab

This tab can be used to record the minimum and maximum fault currents likely to be observed at
the relay location. This information can be useful when coordinating the relay characteristic using a
time overcurrent plot. The minimum values are stored for reference purposes only. In the case of the
maximum currents these settings can be used to limit the extent to which the tripping characteristics
of the relay will be shown in time overcurrent plots. For example if a relay is likely to see a maximum
current of 50kA there is little benefit in showing the tripping time of the relay at values above 50kA. This
extended part of the characteristic is extraneous and will simply clutter the plot. This visualisation is a
property of the time overcurrent plot itself and can be configured using the Cut Curves At setting in the
time overcurrent plot settings dialog described in section 33.4.7.1.

The values can be entered either manually or calculated automatically as follows. For maximum currents
the Calculate Max. Fault Currents button button can be pressed, in which case PowerFactory will
automatically calculate maximum short circuit currents at the local busbar according to the short circuit
method specified in the referenced Short-Circuit Command. For Maximum Phase fault current, a 3
phase fault current will be used, whilst for the maximum earth fault current a single phase to ground fault
will be used. The calculated currents will automatically be assigned to the corresponding parameters.

For the minimum currents, the individual Get I branch buttons can be pressed. When these buttons are
pressed the current flowing in the branch during the active calculation will be extracted and assigned to
the corresponding parameter in the ElmRelay object. For example, if a load flow calculation is executed
before pressing the button, then the load flow current flowing in the relay’s branch will be entered as the
minimum current.

The Coordination Paths section of the dialog provide options based on a topological search extending
outwards from the relay location which can be used to differentiate between network elements located
in the forward direction relative to elements located in the reverse direction. The show buttons bring up
a browser containing network elements located in the associated direction, whilst the mark buttons can
be used to mark those elements in single line diagrams.

33.3.3 Configuring the current transformer

A new current transformer (CT) can be created as described in Section 33.2.2 (Adding protective
devices to the network model). Alternatively a CT can be created by using the Create CT button in
the relay model dialog.

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The process of configuring the CT is:

1. Select/Create the CT type. Refer to Section 33.3.3.1 for information about the CT type.
2. Optional: If you would like to setup the CT to measure a location other than its parent cubicle or as
an auxiliary CT, you can choose this through the Reference parameter. Refer to Section 33.3.3.2
for further instructions.
3. Optional: Alter the Orientation. Positive current is measured when the flow is away from the node
towards the branch and the Orientation is set to Branch.
4. Set the Primary ratio through the drop down menu next to Tap. The available ratios are determined
by the selected CT type. If you choose the option Detect primary tap, PowerFactory will try
to automatically determine an appropriate tap based on the rating of the associated primary
equipment. If no type is selected the only ratio available will be 1A.
5. Set the Secondary ratio through the drop down menu next to Tap. The available ratios are
determined by the selected CT type.
6. Optional: Select the number of phases from the drop down menu next to No. Phases.
7. Optional: Choose a Y or D connection for the secondary side winding. This field is only available
for a 2- or 3-phase CT.
8. Optional: If the CT is 1 or 2-phase, the measured phases must be selected. These can be:
• a, b or c phase current;
• 𝑁 = 3 · 𝐼0 (1-phase CT’s only); or
• 𝐼0 (1-phase CT’s only)
9. Optional: If the CT is 3-phase, select the Phase Rotation. This defines how the phases of the
secondary side map to the phases of the primary side. For example, if you wanted the A and B
Phases to be flipped on the secondary side of the transformer, then you would choose a Phase
Rotation of “b-a-c”.
10. Optional: If the transformer includes additional cores, these can be modelled by selecting the Add
Core button. Added Current Transformer Core objects, will be stored inside the parent current
transformer object and can be easily accessed either by pressing the Edit Cores button or by
navigating and editing entries in the Additional Cores table which appears when the first core is
added. Additional core StaCtcore objects should reference objects of the type class TypCtcore,
see section 33.3.3.1. If no type is selected a ratio of 1:1 is assumed.
If it is desired to model CT saturation, saturation information about the CT can be entered on the
“Additional Data” page of the CT element. This information is used only when the “detailed model” tick
box is selected, otherwise it is ignored by the calculation engine.

33.3.3.1 Configuring the current transformer type

The current transformer type dialog defines the range of ratios available to a referencing CT object.
The information about the connection of phases (Y or D) is defined in the CT element as discussed in
Section 33.3.3.

A CT element StaCt can be linked to two alternative type classes. The standard CT type class is TypCt
but alternatively a current transformer core type class TypCtcore can be selected. Both type classes
are suitable for most purposes and can both be used to represent multicore CTs as well as single core
CTs both multi and single phase. However, there may be circumstances, for example for data exchange
between PowerFactory and other software or vice versa where one type class may be preferred over
the other. Please note the following key differences between the two representations:

1. For a TypCt the represented winding ratios depend on the specified primary and secondary tap
ratings. The specific ratio in use depends on the user’s selection in the associated CT element
object StaCt.

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2. For a TypCtcore the represented winding ratios are independent of the primary rating. The winding
ratios instead depend on the relevant ratio settings and the specified secondary rating. The
specific ratio in use depends on the user’s selection in the associated CT element object StaCt.
3. A CT element object (StaCt can refer to either a TypCt or a TypCtcore object.
4. A StaCtcore object can only refer to a TypCtcore type object. It cannot refer to a TypCt type object.
5. A StaCt object can store additional StaCtcore objects within it. This is not the case for StaCtcore
objects.
To add additional Primary or Secondary Taps for a TypCt object:
1. Right-click one of the cells in the tabular list of available taps. A menu will appear.
2. Choose Insert Row/s, Append Row/s or Append n Rows to add one or more rows to the table.
3. Enter the ratio of the tap. Note the tabular list must be in ascending order.
4. On the additional information page update the fields with the datasheet data.

To add additional ratio options for a TypCtcore object:

1. Specify a primary and secondary current rating for the device as a whole.
2. Right-click in one of the cells or in empty space in the tabular list of available ratios. A context
sensitive menu will appear.
3. Choose Insert Row/s, Append Row/s or Append n Rows to add one or more rows to the table.
4. Enter the new ratio to be considered. Note the tabular list must be in ascending order.
5. On the additional information page update the fields with the datasheet data.
For the additional data page the following accuracy parameters can be selected:

• The accuracy class

• The accuracy limit factor
• either
– The apparent power (acc. to IEC)
– The burden impedance (ANSI-C)
– The voltage at the acc. limit (ANSI-C)
For more information on the CT model please refer to the measurement devices section of the Technical
References Overview Document.

33.3.3.2 Configuring a CT as an auxiliary unit, measuring circulating current in the delta wind-
ing of a 3 winding transformer or changing the measurement location

By default the CT measures the current within its parent cubicle. The Location fields Busbar and Branch
show information about the measurement location automatically. However, it is possible to configure the
CT to measure current in a different location. To do this:

1. Click the icon next to Reference. A data browser will appear.

2. Select either another cubicle, a switch, a three winding transformer or another CT where you
would like to measure current.

If you install a current transformer in one of the connecting cubicles of a delta winding of a three winding
transformer then if required, you can select the transformer itself as the reference location. The CT will
then measure the circulating current in the corresponding delta winding of the transformer instead of
measuring the line currents or I0 currents derived from the line currents. In this case the CT will interact

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with the I0delta_ signals of the winding. With such a connection it is assumed that the CT will be single
phase and measuring I0 so there is no need to for any further configuration of the device.

If you select another CT, then this CT becomes an auxiliary CT with the final ratio from the primary
circuit to the CT secondary side the product of the ratios of the two CTs - this is indicated in the field
Complete Ratio. If you select another cubicle or switch then the CT will measure current at location of
the selected switch or cubicle.

33.3.4 Configuring the voltage transformer

A voltage transformer (VT) can be created as described in Section 33.2.2. Alternatively a VT can be
created by using the Create VT button in the relay element dialog.

The process of configuring the VT is then:

1. Select the VT type. Refer to Section 33.3.4.1 for information about the VT type.
2. Optional: Select the secondary winding type. If no type is selected, the available ratios will
be 1, 100, 110, 120 and 130. More information about the secondary type can be found in
Section 33.3.4.2.
3. Optional: If you would like to setup the VT to measure a location other than its parent cubicle or as
an auxiliary VT, you can choose this through the Reference parameter. Refer to Section 33.3.4.4
for further instructions.
4. Set the Primary voltage rating through the drop down menu in the Tap selection field. The available
ratios are determined by the selected VT type. If no type is selected, the available ratios will be 1,
100, 110, 120 and 130.
5. Set the Secondary voltage rating through the drop down menu in the Tap Selection field. The
available ratios are determined by the selected secondary winding type.

6. Specify the number of phases for the VT. If an open delta VT arrangement as illustrated in figure
33.3.1 is required then the number of phases should be specified as 1 and N chosen for the phase.
7. Optional: For 3 phase VTs Choose a Y or V (broken delta) connection for the winding connection.
A V connection is illustrated in figure 33.3.2. Note that this selection effectively configures both
the primary and secondary connections of the VT since it is assumed that a V connected primary
winding will always correspond with a V connected secondary, likewise a Y connected primary
winding will always correspond with a Y connected secondary.
8. Optional: Click Additional Secondary Windings to open a dialog where extra secondary wind-
ings can be added. See Section 33.3.4.3 for more information about configuring additional sec-
ondary windings.

When a VT is created it is stored in the cubicle that was right-clicked or the cubicle the relay is stored
in.

Figure 33.3.1: The open delta (O) winding connection

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Figure 33.3.2: The V winding connection

33.3.4.1 The voltage transformer type

The voltage transformer type defines the datasheet data of the voltage transformer along with a range
of potential voltage ratings for the primary winding. The voltage transformer can be configured as:

• Ideal Voltage Transformer. In this case no saturation or transformer leakage impedance values
are considered and the voltage transformer has a perfect transformation of primary measured
values into secondary quantities.
• Voltage Transformer. In this case saturation and transformer leakage effects are modelled
according to data entered on the Transformer Data page.

• Capacitive Voltage Transformer. In this case, the VT is modelled as a CVT according to the
parameters entered on the Transformer Data and Additional CVT Data page.
For more information on the VT model please refer to the measurement devices section of the Technical
References Overview Document. To configure additional Primary Taps:

1. Right-click one of the cells in the tabular list of available taps. A menu will appear.
2. Choose Insert Row/s, Append Row/s or Append n Rows to add one or more rows to the table.
3. Enter the ratio of the tap. Note the tabular list must be in ascending order.

33.3.4.2 Configuring the secondary winding type

The secondary winding is defined by the secondary winding type, and is similar to the primary VT type
where multiple Secondary Tap ratios can be defined. If a secondary winding is not selected, it has the
standard tap settings of 1, 100, 110, 120 and 130 V available.

The burden and power factor on this page are not calculation relevant and for information purposes only.
Therefore, the secondary winding type is always treated as an ideal transformer.

33.3.4.3 Additional VT secondary winding types

In some cases a VT has multiple secondary windings. For example, some VTs might have a regular
winding and then also an ’open delta’ winding for measuring the zero sequence voltage. It is possible
to configure a PowerFactory VT in the same way. To define an additional secondary winding type:

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1. Click the VT element Additional Secondary Windings button.

2. Click the button. A dialog for the Secondary Voltage Transformer will appear.

3. Click the button.

4. Choose Select Type. . . and click on the Project Library button. The type is a secondary winding
type as described in Section 33.3.4.2.
5. Choose the Tap.
6. Select the Connection.

33.3.4.4 Configuring the VT as an auxiliary VT or changing the measurement location

By default the VT measures the voltage within its parent cubicle. The Location fields Busbar and Branch
show information about the measurement location automatically. However, it is possible to configure the
VT to measure in a different location. To do this:

1. Click the icon next to Location. A data browser will appear.

2. Select either another cubicle, a bus or another VT where you would like to measure voltage. If
you select another VT, then this VT becomes an auxiliary VT with the final ratio from the primary
circuit to the VT secondary side the product of the ratios of the two VTs - this is indicated in the
field Complete Ratio. If you select another cubicle or busbar then the VT will measure voltage at
location of the selected switch or cubicle.

33.3.5 Configuring a combined Instrument transformer

A combined instrument transformer is configured in much the same way as the standard current trans-
former and voltage transformer models described in the previous sections. The main difference is that
this model combines references to CT and VT type class objects within a single station element class
namely the StaCombi class.

This has various benefits:

1. Real network combined instrument transformers can be more closely represented.

2. Facilitates easier data exchange between PowerFactory and other softwares.
3. Simplification of the network model is possible by grouping CTs and VTs into a single element
object.

Reference to the previous sections 33.3.3 and 33.3.4 provide detailed handling descriptions which can
be easily extrapolated for application to this model.

33.3.6 How to add a fuse to the network model

In PowerFactory the fuse element operates to some extent like an inverse time over-current relay with
a 1/1 CT. The fuse will “melt” when the current in the fuse element exceeds the current specified by the
fuse’s melt characteristic.

To add a fuse to the network model:

1. Either:
(a) Right-click a target cubicle and select the option New Devices → Fuse . . . . This is an internal
(or implicit fuse) located within the cubicle. Or:

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(b) Add an explicit fuse model to the network by clicking the and connecting the device as
you would connect a line or transformer.

2. On the fuse dialog, click the button and choose Select Type. . . . A data page with the following
buttons will appear, select either:
(a) DIgSILENT Library. A global library will appear on the left side of the page showing you a list
of built-in fuses where you can select an appropriate one; or
(b) Project Library. A dialog will appear showing you the local project library where you can
choose a fuse type that you have created yourself or downloaded from the DIgSILENT
website.
3. Adjust other options on the basic data page. The options are as follows:
Closed If this is checked, the fuse will be in the closed (non melted) state for the calculation.
Open all phases automatically If this option is enabled, then should the fuse be determined
to melt, PowerFactory will automatically open all three phases on the switch during a time
domain simulation or short circuit sweep. This field has no effect on the load-flow or short-
circuit calculations.
No. of Phases This field specifies whether the fuse consists of three separate fuses (3 phase),
two fuses (2 phase) or a single fuse (1 phase). Note, when the one or two phase option is
selected and the fuse is modelled explicitly in the network model, the actual phase connec-
tivity of the fuse is defined within the cubicles that connect to the fuse. When the fuse is
modelled implicitly, a selection box will appear that allows you to select which phase/s the
fuse connects to.
Fuse type This field is used for information and reporting purposes only.
Device Number This field is used for information and reporting purposes only.
Compute Time Using Many fuses are defined using a minimum melt curve and a total clear
curve as illustrated in Figure 33.3.3 - the idea is that for a given current, the fuse would
generally melt at some time between these two times. In PowerFactory it is possible to
choose whether the trip/melt time calculations are based on the minimum melt time or the
total clear time.

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Figure 33.3.3: Fuse melt characteristics

33.3.6.1 Fuse model setup - other pages

On the VDE/IEC Short-Circuit and Complete Short-Circuit pages there is the option to configure the
fuse Break Time. This variable is used in the short circuit calculation of “Ib” when the Used Break Time
variable is set to local, or min. of local. Refer to Chapter 26 for more information on the calculation of
short circuits in PowerFactory.

On the Optimal Power Flow page, there is the option Exclude from Optimisation which if checked means
that the fuse will be ignored by the OPF and open tie optimisation algorithms. See Chapter 41 for further
information.

On the Reliability page, the fuse can be configured for Fault separation and power restoration. These
options are explained in detail in Chapter 46.

33.3.7 Basic relay blocks for overcurrent relays

Section 33.1 explained that all relay models contain slots which are placeholders for block (protection
function) definitions. There are many types of protection blocks in PowerFactory and each type has a
different function. Furthermore, there are various options and parameters within each of these blocks
that enable mimicking in detail the functionality offered by many relays. The relay model is completed
by interconnecting these different slots containing block definitions in various ways. Hence it is possible
to produce relay models with a large variety of operating characteristics. Advanced users are able to
define their own types of protection device. The creation of user defined protection devices is covered
in the Section 33.18.

The blocks contained within a relay are listed in the slot definition section of the relay model dialog. In

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general the user will need to define parameters within these relay blocks. The settings dialog can be
reached by double clicking on the block of interest in the net elements column.

If the user is interested in viewing a graphical representation of the interconnection of slots for a
particular relay then the user should navigate to relay type of interest in the Data Manager. By right
clicking on this relay type icon and selecting Show Graphic, a graphical representation of the relay
frame will appear in a new window. The following sections provide a brief overview of some of the basic
protection blocks that can be used to develop a relay model in PowerFactory. For more information
on these blocks please refer to the protection devices section of the Technical References Overview
Document.

33.3.7.1 The measurement block

The measurement block takes the real and imaginary components of the secondary voltages and
currents from the VTs and CTs, and processes these into the quantities used by other protection blocks
in the relay model. Quantities calculated by the measurement block include absolute values of each
current and voltage phase and the positive and negative sequence components of voltage and current.

Depending on how the measurement block type is configured, it also allows for the selection of different
nominal currents and voltages. For example, this feature can be utilised to support relays that have
both 1A and 5A versions. If a relay does not need a nominal voltage, for instance an overcurrent relay
without directional elements, or if there is only one nominal value to choose from, the nominal voltage
and/or current selection field is disabled.

For EMT simulations, the measurement block type can also be configured for different types of signal
processing. This determines what type of algorithm is used for translating the input current and voltage
waveforms into phasor quantities for use by the protection blocks. Various DFT and FFT functions along
with harmonic filtering are available.

33.3.7.2 The directional block

A detailed discussion of the principles of directional protection is outside the scope of this user manual.
The reader is encouraged to refer to a protection text for more information on the general principles. A
very brief high level overview is presented in the following paragraphs.

In PowerFactory, there are two directional blocks the “RelDir” and the “RelDisDir”. The “RelDir” block
is the basic direction block and is typically used by over-current relay models to determine the direction
of the current flow. It provides a forward or reverse direction determination signal which can be fed into
subsequent overcurrent blocks. The block can also send a trip signal.

In its normal operating configuration, the block is determining the direction by comparing the angle
between a “polarisation” voltage and an “operating” current phasor. Various polarisation methods are
supported by the block including common ones such as self and cross polarisation. The block also has
a so-called Maximum Torque Angle (MTA). This is the angle by which the polarising voltage is rotated.
Consequently, the forward direction is determined by the MTA ±Angle Operating Sector (often 180°).
This principle is illustrated in Figure 33.3.4.

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Figure 33.3.4: Directional relay principle diagram

The polarisation quantity 𝐴𝑝𝑜𝑙 is rotated over the angle 𝑀𝑇 (MTA). The rotated polarisation quantity 𝐴′𝑝𝑜𝑙
±AOS defines a half plane which forms the forward operating plane. The block will produce a tripping
signal if the operating quantity is detected in the selected direction, and if it exceeds the threshold
operating current, illustrated by the semi-circle Figure 33.3.4.

The second type of directional block in PowerFactory is the “RelDisDir”, this is normally used with
distance protection relays and is discussed in Section 33.5.3.8.

33.3.7.3 The instantaneous overcurrent block

The instantaneous overcurrent block is a protection block that trips based on current exceeding a set
threshold (pickup current setting). The block also supports the inclusion of an optional delay time
and directional features. Hence this block can be used to represent instantaneous, definite time and
directional overcurrent relay functionality. The available setting ranges for the pickup and the time delay
are defined within the type. The relay characteristic is shown in Figure 33.3.5. The total tripping time is
the sum of the delay time and the pickup time also configured within the relay type.

Figure 33.3.5: Instantaneous overcurrent tripping area

The block will not reset until the current drops under the reset level, which is specified by the relay type

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in percent of the pickup current: Ireset=IpsetKr/100%. See Figure 33.3.6 for a typical timing diagram.

Figure 33.3.6: Instantaneous overcurrent timing diagram

33.3.7.4 The time overcurrent block

The time-overcurrent block is a protection block that trips based on current exceeding a threshold
defined by an I-t characteristic. Most relays support the selection of several different I-t characteristics.
These characteristics can be shifted for higher or lower delay times by altering the time settings or
shifted for higher or lower currents by altering the pickup current. The ranges for these two settings
and the characteristics of the I-t curve are defined within the block type. Typical curves are shown in
Figure 33.3.7.

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Figure 33.3.7: I-t curves for different time dials

The pickup current defines the nominal value Ip which is used to calculate the tripping time. The I-t
curve definition states a minimum and a maximum per unit current. Lower currents will not trip the relay
(infinite tripping time), higher currents will not decrease the tripping time any further. These limits are
shown in Figure 33.3.8.

Figure 33.3.8: I-t curve limits

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The pickup current may be defined by the relay type to be a per unit value, or a relay current. The
nominal current defined by the measurement block (refer to Section 33.3.7.1) is used to calculate Ip. In
the case of a per unit value, the relay current value already equals Ip.

Altering the pickup current will thus not change the I-t curve, but will scale the measured current to
different per unit values. The following example may illustrate this:

• Suppose the minimum current defined by the I-t curve is imin=1.1 I/Ip.
• Suppose the measurement unit defines Inom=5.0 rel.A.
• Suppose pickup current Ipset=1.5 p.u.
– relay will not trip for 𝐼 < 1.10 · 1.5 · 5.0𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝐴 = 8.25𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝐴
• Suppose pickup current Ipset=10.0 rel.A
– relay will not trip for 𝐼 < 1.1 · 10.0𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝐴 = 11.0𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝐴

33.3.7.5 The logic block

The logic block in PowerFactory is responsible for two functions in the relay. Firstly, it combines the
internal trip signals from the other functional blocks, either with logical AND or OR functions and
produces an overall trip status and time for the relay in a single output. Secondly, it controls one or
more switches in the power system model that will be opened by the relay in the time determined by the
logical combination of the various tripping signals. If the relay is located in a cubicle and no switch is
explicitly specified within the logic block, the default behaviour is for the logic block to open the switch
within that cubicle.

33.4 The time-overcurrent plot

The time-overcurrent plot (VisOcplot) can be used for graphical analysis of an overcurrent protection
scheme to show multiple relay and fuse characteristics on one diagram. Additionally, thermal damage
curves for lines and transformers can be added to the plot along with motor starting curves. These plots
can be used to determine relay tripping times and hence assist with protection coordination and the
determination of relay settings and fuses’ characteristics.

For simplified reporting of protection schemes, the time-overcurrent plot also supports visualisation of
the network diagram next to the plot like that illustrated in Figure 33.4.1. This diagram also shows the rel-
evant protection relays and instrumentation transformers with a colour scheme that matches the colour
settings of the main diagram to enable easy identification of protection devices, their characteristics and
their position in the network being analysed.

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Figure 33.4.1: Time-overcurrent plot showing the auto-generated graphic for the protection path

33.4.1 How to create a time-overcurrent plot

There are five different methods to create a time-overcurrent plot (VisOcplot). You can create this plot
by right clicking the cubicle, the power system object, the protection device or the protection path. The
first three methods do not show the protection single line diagram to the left of the plot, while the last
two methods show it. These methods are explained in further detail in the following sections.

1. From the cubicle

(a) Right-click a cubicle containing overcurrent relays or fuses. The context sensitive menu will
appear.
(b) Select the option Create Time-overcurrent plot. PowerFactory will create a diagram showing
the time-overcurrent plot for all protection devices and fuses within the cubicle. See Sec-
tion 33.4.7 for how to configure the presentation of the plot.
2. From the power system object (line, cable, transformer)
(a) Select one or more objects such as transformers or lines. The context sensitive menu will
appear.
(b) Select the option Show → Time-overcurrent plot. PowerFactory will create a diagram show-
ing the time-overcurrent plot with the defined cable/line or transformer overload characteristic.
3. From the protection device
(a) Open a tabular view of the protection device either from the list of calculation relevant objects
(Network Model Manager) or in the Data Manager.
(b) Right click the icon. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(c) Select Show → Time-overcurrent plot.

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4. From the network graphic

(a) Select the elements from the network graphic to be included in the protection path. For more
information regarding the graphical selection, please refer to the Section 15.9.
(b) Right click on any element from the selection. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(c) Select Show → Time-overcurrent plot.
(d) As a result, a path will automatically be defined for the selected graphics and an auto-
generated schematic single-line diagram of the path will also be displayed to the left side
of the time-overcurrent plot.
5. From the protection path
(a) Navigate to the protection path in the Data Manager.
(b) Right-click the icon. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(c) Select Show → Time-overcurrent plot. Refer to Section 15.9 for more information on defining
paths. In this case, an auto-generated schematic single-line diagram of the path will also be
displayed to the left of the time-overcurrent plot. Additionally, multiple paths can be selected
by using the left mouse button in combination with the CTRL Key.
With the last two methods, it is possible to create the time-overcurrent plots for multiple paths on
separate pages or a single page. After selecting the desired paths, press the CTRL key and Select
Show → Time-overcurrent plot simultaneously to display the plots on separate pages. If the CTRL key
is not pressed then the plots will be displayed on the same page.

In methods 1-3, it is also possible to select the option Add to Time-overcurrent plot instead of Show →
Time-overcurrent plot. This will open a list of previously defined over current plots from which any one
can be selected to add the selected device to.

Note: To show the relay locations and thus to visualise cubicles containing relays, you can set the
colour representation of the single-line diagram to Relay Locations. If one of these locations is
then right-clicked, the option Show → Time-overcurrent plot is available.

33.4.2 Understanding the time-overcurrent plot

The time-overcurrent plot shows the following characteristics:

• Time-current characteristics of relays;

• Time-current characteristics of fuses, including optionally the minimum and maximum clearing
time;
• Damage curves of transformers, lines and cables;
• Motor starting curves; and
• The currents calculated by a short-circuit or load-flow analysis and the resulting tripping times of
the relays.
• If defined from a path, then the simplified single line graphic showing the main power system
objects, the protection devices and instrumentation transformers is displayed on the left of the
diagram.
See Figure 33.4.1 for an example.

33.4.3 Showing the calculation results on the time-overcurrent plot

The time-overcurrent plot shows the results of the short-circuit or load-flow analysis automatically as a
vertical ’x-value’ line through the graph. Because the current ’seen’ by each device could be different

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(due to parallel paths, meshed networks etc), a current line is drawn for each device that measures
a unique current. If the intersection of the calculated current with the time-overcurrent characteristic
causes the shown characteristic to trip, then the intersection is labelled with the tripping time. These
lines automatically update when a new load-flow or short-circuit calculation is completed.

33.4.4 Displaying the grading margins

To show a ’grading margin’ line, which shows the difference between the tripping times of each protec-
tion device:

1. After executing the calculation, right-click on the time-overcurrent plot. A context sensitive menu
will appear.

2. Select the option Show Grading Margins. A dialog box will appear.
3. Enter the desired position of the vertical line in the ’Value’ field. Note this can later be adjusted by
dragging with the mouse.
4. Optional: Adjust the curve Colour, Width and Style to your preferences.

5. Optional: Choose the ’type’ of the current from the radio selection control.
6. Optional: Select ’User-defined’ and enter a custom label for the curve.
7. Press OK to show the grading margins on the plot. An example with the grading margins shown
using the default blue coloured curve is shown in Figure 33.4.2

Figure 33.4.2: Time-overcurrent plot with grading margins displayed in blue

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Note: The displayed grading margins shown by this method are the calculated grading margins based
on the relay settings and the calculated current. ’Predicted’ grading margins can also be shown
when dragging the sub-characteristics to alter the settings. Refer to Section 33.4.9.2.

33.4.5 Adding a user defined permanent current line to the time-overcurrent

plot

There are two ways to create a permanent vertical line on the time-overcurrent plot:

1. From any existing calculated short-circuit or load-flow calculated line:

(a) Right-click the line. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Choose the option Set user defined. The line will now remain on the diagram when the
calculation is reset or another calculation is completed.
(c) Optional: Double-click the user defined line to edit its colour, width, style and alter the
displayed label.
(d) Optional: It is possible to drag the line using the mouse to alter its position on the diagram.
2. A new line not based on an existing calculation:
(a) Right-click the time-overcurrent plot avoiding clicking on any existing curve or characteristic.
(b) Choose the option Set Constant → x-Value. A dialog will appear that allows you to configure
the properties of the line.
(c) Optional: Adjust the line properties such as width, colour, style and set a user defined label.
(d) Press OK to add the line to the diagram.

33.4.6 Configuring the auto generated protection diagram

The auto-generated protection diagram that is created when a time-overcurrent diagram is generated
from the protection path (see option 5 in Section 33.4.1) can also be manually adjusted by the user.

To edit this graphic:

1. Right-click the protection diagram within the time-overcurrent plot;

2. Select the option Edit graphic in new Tab. A single line graphic showing the diagram will appear in
a new tab. The diagram can be edited like a regular PowerFactory single line diagram and it will
automatically update in the time-overcurrent plot following any changes.

33.4.7 Overcurrent plot options

To access the time-overcurrent plot settings, either:

1. Right-click the time-overcurrent plot and select Options; or

2. Double-click the time-overcurrent plot and click Options underneath the Cancel button in the
displayed dialog.

33.4.7.1 Basic options page

The basic options page of the time-overcurrent options dialog shows the following:

Current Unit. The current unit may be set to either primary or secondary (relay) amperes.

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Show Relays. This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics. For example,
you might want to display only earth-fault relays on the diagram and ignore phase fault characteristics.
This could be done be selecting the ’Earth Relays’ option.

Characteristic. This option defines whether the displayed curves also show the curves including the
additional circuit breaker delays. The default option All shows both the minimum clearing time (not
including the breaker delay) and the total clearing time (including the breaker delay). It is possible also
to display just one of these curves. An example is highlighted in Figure 33.4.2. Note that the breaker
delay time is specified in the basic data of the switch type TypSwitch.

Recloser Operation. The different recloser stages can be shown simultaneously or switched off in the
diagram.

Display automatically. This option is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short-circuit
currents will be displayed. Either the current lines, the grading margins, both or none may be selected.

Consider Breaker Opening Time. This option determines whether the relay characteristics will also
include the breaker (switch) operating time.

Voltage Reference Axis. More than one current axis may be shown, based on different voltage levels.
All voltage levels found in the path when a time overcurrent plot is constructed are shown by default. A
user defined voltage level may be added. Optionally, only the user defined voltage level is shown.

Cut Curves at. This option determines the maximum extent of the displayed characteristics. For the
default option - - - - - - - - - - - - -, the displayed curves continue past the calculated short-circuit or load-
flow current to the full extent of the defined characteristic. If the option Tripping current is selected, only
the part of the curve less than the tripping current as determined by the active calculation is displayed.
The third option, Max. Short-Circuit/Rated Breaking Current means the curves will be displayed to the
extent of the maximum current defined within the Max/Min Fault Currents page within the protection
device as described in section 33.3.2 or alternatively to the rated breaking current of the associated
circuit breaker if this is lower.

Show Grading Margins while Drag&Drop. When dragging curves, the grading margins of the curve
will be shown according to the margin entered. Refer to Section 33.4.9.2 for more information on grading
margins when dragging the time-overcurrent characteristics.

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Figure 33.4.3: time-overcurrent plot showing an overcurrent characteristic including also the breaker
delay time.

33.4.7.2 Advanced options page

Drag & Drop Step Sizes. These are used to set the step change in the relay settings when a time-
overcurrent plot is dragged with a continuous time dial or pickup current. Time Range for Damage
Curves. This option defines the maximum and minimum time limits for the transformer and line damage
curves.

’Colour for Out of Service’ Units. The characteristics for units that are out of service are invisible by
default. However, a visible colour may be selected. Brush Style for Fuses. This defines the fill style
for fuse curves when they have a minimum and maximum melting time defined.

Number of points per curve. The number of plotted points per curve can be increased to show
additional detail, or reduced to speed up the drawing of the diagram.

Thermal Image, Pre-fault Current. In some time-overcurrent relay characteristics, the tripping time is
dependent on the pre-fault current. This box allows the user to enter a custom value for the pre-fault
current, or to use the automatically calculated load-flow current.

33.4.8 Altering protection device characteristic settings from the time-overcurrent

plot

The time-overcurrent plots can be used to alter the relay characteristics graphically. This section
describes various procedures used to alter such characteristics.

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33.4.9 How to split the relay/fuse characteristic

Often a complete relay characteristic is determined from a combination of two or more sub-characteristics.
For example, an overcurrent relay often has a time-overcurrent characteristic designed to operate for
low fault currents and overloads and a definite time characteristic that is typically set for high fault
currents. To alter relay characteristics graphically, every protection device must first be ’split’ so that
all characteristics are visible on the time-overcurrent plot. Figure 33.4.4 shows an example of such an
overcurrent relay before it is split (left plot) and after it is split (right plot).

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(a) Unsplit

(b) Split

Figure 33.4.4: Overcurrent relay characteristics in the time-overcurrent plot

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There are two methods to split a relay to show the sub-characteristics:

1. Method 1:
(a) Right-click the characteristic. The context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Select the option Split.
2. Method 2:
(a) Double-click the time-overcurrent plot avoiding any shown characteristics.
(b) On the lower table section of the displayed dialog check the Split Relay box next to the relays
and fuses that need to be split.
(c) Click OK to close the dialog.

Note: Fuses can also be split! When a fuse is split, the fuse characteristic can be dragged with the
mouse to automatically change the fuse type to another fuse within the same library level.

33.4.9.1 Altering the sub-characteristics

The first step is to Split the relay characteristic. See Section 33.4.9. After this there are two different
methods to alter the relay sub-characteristics:

1. By left clicking and dragging the characteristic.

(a) Drag to the left to reduce the current setting or to the right to increase the current setting.
(b) Drag to the top to increase the time setting or to the bottom to decrease the time setting.

2. By double-clicking a characteristic.
(a) Double click the target characteristic. A dialog for that characteristic will appear.
(b) Enter time and current numerical settings directly in the available fields.
(c) Optional: For time-overcurrent characteristics, the curve type (very inverse, standard inverse,
extremely inverse) can also be selected.

Note: Relay sub-characteristics cannot be dragged to positions outside the range defined within the
relay type, nor can they be dragged diagonally to simultaneously alter the time and current setting.

33.4.9.2 Showing grading margins during characteristic adjustment

The time-overcurrent plot option dialog (33.4.7), has an option for showing the grading margins. When
this option is enabled, the grading margins will appear whenever a time-overcurrent sub-characteristic is
dragged. These are represented as grey characteristics above and below the main sub-characteristic.
The upper limit is defined by the characteristic operating time plus the grading margin and the lower limit
of the envelope is defined by the characteristic operating time minus the grading margin. An example
is illustrated in Figure 33.4.5. The original characteristic is labelled “1”, the new position as “2”, and the
grading margins are labelled “a”.

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Figure 33.4.5: Grading margins when Moving a characteristic

33.4.10 Equipment damage curves

Equipment damage curves are used to aid the positioning of relay and fuse time-current characteristics
to ensure that thermal damage to equipment is minimised in the event of an overload or short-circuit.

The following types of damage curves exist:

• Conductor damage curve

• Transformer damage curve
• Motor starting curve

33.4.10.1 How to add equipment damage curves to the time-overcurrent plot

There are two methods to add damage curves to an time-overcurrent plot.

1. Method 1:
(a) Right-click a transformer, line or asynchronous machine object. A context sensitive menu will
appear.
(b) Select (Show → Time-overcurrent plot).

2. Method 2:
(a) Right-click on an existing time-overcurrent plot, in an area of the plot which does not already
contain a characteristic. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Select (Add → Transformer Damage Curve / Conductor/Cable Damage curve / Motor starting
curve). A dialog with options for configuring the damage curve will appear. See Sec-
tions 33.4.10.2, 33.4.10.3 and 33.4.10.4.

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33.4.10.2 Transformer damage curves

In the transformer damage curve dialog the user is able to add a damage curve in accordance with
ANSI/IEEE C57.109. This standard differentiates between the damage curve of a transformer which is
expected to be subjected to frequent faults and one that is subjected to infrequent faults. In the former
case, mechanical damage at high short circuit levels can be of significant concern. For category II
and III transformers in particular, accounting for mechanical damage, significantly alters the damage
characteristic of the transformer. An example of a time-overcurrent plot with two relay characteristics
and a category II transformer damage curve for a transformer subjected to frequent faults is shown in
Figure 33.4.6. The mechanical damage characteristic is ringed in the figure.

If the user wishes to define an alternative damage curve this can be achieved by selecting User Defined
curve → New project type, in the dialog.

Figure 33.4.6: Transformer damage curve

The transformer damage curve consists of four parts.

Rated Current Curve

The rated current curve represents the nominal operation limits of the transformer. For a three phase
transformer it can be calculated as:

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 = √ (33.1)
3· 𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑡

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the transformer [A]

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𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated apparent power of the transformer [kVA]

𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated voltage of the transformer [kV ]

Thermal and Mechanical Damage Curve

The thermal and mechanical damage curve represents the maximum amount of (short-circuit) current
the transformer can withstand for a given amount of time without taking damage. The transformer is
classified into one of four possible groups, depending on its rated apparent power and the insulation
type (see Table 33.4.1). Dry-type transformers can only be category I or II.

Classification Three-Phase Single-Phase

Category I 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 0.5𝑀 𝑉 𝐴 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 0.5𝑀 𝑉 𝐴
Category II 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 5.0𝑀 𝑉 𝐴 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 1.667𝑀 𝑉 𝐴
Category III 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 30.0𝑀 𝑉 𝐴 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 ≤ 10.0𝑀 𝑉 𝐴
Category IV 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 > 30.0𝑀 𝑉 𝐴 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 > 10.0𝑀 𝑉 𝐴

Table 33.4.1: Categories for Transformers

The thermal damage part of the curve is identical for all categories of the respective insulation type
and is shown in Table 33.4.2. (taken from IEEE Standards Board, IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed
Transformer Through-Fault-Current Duration, New York: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Inc., 1993. and IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current Duration, New
York: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 2002. )

Liquid-Immersed Dry-Type
𝐼/𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑡[𝑠] 𝐼/𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑡[𝑠]
25 2 25 2
11.3 10 3.5 102
6.3 30
4.75 60
3 300
2 1800

Table 33.4.2: Thermal Withstand Capabilities

ANSI Mechanical Damage Curve

The mechanical part of the ANSI damage curve is only available for transformers of category II and
higher. For transformers of categories II and III this part is optional and depends on expected number
of fault currents flowing through the transformer over the transformers lifetime. Typically the mechanical
part should be considered if the transformer is expected to carry fault current more than 10 (category
II) or 5 (category III) times during its lifecycle. For category IV transformers the mechanical part of the
curve is always considered. See IEEE Standards Board, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection
and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, New York: The Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers, Inc., 1999, Page 426.

The mechanical part of the damage curve is a shifted part of the thermal damage curve. The three
points necessary to draw the mechanical damage curve can be calculated as follows:

1
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · ; 𝑡1 = 2,0𝑠 (33.2)
𝑢𝑘

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𝑐𝑓 𝐾 𝐼1 2 · 𝑡1 2,0𝑠
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · ; 𝑡2 = 2 = = (33.3)
𝑢𝑘 𝐼2 𝐼2 2 𝑐𝑓 2

𝐼3 = 𝐼2 ; 𝑡3 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the transformer [A]

𝑢𝑘 short-circuit voltage of the transformer [%]

𝐼
𝑘 heating constant with 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · 𝑡 = 𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

𝑐𝑓 fault current factor [-] −𝑐𝑓 = 70 for category II and 𝑐𝑓 = 50 for categories III and IV

ANSI Curve Shift

The damage curve is based on a three phase short-circuit on the LV-side of the transformer. In case
of unbalanced faults (Ph-Ph, Ph-E, Ph-Ph-E) the phase current on the HV side may be distributed over
multiple phases, depending on the vector group of the transformer. The standard (IEEE Standards
Board, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems, New York: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., 1999.) therefore
suggests to multiply the rated current of the transformer by a shifting factor, thus enabling the engineer
to archive proper protection of a transformer for unbalanced faults. While the shift is only applicable
for “Dyn” vector-groups (according to the cited standard) and single-phase to ground faults, the same
principle of current reduction on the HV side also applies to other vector groups. The resulting shifting
factors and the corresponding fault type can be taken from Table 33.4.3.

Vector Group(s) Shift Factor Fault Type

Dd 0,87 Ph-Ph
Dyn/Dzn 0,58 Ph-E
Yyn/Zyn/Zzn 0,67 Ph-E

Table 33.4.3: ANSI Curve Shift Factors

IEC Mechanical Damage Curve

The mechanical part of the IEC damage curve is only available for the element specific damage curve
and consists of one point only [10]:

1
𝐼(2,0𝑠) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · (33.4)
𝑢𝑘

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the transformer [A]

𝑢𝑘 short-circuit to nominal current ratio [%]

Cold load curve

The cold load curve represents the maximum amount of current a transformer can withstand for a short-
time (typically several minutes) before taking damage. The curve is specific for each transformer and
the supplied loads and has to be provided by the user as a series of (I/t) pairs.

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Inrush peak current curve

The inrush curve represents the amount of current which flows into the transformer when the transformer
is energised. The curve is represented by a straight line between the following two points:

[1]
[1] 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼(𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · (33.5)
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

[2]
[2] 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼(𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · (33.6)
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the transformer [A]

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 inrush current to nominal current ratio [-]

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠 inrush duration [s]

Note: If only one of the two points is given, only this point is drawn.

Three Winding Transformers

The transformer damage curve can be used for 3-winding transformers. On the protection page of
the element, a drop-down box is available which allows the user to select which set of values (HV-MV
(default), HV-LV, MV-LV) should be used to calculate the curve. The equations remain identical, as there
are normally only two windings within a coordination path.

33.4.10.3 Conductor/cable damage curves

The conductor damage curve consists of four parts; a rated current curve, a short-time withstand curve,
a long time overload curve and an inrush curve. These components are discussed in the following text.

Rated Current Curve

The rated current curve represents the nominal operation limits of the conductor.

𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 (33.7)

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the line [A]

Short-Time Withstand Curve

The short-time withstand curve represents the maximum amount of (short-circuit) current the conductor
can withstand for short time periods (typically 1s) without taking damage.

There are two separate equations for this curve, both are drawn for 0.1s ≤ t ≤ 10s

Using the rated short-time withstand current:

√︂
𝑇𝑡ℎ𝑟
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟 · (33.8)
𝑡

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 33.4. THE TIME-OVERCURRENT PLOT

Where:

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟 rated short-time current of the line [A]

𝑇𝑡ℎ𝑟 rated short-time duration of the [s]

Using material data (only available for the generic type):

𝐹𝑎𝑐 · 𝑘 · 𝐴
𝐼(𝑡) = √ (33.9)
𝑡

Where:

𝐹𝑎 lateral conductivity [-]

𝐴 conductor cross-sectional area [𝑚𝑚2 /𝑘𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙]

√ √
𝐴 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠
𝑘 conductor/insulation parameter [ 𝑚𝑚 2 / 𝑚𝑚2 𝑘𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙]

The conductor/insulation parameter can be provided by the user or calculated according to the stan-
dards equations as follows:

IEC/VDE equations [27]:

√︂
𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖
𝑘 = 𝑐1 · ln(1 + ) (33.10)
𝑐2 + 𝜃𝑖

ANSI/IEEE equations [3]:

√︂
𝜃𝑓 + 𝑐2
𝑘= 𝑐1 · log (33.11)
𝜃𝑖 + 𝑐2

Where:

𝑐1 material constant [-]

𝑐2 material constant [-]

𝜃𝑓 max. short-circuit temperature [∘ C]

𝜃𝑖 initial temperature [∘ C]

Note: Both equations for the conductor/insulation parameter are slightly adapted (from the original form
in the standards) to fit into the same form of equation.

The values for the material constants can be taken from the table below.

Standard IEC/VDE ANSI/IEEE

Conductor Material Copper Aluminium Copper Aluminium
𝑐1 226 148 0.0297 0.0125
𝑐2 234.5 228 234 228

Table 33.4.4: Material Constants for Short-Term Withstand Calculation

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The initial temperature and final temperature 𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑓 mainly depend upon the insulation of the
conductor. The initial temperature is usually the maximum allowable continuous current temperature,
whilst the final temperature is the maximum allowable short circuit temperature. Typical values for 𝜃𝑖
and 𝜃𝑓 are given in table 33.4.5.

Cable insulation Initial Final

and type temperature temperature
(∘ C) (∘ C)
Paper
1-6kV: belted 80 160
10-15kV: belted 65 160
10-15kV: screened 70 160
20-30kV: screened 65 160
PVC: 1 and 3kV
Up to 300mm2 70 160
Over 300mm2 70 140
XLPE and EPR 90 250

Table 33.4.5: Typical cable initial temperature and final temperature values (data from the BICC Electric
Cables Handbook 3rd edition)

The option User Defined may also be selected in the Calculate K field of the dialog, allowing the user
to enter a value for K manually. The dialog for doing this is illustrated in Figure 33.4.7.

Figure 33.4.7: Conductor/Cable damage curve

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 33.4. THE TIME-OVERCURRENT PLOT

Alternatively, rated short-circuit current and time may be entered if Rated Short-Time Current is entered
as the input method.

If the user wishes to define an alternative conductor/cable damage curve this can be achieved by
selecting User Defined curve → New project type.

Skin effect ratio or ac/dc ratio is a constant as defined in the NEC electrical code. The value is used
when carrying out calculations to IEEE/ANSI standards and is not typically referred to by IEC/VDE
standards. However, the user is given the option to specify this value when using either set of standards.

Long time overload curve

The overload page allows the user to define the overload characteristic of the conductor. If an overload
characteristic is required, it is necessary to ensure that the Draw Overload Curve checkbox is selected.

The user then has the option to define the overload curve according to ANSI/IEEE standards by
selecting the relevant checkbox. The equation used is as follows:

⎯ (︁ )︁2
⎸ 𝑡
⎸ 𝑇𝐸 −𝑇0 − 𝐼0 · 𝑒− 𝑘
𝐼𝐸 ⎷ 𝑇𝑁 −𝑇0 𝐼𝑁 𝑇𝑀 + 𝑇𝑁
= 𝑡 · (33.12)
𝐼𝑟 𝑎𝑡 1− 𝑒− 𝑘 𝑇𝑀 + 𝑇𝐸

Where,

𝐼𝐸 = Max overload temperature [∘ C]

𝐼𝑁 = Rated Current [A]

𝐼0 = Preload current [A]

𝑇𝐸 = Max overload temperature [∘ C]

𝑇𝑁 = Max operating temperature [∘ C]

𝑇0 = Ambient temperature [∘ C]

𝑇𝑀 = Zero resistance temperature value [-] (234 for copper, 228 for aluminium)

𝑘 = time constant of the conductor dependant on cable size and installation type [s]

Note that the value for TM is derived from the material assigned in the short circuit page which is only
visible when the field calculate k is set to ANSI/IEEE or IEC/VDE.

If the checkbox is left unchecked the equation used is as follows:

⎯ (︁ )︁2
⎸ 𝑡
⎸ 1 − 𝐼0 · 𝑒− 𝑘
𝐼𝐸 ⎷ 𝐼𝑁
= 𝑡 (33.13)
𝐼𝑁 1 − 𝑒− 𝑘

Where the variables are the same as in the previous equation. A constant designated as tau is
requested in the dialog. This is identical to the constant k except k has units of hours, while tau has
units of seconds.

Inrush Curve

The inrush curve represents the amount of current that will flow into the conductor when the conductor
is energised. The curve consists of one point only.

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 33.4. THE TIME-OVERCURRENT PLOT

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼(𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · (33.14)
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the line or the damage curve input value [A]
𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 inrush current to nominal current ratio [-]

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ inrush duration [s]

33.4.10.4 Motor starting curves

A motor starting curve is illustrated consists of two separate components, a starting curve and a damage
curve. This section describes the equations and references underpinning the two curves.

The characteristic currents and durations given in the edit dialog result in a step wise motor start current
plot, as depicted in Figure 33.4.8.

Figure 33.4.8: The motor start curve

Motor starting curve equations

This section describes the underlying equations and references the respective standards.

Note: The equations in this section are given with respect to the rated current of the equipment. For
the correct drawing in the overcurrent plot, the currents will be rated to the reference voltage of

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 33.4. THE TIME-OVERCURRENT PLOT

the plot.
𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · (33.15)
𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑓

The motor starting curve consists of three parts; a rated current curve, the motor starting curve and the
motor inrush curve.

Rated Current Curve

The rated current curve represents the nominal operation limits of the motor and is drawn for 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 < t.

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 = (33.16)
𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑡

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current time of the motor [A]

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated apparent power (electrical) of the motor [kVA]

𝑈𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated voltage of the motor [kV ]

𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 starting time of the motor [s]

Motor Starting Curve

The motor starting curve represents the maximum amount of current that will flow into the motor while
it accelerates. The curve is drawn for 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ < t ≤ 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 :

𝐼𝑙𝑟
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 = (33.17)
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the motor [A]

𝐼𝑙𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 ratio of locked rotor current to nominal current of the motor [-]

𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 starting time of the motor [s]

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ inrush duration [s]

Motor Inrush Curve

The motor inrush curve represents the amount of current that will flow into the motor when it is ener-
gised. The curve is drawn from 0,01 s ≤ t ≤ 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ :

𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 = (33.18)
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where:

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 33.5. BASICS OF A DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEME

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the motor [A]

𝐼𝑡𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 ratio of inrush current to nominal current of the motor [-]

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ inrush duration [s]

Motor Damage Curve

The motor damage curve represents the maximum amount of current the motor can withstand for a
given time without taking damage. There are two curves available, one representing the damage
characteristic of the cold motor, one representing the damage characteristic of the hot motor. The
hot curve must be lower than the cold curve. The curve would actually follow an inverse current-time
characteristic but is reduced to a vertical line to indicate the damage region without cluttering the plot.
The motor damage curve is drawn from 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 ≤ t ≤ 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 :

𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 · 𝐼𝑙𝑟 (33.19)

Where:

𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡 rated current of the motor [A]

𝐼𝑙𝑟 ratio of locked rotor current to rated current of the motor [-]

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 stall time for the hot motor [s]

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 stall time for the cold motor [s]

Synchronous Motors

The motor starting curve can be created for synchronous motors. Since synchronous motors are
started in asynchronous operation, the curve is identical to the asynchronous motor starting curve.
The parameter mapping for the synchronous machine is as follows:

Motor Starting Asynchronous Synchronous

Curve Motor Motor
Parameter Parameter Parameter
Rated Power Srat t:sgn t:sgn
Rated Voltage Urat t:ugn t:ugn
Locked Rotor aiazn t:aiazn 1 / (t:xdsss)
Current (Ilr/In)

Table 33.4.6: Synchronous Motor Parameter Mapping

Note: By default the subtransient reactance (t:xdss) is used. If the flag “Use saturated values” in the
machine type is set, the saturated subtransient reactance (t:xdsss) is used.

33.5 Basics of a distance protection scheme

Section 33.2.2, explains the procedure to setup a protection device in PowerFactory. When a new
device is created within a network model there are a number of parameters to define in the dialog which
appears. This section will describe the basic steps that should be completed in order to specify these

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parameters for distance protection relays. In many cases the setup is similar to overcurrent relay and
consequently only the main differences are highlighted in this section.

The following sections, 33.6 and 33.8 will cover the main graphical tools used for distance protection
analysis in PowerFactory.

33.5.1 Distance relay model setup - basic data page

The basic data page in the relay model (ElmRelay ) dialog is where the basic configuration of the relay
is completed. The procedure is the same as that used for setting up the over-current relay. Refer to
Section 33.3.1.

33.5.2 Primary or secondary Ohm selection for distance relay parameters

It is always possible to enter the reach setting/s of the distance mho (refer Section 33.5.3.3) and distance
polygon (refer Section 33.5.3.4) blocks in terms of primary Ohms or secondary Ohms. However, for the
purpose of the respective block types, and specifying the valid settings range, one of these quantities
must be configured as the default mode. Normally this is secondary Ohms, however some relays may
allow this to be primary Ohms and hence in PowerFactory it is possible to alter the default option. To do
this:

1. Go to the Advanced data page of the relay type.

2. Choose either Secondary Ohm or Primary Ohm.
3. Press OK to close the relay type.

There is another feature that is enabled if the Primary Ohm option is selected. This is the overriding of
the CT and VT ratio determined from the selected VT and CT automatically with custom settings. To do
this:

1. Enable the Primary Ohm option for impedance ranges as described above.
2. Select the Current/Voltage Transformer page of the relay element.
3. Click Set CT/VT ratio.
4. Enter the updated parameters of the CTs and VTs.

This feature could be used for instance to quickly see the effect of altering the CT or VT ratio without
having to modify the PowerFactory CT and VT objects.

33.5.3 Basic relay blocks used for distance protection

The following sections provide a brief overview of some of the basic protection blocks that can be
found within distance relays in PowerFactory. Some of the protection blocks such as the measurement
block, logic block, directional, and overcurrent blocks that were discussed in Section 33.3.7 are also
used within distance relays. Consequently, this section only discusses those blocks that are unique
to distance relays. By necessity, this manual only provides a brief high level overview of the blocks.
For more information on these blocks please refer to the protection devices section of the Technical
References Overview Document.

33.5.3.1 The polarising block

The purpose of the “Polarising” block is to provide “polarising” current and voltage signals to the distance
protection zones (either Mho or Polygonal). The block takes as input the following signals:

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• Real and imaginary components of the three phase currents and voltages;
• Real and imaginary components of the zero sequence currents; and

• Optional: Real and imaginary components of the mutual zero sequence currents;
It produces as output:
• Real and imaginary components of the three phase-phase operating currents;
• Real and imaginary components of the three phase-ground operating currents;

• Real and imaginary components of the polarising phase-phase voltages;

• Real and imaginary components of the polarising phase-ground voltages;
• Real and imaginary components of the operating phase-phase voltages; and

• Real and imaginary components of the operating phase-ground voltages;

The calculation of the above components depends on the configuration of the block and the polarisation
method selected. The currently supported polarisation methods are:

• Voltage, Self

• Voltage, Cross (Quadrature)

• Voltage, Cross (Quad L-L)
• Positive Sequence

• Self, ground compensated

Further to this, polarising blocks allow for settings of earth fault (𝑘0) and mutual earth fault (𝑘0𝑚)
compensation parameters to be applied if these features are available in the relay model.

The user can click the Assume k0 button to automatically set the zero sequence compensation factor
of the polarising block to match the calculated factor for the protected zone.

33.5.3.2 The starting block

The starting block is used exclusively in distance relays as a means to detect fault conditions. It can be
configured to send a starting signal to protection blocks that accept such a signal. This includes Mho,
Polygonal and timer blocks. The fault detection method can be based on overcurrent or impedance.
Also, both phase fault and earth fault detection is supported by the block.

33.5.3.3 The distance mho block

Distance protection using mho characteristics is the traditional method of impedance based protection
and was initially developed in electro-mechanical relays. Today, such characteristics are also supported
by numerical protection relays primarily for compatibility with these older units but also because most
protection engineers are inherently familiar with mho based protection. PowerFactory supports the
following types of mho characteristics:
• Impedance
• Impedance (digital)
• Impedance Offset

• Mho
• Mho Offset Mta

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• Mho Offset X
• Mho Offset Generic

• Mho Offset 2 X
• Asea RAKZB Mho Offset
From the user perspective, the type of characteristic used by the block is dependent on the type, and the
user does not normally need to be concerned with its selection from the RelDismho dialog, an example
of which is shown in Figure 33.5.1.

Figure 33.5.1: Distance mho block

The user is required simply to enter the settings for the replica impedance, either in secondary or
primary Ohms, and the relay angle.

The block also shows the impedance characteristics of the branch that it is protecting and the effective
reach of the relay in the Impedances section at the bottom of the dialog.

Note: The displayed impedance shown in blue text at the bottom of the mho block indicates the
impedance of the primary protection zone. This could be a single PowerFactory line element
or multiple line elements. PowerFactory automatically completes a topological search until it finds
the next terminal with type “busbar”, or a terminal inside a substation, or another protection device.
If the “protected zone” consists of multiple parallel paths, the displayed impedance is the one, out
of all branches, with the largest impedance.

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The distance mho block does not have a time dial internally, instead it is connected to an external
timer block (refer Section 33.5.3.5) that controls the tripping time of the zone. However, the timer block
associated with the particular mho zone can be conveniently accessed by clicking the Timer button.

If the Timer button of a zone is greyed out, this means there is no timer block directly connected to the
zone. This could be the case if the zone is designed for instantaneous tripping.

33.5.3.4 The distance polygon block

Most modern numerical distance protection relays tend to support a so-called polygonal (also called
a quadrilateral) characteristic. The benefit of such characteristics is that they allow the definition of
independent resistive and reactive reaches. In particular, the ability to specify a large resistive reach is
a benefit for protecting against resistive faults.

Many modern relays also support other sophisticated features such as tilting polygons and double
directional elements to constrain the impedance characteristic to a more specific area. In fact, there is
not really such a thing as a standard polygonal characteristic with each manufacturer generally using
a slightly different, although often similar philosophy. Consequently, the PowerFactory polygonal block
has been designed to support a range of different characteristics including:

• Quadrilateral
• Quadrilateral Offset
• Polygonal (90°)
• Polygonal (+R, +X)
• Polygonal (Beta)
• Siemens (R, X)
• Quadrilateral (Z)
• ABB (R, X)
• ASEA RAZFE
• Quad (Beta)
• Quad Offset (Siemens 7SL32)
• EPAC Quadrilateral
• GE Quadrilateral (Z)

As for the mho block, the user does not usually need to be concerned with the selection of the correct
characteristic as this is specified by the type and would have been defined by the developer of the relay
model.

An example of the dialog for the polygonal (beta) characteristic in PowerFactory is shown in Fig-
ure 33.5.2. In this case, the block is required to set the direction, the X reach, the R resistance, the X
angle, the Relay Angle and -R Ratio. Like the mho block, the timer for the zone can be easily accessed
through the Timer button.

The Impedance section at the bottom of the dialog shows the reach of the zone in absolute values, as
well as relative to the element directly connected to the cubicle where the relay is defined. The R and X
values of this element are also shown as a reference for the setup of the zone.

Note: One major difference between a polygonal block and a mho block is that the polygonal block
always requires a separate directional block. There is a convenient Directional Unit button that
gives access to the relevant directional unit directly from the polygonal dialog.

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Figure 33.5.2: Distance polygon block (Polygonal (Beta))

33.5.3.5 The timer block

In distance relay models, the timer block is used to either control the tripping time of distance polygon
blocks or to implement other time delays in the relay that cannot be implemented within a specific block.

The block has relatively simplistic functionality for steady state simulations, but can be configured also
as an output hold or a reset delay in time domain simulations. The block settings can be implemented
as a time delay in seconds, or as a cycle delay. If the timer block is used to control a distance polygon,
the delay can be started with a signal from the starting block.

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33.5.3.6 The load encroachment block

Many modern numerical distance protection relays include a so-called load encroachment feature. In
PowerFactory four types of load encroachment characteristics are supported:
• Schweitzer
• Siemens
• ABB

• GE
Most types of load encroachment can be supported by using a block with one of these characteristics.

The user does normally not need to concern themselves with selecting the appropriate characteristic
because this will have already been selected by the relay model developer. In this block the user is only
required to set reach and angle.

33.5.3.7 The power swing and out of step block

In PowerFactory the power swing block can be configured to trigger power swing blocking of distance
zones and to trip the relay when detecting out of step conditions. One or both of these functions can be
enabled in this block.

A power swing blocking condition is detected by starting a timer when the impedance trajectory crosses
an outer polygonal characteristic. If a declared time (usually two - three cycles) expires before the
trajectory crosses a second inner polygonal characteristic zone, then a power swing is declared and the
relay issues a blocking command to distance elements in the relay. The obvious potential downside to
this feature is that there is the potential to block tripping of distance zones for real faults. Fortunately,
the impedance trajectory for most real faults would cross the outer and inner zones of the power swing
characteristic nearly instantaneously and thus the timer would not expire and the zones would remain
unblocked.

The second function of the power swing block is the detection of unstable power swings and the issuing
of a trip command - this is known as out of step or loss of synchronism protection. Figure 33.5.3 shows
a typical power swing blocking characteristic in red, a stable power swing impedance trajectory in green
and an unstable power swing trajectory in blue. The difference between these two characteristics is that
the stable swing enters and exits the impedance characteristic on the same side, whereas the unstable
swing exits on the opposite side. Logic can be used to detect these different conditions and thereby
issue a trip when the unstable swing is detected.

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Figure 33.5.3: Stable (green) and unstable (blue) power swings

The power swing area can be configured using internal polygonal characteristics of which the ABB
and Siemens types are supported. Or alternatively, it can also be configured with external impedance
elements that provide inner zone and outer zone tripping signals to the power swing block.

Note: Out of step protection can also be configured with mho elements instead of polygonal elements.

The basic options of the power swing block are as follows:

PS. No. of Phases. Typically a power swing requires the impedance trajectories of all three phases to
pass through the outer and inner zones to declare an out of step condition. However, in some
relays this parameter is configurable.
Blocking configuration This parameter has three options:
• Selecting All Zones means that a power swing blocking signal will be sent to all distance
zones.
• Selecting Z1 means that a power swing blocking signal will be sent to only Z1 elements.
• Selecting Z1 & Z2 will send a power swing blocking signal to Z1 and Z2 distance elements
only.
• Selecting >= Z2 will send a blocking signal to all zones except zone 1.
Out of Step Checking this box enables the out of step tripping function, unchecking it disables it.
OOS No. of Crossings This field configures how many crossings of the impedance characteristic must
occur before an out of step trip is issued. For example, the blue trajectory in Figure 33.5.3 is
counted as one crossing.

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33.5.3.8 The distance directional block

The distance directional block is used by the polygonal blocks for determining the direction of the fault
and also constraining the characteristic. In PowerFactory several types of distance directional blocks
are supported:
• Earth
• Phase-Phase

• 3-Phase
• Multifunctional
• Multifunctional (digital)
• Siemens (Multi)

• ABB (Multi)

33.6 The impedance plot (R-X diagram)

The impedance or R-X plot shows the impedance characteristics of distance protection relays in the R-X
plane. Furthermore, the plot also shows the impedance characteristic of the network near the protection
relays displayed on the diagram. The plot is also “interactive” and can be used to alter the settings of
the distance zones directly, thus making it a useful tool for checking or determining optimal settings for
distance relays.

33.6.1 How to create an R-X diagram

There are three different methods to create an R-X diagram in PowerFactory. You can create this plot
by right clicking the cubicle, the protection device or the protection path. These methods are explained
in further detail in the following sections.

1. From the cubicle:

(a) Right-click a cubicle where a distance relay is installed. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Select the option Create R-X Plot. PowerFactory will create an R-X diagram on a new page
showing the active characteristics for all relays in the selected cubicle.
2. From the relay element in the Data Manager (or other tabular list):
(a) Right-click the relay icon. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Select the option Show → R-X Plot. PowerFactory will create an R-X diagram on a new page
showing the active impedance characteristics of this relay.

3. From the protection path:

(a) Right-click an element which belongs to a protection path. A context sensitive menu will
appear.
(b) Select Path. . . → R-X Plot from the context-sensitive menu. PowerFactory will create an
R-X diagram on a new page showing the active characteristics for all relays in the selected
path.

In the first two methods, it is also possible to select the option Add to R-X Plot instead of Show → R-X
Plot. This will open a list of previously defined R-X Plots from which any one can be selected to add the
selected device characteristics to.

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33.6.2 Understanding the R-X diagram

An example R-X diagram with two relays is shown in Figure 33.6.1. Shown on the plot is:

• The active zone impedance characteristics for each relay.

• The impedance characteristic of the network near the relay location - shown as a dashed line.
• The location of other distance relays nearby - shown as solid coloured lines perpendicular to the
network characteristic.
• The calculated impedances for each fault loop from the polarising blocks in each relay (shown as
lightning bolts on the plot and also as values within the coloured legends).
• The detected fault type as determined by the starting elements (shown in the coloured legend).
Note, this is not enabled by default, see Section 33.6.3.5 for instructions how to enable this.
• The tripping time of each zone (shown in the coloured legend). Note this is not enabled by default,
see Section 33.6.3.5 for instructions how to enable this.
• The overall tripping time of each relay (shown in the coloured legend).

Figure 33.6.1: A R-X plot with short-circuit results and two relays

Note the information shown on the plot can be configured by altering the settings of the R-X plot. Refer
to Section 33.6.3).

33.6.3 Configuring the R-X plot

There are several ways to alter the appearance of the R-X diagram. Many configuration parameters can
be adjusted by right-clicking the plot and using the context sensitive menu. Alternatively, double-clicking

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the plot avoiding the selection of any characteristics showing on the plot will show the plot dialog.

The following sections explain the various ways to alter the display of the plot.

33.6.3.1 Adjusting the grid lines in the R-X diagram

To change the grid settings in the R-X diagram:

1. Right-click the R-X diagram. A context sensitive menu will appear.

2. Select Grid. The grid options dialog will appear.
3. Select the Layout page.

4. To enable grid lines on the major plot divisions, check Main.

5. To enable grid lines on the minor plot divisions, check Help.

33.6.3.2 Changing the position of the R-X plot origin

Section 33.6.3.4 explains how the limits and size of the R-X diagram can be altered in detail. However,
it is also possible to reposition the origin of the plot graphically. To do this:

1. Right-click the R-X diagram exactly where you would like the new origin (0,0) point of the plot to
be. A context sensitive menu will appear.
2. Select Set origin. PowerFactory will reposition the origin of the plot to the place that you right-
clicked.

33.6.3.3 Centring the origin of the R-X plot

To centre the origin (0,0) of the plot in the centre of the page:

1. Right-click the R-X diagram. A context sensitive menu will appear.

2. Select Centre origin. PowerFactory will reposition the origin of the plot to the centre of the page.

33.6.3.4 R-X plot basic data page

The tabular area at the top of the dialog shows the currently displayed relays, and the colours, line styles
and line widths that are used to represent them on the plot. Each of these can be adjusted by double-
clicking and selecting an alternate option. Refer to Section 19.7 for more information on configuring
plots in PowerFactory.

The Axis area at the bottom of the dialog shows the settings that are currently used to scale the axes
on the plot. These settings and their effect on the plot is explained further in the following section.

• Scale. This number affects the interval between the tick marks on the x and y axis, in the units
specified in the Unit field. If the Distance (see below) field remains constant, then increasing this
number increases the size of the diagram and effectively zooms out on the displayed characteris-
tics.
• Distance. This number affects the distance in mm between each tick mark. Remember that in
PowerFactory it is usual for plots and diagrams to be formatted in a standard page size (often A4).
Consequently, this number has the opposite effect of the scale - when the scale field is constant
increasing the distance effectively zooms into the displayed characteristics.

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• x-Min. This field determines the left minimum point of the diagram. However, it also implicitly
considers the scale. Consequently, the true minimum is determined by the product of the Scale
and x-Min. For example, if the scale is 4 and x-Min is set to 2, then the minimum x axis value
(resistance) displayed would be -8.
• y-Min. The concept for y-Min is the same as x-Min with the minimum value determined by the
product of the scale and the specified minimum value.

Note: The user can ask PowerFactory to adjust the scale of the R-X diagram automatically based on
the set Distance. Click Characteristics to adjust the scale automatically to fit all the displayed
characteristics, or click Impedances to adjust the scale to fit all displayed network impedances.

33.6.3.5 R-X plot options

The R-X plot advanced settings can be accessed by right-clicking the plot and selecting Options from
the context-sensitive menu, or by pressing the Options button in the edit dialog of the plot.

The options dialog has the following settings:

• Unit. This option affects whether the characteristics on the plot are displayed in primary or
secondary (relay) Ohm. It is also possible to select % of line which will display all characteristics
in terms of a % impedance of their primary protected branch. This latter option is quite useful for
visualising inspecting that the zone settings are as expected.
• Relays Units. This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics. For
example, it is possible to display only earth fault distance characteristics by selecting the option
Ph-E.
• Zones. This setting affects what zones are displayed. For example, to only show zone 1 charac-
teristics, “1” should be selected.
• Starting. This checkbox configures whether starting elements will be displayed on the diagram.
• Overreach zones. This checkbox configures whether overreach elements will be displayed on
the diagram.
• Power Swing. This checkbox configures whether power swing elements will be displayed on the
diagram.
• Load Encroachment. This checkbox configures whether load encroachment elements will be
displayed on the diagram.
• Complete shape. This checkbox enables the display of the complete polygonal characteristic,
when part of it would normally be invisible (and not a valid pickup region) due to the effect of the
distance directional element. Enabling it also allows the selection of the line style for the displayed
part of the characteristic that is not normally visible.
• Display. This option is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short-circuit current/equiv-
alent impedance will be displayed. The options are a short-circuit Arrow, a Cross or to Hide it
completely.
• Zone. User has an option to select what zone relevant results should be displayed in plot and in
legend.
• Show Impedance. Different impedance values can be selected here: all, only smallest, Z<1.5*Zmin
and Z<5*Zmin .
• Force Positive Sequence Representation. By selecting this check box R-X plot will be showing
all measured impedance and measuring zones in the positive sequence representation only. This
make it easier to coordinate between relays of different manufacturers as well as coordinate
between measured impedance and measuring zones.

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• Colour out of service units. By default out of service characteristics are invisible. However, Out
of service characteristics can be shown in a different colour making them visible on the plot.
• Default Length for Blinder Units. This options specifies the length of blinder units on the plot in
secondary Ohms.
Branch impedances page

This page specifies how the branch impedance elements are displayed on the diagram:
• Number of Relay Locations. Only the branches are shown up to the specified number of relay
locations. If zero, no branches are shown at all.
• Branches, max. Depth. Maximum number of branches shown from each relay location. If zero,
no branches are shown at all.
• Ignore Transformers. Transformer impedances are ignored when activated.
• Method. There are two methods for determining the branch impedance. The first, Input Data,
uses the entered impedance data of the branches specified in their respective types. The second
method, Calculated Impedance, effectively completes a short circuit sweep similar to that de-
scribed in Section 33.8.3 except that impedances are calculated rather than tripping times. One
scenario where this method is more accurate is when modelling the protection of a section of
network with multiple infeeds. Greater accuracy is achieved at the expense of calculation time.
• Show Branch Options. Here the line style and width can be selected.

Legend page

This page determines the configuration of the coloured legend visible after a short circuit or load-flow
calculations for each relay on the R-X diagram.

The following options are available:

• Show Calculated Impedances. Determines whether the impedances calculated for each fault
loop by the polarising block will be displayed in the legend.
• Detected Fault Type. Determines whether the fault type calculated by the starting element will
be displayed in the legend.

• Tripping Time of Relay. Determines if the overall tripping time of the relay will be displayed in the
legend.
• Tripped Zones. Determines if the tripping time of each zone that trips will be displayed in the
legend.

33.6.4 Modifying the relay settings and branch elements from the R-X plot

From the R-X plot, the settings of the characteristics shown can be inspected and altered if required.

To do this:

1. Double click the desired characteristic. The dialog for the characteristic will appear.
2. Inspect and/or edit settings as required.
3. Click OK to update the characteristic displayed on the R-X diagram.

Also, it is possible to directly edit or inspect the branch elements shown on the diagram. To do so:

1. Double click the desired branch. The dialog for the branch will appear. Note that if you hover your
mouse over the element and leave it steady for a few moments the name of element will appear
in the balloon help.

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2. Inspect or edit the branch parameters as required.

3. Click OK to return to the R-X diagram.

33.7 The relay operational limits plot (P-Q diagram)

The relay operational limits or P-Q diagram plot shows the starting characteristics of distance pro-
tection relays in the P-Q plane. Typically a network operator will deal with power quantities rather
than impedance, current or angle quantities when characterising the power flows and load in their
network. By representing the starting characteristic in the P-Q plane the network operator is better able
to compare their actual load data with the starting settings in the network’s distance relays so as to
assess whether particular load configurations might cause undesirable operation of network protection
relays. A load configuration resulting in a power flow which lies outside of the starting characteristic of
a distance relay in the P-Q plane will cause the relay to start and may therefore result in tripping of the
relay. The plot is intended to assist in avoiding such circumstances.

The plot is “interactive” and can be used to alter the settings of the relay starting element directly, thus
making it a useful tool for checking or determining optimal starting settings for distance relays.

33.7.1 How to create a P-Q diagram

1. Using the Insert Plot icon:

(a) This general method for creating any plot is described in section 19.7.
(b) The relay for which the starting is to be plotted should be entered as the Element in the
Relays table of the plot dialog.

33.7.2 Understanding the P-Q diagram

Two example P-Q diagram plots for two separate relays are shown in Figure 33.7.1. The plots show the
following:

• In both diagrams the horizontal axis represents active power whilst the vertical axis represents
reactive power.
• The diagram on the left relates to a distance relay utilising underimpedance starting.
• The diagram on the right relates to a distance relay utilising overcurrent starting.
• The regions bounded by the two characteristics represent operating points which will not cause
the starting to pick up. Operating points outside of these bounded regions will cause the starting
elements to pick up.
• Note that the operating characteristics displayed are scaled according to a voltage factor selected
in the plot settings. In the illustrated cases the voltage factor is selected to be 0.9 p.u. for both
locations.
• The lightning bolt symbols indicate the operating points of the system as the relaying locations as
determined by the load flow calculation. Note that the load flow results are scaled according to
the voltage factor applied to the plot.
• In the legend, the operating point of the system as observed by the relays is quantified. Both the
voltage factor scaled and measured operating points are quantified.
• Note that for the left relay the operating point is quantified on a polar coordinate system, whilst for
the right relay the operating point is quantified on a Cartesian coordinate system. This is due to a
user selectable parameter in the plot settings.

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Figure 33.7.1: A P-Q diagram plot with load flow results and starting characteristics for two separate
relays

Note the information shown on the plot can be configured by altering the settings of the P-Q plot. Refer
to Section 33.7.3).

33.7.3 Configuring the P-Q plot

There are several ways to alter the appearance of the P-Q diagram. Many configuration parameters can
be adjusted by right-clicking the plot and using the context sensitive menu. Alternatively, double-clicking
in empty space in the plot will show the plot dialog.

The following sections explain the various ways to alter the display of the plot.

33.7.3.1 Changing the position of the P-Q plot origin

Section 33.7.3.5 explains how the limits and size of the P-Q diagram can be altered in detail. However,
it is also possible to reposition the origin of the plot graphically. To do this:

1. Right-click the P-Q diagram exactly where you would like the new origin (0,0) point of the plot to
be. A context sensitive menu will appear.
2. Select Set origin. PowerFactory will reposition the origin of the plot to the place that you right-
clicked.

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33.7.3.2 Centring the origin of the P-Q plot

To centre the origin (0,0) of the plot in the centre of the page:

1. Right-click the P-Q diagram. A context sensitive menu will appear.

2. Select Centre origin. PowerFactory will reposition the origin of the plot to the centre of the page.

33.7.3.3 Switching from polar to Cartesian coordinates

To switch from polar to Cartesian coordinates or viceversa:

1. Right-click the P-Q diagram. A context sensitive menu will appear.
2. Select Polar. PowerFactory will select or deselect the option and coordinate system will change
correspondingly.

33.7.3.4 P-Q plot relays page

The tabular area in the plot dialog entitled relays lists the displayed relays along with the colours, line
styles and line widths that are used to represent their characteristics in the plot. Each of these can be
adjusted by double-clicking and selecting an alternate option. Refer to Section 19.7 for more information
on configuring plots in PowerFactory.

33.7.3.5 P-Q plot scale page

• Scale. This variable affects the interval between the tick marks on the x and y axis, in the units
specified in the Unit field. If the Distance (see below) field remains constant, then increasing this
number increases the size of the diagram and effectively zooms out on the displayed characteris-
tics.
• x-Min. This field determines the left minimum point of the diagram. However, it also implicitly
considers the scale. Consequently, the true minimum is determined by the product of the Scale
and x-Min. For example, if the scale is 4 and x-Min is set to 2, then the minimum x axis value
displayed would be -8.

• y-Min. The concept for y-Min is the same as x-Min with the minimum value determined by the
product of the scale and the specified minimum value.

Note: The user can ask PowerFactory to adjust the scale of the P-Q diagram automatically. Click Scale
to adjust the scale automatically to fit all the displayed characteristics

33.7.3.6 P-Q plot options

Specific option relevant to the P-Q plot settings can be accessed by right-clicking the plot and selecting
Options from the context-sensitive menu, or by pressing the Options button in the edit dialog of the
plot.

The options dialog has the following settings:

• Power Calculation > Voltage factor. This option influences the voltage factor used to scale the
characteristic and scale the load flow calculation result as also described and illustrated in section
33.7.2

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• Diagram marks > Show calculated PQ values. This option determines whether or not to display
a lightning bolt in the plot indicating the scaled load flow result observed at the relaying location
following a successful load flow calculation. See section 33.7.2 for an example.

• Legend > Show calculated PQ values. This option determines whether or not to display a legend
quantifying the scaled and unscaled load flow result observed at the relaying location following a
successful load flow calculation. See section 33.7.2 for an example.

33.7.4 Modifying the starting element settings from the R-X plot

From the R-X plot, the settings of the starting element shown can be inspected and altered if required.

To do this:

1. Double click the desired characteristic. The dialog for the characteristic will appear.

2. Inspect and/or edit settings as required.

3. Click OK to update the characteristic displayed on the R-X diagram.

33.8 The time-distance plot

The time-distance plot VisPlottz shows the tripping times of the relays as a function of the short-circuit
location. It is directly connected to a path definition so it can only be created if a path is already defined.
A path in a single line diagram is defined by selecting a chain of two or more busbars or terminals and
inter-connecting objects. The pop-up menu which opens when the selection is right-clicked will show a
Path . . . option. This menu option has the following sub-options:

• New: this option will create a new path definition

• Edit: this option is enabled when an existing path is right-clicked. It opens a dialog to alter the
colour and direction of the path
• Add To: this option will add the selected objects to a path definition. The end or start of the
selected path must include the end or start of an existing path.

• Remove Partly: This will remove the selected objects from a path definition, as long as the
remaining path is not broken in pieces
• Remove: This will remove the firstly found path definition of which at least one of the selected
objects is a member

There are a number of ways to create a time-distance plot but it should be noted that in each case a
path must first be defined. The elements which belong to a particular path can be highlighted by setting
the colour representation of the single-line diagram to Other → Groupings→ Paths. To create the plot
choose one of the following methods:

• In the single line diagram right-click on an element which is already added to a path definition.
From the context sensitive menu select the option Show → Time-distance plot. PowerFactory will
then create a new object VisPlottz showing the time-distance plot for all distance relays in the
path.

• In the data manager or the network model manager right-click on an element which already
belongs to a path and select Show. . . → Time-distance plot from the context sensitive menu.
As above, this will create a new object VisPlottz.
• Select the elements from the network graphic to be included in the protection path. For more
information regarding the graphic selection, please refer to the Section 15.9. Right click on any
element from the selection. A context sensitive menu will appear. Select Show → Time-distance

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plot. As a result, a path will automatically be defined for the selected elements and the time-
distance plot will be displayed.
• A Path object SetPath can be located in the Data Manager in the path folder in the project’s
Network Data folder. Select the “Paths” folder and right-click the path object on the right side of
the Data Manager. Then select Show → Time-distance plot from the context sensitive menu.
Additionally, multiple paths can be selected in the network graphic or in the Data Manager by
using the left mouse button in combination with the CTRL Key. As a result, multiple time-distance
plots will be displayed on separate pages. Moreover, the time-distance plot does not automatically
display the single line graphic of the selected path on the left side of the plot. In order to activate
this option, double click on the plot, navigate to the Scale page and select “Show Section of Single
Line Graphic”.

33.8.1 Forward and reverse plots

Figure 33.8.1: A forward time-distance plot

Figure 33.8.1 illustrates a forward direction time-distance plot. The diagram shows all relay tripping
times for power flows in the forward (left to right) direction of the path. It is also possible to display
diagrams which show the tripping times of the relays for power flows in the reverse direction (right to
left). Three display options are available for the diagrams parameter specified on the Relays page of
the Time-distance plot dialog:

Forward/Reverse. Both diagrams are shown in the plot one below the other.

Forward. Only the forward direction diagram is shown.

Reverse. Only the reverse direction diagram is shown.

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33.8.2 The path axis

Figure 33.8.2: A path axis

The path axis in Figure 33.8.2 shows the complete path with busbar and relay locations. Busbars/Ter-
minals are marked with a tick and the name. The coloured boxes represent relays and the left or right
alignment represents their direction. The path axis can represent many different units according to the
user’s needs see section 33.8.5

33.8.3 Methods of calculating tripping times

There are two alternative methods for the calculation of the tripping times shown in the plot. To change
the method, select the Method option in the context sensitive menu or double-click the plot to access
the time-distance plot dialog and edit the Method parameter on the Relays page.

Note: A third option (Coordination Results) associated with the distance protection coordination assis-
tant is also available as a selection option for this parameter. Please see section 33.13.8.2 for
more information.

The main difference between the calculation is in relation to their relative accuracy and speed.

Short-circuit sweep method The short-circuit sweep method is the more accurate method for charting
the variation in relay tripping time with fault position. However, the increase in accuracy comes
at the cost of performance. A routine is followed whereby a specified type of short circuit is
applied to the network model at regular positions between the first and the last busbar in the
path. At each short-circuit location the relay tripping times are established. The user can control
the step size between short circuit positions in order to speed up the calculation while ensuring
adequate accuracy. Furthermore the user has the option to enable an additional built in algorithm
to dynamically modify the step size at critical points on the path, to ensure that the relay operation
times are adequately assessed while optimising the calculation time performance. See section
33.11 for information on the short circuit sweep command.
One major advantage of this method is that it will illustrate the under-reaching and over-reaching
effects caused by infeeds and outfeeds that may be present in the protection coordination path. It
will also take into account all the settings of the relay model including starting settings, polarising
settings and the application of any signalling schemes. Further the response of the protection in
response to different types of faults can be analysed (e.g. 3ph, LL, LE, LLE etc with selectable
fault impedances). Following calculation of the short circuit sweep it may be necessary to adjust
the network model (e.g. modify protection settings) and then rerun the sweep.
Kilometrical method This method is faster but is far less accurate than the short-circuit sweep method.
It is faster because no short circuit calculations are actually carried out and so detailed perfor-
mance of the relays is not examined. Only a very limited amount of information is extracted from
the relay models, the vast majority of the relay configuration is ignored. For distance relays the
impedance of the path is compared directly against the reach settings of the relays only. So for
example if zone 1 of a distance relay reaches 50km along a path and zone 2 reaches 80km along
a path, the plot will display a zone 1 tripping time taken from the relay for the first 50km followed
by a zone 2 tripping time for the next 30km.
This method will not account for the starting characteristic of a distance relay or any of the other
more detailed features a relay may have. For an overcurrent relay the plot will provide information

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limited to the direction of operation and the operation time of definite time elements. The plot is
therefore unlikely to reflect the true performance of the protection scheme. However for distance
protection in particular, it does serve as an excellent visualisation of the base settings that have
been applied to a distance relay.

Ideally, the kilometrical method based plots and the short circuit method based plots complement each
other. For a particular study it may be worthwhile presenting kilometrical method based plots as well as
short circuit sweep method based plots. For example if settings have been adjusted to take account of
infeeds, the short circuit method based plot might illustrate a well coordinated system with the expected
reaches applying throughout the system. The corresponding kilometrical plot however, might be grossly
distorted illustrating that in order to achieve the good coordination represented by the short circuit
sweep, it was necessary to vastly increase the reach settings of the relay. This then raises the question
as to whether such a large increase is acceptable.

Conversely, a kilometrical method based plot might indicate that all reaches in the system are entirely
as expected but when the results are plotted using a short circuit sweep based plot it suddenly becomes
clear that the performance of the relay settings are completely inadequate. This could be due to many
reasons which should then be further examined. For example, effects of infeeds, poor selection of
starting settings etc.

33.8.4 Short-circuit calculation settings

If the method for the calculation of the time-distance plot is set to Short-Circuit sweep, the short-circuit
sweep command object ComShcsweep is used along with the short circuit command ComShc. The
commands can be accessed via the corresponding buttons on the Basic Options tab of the Relays page
of the Time Distance Plot dialog.

The Short-Circuit command is used to configure the type of short circuit to be carried out by the short
circuit sweep command. Here the type of fault can be selected as well as the calculation standard and
the fault impedance. Other typical short circuit command parameters are also available for configuration.

The Short-Circuit sweep command is used to define the step size between short circuit applications
as well as whether to apply an algorithm to dynamically vary the step size. Selection of the Iterative
option will enable the algorithm. The algorithm can be adjusted by setting the Precision and step size
parameters. The algorithm initially calculates short circuits along the path at locations separated by
the Step size parameter value. If a variation in the tripping time is detected between any two adjacent
short circuit calculations, the algorithm will sweep the region between the two short circuits using the
Precision (steps) parameter value.

Note: The easiest way to recalculate the short-circuit sweep for the time-distance plot is by simply
pressing the button . This is only needed when using the Short-Circuit Sweep method.

33.8.5 The distance axis units

There are a number of possible distance axis units available:

• Length. Distance axis is shown in km depending on the line/cable length from the reference relay.
• Impedance (pri.Ohm). Distance axis shows the primary system impedance from the reference
relay to the remote end of the path.
• Reactance (pri.Ohm). Distance axis shows the primary system reactance from the reference
relay to the remote end of the path.
• 1/Conductance (pri.Ohm). Distance axis shows the primary system 1/Conductance from the
reference relay to the remote end of the path.

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• Impedance (sec.Ohm). Distance axis shows the secondary impedance from the reference relay
to the remote end of the path.
• Reactance (sec.Ohm). Here the secondary reactance from the reference relay is measured on
the secondary side.
• 1/Conductance (sec.Ohm). Distance axis shows the secondary system 1/Conductance from the
reference relay to the remote end of the path.

33.8.6 The reference relay

The short-circuit sweep method needs to know which relay should be used as the origin of the distance
axis. This relay is named the reference relay. If no reference relay is selected, the distance is measured
from the beginning of the path. In cases where the reference relay is set, the busbar connected to the
reference relay is marked with an arrow. The reference relay is set using either the graphic or by editing
the Time-distance plot dialog. Changing the reference relay graphically is done by clicking with the right
mouse button on the relay symbol and selecting Set reference relay in the context menu. If there is
more than one relay connected to the selected busbar, PowerFactory offer a list of relays which can be
used. In the dialog of the time-distance plot the Reference Relay frame is located at the bottom.

33.8.7 Capture relays

The Capture Relays button enables the user to easily add relays in the selected path to the time-
distance plot. In order to delete a relay from the diagram, the respective line in the relay list has to be
deleted.

33.8.8 Double-click positions

The following positions can be double-clicked for a default action:

• Axis. Edit scale

• Curve. Edit step of relay
• Relay box. Edit relay(s)
• Path axis. Edit Line
• Any other. Open the “Time Distance” edit dialog

33.8.9 The context sensitive menu

If the diagram is right-clicked at any position, the context sensitive menu will pop up similar to the plot
menu described in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.7 (Plots).

There are some additional functions available in addition to the basic plots-methods for the time-distance
plot.

• Grid. Shows the dialog to modify the grid-lines.

• Edit Path. Opens the dialog of the displayed path definition (SetPath).
• Method. Sets the method used for calculation of tripping times.
• x-Unit. Sets the unit for the distance axis, km impedances,...
• Diagrams. Select whether diagrams show forward, reverse or both.

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• Consider Breaker Opening Time.

• Report. This option prints out a report for the position of the relays, their tripping time as well as
all calculated impedances in the output window.

33.9 Basics of a differential protection scheme

Section 33.2.2 explained how to setup a protection device in PowerFactory. After a relay has been
created within the network model there are a number of parameters to define in the dialog which
appears. This section will describe the basic steps that should be completed in order to specify these
parameters for differential protection relays. In many cases the setup is similar to overcurrent relay and
consequently only the main differences are described in this section.

Section 33.10 will cover the main graphical tools used for differential protection analysis in PowerFac-
tory.

33.9.1 Differential relay model setup-basic data page

The basic data page in the relay model (ElmRelay ) dialog is where the basic configuration of the relay
is completed. The procedure is the same as for setting up an over-current relay. Refer to section 33.3.7.

33.9.2 Basic relay blocks used for differential protection

This section provides a brief overview of some of the basic protection blocks that can be found within
differential relays in PowerFactory. This section only describes those blocks that are unique to differ-
ential relays. This manual offers only a brief high level overview of the blocks. For more information
on these blocks please refer to the protection devices section of the Technical References Overview
Document.

33.9.2.1 Differential block

The differential block is used for defining the device’s operate/restraint characteristic. The differential
thresholds, the restraint slopes [%], the slope threshold limit, the slope restraint shape, the restraint
current calculation logic and the differential trip delay can all be set in the differential block element.

Inside the Differential Block Type (TypBiasidiff ) the user can also select the type of the block. This can
have a large impact on graphical presentation of parameters of the differential protection (see Section
33.10).

A Harmonic blocking feature is available for use during EMT simulation if the relevant harmonic currents
inputs are available. If at least one of the harmonic input currents is above the relevant harmonic
threshold the differential trip of the block is inhibited.

33.9.2.2 CT Adapter block

A CT Adapter block can be used where the ratio of a CT’s supplying a differential relay need to be
normalised. e.g. for a transformer differential protection where the CT’s are located at different voltage
levels and where a vector rotation may be introduced by the winding arrangement.

Two different types of CT adapter blocks are available: a 3 phase CT adapter and a single phase CT
adapter.

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A CT Adapter block can be connected:

• To the outputs of a measurement block to simulate the behaviour of a microprocessor differential
device which internally compensates the currents coming from CTs

• Directly to the CT outputs to simulate the CT adapter for differential devices which do not include
a microprocessor.

33.10 Differential Plots

In PowerFactory two different types of differential diagrams are available:

• Magnitude biased differential diagram VisMagndiffplt ( see subsection 33.10.1)

• Phase comparison differential diagram VisPcompdiffplt ( see subsection 33.10.2)
Differential plots can be created by right clicking on the cubicle or the protection device according to the
following instructions.

1. From the cubicle

(a) Right-click a cubicle containing differential relays. The context sensitive menu will appear.
(b) Select the option Show → Differential Protection Plot or Show → In existing Protection Plot.
PowerFactory will create a diagram showing the differential protection plot, or it will open a
list of existing plots where the selected device is presented so that user can choose which
plot he wants to see.

2. From the protection device

(a) Open a tabular view of the protection device either by editing devices within a cubicle, from
the list of calculation relevant objects (Network Model Manager) or from the Data Manager.
(b) Right click the icon. A context sensitive menu will appear.
(c) Select Show → Differential Protection Plot or Show → In existing Protection Plot.

33.10.1 Magnitude biased differential diagram

This diagram (.VisMagndiffplt) is available for the following types of differential blocks:

• 3ph
• 1ph
• Restricted Earth Fault
The X-axis represents the Restraint current and Y-axis the Differential current.

The differential characteristic depends upon the differential element (class “RelBiasdiff”) settings and is
available also when no calculation has been executed. The restraint current RMS values and differential
current RMS values are calculated by the differential element (“ RelBiasdiff” class) and are available
only when a calculation has been executed. The 1ph and the Restricted Earth Fault differential type
calculate an unique working point (a Restraint current value and a Differential current value), the 3ph
differential type calculates three working points (three Restraint current values and three Differential
current values)

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Figure 33.10.1: PowerFactory magnitude biased differential diagram for 3ph differential protection
element

33.10.2 Phase comparison differential diagram

A phase comparison differential diagram (.VisPcompdiffplt) is available for the following types of differ-
ential blocks:
• 3ph Phase Comparison

• 1ph Phase Comparison

The Restraint Region depends upon the differential element (“RelBiasdiff” class) settings and is also
available when no calculation has been executed. The differential current vector is calculated by the
differential element and is available only when a calculation has been executed.

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Figure 33.10.2: Example of PowerFactory Phase comparison differential diagram for differential
protection element of the type 3ph Phase Comparison

33.11 The Short-Circuit Sweep command

The Short-Circuit Sweep Command is used to carry out short circuits at intervals along the length of
one or more specified paths. The short circuits of the sweep are carried out at constant intervals with
the user having control over the size of the interval so as to optimise the resolution of the sweep and
thereby improve the calculation time. Furthermore the user has the option to employ an iterative control
strategy over the sweep routine, using precision step sizes to ensure that step changes in the monitored
variables are not missed. The short-circuit locations can be specified in km, impedance, reactance and
1/conductance in primary ohms or secondary ohms. At each short circuit location, the user can specify
the types of fault event to be carried out (e.g. single phase to ground, 3 phase etc.) as well as the real
and the reactive parts of any fault impedance. More than one fault event can be carried out at every
short circuit location.

The short circuit sweep includes its own results file in which any result variable available in PowerFactory
can be monitored. For each fault event at each location, results can be stored in the results file and
made available for post calculation analysis and presentation in plots. The dialog of the command is
illustrated in figure 33.11.1.

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Figure 33.11.1: Short-Circuit Sweep command

In the Selection field a path or set of paths may be selected over which the short circuit sweep shall be
carried out.

The Results field specifies the results file which shall be used to store the results. In this results file it is
possible for the user to specify the result variables to be monitored throughout the calculation/

The Command field references a short circuit command. This command should be used to specify the
short circuit method and other settings e.g. maximum or minimum short circuit current or LV/Momentary,
LV/Interrupting or 30 Cycle Currents/Voltages (for ANSI calculations). It is not used to specify the fault
impedance or the fault type. This is specified in the fault events.

The fault events are specified using the fault case definitions field. By choosing the Add button a new
fault event is created and this can be configured by the user to specify a fault type and impedance.
Multiple fault events can be defined and later edited or removed using the Edit button or Remove All
button respectively.

On the second page of the Short circuit Sweep command dialog, the user can configure the sweep
routine and whether an iterative strategy should be used. In general the iterative approach is significantly
faster but can lead to more inaccurate results. The iterative step-size deduction employs interval
bisection to find the locations at which the tripping times of relays change. The algorithm starts with the
full length of each section of line of greater length than the specified Min. line length. It calculates a fault
at either end of the line and looks at the responses of the relays. If the algorithm detects that the relay
operating time changes for any relay, then it calculates a short circuit in the middle of the line. Depending
on whether the change happened in the first or the second half of the line it selects the corresponding
section and repeats the sequence until the location only changes by the specified Precision. This result
is recorded and then the process is repeated with the section between the found location and the end of
the line, until either no change is detected or the next position is the line end. The specified step size is
used, when two subsequent iterations yield positions which are within two times the specified Precision
of one another. In that case it is assumed that there is an IDMT characteristic in effect and the algorithm
continues using the fixed step size approach for this line.

The short circuit sweep command is used by a number of different features in PowerFactory including
the time-distance plot (see section 33.8), the Protection Audit tool (see section 33.15) and Short-Circuit

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Sweep plots (see section 33.12). In each of these cases its use has been integrated into the feature so
that the short circuit sweep does not need to be created, instead only configuration of the Short-Circuit
Sweep is actually required.

33.12 Short-Circuit Sweep Plots

Like the Time-Distance Plot described in section 33.8 the Short-Circuit Sweep Plot (VisSweepplot)
allows the user to tap into powerful capabilities of the short circuit sweep command ComShcsweep.
Unlike the time distance-plot, which can only display the variation in tripping with respect to fault location
across a path, the short-circuit sweep plot can be used to display the variation of any network parameter
with respect to fault location and fault type, across a particular path. For example, it is possible to easily
plot the variation in fault current or active power, flowing in a line in response to different fault locations,
and fault types, across a particular path which may or may not incorporate the monitored line. Some
typical plots are illustrated in figure 33.12.1.

Figure 33.12.1: Typical Short-Circuit Sweep Plots

The plot has clear applications in the protection field but it may also be used for other short circuit
applications if appropriate.

The user first defines the path which is to be swept by the short circuit sweep command, the result
parameters to be recorded are then defined and finally the short circuit cases to be applied during
the sweep are specified. The sweep is then executed and the results collected in a results file. The
plot accesses this results file in order to display the final characteristics. The x-axis of the plot can be
selected to length, impedance, reactance or 1/conductance, while the units of the y-axis depend on
the result parameter being examined. Each plot generated is specific to a particular fault case. For
example, one plot may relate to three phase, zero impedance faults, whilst another may be related to

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single phase to earth faults, with five ohms of fault resistance. However, it is straightforward to toggle
between the different cases using the plot's setting dialog.

For protection purposes, the plot allows the detailed behaviour of a relay to be examined in response
to the faults of the sweep. For example, a path defining a closed ring may be swept and the directional
element of a relay operating on the ring examined. In this case the plot might be used to gain insight
into how the angle between the extracted polarising and operating quantities of the relay change with
fault location and ultimately how the detected direction of the fault changes. This information may be
useful in explaining the tripping behaviour of the relay model, diagnosing problems with the settings or
design of the relay and finally in the selection of appropriate relay settings. The plot dialog also provides
an option to display setting thresholds taken from a user defined relay element. These thresholds can
be compared against the results of the sweep to help the user identify key transition points or values in
the plot.

33.12.1 Configuration of Short-Circuit Sweep plots

A feature has been included in the new protection graphic assistant tool (described in more detail in
section 33.17.2) to accelerate the process of generating useful plots specifically for protection purposes.
In addition to the method described there it is also possible to create these plots directly from the Insert
Plot icon in the main icon bar, or by right clicking a single or multiple path objects in the data manager
and choosing Show → Short-circuit sweep plot, or by right clicking on an element in the single line
diagram belonging to a path and choosing Show → Short-circuit sweep plot.

Figure 33.12.2: Short-Circuit Sweep Plot - Curves page

Moreover, the selection of elements from the network graphic can be directly used to create a Short-
circuit sweep plot. For more information regarding the the graphical selection, please refer to the
Section 15.9. Right click on any element from the selection. Select Show → Short-circuit sweep plot.

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A path will automatically be defined and the short-circuit sweep plot will be displayed. A Path object
SetPath can be located in the Data Manager in the path folder in the project’s Network Data folder.
Select the “Paths” folder and right-click on the path object on the right side of the Data Manager. Then
select Show → Short-circuit sweep plot from the context sensitive menu. Additionally, multiple paths
can be selected in the network graphic or in the Data Manager by using left mouse button in combination
with the CTRL Key. As a result, multiple short-circuit sweep plots will be displayed on separate pages.
In whatever way the plot is created, once the plot has been created it is possible to configure the plot by
configuring the plot dialog as shown in figure 33.12.2.

On the Curves page of the dialog the Path can be selected if required. The x-axis unit can be set to
either length, impedance, reactance or 1/conductance. A pointer to the results file used by the Short-
Circuit sweep is displayed. It should be noted that the results file is stored within the Plot Page object in
the data manager, whilst the short circuit-sweep itself is stored within the study case.

The short circuit sweep (see section 33.11) can be configured and executed using the three buttons
named Edit SC-Sweep, Edit Short-Circuit and Execute SC-Sweep. The Edit SC-Sweep gives access
to the Short-Circuit Sweep command itself (ComShcsweep). Here different fault cases (i.e. different
types of fault e.g. 3 phase, single phase to ground etc., with different fault impedances) can be added
to the analysis. The algorithm which controls the number of short circuit locations examined can be
configured on the Advanced options page of the object. The sweep will carry out a series of short circuit
calculations at intervals along the length of the defined path and at each location it will record the result
variables as specified in the results file. The user can add or remove result variables to/from the results
file as required. The sweep will repeat the series of calculations for each fault case defined.

The short circuit calculation method to be used can be configured using the Edit Short-Circuit button.
Note that the Fault types are not configured here, rather they are configured as described in the previous
paragraph. Each Short-Circuit sweep plot relates a to a single fault case. The fault case to be displayed
is selected using the Displayed parameter. The drop down list will contain all fault cases specified in the
short circuit sweep command. To execute the short circuit sweep the Execute SC-Sweep button may be
used. Alternatively a feature has been included in the new protection graphic assistant tool to manage
the updating of plots including the execution of Short-Circuit sweep commands. This is described in
more detail in section 33.17.3.

The y-axis parameters to be displayed are specified in the Curves table. The colour, line style and line
width can all be configured as required.

On the Thresholds page of the plot shown in figure 33.12.3 it is possible to add additional characteristics
to the plot representing the setting thresholds of various relay elements. By plotting the thresholds along
with the results it is possible to easily observe where thresholds are exceeded and where they are not.
Again the colour, style and width of the threshold characteristic can all be configured as required.

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Figure 33.12.3: Short-Circuit Sweep Plot - Thresholds page

33.13 Protection coordination assistant

PowerFactory includes a protection coordination assistant that can assist with automatically determining
settings for distance (impedance based) protection relays. This section explains how to use this tool.

33.13.1 Protection coordination assistant - technical background

This section provides a brief overview of distance protection coordination. The user may wish to skip
this section and move directly to the sections about configuring the tool if they are already familiar with
the basic principles of distance protection coordination.

A distance protection scheme works by continuously measuring the voltage and current on a protected
circuit. These values can then be used to calculate an equivalent impedance. This impedance can
then be compared to a “reach” setting and the basic idea is that the relay should trip if the measured
impedance is less than the reach setting.

On an unfaulted circuit the voltage will be high (normally tens to hundreds of thousands of volts) and
the current much lower (normally tens to hundreds of Amps). Therefore, according to Ohms law, the
normal load impedance might typically be in the order of a few hundred Ohms.

Consider now a three phase bolted fault on a transmission circuit. The voltage falls to zero at the point
of fault whilst the current increases in proportion to the source voltage and the impedance between the
source and the fault. At the near end of the circuit where the protection relay and measuring CTs and
VTs are located, the voltage will drop and the current will increase. The ratio of the voltage at the source
to the fault current will be the impedance of the line to the point of the fault. Using this principle, relays
can be set to protect a certain ’zone’ of a line and accurately discriminate between nearby faults and
more distant faults.

In practical, distance protection relays use so-called “polarising” voltage and “operating” current quan-

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tities to measure the impedance and to determine whether a fault is “in zone” or “out of zone”. A
separate directional element is often also employed to determine whether the fault direction is “forward”
or “reverse”. This element also uses “polarising” voltage and “operating” current quantities. For faults
close to the relay the measured voltage may drop so low that the relay is unable to accurately determine
a fault direction. In modern numerical distance protection relays, the polarising voltage quantities used
by the directional element often include a memory buffer component that allows the relay to determine
direction more accurately for such faults based on the voltage present before the fault occurred. Further
detail on this and other aspects of distance protection can be found in many reference texts and the
interested user should refer to these for further information.

For the purpose of coordination, a basic distance protection scheme might consist of three zones of
protection configured as follows:

• Zone 1 that covers 80 % of the protected circuit and is set to instantaneous trip.
• Zone 2 that covers 100 % of the primarily protected circuit and a portion of the next adjacent
circuit. Zone 2 protection must be time delayed so that discrimination can be achieved with the
zone 1 protection on the adjacent circuit. A typical time delay is 400 ms.

• Zone 3 protection provides backup protection for the adjacent circuit and is often set to the
impedance of the primarily protected circuit + 100 % of the adjacent circuit. It has a longer time
delay than zone 2, typically 800 ms. For older mho relays this zone may be offset so as to provide
a degree of reverse reach (in addition to the forward reach) so as to provide backup for bus
protection systems.

This is quite a typical configuration but there are many other configurations in use and different parties
responsible for protection coordination have different philosophies for determining how the reach and
time settings of a distance relay should be determined. In general the various reaches for each zone
are normally determined from the network impedance, reactance or resistance of the protected lines.
However in each case different factors and offsets are applied according to company preference. These
preferences can usually be collated as a collection of setting rules.

If a network model has already been configured in PowerFactory, PowerFactory usually has access to
the network impedance data and topological connection data. If PowerFactory is also provided with key
facts about the relevant setting rules, then it is able to automatically calculate a set of reach settings
for each relaying location in the network in accordance with the relevant philosophy. The protection
coordination assistant is a tool which has been provided to facilitate this feature.

The protection coordination assistant automatically determines distance protection settings for the re-
lays or relaying locations it is provided with. The basic functionality of the coordination tool can be
illustrated with reference to an example network. Consider the simplified transmission network shown
in Figure 33.13.1. This network contains four busbars, three transmission lines along with associated
generation and load. The locations where distance protection devices are located are indicated with a
blue circle, and the direction in which they are “reaching” is indicated with blue arrows. Line impedance
parameters are shown above the centre of each line.

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Figure 33.13.1: Example simplified transmission system for the protection coordination example

For the purpose of this illustration, the coordination assistant might be required to determine the settings
for three zones and an overreach zone for each relay location shown. In this example, there are six
locations where settings would be determined. Therefore the coordination assistant would calculate a
minimum of 24 settings and maybe even more (depending on how the reach was specified in the relays).
Potentially the coordination assistant could be used to calculate the settings for an entire network. In
such a case, the potential benefits of using the tool are immediately apparent.

33.13.2 Protection coordination assistant - General Handling

Protection coordination is carried out in two steps. In the first step settings are calculated using the
protection coordination assistant command itself (ComProtassist). In the second step the results of
the coordination are reported and where appropriate, applied to the relays in the network model. For
the second step a separate command called the protection coordination results command (ComCoor-
dreport) is used.

In order to carry out an automatic coordination, it is necessary to define the following things:

1. The network impedance data.

2. The network topological connection data.

3. The relay locations.
4. The protection philosophy distance protection setting rules

The first two items are usually already available in the network model as this data is required for all
standard calculations such as for example load flow calculations or short circuit calculation.

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Relaying locations are specified by first adding relay (ElmRelay ) objects to the network model (if they
are not already present in the model) and by secondly specifying for which of those relays, settings
should be calculated, with the latter specification being made in the protection coordination assistant
command (ComProtassist) itself.

The distance protection setting rules are also specified in the protection coordination assistant com-
mand.

Once the Protection coordination assistant has been configured, it is executed and PowerFactory will
then use the data available to it to calculate settings.

The following sub sections will go through the different options available for the configuration of the
protection coordination assistant and the protection Coordination results command. They are organised
according to the page on which the options are specified.

33.13.3 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Basic Options

This page of options is illustrated in figure 33.13.2.

Figure 33.13.2: Protection coordination assistant command - Basic Options page

The Selection parameter in the Protection devices field is used to specify the protection relays for which
the coordination will be carried out. The devices are selected by clicking on the icon. Devices can
either be selected directly or a grouping which contains devices, such as a set or a path can be selected.

The Result File parameter in the Results field is used to specify the result file in which the results of the
coordination will be stored. Under many circumstances it may not be necessary to adjust this parameter

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but if necessary a specific result file can be selected by using the icon. The result file dialog itself
can be accessed by clicking the icon.

The command parameter in the Reporting field is used to specify an associated protection Coordination
results command. As mentioned in section 33.13.2 the coordination process is a two step process
where first results are calculated and secondly results are reported. The option here is used to specify
whether the two steps are executed in one action (by execution of the Protection Coordination Assistant
only) or whether the two steps are executed separately. When the Reporting check box is selected, the
two steps are executed in one action, with the protection coordination results command as specified in
the command field used for the second step. If the Reporting check box is not selected, the coordination
results command must be executed manually as a second step once the first step is complete.

33.13.4 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Distance Protection

The majority of settings rules are defined across the various tabs located on this page of the command
dialog. Most setting rules are defined on a per zone basis.

The general tab of this page is illustrated in figure 33.13.3.

Figure 33.13.3: Protection coordination assistant command - General tab of Distance Protection page

Most distance relays have a resistive reach which exceeds the resistance of the line being protected.
This is to ensure that faults are detected even when fault resistance is present. In order to try to
anticipate probable values of fault resistance an arc resistance is usually built into the specification of
setting rules for the resistive reach. The arc resistance is dependent on various factors but voltage level
can be used as the main differentiator.

The table in the Arc resistance field allows a user to specify the arc resistance to be considered at
different voltage levels. This means that if settings are being calculated for relays located in different
voltage networks, the assistant can automatically consider a different arc resistance for each of those

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relays. The equations used for calculation of the arc resistance are defined on the tabs associated with
each zone and will be described in subsequent subsections.

Different arc resistances are sometimes considered for phase distance protection as compared to
ground distance protection since the factors which influence arc resistance potentially also vary for
such faults.

The Ratio RF(Ph-Ph) / RF(Ph-E) parameter in the Arc resistance field can be used to capture this.

Circular impedance characteristics are usually specified in terms of an impedance magnitude and an
angle. The impedance for each zone is usually specified by way of equations defined in the setting
rules. The calculated impedance for each zone is complex and will therefore have a magnitude and
an angle. The magnitude of the circular characteristic is usually specifically determined for each zone.
However, the angle is not always zone specific. Using The Angle calculation for circular characteristics
field the user can specify if this is the case. If the Zone 1 impedance angle option is selected then the
calculated impedance angle for Zone 1 is used for all zones. If the calculated impedance angle option
is selected then each zone will use the specific impedance angle calculated for that zone.

When the tool carries out the topological search of the network in the vicinity of the considered relays it
is possible that the search can encounter multiple parallel paths each of which satisfy the reach equation
criteria. For example there could be identical parallel lines which meet the criteria for X_minBC (See
section 33.13.4.3). The Aggregate parallel branches in search direction setting controls how those
parallel paths are handled. In cases where the option is checked, the parallel lines will be aggregated
and an equivalent impedance selected for the parameter in question. In cases where the option is
unchecked the impedances will not be aggregated and the impedance of a single line shall be used.

33.13.4.1 Pre-defined coordination rules

There are a number of typical setting rule philosophies which are very widely used. Even in cases
where these typical rules aren’t adhered to exactly, the actual rules which are used often use the basic
structure of one of these typical rules as a basis. As such, these typical setting rules have been pre-
programmed in the tool for convenience and can be directly used or subsequently customised according
to user need. This section provides some background on the predefined coordination rules.

If the Pre-defined coordination rules button is pressed then the dialog as shown in figure 33.13.4 is
displayed.

Figure 33.13.4: Pre-Defined Coordination Rules dialog

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There are three pre-defined groups of setting rules which can be selected using the Zone factors drop
down menu:

1. Independent
2. Cumulative
3. Referred to line 1

Depending on which option is selected a different set of Zone factor parameters are available for
configuration in the Zone factors field.

Once this dialog is configured as required and the OK button pressed, a set of equations corresponding
with the selected setting rules is populated in the tabs corresponding with each zone on the Distance
Protection page of the main dialog. The equations are self-evident on inspection of the tabs, but an
outline of the equations of the three predefined setting rules is provided here for reference.

In the equations listed below 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 ,𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 , 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 , 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 and 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 are the zone factors specified
in the dialog illustrated in figure 33.13.4. Reach equations are defined on a per zone basis with zone
1b representing the overreach zone. Section 33.13.4.3 provides definitions of the variables not defined
above. Note that all impedances are complex.

Independent method

The zone reactive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑋1 = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 (33.20)

𝑋2 = 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 (33.21)
𝑋3 = 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 (33.22)
𝑋1𝑏 = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 (33.23)

The zone resistive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.24)

𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.25)
𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.26)
𝑅1𝑏 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.27)

The zone impedance reaches are determined as follows:

𝑍1 = 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 (33.28)

𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 (33.29)
𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 (33.30)
𝑍1𝑏 = 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 (33.31)

If the primarily protected line consists of parallel lines the equations above for zone 2 and zone 3 are
modified as follows:

𝑋2 = 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 (33.32)

𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.33)
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 (33.34)

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𝑋3 = 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 (33.35)

𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.36)
𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 × 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 (33.37)

Cumulative method

The zone reactive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑋1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.38)

𝑋2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.39)
𝑋3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 )) (33.40)
𝑋1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.41)

The zone resistive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑅1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.42)

𝑅2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) + 𝑅𝐹 (33.43)
𝑅3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 )) + 𝑅𝐹 (33.44)
𝑅1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.45)

The zone impedance reaches are determined as follows:

𝑍1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.46)

𝑍2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.47)
𝑍3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × (𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐶𝐷 )) (33.48)
𝑍1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.49)

If the primarily protected line consists of parallel lines the equations above for zone 2 and zone 3 are
modified as follows:

𝑋2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 * 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 (33.50)

𝑅2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 * 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.51)
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 * 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 (33.52)

𝑋3 = 1.10 * (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.53)

𝑅3 = 1.10 * (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) + 𝑅𝐹 (33.54)
𝑍3 = 1.10 * (𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.55)

Referred to line 1 method

In this method, all the calculated zone impedances are based on the impedance of the first protected
line and the entered zone factors. The zone impedance settings are calculated as follows:

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In general for this method, the zone factors entered should be ascending. PowerFactory will print a
warning to the output window when it detects this is not the case.

The zone reactive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑋1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.56)

𝑋2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 × 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 (33.57)
𝑋3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 × 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 (33.58)
𝑋1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.59)

The zone resistive reaches are determined as follows:

𝑅1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.60)

𝑅2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 × 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.61)
𝑅3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 × 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.62)
𝑅1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.63)

The zone impedance reaches are determined as follows:

𝑍1 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.64)

𝑍2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐2 × 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 (33.65)
𝑍3 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐3 × 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 (33.66)
𝑍1𝑏 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1𝑏 × 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐵 (33.67)

If the primarily protected line consists of parallel lines the equations above for zone 2 and zone 3 are
modified as follows:

𝑋2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 * 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 (33.68)

𝑅2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 * 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐹 (33.69)
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝐹 𝑎𝑐1 * 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑟 * 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 (33.70)

𝑋3 = 1.10 * (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.71)

𝑅3 = 1.10 * (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶) ) + 𝑅𝐹 (33.72)
𝑍3 = 1.10 * (𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐴𝐵 + 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐵𝐶 ) (33.73)

33.13.4.2 Definition of reach equations

The core task when configuring the protection coordination assistant to replicate the required setting
rules is to define the reach equations. The reach equations are defined on the Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone
3 and Zone 4 tabs of the Distance protection page of the protection coordination assistant command.
The Zone 1 tab is illustrated in figure 33.13.5 and the Zone 2 tab is illustrated in figure 33.13.6 the
Zone 3 and Zone 4 tabs are almost identical to the Zone 2 tab. As mentioned in the previous section
predefined coordination rules can be selected on the General tab and if one is selected the equations

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will be populated on the relevant zone tabs. These equations can then be modified according to user
need.

Figure 33.13.5: Zone 1 tab of the distance protection page of the protection coordination assistant
command

It can be seen that on the zone 1 tab resistance, reactance, and impedance reach equations can be
entered as well as equivalent overreach zone parameters. Both zones can be specified to be forward
looking, reverse looking or non directional using Direction drop down fields. The calculation of the
reaches can also be disabled if necessary by selecting the corresponding equations check box at the
start of the relevant field.

The equations are entered using standard mathematical operators (+,-, /,*,max() and min()) as well as
some special variables. These variables, also known as keywords are described in section 33.13.4.3.

When using the max() and min() operators, a maximum of two expressions can be compared with each
expression separated by a ";" character.

An example of typical usage for zone 2 is given below:

X2 = max( X_maxAB+0,6*X_minBC ; 1,2*X_maxAB )

R2 = max( R_maxAB+0,6*R_minBC ; 1,2*R_maxAB ) + RF
Z2 = max( Z_maxAB+0,6*Z_minBC ; 1,2*Z_maxAB )

For the zone 2, 3 and 4 tabs, the overreach zone equations are replaced with equations to be considered
if there are parallel lines in zone 1 but otherwise the handling is the same.

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Figure 33.13.6: Zone 2 tab of the distance protection page of the protection coordination assistant
command

Note that different relay characteristics require different parameters to be specified. For example circular
characteristics are usually defined using an impedance, whilst polygonal relay characteristics require a
reactance and resistance setting. The coordination assistant will calculate all quantities providing it is
provided with corresponding reach setting rules and will report all results.

33.13.4.3 Variables (Keywords) used in the definition of the reach equations

When defining setting rules a specific set of variables also known as Keywords must be used to define
the rules. These variables are described in this section. In general the variables which are available for
each equation are accessible by clicking the button at the end of the equation box.

Consider a portion of network as illustrated in figure 33.13.7 with a distance relay located at one end as
shown which has a CT located in the vicinity of Terminal A oriented towards Terminal B.

Note: All CT’s have an orientation specified in the CT element (StaCt) as either towards the associated
branch or towards the associated busbar. The orientation of a CT is used by PowerFactory ’s topo-
logical search algorithm to determine which relays are expected to coordinate with one another.
Distance relays are generally directional and where the CT’s of distance relays which are oriented
in the same direction, the distance relays are expected to coordinate

From the perspective of the relay, Terminal A is the busbar at which the relay is located. Terminal B
could be any busbar located at the end of a line in the direction in which the relay’s CT is oriented. In

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the illustrated case there are two Terminal B’s since there is a tee off approximately half way along the
first line. Terminal C could be any terminal one line away from any Terminal B, likewise a Terminal D
could be any terminal one line away from a Terminal C and a Terminal E any terminal one line away from
a Terminal D. In this network there are certainly multiple Terminal C’s, D’s, and E’s but in this illustration
only one of each is explicitly represented. Note that a line can be composed of multiple sections. At
the end of a line section PowerFactory will only consider the line to be terminated if there is a current
transformer located at the end of the section which is orientated in the same direction as the original
relay’s CT or if there are no further lines to traverse. For the illustrated case a CT located in the vicinity
of the upper Terminal B oriented towards a Terminal C would terminate the line between Terminal A and
Terminal B. Whilst for the tee off circuit, there are no further lines to traverse at Terminal B, so the circuit
is terminated here.

Between each of these classified terminals there will be lines of differing impedances. Some will be long
and will likely have higher impedances some will be short and will likely have lower impedances. From
a coordination point of view the highest and lowest impedance connected between any two terminals is
considered to be of interest.

Figure 33.13.7: Classification of terminals in a portion of a network

The classification of the terminals as A,B,C,D or E is important for the definition of setting rules because
these classifications are used in the variable names which can be used in the equations defining the
setting rules. Each available variable name is listed below:

Variables specifiable in Zone 1 equations onwards

X_minAB: The reactance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal A and any Terminal
B.

X_maxAB: The reactance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal A and any Termi-
nal B.

R_minAB: The resistance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal A and any Terminal
B.

R_maxAB: The resistance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal A and any Termi-
nal B.

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Z_minAB: The impedance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal A and any Terminal
B.

Z_maxAB: The impedance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal A and any
Terminal B.

RF: The arc resistance, specifiable for resistive reach expressions only and adjusted according to the
voltage level at which the relay is installed and according to whether phase to phase or phase to ground
settings are being specified.

RLoad: Specifiable for resistive reach expressions only, this parameter is calculated based on the
ratings of the limiting component in the coordination path in terms of nominal current rating. The nominal
voltage and current of this limiting component is used to calculate a prospective load resistance using
the equation below:

(︂ )︂
𝑈𝑛𝑜𝑚
𝑅𝐿𝑑 = √ (33.74)
3 × 𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚

The limiting component could be an item of primary plant such as a line or alternatively a current
transformer. For different zones RLoad could take different values since different zones could cover
paths containing different items of plant.

Additional variables specifiable in Zone 2 equations onwards:

X_minBC: The reactance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal B and any adjacent
Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the section AB
part of the equation.

X_maxBC: The reactance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal B and any adja-
cent Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the section
AB part of the equation.

R_minBC: The resistance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal B and any adjacent
Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the section AB
part of the equation.

R_maxBC: The resistance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal B and any adja-
cent Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the section
AB part of the equation.

Z_minBC: The impedance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal B and any adjacent
Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the section AB
part of the equation.

Z_maxBC: The impedance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal B and any
adjacent Terminal C, where Terminal B is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal B in the
section AB part of the equation.

K_par: This variable is only available for specification in the special equations to be used where the
primarily protected lines covered by zone 1 are parallel lines. It is used to represent the impedance
reduction factor which can be calculated from the ratio of the impedances of the parallel lines making
up the circuit.

Additional variables specifiable in Zone 3 equations onwards:

X_minCD: The reactance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal C and any adjacent
Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the section BC
part of the equation.

X_maxCD: The reactance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal C and any adja-

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 33.13. PROTECTION COORDINATION ASSISTANT

cent Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the section
BC part of the equation.

R_minCD: The resistance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal C and any adjacent
Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the section BC
part of the equation.

R_maxCD: The resistance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal C and any adja-
cent Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the section
BC part of the equation.

Z_minCD: The impedance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal C and any adja-
cent Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the section
BC part of the equation..

Z_maxCD: The impedance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal C and any
adjacent Terminal D, where Terminal C is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal C in the
section BC part of the equation.

Additional variables specifiable in Zone 4 equations:

X_minDE: The reactance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal D and any adjacent
Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the section CD
part of the equation.

X_maxDE: The reactance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal D and any adja-
cent Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the section
CD part of the equation.

R_minDE: The resistance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal D and any adjacent
Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the section CD
part of the equation.

R_maxDE: The resistance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal D and any adja-
cent Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the section
CD part of the equation.

Z_minDE: The impedance of the minimum impedance line located between Terminal D and any adja-
cent Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the section
CD part of the equation.

Z_maxDE: The impedance of the maximum impedance line located between Terminal D and any
adjacent Terminal E, where Terminal D is the same Terminal that was selected for Terminal D in the
section CD part of the equation.

From the above it should be clear that reach equations must always be built up following a path
composed of the impedances of adjacent lines. It would not for example be possible to create a reach
equation composed of the impedances of the combination of elements highlighted in figure 33.13.8.

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Figure 33.13.8: Example of an impossible combination of lines for a reach equation

Additional variables specifiable in all zones

In addition to the variables documented above there is one additional set of variables available for use
in reach equations.

In some cases it might be desirable to specify reach equations in the forward direction based on the
impedances of lines extending behind the relaying location or reach equations in reverse direction based
on the impedance of lines extending in the forward direction. One example is in the implementation of
a reverse blocking scheme. For such cases the reverse impedances can be specified in the equations
simply by reversing the bus letters. So for example, the lowest impedance line connected at Terminal A
in the reverse direction from a forward looking zone would be specified as Z_minBA.

These variables are not accessible by clicking the button at the end of the equation box and must be
manually entered. This is simply because the variables are less widely used and would otherwise clutter
and potentially introduce confusion to the dialog.

Note this inversion in the variable name is not required for reverse looking zones derived from impedances
in the reverse direction. For such zones the normal variables are used but of course those variables will
be derived from a path extending in the reverse direction.

33.13.4.4 Definition of timer settings

The final tab on the Distance Protection page of the protection coordination assistant command is the
Timers tab. This is illustrated in figure 33.13.9

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Figure 33.13.9: Timers tab of the distance protection page of the protection coordination assistant
command

The Min. time delays field contains timer settings for each zone which can be adjusted according to
need.

For some relays directional elements and starting elements provide backup protection for distance ele-
ments. The Calculate backup delays check box can be used to specify whether the tool will additionally
log these settings in the result file with the values specified according to the user requirement.

The grading time parameter can be used to apply an additional constraint to the setting calculation
for the case where a distance zone reaches over a position containing an overcurrent relay. In such
a case, the backup zone will be coordinated with the overcurrent relay so as to achieve the specified
grading time margin. The Time grading against overcurrent protection devices field is used to specify
over which part of the overcurrent relay’s time-overcurrent characteristic the margin will be sought. For
characteristics with two definite time stages, either the fastest or the slowest definite time stage can
be selected. This could be useful for example where a distance protected line contains a tee off to a
transformer which is protected by an overcurrent relay with two definite time stages. The fast definite
time stage will most likely be set to reach into the transformer, whilst the slower stage will be set to reach
past the transformer so as to coordinate with and provide backup protection to, an overcurrent protection
device on the lower voltage side. Depending on the relative penetration of the distance protection and
the fast definite time characteristic of the overcurrent protection into the transformer, there may be
benefit in selecting a grading margin against the fast definite time characteristic as opposed to the slow
one, or even vice-versa.

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33.13.5 Protection Coordination Assistant Command - Advanced Options

This page is illustrated in figure 33.13.10.

Figure 33.13.10: Protection coordination assistant command - Advanced Options

The advanced options page is used to tune the behaviour of the topological search algorithm used to
identify the relevant impedances of the network extending from each relay location.

The Consideration of switch states field allows the user to specify whether the search routine stops at
open switches or continues past them so that impedances beyond the open switches may be used in
the reach calculations.

the Stop criteria for topological search option can be used to limit the extent of the topological search in
order to improve performance of the tool. This is usually only relevant in large networks with many relays
where the topological search may continue for some time if it does not encounter a current transformer
from another relay or a fuse (provided the Consider fuses for coordination option is selected) indicating
the termination of a protected line.

33.13.6 Prerequisites for using the distance protection coordination tool

Before starting the distance protection coordination assistant, ensure the following:

1. A network model of the area has been completed in PowerFactory.

2. The relays to be coordinated should be added to the model and instrument transformers, config-
ured with the appropriate ratios, assigned.

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33.13.7 How to run the distance protection coordination calculation

To run the distance protection coordination follow these steps:

1. Click the icon on the main toolbar.

2. Select Protection and Arc-Flash Analysis.

3. Click the icon. A dialog for the Protection Coordination Assistant will appear.

4. Click the icon and choose the coordination or protection devices to coordinate.
5. Optional: Adjust options for the coordination on the Distance Protection and Advanced Options
pages.
6. Click OK to run the coordination.
7. To analyse results of the coordination see Section 33.13.8.

33.13.8 How to output results from the protection coordination assistant

This section explains how the results from the distance protection coordination assistant can be anal-
ysed. The graphical method of analysis using the time-distance plot and the tabular method using the
built-in report are discussed. Furthermore, there is an option to write the coordination results back to
the protection relays located within the analysed path via the created tabular report.

Results are generated following execution of the Protection coordination results command. Usually this
is done automatically on execution of the protection coordination assistant command thanks to a link
between the two objects specified in the protection coordination assistant command (as mentioned in
section 33.13.3). However, if this option is not selected the Protection coordination results command
can be executed independently using the procedure below:

To output results from the protection coordination assistant follow these steps:
1. Execute the protection coordination tool. See Section 33.13.7 for instructions how to do this.

2. Click the icon from the protection toolbar. A dialog for choosing the output options will appear.
3. Check the boxes for the reports that you would like PowerFactory to produce. The types of reports
are:
• Create Report. This option produces a tabular report of the coordination results. See
Section 33.13.8.1 for further information on this report.
• Create Time-Distance Plot. This option presents a plot showing graphically the results of
the protection coordination. More information about this diagram is presented in Section 33.8.
4. The other options in this dialog are:
• Results File. Here the results that the output is based on can be selected. If the user wishes
to output results from a different calculation, perhaps completed in another study case, then
this is where those results are selected.
• Path Selection. This option is available only when the Create Time-Distance Plot check box
is selected. Time-Distance plots are always linked to a path object. So in order to create time
distance plots, paths must first be specified in the network model. See Section 15.9 for more
information about paths. If paths have already been created these can be selected via this
option here.

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33.13.8.1 Tabular report of the protection coordination results

Enabling the option Create Report when outputting the coordination results as described in Section 33.13.8,
automatically generates a table report showing the results from the previously executed protection
coordination. An example of the coordination result report is illustrated in figure 33.13.11.

Figure 33.13.11: Protection coordination results report

For each relay, the following results are produced:

Protection device. This column shows the name of each protection device for which settings have
been calculated. By right clicking relays in this column it is possible to navigate to the relay
objects in graphics or in the database and it is also possible to transfer the calculated settings to
the specific device.

Zone. This column shows the zones for every protection device for which settings have been calculated.
By right clicking zones in this column it is possible to transfer the calculated settings for the specific
zone only to the device.
Direction. This column indicates for each zone whether it is a forward, reverse or non directional zone.

Polygonal Reactance. This column shows the primary Ohm reactance for each zone. By right clicking
on the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed elements in open graphic
it is possible to better visualise the reach of the setting.
Polygonal Resistance Ph-Ph. This column shows the primary Ohm phase to phase resistance for
each zone. By right clicking on the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed
elements in open graphic it is possible to better visualise the reach of the setting.
Polygonal Resistance Ph-E. This column shows the primary Ohm phase to earth resistance for each
zone. By right clicking on the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed
elements in open graphic it is possible to better visualise the reach of the setting.
Polygonal time delay. This column shows the time delay for each polygonal zone. By right clicking on
the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed elements in open graphic it is
possible to visualise the other relay elements with which this time setting has been coordinated.

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Circular Impedance. This column shows the primary Ohm impedance for each zone. By right clicking
on the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed elements in open graphic
it is possible to better visualise the reach of the setting.

Circular Angle. This column shows the primary Ohm angle of the impedance for the relay. Depending
on the setting of the Angle calculation for circular characteristics setting in the Protection coordi-
nation assistant, the angle may be calculated each zone or for zone 1 only.
Circular Time delay. This column shows the time delay for each circular zone. By right clicking on
the figure and choosing Show traversed element or mark traversed elements in open graphic it is
possible to visualise the other relay elements with which this time setting has been coordinated.
The report can be filtered using the drop down lists at the top:

Show devices in. Use this filter to select a grouping object class.

Selected. Use this filter to select a specific grouping within the grouping class.
Show Characteristic. Use this filter to show circular or polygonal characteristics in isolation.

As mentioned above the calculated settings can be transferred to the devices individually by interacting
with the cells in the table. However, if after review of the settings it is determined that all settings should
be transferred to the relay devices in the network model then this can be done by pressing the Transfer
settings to all devices button. It is important to note that this process will overwrite existing settings in
the model. If this is a problem it is recommended to create a Variation prior to applying the settings.
Subsequently, it is easy to revert to the old settings by disabling the Variation. Refer to Section 17.2 for
more information about PowerFactory Variations.

To output these results to Excel or to HTML click on the corresponding export icon in the upper right
corner of the tabular report.

Note: If you recalculate the protection coordination results, this report is not automatically updated -
you must use the option Refresh icon to update the report.

33.13.8.2 Time distance diagrams from the protection coordination

Enabling the option Create Report when outputting the coordination results as described in Section 33.13.8,
automatically generates a time distance diagram showing the results from the previously completed
protection coordination. One diagram will be produced for each path. An example time distance diagram
for a coordination completed using the independent method is shown in Figure 33.13.12.

Note that the plot display can be configured by double-clicking the diagram. For further information
about time distance diagrams refer to Section 33.8.

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Figure 33.13.12: Time distance diagram showing the result from the protection coordination using the
independent method on the network shown in Figure 33.13.1

33.14 Accessing results

After all protection devices have been configured and graded, it is often desirable to create reports for
future reference. Aside from exporting the time-overcurrent, R-X or time-distance plots as graphical files
(see Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.7.5: Tools for Plots), there are several
other methods described in subsections 33.14.2 and 33.14.3 to report the relay settings.

Subsection 33.14.1 describes how to access quickly to protection plots of relays.

33.14.1 Quick access to protection plots

In most of the protection projects, protection plots are indispensable. That is why some relays can
appear in various different protection diagrams or why some projects can posses huge number of plots.
To minimise possibility of confusion, there is an option that allows us to directly jump into all existing
protection plots that contain the relay of interest.

To quickly access the protection plots for some specific relay, the user should select the option Show →
In existing Protection Plots from the context menu. This option can be called from the Object Filter (see
Figure 33.14.1) or directly out of the network graphic (see Figure 33.14.2).

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Figure 33.14.1: Access through Object Filter

Figure 33.14.2: Access from the Grid

If the Relay appears in more than one diagram, after selection of In existing Protection Plots, the user
can select which diagram he is interested in (see Figure 33.14.3).

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Figure 33.14.3: selection of the plot

33.14.2 Tabular protection setting report

A report command specifically for protection can be accessed by either clicking on the Output of
Protection Settings icon on the Protection toolbar or alternatively via the “Output” entry in the main
menu.

The Output of protection settings command dialog(ComProtreport) has three pages:

1. Basic Options
2. Common Options
3. Specific Options

33.14.2.1 Basic Options

In this page the user chooses which equipment to generate reports for. First the user chooses general
classes of equipment from the options below:

• Instrument Transformers
• Overcurrent Protection
• Distance Protection
• Voltage Protection
• Frequency Protection

any combination of the above options may be selected. Each option which is selected will result in the
generation of a separate tabular report. I.e. if all five options are selected, five tabular reports will be
generated.

In the lower section of the page the user can choose to consider all protection devices in the active grid
or only a specific user defined subset. The following objects may be selected as a user defined subset:
SetSelect, SetFilt, ElmNet, ElmArea, ElmZone, ElmFeeder, ElmSubstat and ElmTrfstat. Additionally a
single protection device (ElmRelay, RelFuse) can also be selected.

33.14.2.2 Common Options

The decimal precision section can be used to define the number of decimal places to which results are
given in the tabular reports. The precision for each unit can be defined individually.

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The layout options section is used to configure the layout for each report. Depending on whether they
are selected, “Device, Location and Branch” will be the first three columns of the report.

If the show instrument transformers option is selected, additional columns will be added to the overcur-
rent, distance, voltage and frequency protection reports showing details of the instrument transformers.

If the Report settable blocks only option is selected, blocks which have no user configurable settings
will not be displayed in the report.

If the Arrange stages vertically option is selected, additional rows will be added to the report for each
protection stage, rather than including additional stages as additional columns.

If the Show ANSI code option is selected, each stage column will include the relevant ANSI code as
defined by IEEE (ANSI) C37-2.

33.14.2.3 Specific Options

The Over-/Undercurrent and Over-/Undervoltage sections of this page can be used to define whether
settings should be displayed in primary units, secondary units, or per unit. Any combination of the 3
options is possible.

This page is also used to limit the report for each type of protection to a specified number of phase and
earth fault protection stages.

One the ComProtreport dialog has been configured it can be executed.

The Tabular Report

An example of a tabular report generated when the ComProtreport dialog is executed is illustrated in
Figure 33.14.4:

Figure 33.14.4: ComProtreport Tabular report

Relay models (and sometimes stages depending on the setting detailed above) are listed vertically while
settings are listed horizontally.

The downward pointing triangular icon at the top of the page can be used to export the report either as
HTML format or in excel spreadsheet format.

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It is also possible to interact with the data within the report. For instance, if you double click on a
particular stage (or right click and select edit it is possible to edit the settings dialog for that stage.

Data within this table may also be copied and pasted if required, with or without column headers.

33.14.3 Results in single line graphic

The names of the relays or the tripping times may be made visible in the single line graphic by selecting
the following options in the main menu.

• Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relays

• Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relay Tripping Times

The first option (Relays), which is always available, will show the names of the relays in all cubicles.
The second option will show the tripping times of the relays after a load-flow or short-circuit calculation
has been carried out. If a relay does not trip, then a tripping time of 9999.99 s is shown.

It is also possible to colour the single line graphic depending on the tripping time of the protective
devices installed. This feature can be activated by clicking the diagram colouring button from the local
graphics window icon bar, then selecting: the protection tab → 3. Others→ Results→ Fault clearing
time.

33.15 Protection Audit

The protection audit tool allows a user to examine the performance of a protection system in a highly
automated manner where the rigorousness of the examination is fully configurable. The purpose of
the analysis is to give confidence to the user that their protection scheme performs in accordance with
their particular coordination and operation criteria and to identify where weaknesses or failures in the
scheme’s performance exist. The automated nature of the tool allows a multitude of fault scenarios to be
examined without burdening the user with the responsibility of maintaining high levels of concentration
during what would otherwise be a highly repetitive and time consuming task.

As a prerequisite for using this tool it is necessary that the user has a network model including a
protection scheme for which settings have already been defined. The verification process involves the
application of short-circuit calculations of various fault types throughout the relevant network area. The
user specifies the network area to be examined and then configures the fault cases to be applied. The
protection devices responsible for each network element are determined automatically by the feature.
The fault cases specified by the user are calculated at each network element and at additional relevant
locations within the selected area and the reaction of all protection devices to those faults is recorded.

Once the Protection Audit Command has been executed the results must be analysed. In order to
carry out this step of the analysis an additional command, the Protection Audit Results command
(ComAuditreport) is provided. The user configures this command with their particular coordination and
operation requirements so that it can determine the degree to which these requirements are met. The
output of the command is a set of tabular reports clearly highlighting critical and non-critical cases where
the protection scheme has failed to meet the requirements, as well as the cases where no problems
were recorded.

33.15.1 Protection Audit Command Handling

The Protection Audit Command is initiated using the Protection Audit command (ComProtaudit) icon
available from the protection toolbox accessible by clicking the icon in the main menu.

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The first stage of the analysis is to carry out short circuit calculations at locations throughout the network
and to examine the resulting tripping times of the defined protection devices. The tripping times are then
stored in a results file cross referenced to the relevant fault case. The fault cases to be applied as well
as other settings necessary to carry out this analysis are configured in the Protection Audit Command
(ComProtaudit). Once initiated, the command is stored within the active study case and is automatically
provided with a short circuit sweep command (ComShcsweep). The short circuit sweep command in
turn contains the short circuit command (ComShc) to be used throughout the analysis along with a
Short Circuits folder (IntEvtshc). The Short Circuits folder contains the short circuit events (EvtShc)
which define the individual fault cases to be applied throughout the analysis. See section 33.11 for
information on the short circuit sweep command.

PowerFactory automatically determines the circuit breakers and associated protection devices relevant
for the calculation using a topological search routine which is adapted according to the type of network
element under consideration.

Configuration of the Protection Audit command settings is explained in the sections below.

33.15.1.1 Protection Audit Command. Basic Options

Network area - Selection. The network area over which the analysis shall be carried out, should
be selected here. The network area can be defined in terms of individual primary network elements
or grouping objects or a general set containing references to a custom selection of individual primary
network elements or grouping objects. Grouping objects which are valid for the analysis are Path Def-
inition (SetPath) objects, Grid (ElmNet) objects, Area (ElmArea) objects and Zone (ElmZone) objects.
Substation (ElmSubstat), Branch (ElmBranch) and switch elements may not be selected.

Calculation commands
• Load Flow. A load flow command may be configured via this option. The load flow command will
be used to examine whether any protection devices have been unintentionally configured such
that they will trip during normal load conditions. The load flow command will also be relevant if the
fault cases are configured to use the complete short circuit method. Finally the load flow command
may be necessary to determine the pre-fault current for any thermal overload type protection or
fuse protection used in the network. The load flow command configured via this option is the
standard load flow command accessible from the main toolbar.
• Short-Circuit. The short circuit command to be used throughout the analysis can be configured
via this option. The most important setting here is likely to be the short circuit method to be
used for the analysis. e.g. IEC 60909, Complete etc. The short circuit fault types and the fault
impedance will be defined separately in the fault case definitions, which are configured via another
part of ComProtaudit command (see below). The short circuit command used by the calculation is
separate from the standard short circuit command accessible from the main toolbar. This means
it can have independent settings.
Fault case definitions. The fault cases to be examined during the analysis are defined in this section of
the dialog. A fault case is defined as a short circuit event (EvtShc) and is stored within a Short Circuits
folder. The contents of the Short Circuits folder can be accessed at any time by pressing the Edit button.
For each fault case a Fault type (e.g. 3 phase, single phase to ground etc) and a fault resistance and
reactance should be defined. It is envisaged that a user will ideally define multiple fault cases, and
examine different fault impedances, for each fault type, for each analysis so as to comprehensively test
their protection scheme.

Considered network equipment

• Branches. If this option is selected, faults will be examined relevant for the protection of branch
elements such as lines located within the network area over which the analysis is to be carried
out. Fault cases will be applied at the terminals of the branches and at regular intervals along the
length of any line objects. Where protection devices are associated with the element, fault cases
will be applied on both sides of the relevant current transformers.

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• Busbars. If this option is selected, faults will be examined relevant for the protection of busbar
elements located within the network area over which the analysis is to be carried out. Busbars are
considered to be terminal elements where the usage parameter of the terminal is set to “busbar”.
Fault cases will be applied at the busbars themselves and where protection is present in cubicles
contained within the busbar, fault cases will be applied on both sides of the relevant current
transformers.
• Step size for lines. Faults will be applied at regular intervals along the length of line elements
during the analysis. This setting determines the size of the interval to be applied.

Results - Results File. With this option the results file used to store the results of the analysis can be
selected and accessed. The results file is structured into multiple sub results files with one sub results
file being used per fault case examined. Another sub results file stores the results of the load flow
calculation and another contains details of the topological relationships of circuit breakers controlled by
protective devices. The default results file location is within the relevant study case.

Reporting - Command. This option provides access to the associated Protection Audit Results com-
mand which is described in section 33.15.2. By selecting the Reporting check box the user can choose
to additionally execute the Protection Audit Results command, when the Protection Audit command is
executed.

33.15.1.2 Protection Audit Command. Advanced Options

Stop criteria of topological search

• Max. Number of busbars. The command uses a topological search to locate the switches
controlled by protective devices, that are used to protect the elements in the network area under
examination. In some circumstances, for example where the network as a whole is much larger
than the protected area under examination, this search routine could lead to unnecessarily long
computation times. This option specifies the maximum number of busbars which can be swept
by the search routine before the search routine is halted. A value of 0 means that no limitation is
applied.
• Max. line length. Similar to the previous option, this option specifies the maximum line length
which can be swept by the search routine before the search routine is halted. A value of 0 means
that no limitation is applied.

33.15.2 Protection Audit Results Command Handling

The command is initiated using the Protection Audit Results command (ComAuditreport) icon
available from the protection toolbox accessible by clicking the icon in the main menu. It can also be
initiated directly from the Protection Audit command by selecting the Reporting checkbox as described
above.

Once the Protection Audit Command has recorded the tripping times of the network’s protection devices
in response to the various fault cases, the next stage is to analyse the results. A results file (ElmRes)
is made available containing all the data generated by the initial part of the analysis. The quantity
of the data generated can be significant and must be further analysed against the user’s particular
coordination and operation requirements before the results can be displayed in a meaningful way. This
is done using the Protection Audit Results Command. Once initiated the command is stored within the
active study case.

The user’s particular coordination and operation requirements are entered into this command. Different
severities can be assigned to different conditions and locations. For example a coordination issue
between main and backup protection can be considered more severe than a coordination issue between
the second backup and an upstream device.

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The output of the command is a set of tabular reports which can be oriented by network element or by
protection device. The tabular reports clearly highlight and differentiate between non-critical and critical
cases where the protection scheme has failed to meet the requirements. Cases where no problems
with requirements were recorded are also clearly indicated. The level of detail shown by the report can
be scaled according to the user’s needs.

Results can be assessed against:

• Fixed coordination margin

• Coordination margin based on the downstream circuit breaker delay

• Maximum allowed device tripping time

• Maximum allowed fault clearing time

Configuration of the Protection Audit Results command settings is explained in the sections below.

33.15.2.1 Protection Audit Results Command. Basic Options

Result selection- Results file. With this option the results file containing the results from the preceding
analysis can be selected and accessed. The results file is structured into multiple sub results files with
one sub results file being used per fault case examined. Another sub results file stores the results of
the load flow calculation and another contains details of the topological relationships of circuit breakers
controlled by protective devices. The default results file location is within the relevant study case.

Options

• Verify device coordination. This option enables the generation of a specific tabular report verify-
ing the coordination performance of the relays against the users requirements. The requirements
themselves are defined elsewhere as described in section 33.15.2.2.
• Verify tripping times. This option enables the generation of a specific tabular report verifying the
performance of the relays against the users requirements with respect to maximum tripping times.
The requirements themselves are defined elsewhere as described in section 33.15.2.3.
• Verify fault clearing time. This option enables the generation of a specific tabular report verifying
the performance of the relays against the users requirements with respect to maximum fault
clearing times. The requirements themselves are defined elsewhere as described in section
33.15.2.4.

Report style
• Network element oriented. If selected, each row of the generated reports will relate to a different
network element. Please see section 33.15.3.1 for further information.
• Protection device oriented. If selected, each row of the reports will relate to a different relay.
Please see section 33.15.3.2 for further information.
Colours used in report. Colouring is used throughout the tabular reports to assist in the interpretation
of the results. The colouring scheme used can be configured in this settings table. Colouring is
according to four levels of severity. The highest level of severity being a critical ’Failure’. Two levels
of non critical failure are also allowed for, namely ’Warning’ and ’Notification’ and the lowest level of
severity is termed ’no issue’, where the user’s requirements are completely met.

Network Area - Output for. These settings allow the user to report results for all elements contained
within network area selection or alternatively to limit results to a subset of those elements.
• All recorded elements: this option is selected if the user wishes to report results for all elements
contained within the network area selection. If this option is selected results for all elements are
shown on the same page of the report.

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• User Selection: this option is selected if the user wishes to restrict result reporting to a subset of
the recorded elements. When chosen, a selection table will appear to which rows can be manually
added and individual objects selected from the data manager. The buttons on the right hand side
can be used to quickly assist with this. Results associated with each item in the selection table
will be displayed on a different page of the output report.

33.15.2.2 Protection Audit Results Command. Device Coordination

The feature allows coordination of protection devices to either be verified against:

• a fixed, specified, coordination margin, where the duration of the breaker delays is ignored.
• a potentially variable coordination margin, based on the breaker delay of the downstream breaker.
In both cases it is verified that for a particular instance of a fault case the tripping time of the upstream
relay in the coordination pair is longer than the tripping time of the downstream relay by a value greater
than the coordination margin.

The settings on this page are only relevant if the verify device coordination check box is selected on the
basic options page of the command and will influence the results of the associated tabular report.

Coordination margin

• Use breaker delay. This check box determines whether breaker delays or alternatively a fixed
coordination margin should be used to verify coordination.
• Coordination margin. The fixed coordination margin which shall be used if breaker delays are
not to be considered.

• Safety margin. This parameter is only used if the Use breaker delay check box is selected. Under
those circumstances, taking the breaker delay of the downstream breaker as the initial coordina-
tion margin, this parameter will increase the coordination margin by the specified percentage.
• Default breaker delay. This parameter is only used if the Use breaker delay check box is selected.
The breaker delay is a parameter which is specified in the type of the circuit breaker. In some
cases this data may not be available or may not have been specified in the model. For those
cases PowerFactory will use the default value specified for this parameter.
Severity of failures. This settings table can be configured so as to specify the severity of different kinds
of failure. It is assumed that for primary coordination pairs, where one of the devices is topologically
located at a level directly above the other device that a coordination failure is a critical failure and so is
by default given the highest level of severity and not included in the table. For secondary and tertiary
failures, where the upstream device is two or three coordination levels above the downstream device,
the user has the option to select the severity level of a coordination failure. The three levels being
Failure, Warning, or notification in decreasing order of severity.

33.15.2.3 Protection Audit Results Command. Tripping Times

The feature allows the maximum tripping time of the protection devices to be verified against:

• different classes of fault (3 phase, 2 phase and single phase)

• whether the fault being examined is on the primary item of equipment being protected, or a
secondary or tertiary item of equipment.

The tripping time of the relevant relays for the examined instance of the fault case will be verified against
the specified maximum tripping time.

The settings on this page are only relevant if the verify tripping times check box is selected on the basic
options page of the command and will influence the results of the associated tabular report.

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Max. trip time. This settings matrix is used to specify maximum tripping times according to the different
classes of fault in combination with whether the network element on which the fault instance is applied
is considered to be primary, secondary or tertiary equipment from the point of view of the relay being
considered.

Severity of failures. This settings matrix can be configured so as to specify the severity of different
kinds of failure. The user has the option to select the severity level for each of the combinations defined
by the matrix. The three levels of severity being Failure, Warning, or Notification in decreasing order of
severity.

33.15.2.4 Protection Audit Results Command. Fault Clearing Times

The feature allows the maximum fault clearing time of the protection devices to be verified against
whether the fault being examined is on the primary item of equipment being protected, or additionally a
secondary or tertiary item of equipment. The maximum fault clearing time is distinct from the maximum
tripping time in that it takes into account the delay introduced by the circuit breaker as well as the delay
introduced by the relay, while the maximum tripping time considers the relay delay only.

The fault clearing time of the relevant relays-circuit breaker combinations for the examined instance of
the fault case will be verified against the specified maximum fault clearing time.

The settings on this page are only relevant if the verify fault clearing times check box is selected on the
basic options page of the command and will influence the results of the associated tabular report.

Max. fault clearing time. This settings table is used to specify maximum fault clearing times according
to whether the network element on which the fault instance is applied is considered to be primary,
secondary or tertiary equipment from the point of view of the relay being considered.

Severity of failures. This settings table can be configured so as to specify the severity of different
kinds of failure. The user has the option to select the severity level for primary, secondary or tertiary
equipment, with the three levels of severity being Failure, Warning, or Notification in decreasing order
of severity.

Default breaker delay. The breaker delay is a parameter which is specified in the type of the circuit
breaker. In some cases this data may not be available or may not have been specified in the model. For
those cases PowerFactory will use the default value specified for this parameter.

Critical fault clearing times (3-phase). Certain items of equipment may require specific fault clearing
times distinct from the general verification based on the Max. fault clearing time parameter described
above. For example verification may be required to ensure that disconnection of equipment occurs
within the critical fault clearing time of a particular generator such that dynamic stability problems do not
arise. For such cases it is possible to specify an alternative critical fault clearing time. The element with
the special requirement and the associated critical fault clearing time to be verified against three phase
fault cases are entered in the table.

33.15.3 Report Handling and interpretation

The Protection Audit Results Command (ComAuditreport) was described in section 33.15.2. Once this
command has been executed, one or more reports may be generated. This section describes the
handling and interpretation of those reports.

The type of report is displayed in the header. There are three possible headers (verify device coordi-
nation, verify tripping time and verify fault clearing time). For each report, the Project title is displayed
as well as the active study case when the reports were generated. Three buttons are included on the
right hand side of the dialog. A refresh button, which may be used to rebuild the report under particular
circumstances. An html button which may be used to launch relevant software (e.g. a web browser)
and generate an html format version of the report. Finally The xls button will launch relevant software

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to handle xls files (e.g. spreadsheet software) and will generate an xls format version of the report.

The Network Area section of the report will be selectable if the Network Area - Output for: user selection
option has been configured (see section 33.15.2.1) and can be used to move between pages, where
each page is associated with a different network area.

Two complimentary forms of report may be generated by selecting the relevant option on the Basic
Options page of the Protection Audit Results dialog (see section 33.15.2.1). The handling and interpre-
tation of these are described below.

33.15.3.1 Network element oriented

When selected, each row of the generated report(s) will relate to a different network element. Results
are presented in terms of a coloured bar. Segments of the coloured bar represent different fault positions
associated with the element. The segments are coloured according to the worst violation per fault
position on the element (i.e. if there are two warnings and one failure at for example 20% of a line, this
segment will be coloured according to the failure).

Figure 33.15.1 shows a typical example of a report. The first column of results, the Total column gives
an overview of the results considering all fault cases. In the subsequent columns results are grouped
into fault case classes. For instance if phase A to ground, phase B to ground and phase C to ground fault
cases are examined, these results will all be grouped together in the single phase to ground column. It
is also possible to see the results for the individual fault cases associated with a grouping. For example
to see the individual A,B or C phase to ground fault results click on one of the bars in the single phase
to ground column and select the Expand selected fault type button. The table will be rebuilt to list the
individual fault case results associated with the selected column. See figure 33.15.2.

Figure 33.15.1: Network element oriented results example

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Figure 33.15.2: Network element oriented results example - single phase to ground expanded view

33.15.3.2 Protection device oriented

When selected, each row of the generated reports will relate to a different relay model. Results are
presented in terms of a coloured bar. Each relay is determined to be responsible for providing either
primary, secondary or tertiary protection for certain items of equipment. For each item of equipment
the relay response will be examined for a finite number of fault case instances. Each segment of the
coloured bar represents a different fault case instance associated with the relay, relevant to the column
being examined. The segments are coloured according to the severity of the violation measured for
each fault case instance. e.g. a relay might be found to be responsible for providing primary protection
to a line, secondary protection to a switchboard and tertiary protection to a second line. A total of 25
fault locations may be examined for these three items of equipment in relation to three different fault
cases, giving a total of 75 fault case instances. 10 cases may be found to be failures 15 to be warnings
and 50 to have no issue. In this example the bar in the Total column for that relay would be coloured
according to those proportions.

Figure 33.15.3 shows a typical example of a report. The first column of results, the Total column, gives
an overview of the results considering all fault case instances. In the subsequent columns results are
grouped into fault case classes. For instance if phase A to ground, phase B to ground and phase C to
ground fault cases are examined, these results will all be grouped together in the single phase to ground
column. It is also possible to see the results for the individual fault cases associated with a grouping.
For example to see the individual A,B or C phase to ground fault results click on one of the bars in the
single phase to ground column and select the Expand selected fault type button. The table will be rebuilt
to list the individual fault case results associated with the selected column. See figure 33.15.4.

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Figure 33.15.3: Protection device oriented results example

Figure 33.15.4: Protection device oriented results example - single phase to ground expanded view

33.16 Short circuit trace

The Short circuit trace is a tool based on the complete short circuit calculation method that allows the
user to examine the performance of a protection scheme in response to a fault or combination of faults;
where the response is examined in time steps and where at each time step, the switching outcomes of
the previous time step and the subsequent effect on the flow of fault current, is taken into consideration.

Consider a network as illustrated in Figure 33.16.1:

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Figure 33.16.1: Short circuit trace example

Suppose that for a particular fault at bus 4, the relay controlling circuit breaker 1 trips significantly faster
than the relays controlling circuit breakers 2 and 3. Once circuit breaker 1 trips, the fault is not cleared
but the fault current is reduced, since the contribution from the external grid is removed.

With a single conventional static short circuit calculation it is not possible to take account of the fact
that the fault current seen by circuit breaker 3 reduces after circuit breaker 1 trips. The short circuit
calculation results will show a tripping time for circuit breaker 3 that is too quick. It will be based
on the incorrect premise that circuit breaker 3 sees contribution from both the external grid and the
synchronous generator for the entire duration of the fault.

It should be possible to more accurately determine the sequence of operation of the protection scheme.
To clear the fault completely, circuit breaker 2 or circuit breaker 3 must trip. Due to the dynamic variation
in the fault current, the tripping times of the two circuit breakers are not immediately obvious. Ideally, a
dynamic simulation method should be used to accurately calculate the respective tripping times of the
two circuit breakers. However, a dynamic simulation is not always practicable and where the user is
willing to accept a reduced level of accuracy in exchange for a faster, simpler calculation result, then the
Short circuit trace should be considered.

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Consider again the network illustrated in Figure 33.16.1 with a fault occurring at bus 4. All relays are
overcurrent relays with the relay controlling circuit breaker 1 having a significantly faster tripping time
than the other two relays. A sequence of events as illustrated in figure 33.16.2 occurs.

Figure 33.16.2: Short circuit trace sequence

The following describes how the Short Circuit Trace calculation arrives upon that sequence of events.

• Time Step 1 (𝑡 = 0): The fault occurs at bus 4. Fault current flows from both the synchronous
generator and the external grid according to the complete short circuit method of calculation. The
relay controlling circuit breaker 3 sees the fault current from both sources. The relays controlling
circuit breakers 1 and 2 see only the fault current from the sources present in their particular
branch of the network. The tripping time of each of the relays can be evaluated based on the
respective magnitudes of the current components seen by the relays and with reference to each
of the relay’s tripping characteristics.

• Time Step 2 (𝑡 = 0 + 𝑡1): According to the tripping times calculated at Time Step 1 it is established
that the relay controlling circuit breaker 1 will trip first in time 𝑡1. Therefore at stage 2 circuit
breaker 1 is opened and the complete short circuit method calculation is once again carried out
for a fault at bus 4. This time, the current seen by circuit breaker 3 only includes contribution from
the generator and not from the external grid.
That is not to say that the influence of the external grid is erased from the record during this
second time step. Where an inverse-time characteristic applies, the time spent in the previous
trace calculation step, with both sources supplying current is used to determine the initial state
of the relay moving into the second time step in order to better approximate the tripping time.
Additionally consideration has been given to accurate representation of cases where the function
responsible for the trip, changes between time steps (e.g. from DT to IDMT units).
For the purposes of this example it is assumed that circuit breaker 2 and circuit breaker 3 are
malcoordinated and circuit breaker 2 is established to be the next quickest to operate.
• Time Step 3 (𝑡 = 0 + 𝑡2): According to the tripping times calculated at Time Step 2 it is established
that the relay controlling breaker 2 is the next to trip and trips in time 𝑡2. Since the fault is
now isolated from all connected sources, fault current no longer flows and the short circuit trace
calculation is complete.

From the above, a sequence of operation for the protection scheme is established and specific protection
operating times are calculated, taking account of the variation in network topology that occurs during
the ongoing response of a protection scheme to a fault situation.

33.16.1 Short Circuit Trace Handling

A command specifically for the Short Circuit Trace feature can be accessed by clicking on the Start
Short-Circuit Trace icon on the Protection toolbar. The command can also be executed from the context
sensitive menu by right clicking on busbar or line in the data manager or single line diagram and by
choosing Calculate → Short Circuit Trace.... When executing the command from the context sensitive
menu a short circuit event referencing the selected item of equipment will automatically be generated

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and presented to the user in a browser dialog. The user should use this to configure the nature of the
short circuit to be applied.

The Short-Circuit Trace command dialog (ComShctrace) has only one page which is illustrated in figure
33.16.3.

Figure 33.16.3: Short circuit trace command dialog

The Short-Circuit Trace Command

A link to the short circuit command (ComShc) to be used for the calculation is automatically generated.
This command is described in detail in the Chapter 26. Please note that for the Short Circuit Trace
function, some options are fixed. For instance, only the complete short circuit method may be selected
whilst the type of short circuit is specified in the short circuit event rather than in the command. The
Events part of the page is used to define the events to be applied at the beginning of the calculation.
The following kinds of events may be specified.
• Intercircuit Fault Events (EvtShcll)
• Outage Events (EvtOutage)
• Short-Circuit Events (EvtShc)
• Switch Events (EvtSwitch)
A list of the selected events can be easily accessed by pressing the Show button.

Predefined events can be selected from the project’s operational library by selecting the From Library
button.

All events can be removed from the event queue by pressing the Remove All button. The Simultaneous
Trip Tolerance setting is used to minimise the number of time steps presented for cases where the
operation of devices is expected to be practically simultaneous. If the breakers at both ends of a
protected line (for example) operate in times which have a difference between them less than the
Simultaneous Trip Tolerance then operation of both devices will be presented during a single time step
corresponding with the switching time of the fastest operating device.

Once the simulation is ready to begin, press the execute button. At this point the simulation is initialised
and the short circuit events specified in the Basic Options page are applied to the network.

The user is presented with a tabular report as illustrated in figure 33.16.4. The header of the report
states the project name and the active study case along with the currently examined Time Step. Initially
this time step will correspond with the Switch Time of the fastest acting circuit breaker / protection

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device combination. However, as the trace is progressed this value will be updated. The user is given
the option to display Only active devices (i.e. devices which are instigated to trip in response to the
fault) or All devices.

The devices themselves are shown in the first column of the table. It is possible to edit the devices
by double left clicking on the cells in this column. A context sensitive menu can be presented by right
clicking on a cell in this column and from here it is possible to mark the location of the device in a
single line diagram. The Protection device Time [s] column presents the tripping times of the protection
devices in response to the fault during the examined time step. This time does not include any breaker
delay introduced by the associated switching device. The associated switching device is presented in
the Switch column and the total fault clearing time taking account of the breaker delay as well as the
protection device operating time is presented in the Switch Time [s] column. It is the Switch time which
determines the sequence of operation of the relays during the trace and therefore the examined Time
steps. The device(s) identified to trip during the examined time step are indicated with an arrow in the
row header of the table.

By pressing the Next Time Step button the user can advance the trace to the next time step and the
table of results is updated (along with the single line diagram). The report also provides buttons which
allow the user to jump to the last time step or stop the trace.

The final column in the table Switch Blocked can be used to simulate failure of one or more switches to
operate during the trace. If the box corresponding with a device is checked in the table, upon pressing
the Next Time Step button the operation of the blocked switch will be disabled. The blocking will be
considered to occur before the results of the next time step are calculated. With the switch operation
disabled, one or more different protection devices will become the next switch to operate. In this way
the performance of back up protection for example can be examined.

The report can be refreshed as well as exported in html or xlsx file formats using the buttons in the top
right hand corner.

Figure 33.16.4: Short-Circuit Trace Report

As an alternative to or in addition to using the report, the user can examine the results in the single line

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diagram. The user can also advance through the simulation time step by time step or to the end of the
simulation by clicking on the relevant icons on the Protection toolbar. Further there is an additional icon
to stop the simulation at any time. The icons are illustrated in Figure 33.16.5.

Figure 33.16.5: Short Circuit trace icons

33.17 Protection Graphic Assistant

The Protection Graphic Assistant is a command which is accessible via the protection toolbox. The
assistant provides a convenient location where a number of graphical features relevant to protection
analysis can be initiated. On the basic options page of the command shown in figure 33.17.1 the user
can choose which of the features to execute. Each of the features is executed independently from each
other and only one feature can therefore be selected at a time. On this page the user should also select
the protection devices to be considered by the command.

Figure 33.17.1: Protection Graphic Assistant - Basic Options

The following subsection describe the features themselves.

33.17.1 Reach Colouring

Reach colouring is used to visualise the zone reaches of protection relay distance elements. It can be
used to overlay the zone reaches of specified relays on the single line diagram, complementing other
methods of zone reach visualisation offered by the R-X plot and Time-Distance plot. A typical reach
colouring representation is shown in figure 33.17.2.

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Figure 33.17.2: Distance protection reach colouring in the single line diagram

In the figure the zone reaches of two relays at either end of a single line are examined. The reaches
of one of the relays is shown with solid brush style, while the reach of the other is shown with a thicker
brush filled with diagonal hatching. The colouring of the three zones is indicated in the diagram’s key.

Reach settings are extracted directly from the relay elements and PowerFactory scales the presented
reach, taking account of the drawn lengths of the lines in the single line diagram. Starting elements
based on impedance characteristics as well as overreach zones can also be visualised using the tool.

The Protection Graphic Assistant is used to configure the appearance of the reach colouring. Relays
are distinguished by line thickness and can be distinguished further by the selection of identifying brush
styles. Zones can be individually identified through the selection of appropriate colouring. Additionally,
the tool allows the width of the line colouring to be controlled. These attributes are configured on the
Reach Colouring page of the command’s dialog. This is illustrated in figure 33.17.3

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Figure 33.17.3: Protection Graphic Assistant - Reach Colouring

After addition of the protection reach colouring to the single line diagram, the colouring can later be
removed, by pressing the Protection Graphic Assistant icon a second time.

The visualisation provides the user particular insight into more complex topological cases such as with
the protection of parallel lines. In such a case for example, the tool will clearly illustrate the reach of
the second and third zones beyond the remote busbar and back towards the relaying location via the
parallel line, as well as the reach into other branches beyond the remote busbar into the remainder
of the network. Additionally, for a network model populated with distance elements, by examining the
visual gaps in the colouring, the tool may be used to effect a rapid protection audit. Thereby, helping
the user to identify gaps in the protection scheme.

33.17.2 Short-Circuit Sweep Plot

The Short-Circuit Sweep Plot itself was described in section 33.12 while this subsection describes the
use of the Short-Circuit Sweep Plot create feature of the Protection Graphic Assistant. This feature is
used to easily and quickly configure short-circuit sweep diagrams which are of particular relevance for
protection purposes.

If the feature is selected on the Basic Options page of the Protection Graphic Assistant an additional
field appears where the user is able to define the nature of the short circuit sweeps to be carried out
using the Short-Circuit Sweep command (see section 33.11 for more information on the short circuit
sweep command).

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Figure 33.17.4: Protection Graphic Assistant - Basic Options for Short-Circuit Sweep Diagrams

On the SC-Sweep Diagrams page of the Protection Coordination Assistant the user provides the com-
mand with the relays of interest and the path to sweep. The types of diagrams desired are also specified.
This is illustrated in figure 33.17.5.

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Figure 33.17.5: Protection Graphic Assistant - Short-Circuit Sweep Diagrams

The feature will then automatically determine the elements within the relays, and the corresponding
result variables that must be monitored during the short circuit sweep so as to create the diagrams
specified. The user can choose whether they are interested in phase-phase protection loops, phase-
earth protection loops or both. They can also choose to include tripping thresholds in the diagrams
and whether to display secondary result values (values calculated for the secondary side of the CT's
and VT's) or primary system values (values calculated on the primary side of the CT’s and VT’s). Once
executed the diagrams are created with a single plot page per relay. The corresponding short circuit
sweeps will also be executed and the results will be visible in the plots.

33.17.3 Diagram Update

Once short circuit sweep diagrams or time distance diagrams have been created it may be necessary
at some later stage to update the diagrams by re-executing the short circuit sweep behind them. A
change to network data or a change to one or more relay settings could motivate such a course of
action. The diagram update option in the Protection graphic assistant allows the user to update one or
more diagrams by re-executing each relevant short circuit sweep calculation in one go. The user has
the option to select all graphical plot pages or a defined selection of pages as required.

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 33.18. BUILDING A BASIC OVERCURRENT RELAY MODEL

33.18 Building a basic overcurrent relay model

Some advanced users may need to build their own relay models. This section will outline the procedure
for building a basic overcurrent relay model.

1. Create a new block definition for the relay frame

• Select file → New→ Block Diagram / Frame. . .
– Give the relay frame an appropriate name.
– Click OK. This creates a block definition object within the User Defined Models section
of the project library.
2. Construct the relay frame.
• Select the slot icon from the drawing toolbox located on the right side of the screen and place
6 slots within the block definitions arranged as illustrated in Figure 33.18.1 below.

Figure 33.18.1: Arrangement of slots

3. Configure the BlkSlot dialog for slot A.

• Slot A will be configured to be a CT slot. Double click on the slot symbol and the BlkSlot
dialog will appear.
• Enter an appropriate name for the slot eg. CT 3ph.
• Enter the class name as StaCt*.
• Ensure that only the box linear is checked in the classification field.
• Enter the following output signals under the variables field: I2r_A; I2i_A, I2r_B; I2i_B, I2r_C;
I2i_C. These signals will represent real and imaginary secondary currents for phases A, B
and C.

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• The way in which the signal list above is defined influences the way the signals are repre-
sented in the relay frame. Signals can be grouped together and represented by a common
terminal by separating the signals to be grouped with a semicolon. Where a group of signals
or a single signal is to be given its own terminal representation in the relay frame then the
signal or group of signals should be distinguishing from any other signals by separation with
a comma.
• Once configured, click OK. The CT slot should now be marked with three terminals, one for
each phase.

4. Configure the BlkSlot dialog for slot B.

• Slot B will be configured to be a Measurement slot. Double click on the slot symbol and the
BlkSlot dialog will appear.
• Enter an appropriate name for the slot eg. Measurement.
• Enter the class name as RelMeasure*.
• In the classification field, ensure that only the boxes linear and Automatic, model will be
created are checked
• Enter the following output signals under the variables field: I_A, I_B, I_C. These represent
RMS values of current for each phase.
• Enter the following input signals under the variables field: wIr_A; wIi_A, wIr_B; wIi_B, wIr_C;
wIi_C. These are real and imaginary current signals supplied by the CT block.
• Once configured click ok.

5. Configure the BlkSlot dialogs for slots C, D and E.

• Slots C,D and E will be configured to be time overcurrent blocks with each one representing
a different phase. Double click on the slot C symbol and the BlkSlot dialog will appear.
• Enter an appropriate name for the slot eg. TOC phase A.
• Enter the class name as RelToc*.
• In the classification field, ensure that only the boxes linear and Automatic, model will be
created are checked
• Enter the following output signals under the variables field: yout.
• Enter the following input signals under the variables field: Iabs. This represents the RMS
current signal for phase A supplied by the measurement block.
• Once configured click OK.
• Repeat the steps above for slot D and E. Name these slots TOC phase B and TOC phase C.

6. Configure the BlkSlot dialog for slot F.

• Slot F will be configured to be a Logic slot. Double click on the slot symbol and the BlkSlot
dialog will appear.
• Enter an appropriate name for the slot eg. Logic.
• Enter the class name as RelLogic*.
• In the classification field, ensure that only the boxes linear and Automatic, model will be
created are checked
• Enter the following output signals under the variables field: yout.
• Enter the following input signals under the variables field: y1, y2, y3.
• Once configured click OK.
All block dialogs should now be configured.
7. Connect the blocks together using signals.
• Select the signal icon from the drawing toolbox located on the right side of the screen.
• Connect blocks by clicking on the output terminal of the first block then by clicking on the
input terminal of the receiving block. If a route for the signal is required which is not direct,
intermediate clicks may be used.

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• If a signal is intended to be passed outside of the model then a signal should be terminated
on the box which surrounds the frame. In this instance the output from the logic block will be
passed outside of the model.
• Connect the blocks in the frame as illustrated in Figure 33.18.2.

Figure 33.18.2: Signal route definition

8. Rebuild the block definition

• Press the rebuild button on the local graphics window icon bar. Rebuilding the model will
capture all the internal signals (signals defined between slots) and external signals (signals
passed outside of the model) within the BlkDef model dialog. This concludes definition of the
relay frame. The next step is to define a relay type.

9. Create a relay type object

• Within the Data Manager go to the Equipment Type library folder in the project library and
select the new object icon .
• In the dialog which appears select Special Type → Relay Type ( TypRelay).
• In the TypRelay dialog that appears give the relay type an appropriate name.
• In the relay definition field select the relay frame constructed earlier from the User Defined
Models section of the project library.
• Select the category as overcurrent relay.

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10. Define the CT type

• The CT type can be selected by double clicking in the type column associated with the CT
row.
• The desired CT should be selected from the Data Manager.
11. Define the measurement type
• The measurement type can be selected by double clicking in the type column associated with
the measurement row. For this example select the following options:
• Select Type to 3ph RMS currents
• Select nominal current to discrete with a value of 5.
• Select measuring time to 0.001
• Ensure no check boxes are selected.
12. Define the TOC types
• The TOC types can be selected by double clicking in the type column associated with the
rows of each of the three TOC slots. For this example select the following options for each
TOC type:
• Select IEC symbol I>t and Ansi symbol 51.
• Select type to phase A, B or C current depending on the slot.
• Select directional to none.
• Select current range to range type: stepped, minimum: 0.5, maximum: 2 and step size: 0.25.
• Check the characteristic includes pickup time box and set pickup time: 0.01s, Reset time:
0.04s and Reset Characteristic Configuration: Disabled.
• Select an existing relay characteristic from another relay or create a new relay characteristic
by creating a TypChatoc object.
• On the Total clear curve tab ensure no boxes are checked.
• On the blocking page, select consider blocking to disabled.
• Select release blocking time range to range type: stepped, minimum: 0 maximum: 10000
and step size: 0.01.
13. Define the Logic types
• The Logic type can be selected by double clicking in the type column associated with the
logic row.
• Select Breaker event to open.
• Select number of inputs to 4.
• Select number of block inputs to 4.
• Select a logical OR operation.

This concludes definition of the relay type.

To use the relay type a relay must be created within the network. The relay type can then be selected,
and the relay element parameters defined.

33.19 Appendix - other commonly used relay blocks

This section covers some of the other protection block not so far covered in the discussion throughout
the chapter so far.

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33.19.1 The frequency measurement block

The frequency measurement unit is used to calculate the electrical frequency for the given Measured
Voltage. The Nominal Voltage is needed for per unit calculations. The Frequency Measurement Time
defines the time used for calculating the frequency gradient.

33.19.2 The frequency block

The frequency block either trips on an absolute under-frequency (in Hz), or on a frequency gradient (in
Hz/s). Which condition is used depends on the selected type. The type also defines the reset time,
during which the defined frequency conditions must be present again for the relay to reset.

The time delay set in the relay element defines the time during which the defined frequency condition
must be violated for the relay to trip.

33.19.3 The under-/overvoltage block

The under-/overvoltage relay type may define the block to trip on either

• One of the three phase line to line voltages

• One particular line to line voltage
• The ground voltage 𝑈0 .

• The positive sequence voltage 𝑈1

• The negative sequence voltage 𝑈2
The relay element allows only for setting of the pickup voltage and the time delay.

33.20 Relay block technical references

A number of technical references are available which are relevant for protection. Please refer to the
Protection devices section of the Technical References Overview Document for details on protection
blocks and the measurement devices section for details regarding the CT and VT models.

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Chapter 34

Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis

34.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the tools available in PowerFactory to perform arc-flash hazard analysis, includ-
ing their technical background, descriptions of the Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis command and Arc-Flash
Reports dialogs, and an example calculation. The Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis command (ComArcflash)
can be accessed on the main toolbar under the Protection and Arc-Flash Analysis group by selecting
the Arc-Flash Analysis icon .

Note: DIgSILENT accepts no responsibility for the use of the Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis command,
or for the consequences of any actions taken based on the results. Use the Arc-Flash Hazard
Analysis command at your own risk.

Note: By default, results are entered and displayed in SI units. To change to British Imperial units, on
the main menu select Edit → Project Data→ Project, set the pointer to Project Settings, and on
the Input page, and select the units to be “English-Transmission” or “English-Industry”.

34.2 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Background

34.2.1 General

Arc-flash hazard analysis calculations are performed to determine “...the arc-flash hazard distance and
the incident energy to which employees could be exposed during their work on or near electrical equip-
ment” [IEEE1584-2002][24]. One outcome of an arc-flash hazard analysis is to determine employee
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) requirements.

The Arc-Flash command builds on the existing short-circuit calculation capabilities in PowerFactory, and
requires the following additional data, dependent on the Calculation Method selected:

• IEEE-1584 - 2002[24]: Conductor Gap, Distance Factor, Working Distance, and Enclosure Type.
• IEEE-1584 - 2018[25]: Conductor Gap, Working Distance, and Electrode configuration. For some
Electrode configurations additionally Dimensions of enclosure might be needed
• NFPA 70E[28]: Working Distance and Enclosure Type.

• DGUV 203-077[22]: Conductor Gap, Distance Factor and Working Distance.

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When an Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis is conducted using the IEEE-1584 method, PowerFactory calcu-
lates the arcing current based on the equations presented in the standard. PowerFactory calculates
the arc resistance required to limit the fault current to the calculated value. When the NFPA method is
selected, the bolted fault current is used for the calculation. For either method, when the user chooses
to use relay tripping times, a second calculation is performed at a reduced fault current (as specified
by the user) and the associated (generally longer) clearing time. PowerFactory compares the results of
these two cases and reports on the worst-case result.

34.2.2 Data Inputs

The IEEE-1584 standard provides guidance on the selection of the Conductor Gap and Distance Factor.
Table 34.2.1 shows the recommended values from the standard.

System Voltage [kV] Equipment type Typical gap between Distance x factor
conductors [mm]

Open air 10-40 2.000

0.208-1
Switchgear 32 1.473

MCC and panels 25 1.641

Cable 13 2.000

>1-5 Open air 102 2.000

Switchgear 13-102 0.973

Cable 13 2.000

>5-15 Open air 13-153 2.000

Switchgear 153 0.973

Cable 13 2.000

Table 34.2.1: Factors for equipment and voltage classes [IEEE1584-2002][24]

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Enclosure Equipment class Default bus Enclosure size (H x W x D)

type gaps [mm]

1 15 kV switchgear 152 1143 mm x 762 mm x 762 mm

2 15 kV MCC 152 914.4 mm x 914.4 mm x 914.4 mm

3 5 kV switchgear 104 914.4 mm x 914.4 mm x 914.4 mm

4 5 kV switchgear 104 1143 mm x 762 mm x 762 mm

5 5 kV MCC 104 660.4 mm x 660.4 mm x 660.4 mm

6 Low-voltage switchgear 32 508 mm x 508 mm x 508 mm

7 Shallow low-voltage 25 355.6 mm x 304.8 mm x <= 203.2 mm

MCCs and panelboards

8 Deep low-voltage MCCs 25 355.6 mm x 304.8 mm x > 203.2 mm

and panelboards

7 or 8 Cable junction box 13 355.6 mm x 304.8 mm x <= 203.2 mm

355.6 mm x 304.8 mm x > 203.2 mm

Table 34.2.2: Enclosure sizes for [IEEE1584-2018] arc-flash model [25]

Figure 34.2.1 shows the terminal element dialog in PowerFactory where parameters required for the
specific Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Calculation method can be entered.

If Accessible Location parameter is selected on the General tab, the user may enter the required input
parameters for arc-flash calculations on corresponding tab.

If the terminal resides within a substation, Equipment Data can be set to either Local Values or From
Substation. When From Substation is selected, a pointer to the relevant substation is shown in the
dialog.

Figure 34.2.1: Arc-flash data required for terminals

Additional data required for Fault Clearing Times is discussed later in this chapter.

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 34.3. ARC-FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS CALCULATION OPTIONS

34.3 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Calculation Options

34.3.1 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Basic Options Page

Calculation Method

One of the following may be selected:

• according to IEEE-1584 published 2002[24]

• according to IEEE-1584 published 2018[25]

• according to NFPA 70E[28]
• according to DGUV 203-077 [22]
All of the implemented methods support only AC short circuit calculation. No DC short circuit calculation
has been implemented in Arc-Flash Analysis.

Fault Location

One of the following may be selected:

• At User Selection: selection of either a single location or a pre-defined set of locations.

• At All Accessible Locations: locations are all terminals where Accessible Location is selected
on the Arc-Flash Analysis page of the element dialog.
Arc Duration

One of the following may be selected:

• Use Fixed Times: in this case, detailed protection models are not required by the calculation, and
the following should be defined:
– If Get Time from Global is selected, then define the Arc Duration.
– If Get Time from Local is selected, then define the Maximum Time; i.e. the maximum fault
clearing time used by the Arc-Flash command. The clearing times used by the Arc-Flash
command are taken from the Arc-Flash Analysis page of the switch elements (ElmCoup and
StaSwitch), with Switch Type set to “Circuit Breaker” on the Basic Data page.
• Use Relay Tripping: in this case, the tripping time is based upon the relay characteristic entered
in the protection model (only if the Status on the relay(s) Description tab is set to “Approved”).
The Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis command performs incident energy calculations using this tripping
time, and the tripping time based on a reduced fault current, as specified on the Advanced Options
page (parameter Arcing Current Variation). If Use Relay Tripping is selected:
– Get Time from can be set to either:
* Initial: in this case the Arc-Flash command determines the fault clearing time based
on the longest fault clearing time of any element connected to the faulted terminal. For
example, if two parallel lines are connected to a faulted terminal, and the first line has a
fault clearing time of 1 s, and the second line has a fault clearing time of 2 s (where both
clearing times are based on the Initial fault current) the Arc-Flash command will take 2 s
as the fault clearing time.
* Iteration: in this case the Arc-Flash command determines the fault clearing time from
a Short-Circuit Trace calculation. For example, assume that two parallel lines are con-
nected to a faulted terminal, and the first line has a fault clearing time of 1 s. Then, after
the first line is cleared, the second line sees a higher fault current, and subsequently
clears the fault at 1.5 s. The Arc-Flash command takes 1.5 s as the fault clearing time.
– Define the Maximum Time, the maximum fault clearing time used by the Arc-Flash com-
mand.

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Short-Circuit Calculation

Pointer to the Short-Circuit Calculation command.

Show Output

If selected, the pointer to the Output of Results can be modified. See Section 34.4 for details.

Note: When there are multiple sources of fault current at a faulted terminal with different fault clearing
times, PowerFactory takes the maximum clearance time of the connecting branch for all branches.

34.3.2 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Advanced Options Page

Arc-Flash Calculation Options

The following parameters are used according to the IEEE-1584 and NFPA 70E standards. They are
therefore only available if one of these standards has been selected on the Basic Options page.

• Arcing Current Variation: defines the percentage by which the bolted-fault current is reduced for
the second calculation (see 34.3.1).
• Energy at Flash-Protection Boundary: If IEEE 1584-2018 is selected this parameter will be
applied only on the Lee equation.

• Apply arcing current variation to nodes> 1kV: available only for IEEE-1584 version 2002. This
parameter allows a user to chose if reduction factor is going to be applied on the middle voltage
nodes.
• Iterative Energy Calculation: available only for IEEE-1584 version 2002. It uses the actual
current for each step of the arc-flash calculation for the energy calculation. Therefore, on the
Basic Options page, the Arc Duration must be set to Use Relay Tripping and the time must be
used from the Iteration.
• Min. arc energy: sets a minimum threshold where no PPE category is determined (i.e. PPE
category zero). This parameter is only available for DGUV 203-077.

PPE-Ratings

One of the following options can be selected for the PPE-Ratings:

• Acc. to NFPA 70E[28]: in this case default values from the standard are used. These ratings can
only be used for the IEEE-1584 and NFPA 70E standards.
• Acc. to DGUV 203-077[22]: in this case default values from the standard are used. These ratings
can only be used for the DGUV 203-077 standard.

• User-Defined: in this case user-defined Category values can be entered in the PPE-Categories
table after inserting or appending rows. Note that values should be entered in ascending order
and that the table changes according to the standard selected on the “Basic Options” page.

34.4 Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Results

34.4.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Graphic

Diagram Colouring

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 34.4. ARC-FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS RESULTS

Terminals can be coloured according to the calculated PPE category, Incident Energy and the calculated
Loading of Thermal/Peak Short-Circuit Current. To set the diagram colouring mode, select the Diagram
Colouring icon, and then under 3. Other, select Results, and the desired colouring mode.

Result Boxes

To show the default set of Arc-Flash results on the single line graphic (Boundary Distance, PPE Cate-
gory, and Incident Energy), right-click the terminal result box and select Format for Short Circuit Nodes
→ Energy, Flash Boundary, PPE. Arcing current and fault clearing time results can also be displayed.

34.4.2 Arc-Flash Reports Dialog

The Arc-Flash Reports (ComArcreport) dialog can be used to configure the output of tabular results
from an Arc-Flash calculation. Additionally, if option Create label database is selected “Database” and
“Template” files can be selected in order to facilitate the preparation of Arc-Flash Hazard warning labels.
The following inputs are available in the Arc-Flash Reports dialog.

Create Label Database

If selected, Database and Template file names on the tab “Label Database” should be specified. A
default template is selected by PowerFactory. Note that the Database Excel file should not be open
when Create Label Database has been ticked and while the command is running.

Available Variables and Selected Variables

Variables to be included in the selected label database report can be selected or deselected (in which
case they will be visible in the Available Variables pane.

Create Tabular Report

Select whether to Create Tabular Report. Once the tabular report has been created, results can be
filtered according to Min. PPE-Category and Min. Incident Energy.

For each location that is represented in the tabular report, intermediate results can be shown. Interme-
diate results contain information on full arc and reduced arc current. The one that is responsible for the
higher incident energy represents the worst case and is the one shown in overview report.

After being executed, the tabular report can be exported in HTML or XLSX format, by using the
corresponding export icon located at right upper corner of tabular report.

Note: If the incident energy exceeds the incident energy in the maximum PPE category, the result is
“N/A”.

34.4.3 Arc-Flash Labels

The Create Label Database option, handled by a DPL script, triggers an export of the selected variables
to a Microsoft Excel file at the selected location. After the export of label data, a copy of the given label
template will be stored at the same location as the Excel file and renamed accordingly (i.e. if the Excel
file is named “ArcFlash.xls”, the copy of the template will be named “ArcFlash.doc”). If a template file
with this name already exists, the user will be prompted as to whether it should be overwritten. The
template copy will be opened after the export is complete. Microsoft Word’s Mail Merge feature can be
used to create a series of labels based on the template and the Excel data file. To link the template
copy with the database:

• Go to the “Mailings” tab. In the “Start Mail Merge” group click on “Select Recipients”.
• From the drop-down menu, select “Use Existing List. . . ”, and then select the label database Excel

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file.
• Still on the “Mailings” tab, in the “Preview Results” group, click on “Preview Results” to view the
label(s).

• To store or print the finished labels, still on the “Mailings” tab, in the “Finish” group, click on “Finish
& Merge”.

For more information about the Mail Merge and how to create a template, refer to the MS-Word help.

Also note that data can be copied from the Flexible Data tab in the Data Manager in PowerFactory for
post-processing and creation of labels.

34.5 Example Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis Calculation

Consider the example network shown in Figure 34.5.1, where there are two parallel lines connected to
a terminal “Terminal”. For this example, the two lines have different protection characteristics, as shown
in Figure 34.5.2.

Figure 34.5.1: Example network single line graphic

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Figure 34.5.2: Protection characteristics

Arc-flash calculations are carried out using each method as follows:

• With Use Fixed Times and Get Time from Global selected, and with a total fault clearing time of
0.12 s, the key results are as follows:
– Incident Energy: 58 J∖cm2 .
– Boundary Distance: 583 mm.
– PPE Category: 3.

• With Use Fixed Times and Get Time from Local selected, and with a total fault clearing time of
0.10 s, the key results are as follows:
– Incident Energy: 49 J∖cm2 .
– Boundary Distance: 624 mm.
– PPE Category: 3.
• With Use Relay Tripping and Get Time from Initial selected, the key results are as follows:
– Incident Energy: 37 J∖cm2 .
– Boundary Distance: 544 mm.
– PPE Category: 3.

• With Use Relay Tripping and Get Time from Iteration selected, the key results are as follows:
– Incident Energy: 24 J∖cm2 .
– Boundary Distance: 441 mm.
– PPE Category: 2.
Of particular interest is the difference in results for the case where Get Time from Initial is selected,
versus Get Time from Iteration. The former case gives conservative results (in this example), whilst in
the latter case, the fault clearing time is faster due to recalculation of the fault current (as discussed in
Section 34.3.1), and thus the calculated PPE requirement is lower.

A label is produced for “Terminal” (as described in 34.4), for the method where Relay Tripping, and Get
Time from Initial is selected. The resultant label is shown in Figure 34.5.3.

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Figure 34.5.3: Example arc-flash warning label

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Chapter 35

Cable Analysis

The cable analysis toolbox consists of two calculation tools:

• Cable Sizing command (ComCabsize), described in section 35.1
• Cable Ampacity calculation (ComAmpacity), described in section 35.3
and one reporting command (ComCablereport), described in section 35.4.

Access to the cable analysis toolbox is illustrated in Figure 35.0.1.

Figure 35.0.1: The cable analysis toolbox

The cable sizing command uses static network calculations to verify the compliance of the configured
cables in the network model against typical constraints. Further, should the constraints not be met or if
an optimised selection of cable types is required it can be used to recommend cable types to meet the
specified constraints.

The ampacity calculation tool is used to calculate the cable ampacity of cable models based on cable
system objects (TypCabsys), given information on their geometry, construction, installation methods
and proximity to adjacent cables. It can also be used to calculate an adiabatic short circuit current
(short-time) rating of the cable.

The reporting command is used to output the results of these analyses in a convenient format which
can easily be exported from the software if necessary.

In addition to the tools and reporting command, additional features are built into various model classes
which may be used throughout the network model and these features are then used by the cable
analysis tools to calculate results. Specifically, features are built into line elements (ElmLne), line
sub-section elements (ElmLnesec), line types (TypLne), single core cable types (TypCab) and multi
core/pipe-type cable types (TypCabmult). For all these model classes the data required to parameterise
the cable analysis features can be found on the Cable Analysis page of their respective object dialogs.

Note: Throughout this chapter it may be noticeable that cables are sometimes identified as line objects.
It should be made clear that the object classes line element (ElmLne), Line sub-section elements

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(ElmLnesec) and Line Type (TypLne) can also be used to define cables despite their potentially
misleading names. A line type (TypLne) object can be identified as relating to a cable via its Cable
/ OHL parameter and a line element or line sub-section element (ElmLne or ElmLnesec) object
referencing one of the aforementioned line types should therefore also be considered to represent
a cable.

The features associated with cable analysis in PowerFactory shall be described in the following sections.

35.1 Cable Sizing

The Cable sizing command can be used for verification or recommendation of cable types:
• Verification - The existing cable types which have been selected for a given network model are
checked against a given set of performance constraints.
• Recommendation - Appropriately rated cable types are selected from a specified library, such that
they meet the specified performance constraints applicable to the given network model. The user
is given the option to automatically apply the recommended cable types to the network model.
Recommendations may be provided on a network model which does not have any cable types
defined (the elements including cable lengths should be defined).
In both cases static analysis (load flow and in some cases short circuit as well) is used to determine
the performance of the network components against the applicable constraints. The constraints to be
applied are determined depending upon which of the following methods are selected:

• International Standards Method. The suitability of the assigned cable types are verified or recom-
mended, taking account of deratings in accordance with the selected International Standard (IEC
60364-5-52, NF C15-100, BS 7671, NF C13-200, VDE 0100-520). The deratings are determined
according to data entered on the Cable Analysis page of the relevant cable objects.
• Cable Reinforcement Method. The suitability of the assigned cable Types are verified or recom-
mended, according to user-defined voltage, thermal, and short-circuit constraints specified on the
constraints page of the command dialog. The rated currents of the relevant cables without derating
is used in the evaluation.

To access the Cable Sizing command (ComCabsize), select the Change Toolbox icon ( ), Cable
Analysis, and then select the Cable Sizing icon ( ).

35.2 Calculation Options

35.2.1 Basic Options Page

35.2.1.1 Method

Select to execute the Cable Sizing command based on either:

• International Standards applicable to low-voltage networks up to 1kV, IEC 60364-5-52, VDE 0100-
520, NF C15-100 and BS 7671, or applicable to medium-voltage networks 1kV to 36kV, NF C13-
200. Refer to the standards for further details.
• Cable Reinforcement with user-defined types and constraints.

Note: Standards tables for cable ampacity, cross-section, derating factors, and impedances are stored
in the Database → System→ Modules→ Cable Sizing folder. Note, that according to these

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standards, the Max. Operational Temperature as well as the Max. End Temperature of the cable
type is kept at the default values of 80 degree Celsius.

35.2.1.2 Lines/Feeders

• If Method is set to International Standards, specify the Line/s for the Cable Sizing analysis.
• If Method is set to Cable Reinforcement, specify the Feeder/s for the Cable Reinforcement analy-
sis.

35.2.1.3 Mode

• If Verification is selected, then the command will assess the suitability of the existing cable types:
– For the International Standards Method, the command will verify the suitability of the cable in
accordance with the selected standard.
– For the Cable Reinforcement Method, the command will verify the suitability of the cable in
accordance with the selected constraints and / or network consistency criteria. At least one
of Thermal Loading Limits, Short Circuit Loading Limits, and Network Consistency must be
selected.
• If Recommendation is selected:
– For the International Standards Method, the command will create new cable types for the low
voltage and medium voltage grids according to the selected international standard. The cable
derating factor will be set based on the installation method, specified on the cable element’s
Cable Analysis page. Types will be created in the target folder, or if no folder is selected,
inside the Equipment Type Library.
– For the Cable Reinforcement Method, the command will recommend cable types for those
cables without Types yet defined, and those that cause violations of the specified constraints.
Reference to a folder that contains the overhead / cable types to be considered should be
provided. This may be a global library, however it is recommended that the available types
be stored in a local project library. PowerFactory will automatically select the cables with a
voltage rating suitable for the cable element.

Note: Line cost data in $/km is entered on the Cable Sizing page of the cable type.

35.2.1.4 Network Representation

Balanced, positive sequence or Unbalanced network representation can be selected. The Load-flow
command referenced below these radio buttons is automatically adjusted to the appropriate calculation
method based on this selection.

Load Flow, Short Circuit

These are references (pointers) to the load-flow command and short-circuit command (if applicable)
used by the optimisation algorithm. For a Cable Reinforcement calculation in Verification Mode, the
user can optionally consider Short Circuit Loading Limits. The Short Circuit Calculation command will
also be automatically adjusted based on the calculation method selected. However, if switching between
Balanced and Unbalanced representation, the user should ensure that the short-circuit calculation is set
to the required fault type.

35.2.2 Constraints Page

Constraints options are only applicable if Cable Reinforcement is selected on the Basic Options page.

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35.2.2.1 Thermal Loading Limits

Optionally select to consider Thermal Loading Limits. There are two options for thermal constraints:

• Global Constraints For All Lines. This is the default option, where individual component thermal
limits are ignored. If enabled, a maximum thermal loading percentage must be entered in the
Maximum Thermal Loading field.
• Individual Constraint Per Line. Select this option to automatically consider each component’s
unique thermal loading limit. Note, the thermal rating is specified in the field Max Loading within
the Load Flow tab of each cable.

35.2.2.2 Voltage Constraints per Terminal

Optionally select to consider Voltage Constraints Per Terminals. There are two options for terminal
voltage drop and rise constraints:
• Global Limit for all Terminals (absolute value in p.u.). If selected, a Lower Voltage Limit as well as
an Upper Voltage Limit must be entered in the corresponding fields.
• Individual Limit per Terminal. Note, the voltage limits are specified in the Load Flow tab of each
terminal.

35.2.2.3 Voltage Constraints along Feeder

For balanced calculations, optionally select to Consider Constraints along Feeder. The Maximum
Voltage Drop as well as the Maximum Voltage Rise are calculated as the percentage voltage difference
between the source terminal of the feeder and the final terminal of the feeder. There are two options for
feeder voltage drop and rise constraints:

• Global Limit for all Feeders. If this option is selected, then the Maximum Voltage Drop and the
Maximum Voltage Rise must be entered into the corresponding fields.
• Individual Limit per Feeder. Note, the maximum voltage drop and rise are specified in the Load
Flow tab of each feeder.

35.2.2.4 Consider Voltage Limits

Optionally select to consider Voltage Limits. If selected, an Upper Voltage Limit must be entered. All
voltage levels that are higher than the defined limit are not regarded in the calculation.

35.2.2.5 Short-Circuit Constraints

When the Mode is set to Verification, optionally select to consider Short-Circuit Constraints. A Maximum
Loading as a percentage of the rated short-circuit current can be defined. The rated short-circuit current
is defined in the Type data of the cables. Note, the short-circuit duration is specified in the Short-Circuit
Calculation command.

Note: Depending on the system topology, on the loads and on the length of the feeder, it might not be
possible to avoid voltage drop violations of some terminals or feeders. This can be mitigated by
the installation of a capacitor/s during a post-processing optimisation. See Section 41.9: Optimal
Capacitor Placement.

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35.2.3 Output Page

Output
Various output options for the optimisation results are possible.
• Report Only : Any new cable types are listed in a pre-defined report displayed in the output window.
• Modification of Cables Type in the Existing Network : If this option is selected, the Report will be
generated and the optimisation routine will update the network model with the proposed types.
Note that this option is only available when the Mode is set to Recommendation on the Basic
Options tab.
• Create a New Variation with Recommended Cables: If this option is selected, the Report will be
generated and the optimisation routine will create a Variation with the proposed modifications.
Note that this option is only available when the Mode is set to Recommendation on the Basic
Options tab.
Report
This is a reference (pointer) to the result report output, which details calculation settings, and results
of the verification or recommendation. For more information about the result language format see
Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results, Section 19.4.2.

Results
This is a reference (pointer) to the results output. It is possible to select an alternative results file.
Results are indexed as follows for the Cable Reinforcement method:

0. Initial value - Initial calculation of all parameters of feeder, ComCabsize, cables and terminals.
1. Thermal cable verification - Only those cables’ variables are written which violate the thermal
constraint.
2. Thermal cable recommendation - Only those cables’ variables are written, for which a new cable
type is recommended during thermal recommendation process. The cost of improvement is also
written.
3. Thermal cables cannot be solved - Only those cables’ variables are written, that are unsolvable
and still violate thermal constraints after thermal recommendation process.
4. Voltage verification - Only those terminals’ variables are written which violate voltage constraints.
5. Voltage recommendation - Only those cables’ variables are written, for which a new cable type is
recommended during voltage recommendation process. The cost of improvement is also written.
6. Terminals cannot be solved - Only those terminals’ variables are written which are unsolvable and
still violate voltage constraints after the voltage recommendation process.
7. Consistency verification - Only those terminal’s variables are written which violate network consis-
tency.
8. Consistency recommendation - Only those cables’ variables are written, for which a new cable
type is recommended during the consistency improvement process. The cost of improvement are
also written.
9. Consistency violation - Only those terminals’ variables are written that are unsolvable and still
violate network consistency after the recommendation process.
10. Changed cables - Only those cables’ variables are written, for which a new cable type is recom-
mended after the complete load flow optimisation process.
11. Short-circuit verification - Only those cables’ variables are written which violate short-circuit con-
straints.

Results are indexed as follows for the International Standards method:

100. Pre-verification results.

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101. Post-verification results.

102. Pre-recommendation results.

103. Post-recommendation results.

35.2.4 Advanced Options Page

35.2.4.1 International Standards Method

If International Standards and Recommendation is selected on the Basic Options page, then configure
the Advanced Options as follows.

Cable Sizing
• Define the Safety margin for the cable current capacity in percent. If a non-zero safety margin is
entered, a cable with higher capacity is selected.
• Optionally select to Set cable electrical parameters according to the IEC 60909 to set cable
resistance and reactance parameters from conductor cross-section and material according to the
IEC 60909 calculation. If this option is not selected, the Default cable impedance value of newly
created types can be defined on the “Type Parameter” page.

• Select whether to Use design parameters of the “Type Parameter” page, in which case a new type
will be created according to the type design parameters from the command. Or, select to Use the
existing design parameters of the cable type, in which case a new type will be created according
to the existing cable type from its rated values (only current and cross-section values could be
different). This is only applicable if the analysed cable has a type assigned. Otherwise, a new
type will be created according to the command parameters.
• Optionally select to Consider DC cables in the calculation. Note, that the DC cable sizing is not
within the scope of the used International Standards. But DC cables can be sized with the same
rules that apply for AC cables.

35.2.4.2 Cable Reinforcement Method

If Cable Reinforcement is selected on the Basic Options page, then configure the Advanced Options as
follows.

Network Consistency
This option, if enabled, forces the optimisation routine to complete a final “consistency” check of the
Line Type rated nominal current based upon one of two criteria:
1. Sum of feeding cables >= Sum of leaving cables; or

2. Smallest feeding cable >= Biggest leaving cable.

To explain what is meant by “feeding cable” and “leaving cable” consider the example feeder shown in
Figure 35.2.1. This network is defined as a single “feeder” that begins at the “Source” terminal. Consider
now “Terminal A”. This terminal is supplied by “Line A” and is also connected to two other cables, “Line
B” and “Line C”. In this case, for “Terminal A”, “Line A” is considered as a “feeding cable” and Lines B
and C as “leaving cables”.

Considering now “Terminal B”, Lines B and C are feeding cables whereas Lines D and E are “leaving
cables”. “Feeding cables” are defined as those cables with a power flow direction that is into the
connecting node. For a radial feeder with no embedded generation, this is generally the cables closest
to the beginning of the feeder. All other cables are defined as “leaving cables”.

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In consistency check option 1, the cross sectional area (or nominal current) of the feeding cables are
summated and compared with the sum of the cross sectional area (or nominal current) of the leaving
cables for each terminal. If the sum of the leaving cables is greater at any terminal then the network is
considered non-consistent.

For consistency check option 2, the smallest feeding cable is compared with the largest leaving cable
for each terminal. If the largest leaving cable is bigger than the smallest feeding cable, then the network
is considered non-consistent.

Figure 35.2.1: Example feeder network

Recommended Options
Available when Mode is set to Recommendation on the Basic Options tab.

• Specify the Max. Voltage Deviation in Type Selection in percent. If “0%” is entered, the rated
voltage on the cable type should match the rated voltage of the terminal to which it connects. If a
non-zero value is entered, the rated voltage of the cable type can differ by the defined percentage.

• Optionally select to Assign Missing Line Types. Note that for low voltage networks (less than 1 kV)
the Cable type rated voltage should be equal to 1 kV.

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35.3 Cable Ampacity

PowerFactory ’s Cable Ampacity calculation supports two methods described in literature to determine
the current rating of cables:
• IEC 60287
• Neher-McGrath
At time of writing The latest editions of the norm 60287-1-1 Edition 2 (2014) and 60287-3-3 Edition 1
(2007) are supported.

The Neher-McGrath method is derived from the paper J. H. Neher and M. H. McGrath, “The Calculation
of the Temperature Rise and Load Capability of Cable Systems”, AIEE Transactions, Part III, Volume
76, pp 752-772, October, 1957.

To access the Cable Ampacity command (ComAmpacity ) select the Cable Ampacity icon ( ) from the
Cable Analysis toolbar, as illustrated in Figure 35.0.1.

35.3.1 Cable Ampacity calculation options

ComAmpacity command window contains following input settings:

• Method:
– IEC 60287 (selected by default)
– Neher-McGrath
• Selection - Selection of either ungrouped or grouped cables. If the option Cables is selected,
cable deratings will be calculated considering each selected cable or cable system independently.
While if the option Cable Layout is selected, Cable Layout objects should be chosen and deratings
will be calculated taking account of the various special derating effects facilitated by this object
see section 35.5.4 for more information. For the Cables option, when selecting the lines to be
analysed, line objects will only be presented by the filter if a Cable System TypCabsys is defined
for the line.
• Output
– Report only - Once the calculation is completed a tabular report is generated. The result
data provides information on the maximum allowed current (i.e. the ampacity) for the cables
along with additional information regarding the losses and the resulting temperature rises at
the maximum allowed current.
– Modify derating factor of lines in the existing network - Also generates the report, but in
addition it writes a derating factor to the line element which modifies its rated current to
match the calculated maximum allowed current. The derating factor is considered to be the
ratio between the max. ampacity and the nominal cable current. Note:This option modifies
the network data!
– As the previous option but in this case a new variation is created and the modifications to the
network model are stored in the new variation.
– Reports (pointer to the report command)
– Results (pointer, selection of the results file)
• Advanced Data
– Calculate adiabatic short-circuit rating - If this option is checked PowerFactory will calculate a
short circuit rating for the cable systems based on the adiabatic equation. The rating can be
calculated for each cable system for a time defined in the cable ampacity command itself, or
alternatively, times can be defined within individual cable systems (TypCab or TypCabmult)
and with each time considered independently for each cable. Once calculated, this rating
along with the calculated ampacity can then be used in further analysis, for example in

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the creation of cable damage curves in time overcurrent plots for protection coordination
or for comparison with the thermal equivalent short circuit current calculated via short circuit
analysis.

35.4 Reporting command (ComCablereport)

The cable analysis report command is used to print cable ampacity, cable sizing to international stan-
dards and cable reinforcement reports. This command is independent of the calculation, the only
requirement is the valid cable analysis results file. The command shall determine which options are
available for the selected results file. The following inputs are available in the cable analysis report
dialog.

• Results-Pointer to the cable analysis results file (the label above shall display the main results
type, if valid)
• Report output condition-Contains options whether to show additional data for the ampacity
calculation.

• Output format-Either ASCII or Tabular. International standards support both options and cable
reinforcement only ASCII report.
• Title-User-defined title for the report header.
• Used Format-Form to be used for the selected results file and report.

35.5 Model Parameters

Before carrying out either of the cable analysis calculations it is necessary to provide a certain amount
of input data in the network models specific to the cable analysis functions. This data is entered in the
objects representing the cables themselves. The data is entered on the Cable Analysis page of their
respective type and element object dialogs.

35.5.1 Line Type Parameters

Figure 35.5.1: Cable Analysis Line Type parameters

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 35.5. MODEL PARAMETERS

The parameters defined on the Cable Analysis page of the Line Type TypLne, are relevant to the cable
sizing calculation only. (The cable ampacity calculation is associated with Cable System models, which
do not reference TypLne objects). The TypLne object includes a simplified image of the cable as
can be seen in figure 35.5.1 along with various other parameters including some which define the
construction of the cable. This type data is used in combination with the associated element data to
calculate an appropriate derating for the cable in accordance with an applicable standard. The type
data itself is independent of the applicable standard. If the reinforcement method as opposed to the
International Standards method is selected for the cable sizing calculation then the data entered on
the Cable Analysis page of the Cable Type has no impact on the calculation result and need not be
specified.

The parameters to be defined are as follows:

• Conductor Material. Select either Copper, Aluminium, Aldrey (AlMgSi), Aluminium-Steel or Aldrey-
Steel.
• Insulation Material. Select either PVC, XLPE, Mineral, Paper, or EPR. Note that paper is valid only
for NF C13-200, and Mineral is valid only for 0.5 kV and 0.75 kV systems and copper conductors).

• Cable Cores. Select either multi-core or single-core.

• With Sheath. Select if the cable has a sheath cover. If mineral insulation is selected and this frame
is not checked, it is considered that the cable is bare with a metallic sheath.
– Sheath Type. Select metallic or non-metallic.
– Sheath Insulation. Select either PVC, XLPE, or EPR.
– Armoured Cable. If checked, an armoured cable construction will be considered, otherwise
a non-armoured cable construction is considered.
– Radial Cable Screen. If checked then each conductor has its own screening. This is valid
only for multi-core cables, since single-core cables always have radial screening.
– Exposed to touch. For copper conductors with mineral insulation, select if the cable is
exposed to touch.

35.5.2 Line Element Parameters

Line Element parameters relevant to the Cable Analysis commands are defined on the Cable Analysis
page of Line Element objects (ElmLne, ElmLnesec). If the reinforcement method as opposed to the
International Standards method is selected for the cable sizing calculation then the data entered on the
Cable Analysis page of the Cable Element has no impact on the calculation result and need not be
specified. The first five tabs relate to international standards applicable for the Cable Sizing calculation
(see section 35.1 for more details) and the final two applicable for the Cable Ampacity calculation (see
section 35.3 for more details).

For cable sizing calculations in accordance with an international standard the tab corresponding with
the relevant standard should be populated with the applicable installation and environmental conditions.

For cable ampacity calculations the tab corresponding with the relevant calculation method should be
populated with the relevant environmental data.

For both types of calculation the data entered on these tabs corresponds with parameters which are
defined in the associated standard/method. For more detailed information regarding these parameters
the user is advised to consult the source documents.

35.5.3 Single Core and multicore/pipe cables

Data may be entered on the cable analysis page of Single Core cable (TypCab) objects and Multi-
core/Pipe cable objects. The data entered is valid for the Cable Ampacity calculation only and has no

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relevance to the cable sizing calculation. The data should be entered in accordance with the relevant
cable ampacity calculation method.

35.5.4 Cable Layout object

The Cable Layout object (ElmCablay) is an object specifically intended for use in the Cable Ampacity
calculation and can be used to define all factors relevant to the derating of groups of cables. It
conveniently brings the relevant parameters together in one object. With this object deratings can be
calculated for groups of cables which are similarly installed but differently constructed, for example, the
deratings applicable when a multicore cable is installed in a bank of ducts along with a 3 phase circuit
consisting of single core cables. The positions of the individual cables comprising each cable system
are geometrically defined. This data is then used to determine the influence of the physical proximity of
the cables to one another on their respective ampacities.

Figure 35.5.2: Cable Sizing Cable Layout parameters - Basic Data

Note: The distinction between a Cable System Element object ElmCabsys and a Cable Layout object
ElmCablay may not be immediately obvious. Both elements are associated with the grouping of
cable circuits. However, it should be appreciated that the Cable System Element is associated
with the calculation of cable impedances, whilst the Cable Layout Object is associated with the
calculation of the derated maximum current rating of the grouped cables.

Electromagnetically coupled cable systems (ElmCabsys) as well as uncoupled cable system objects
(TypCabsys) can be handled by the object. Multi-core cable system models are also supported by
the calculation. Aerial, ground, duct and trench installations as well as ambient conditions can all
be considered, with deratings being calculated in accordance with either the IEC 60287 standard
calculation method or the Neher-McGrath method.

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For underground installations it is also possible to consider additional derating caused by the presence
of external heat sources such as nearby steam pipes for example. For an IEC 60287 calculation
additional consideration can be given to whether an aerially installed cable is installed with brackets,
ladder or cleats or alternatively clipped to a wall. For duct installations it is possible to define the
dimensions, spacing and material of the ducting.

The object can be defined by multi-selecting the relevant cable objects in the Single Line Diagram or
Data Manager, clicking the right hand mouse button on one of the selected lines and then choosing the
options Define → Cable Layout from the context sensitive menu. The new object is stored in the Cable
Layouts folder stored in the Network Data folder accessible via the Data Manager.

• Basic Data - See figure 35.5.2

– Location - Specify whether the cable grouping under consideration is buried in the ground or
mounted in the air. It is not possible to consider the derating effects of cables mounted in
the air on cables installed under ground or vice-versa. If a selected cable grouping contains
a mixture of circuits, some of which are installed underground and some above ground, only
the ones with a location corresponding to the Location setting will be considered by the
calculation.
– Number of circuits - Specifies the number of rows in the Circuits table located under the
setting. Using this table, additional circuits can be added to the grouping.
– Laying - Specifies how the cable is laid in the chosen Location. The options available vary
depending on whether the Location is specified as Air or Buried. For cables installed above
ground the Laying parameter can be specified as either in free air or in duct banks. For
buried cables the options are directly in ground,in duct banks or in trough/trench. If cables
are installed in duct banks additional setting options are displayed for the definition of the
duct bank. If the option in trough/trench is selected an additional setting option is presented
allowing the user to specify whether the trough is backfilled or unfilled. If unfilled, then the
user is also able to specify if the cable is exposed to free air or not using a checkbox.
– Duct bank - Used to specify the construction and geometry of the duct bank. Please also see
Laying Geometry below.
• Ambient Data
– On this page of the object dialog information about the ambient conditions of the cable
group is entered. Two tabs are available. One associated with the IEC 60287 method
and one associated with the Neher-McGrath method. The parameters which are displayed
depend on the combination of settings specified on the Basic Data tab of the object. For
further information regarding the usage of the setting parameters, please refer to the source
documentation for the relevant method.
• External Heat Source
– On this page of the object dialog information about any external heat sources acting on the
cable group can be entered. External heat sources might include for example an adjacent
steam pipe radiating heat. Two tabs are available. One associated with the IEC 60287
method and one associated with the Neher-McGrath method. The Number of heat sources
setting parameter determines the number of rows in the associated table. For further informa-
tion regarding the usage of the setting parameters, please refer to the source documentation
for the relevant method.
• Advanced Data
– This page is used to provide additional data which can influence the derating of the cable
group. Two tabs are available. One associated with the IEC 60287 method and one asso-
ciated with the Neher-McGrath method. For further information regarding the usage of the
setting parameters, please refer to the source documentation for the relevant method.
• Laying Geometry - see figure 35.5.3
– This page graphically illustrates the layout of the cable group. If a duct bank or a trench is
used this is also illustrated. The dimensions and geometry of the duct bank as defined on the
Basic data page directly influence the illustration of the duct bank. Note that the geometry
of an individual cable system is defined within the cable system type TypCabsys. When this

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cable system is then included as part of a cable grouping in a Cable Layout object, the already
defined geometrical relationships must continue to be respected. A new cartesian coordinate
system for the cable group is defined with a specific origin. The origin can be displayed by
choosing the Display system reference point check-box. For all laying methods except In duct
banks, the origin from the cable system type is by default set equal to the origin of the cable
group. However, in many cases this can result in cables occupying the same space, so by
selecting the User-defined offset checkbox each line can be given a unique position relative
to one another. For cables installed in air the positive direction of the Y-offset is upwards into
the air. For buried cables the positive direction of the Y-offset is into the ground.
For cables installed in duct banks each duct has its own origin located at its centre. For
each cable the corresponding duct can be specified as Duct position within the Circuit in duct
table. The duct position numbering increases sequentially from left to right bottom to top.

Figure 35.5.3: Cable Sizing Cable Layout parameters - Laying Geometry

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Chapter 36

Power Quality and Harmonics

Analysis

36.1 Introduction

One of the many aspects of power quality is the harmonic content of voltages and currents. Har-
monics can be analysed in either the frequency domain, or in the time-domain with post-processing
using Fourier Analysis. The PowerFactory harmonics functions allow the analysis of harmonics in the
frequency domain. The following functions are provided by PowerFactory :

• 36.2 Harmonic Load Flow (including harmonic load flow according to IEC 61000-3-6 [7] and flicker
analysis according to IEC 61400-21 [14])
• 36.3 Frequency Sweep

PowerFactory ’s harmonic load flow calculates harmonic indices related to voltage or current distortion,
and harmonic losses caused by harmonic sources (usually non-linear loads such as current converters).
Harmonic sources can be defined by either a harmonic current spectrum or a harmonic voltage spec-
trum. In the harmonic load flow calculation, PowerFactory carries out a steady-state network analysis
at each frequency at which harmonic sources are defined.

A special application of the harmonic load flow is the analysis of ripple-control signals. For this applica-
tion, a harmonic load flow can be calculated at one specific frequency only.

The harmonic load flow command also offers the option of calculating long- and short-term flicker
disturbance factors introduced by wind turbine generators. These factors are calculated according to
IEC standard 61400-21 [14], for wind turbine generators under continuous and switching operations.

In contrast to the harmonic load flow, PowerFactory ’s frequency sweep performs a continuous frequency
domain analysis. A typical application of the frequency sweep function is the calculation of network
impedances. The result of this calculation facilitates the identification of series and parallel resonances
in the network. These resonance points can identify the frequencies at which harmonic currents cause
low or high harmonic voltages. Network impedances are of particular importance in applications such
as filter design.

PowerFactory provides a toolbar for accessing the different harmonic analysis commands. This toolbar
can be displayed (if not already active) by clicking the Change Toolbox button and selecting Power
Quality and Harmonic Analysis.

The Power Quality and Harmonic Analysis toolbar provides icons to access four pre-configured com-
mand dialogs:

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• Harmonic Load Flow

• Impedance Frequency Characteristic (Frequency Sweep)

• Flickermeter

• Connection Request Assessment

These command dialogs can also be accessed via PowerFactory ’s main menu:
• Calculation → Power Quality/Harmonics→ Harmonic Load Flow. . .
• Calculation → Power Quality/Harmonics→ Impedance Frequency Characteristic. . .
• Calculation → Power Quality/Harmonics→ Flickermeter. . .

• Calculation → Connection Request Assessment. . .

Additionally, following the calculation of a harmonic load flow, the icon Filter Analysis on this toolbar
is activated. This icon is used to open the Filter Analysis (ComSh) command dialog. This command
analyses results from the most recent harmonic load flow calculation and opens tabular reports listing
relevant results for filter installations. The Harmonic Load Flow, Frequency Sweep and Connection
Request functions and their usage are described in this chapter. The Flickermeter function is described
in Chapter 37 (Flickermeter).

36.2 Harmonic Load Flow

To calculate a harmonic load flow, click on the Calculate Harmonic Load Flow icon to open the dialog
for the Harmonic Load Flow (ComHldf ) command.

For a detailed description of how harmonic injections are considered by PowerFactory, refer to Sec-
tion 36.5 (Modelling Harmonic Sources), in which the analysis and the major harmonic indices are
described. A full list of available result variables and their definition is given in the dedicated docu-
mentation about Result Variables for Harmonics Analysis. The following sections describe the options
available in the harmonic load flow command.

36.2.1 Basic Options

36.2.1.1 Network Representation

Balanced. In the case of a symmetrical network and balanced harmonic sources, characteristic har-
monics either appear in the positive sequence component (7th, 13th, 19th, etc.), or in the negative
sequence component (5th, 11th, 17th harmonic order, etc.). Therefore, at all frequencies a single-
phase equivalent (positive or negative sequence) can be used for the analysis.

For calculations where the checkbox “Only positive sequence” is checked, the calculation for the har-
monic orders being naturally in the negative sequence will be performed with the positive sequence
impedance.

Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC). For analysing non-characteristic harmonics (3rd-order, even-order, inter-
harmonics), unbalanced harmonic injections, or harmonics in non-symmetrical networks, the Unbal-
anced, 3-phase (ABC) option for modelling the network in the phase-domain should be selected.

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36.2.1.2 Calculate Harmonic Load Flow

Single Frequency. Selecting this option will perform a single harmonic load flow calculation at the
given Output Frequency (parameter name: fshow) or at the given Harmonic Order (parameter name:
ifshow). A common application for this input mode is the analysis of ripple control systems. The results
of the analysis are shown in the single line diagram, in the same way as for a normal load flow at the
fundamental frequency.

All Frequencies. Selecting this option will perform harmonic load flow calculations for all frequencies
for which harmonic sources are defined. These frequencies are gathered automatically prior to the
calculation. The results for all frequencies are stored in a results object, which can be used to create
bar chart representations of harmonic indices (see also Section 19.7 (Plots)). The results of the analysis
at the given Output Frequency are shown in the single line diagram.

36.2.1.3 Nominal Frequency, Output Frequency, Harmonic Order

Nominal Frequency. The harmonics analysis function in PowerFactory can only calculate harmonics
of AC-systems with identical fundamental frequencies. The relevant nominal frequency must be entered
here (usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

Output Frequency. This is the frequency for which order specific results may be displayed in the
single-line graphic or selected in a flexible data page. In the case of a Single Frequency calculation,
this is the frequency for which a harmonic load flow is calculated. When the option All Frequencies is
selected, this parameter only affects the display of results in the single line diagram or in flexible data
pages. It does not influence the calculation itself. A change made to the Output Frequency will cause
the Harmonic Order to be automatically changed accordingly.

Harmonic Order. This is the same as the Output Frequency but input as the Harmonic Order (f/fn).
The Harmonic Order multiplied by the Nominal Frequency always equals the Output Frequency. Both
floating-point and integer values are valid as inputs. A change made to the Harmonic Order will cause
the Output Frequency to be automatically changed accordingly.

36.2.1.4 Calculate Flicker

Calculate Flicker. When selected, the long- and short-term flicker disturbance factors are calculated
according to IEC standard 61400-21. See Section 36.6 (Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21)) for more
detailed information.

36.2.1.5 Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency

Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency. When selected, the short-circuit power, Sk, and impedance
angle, psik, are calculated at the point of common coupling (PCC) for all 3-phase buses in the network
being analysed. This calculation is only performed at the fundamental frequency. For an unbalanced
harmonic load flow, impedance ratios (as described in Section 36.7.2.1 (Calculation of Impedance
Ratios)) at 3-phase buses are also calculated. See Section 36.7 (Short-Circuit Power) for more detailed
information.

36.2.1.6 Result Variables and Load Flow

Result Variables. This option is available if Calculate Harmonic Load Flow option All Frequencies has
been selected, and is used to select the target results object for storing the results of the harmonic load
flow. See Section 36.9 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information regarding specifying and
defining result variables.

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Load Flow. This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on the arrow button
to inspect and/or adjust the load flow command settings.

The Load Flow settings define the temperature, for which the load flow is calculated. The same tem-
perature is used for the Harmonic Load Flow calculation, mentioned in the dialog under “Temperature
Dependency: Line/Cable Resistances”.

36.2.2 IEC 61000-3-6

Treatment of Harmonic Sources

The alpha exponent values on this page will only be considered by the harmonic load flow (that is to
say that the calculation will be carried out according to the IEC 61000-3-6 standard [7]) if at least one
harmonic source in the network is defined as IEC 61000 (see Section 36.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic
Injections)). On this page, if According to IEC 61000-3-6 is selected, these tables display the alpha
exponent values as given in the IEC 61000-3-6 standard, as read-only values. If User Defined is
selected, the definition of the alpha exponent values is user-definable in terms of integer and/or non-
integer harmonic orders.

36.2.3 Advanced Options

36.2.3.1 Calculate HD and THD

Based on fundamental frequency values. All values are based on fundamental frequency values,
as defined by various standards. See Section 36.2.4 for mathematical descriptions of the calculated
indices.

Based on rated voltage/current. All values are based on the rated voltage/current of the buses
and branches in the network, respectively. See Section 36.2.4 for mathematical descriptions of the
calculated indices.

36.2.3.2 Max. harmonic order for calculation of THD and THF

The harmonic order up to which RMS values are summed in the calculation of THD and THF.

36.2.3.3 Calculate Harmonic Factor (HF)

The calculation of the harmonic factor is optional as it requires extra processing time. Leave unticked if
performance is critical. See Section 36.2.4 for mathematical descriptions of the calculated indices.

36.2.3.4 Calculate R,X at output frequency for all nodes

Calculates the impedance for all buses at the defined output frequency. Leave unticked if performance
is critical.

36.2.3.5 Calculation of Factor-K (BS 7821) for Transformers

Exponent used in calculation of factor-K (according to BS 7821) for transformers. This exponent
depends on the construction of the transformer and is usually available from the manufacturer. Typical

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values lie between 1.5 - 1.7.

36.2.4 Harmonics Indices

The Harmonic Load Flow calculation in PowerFactory yields a vast number of results for network
elements. In this section, some of the more prominent harmonic indices are described mathematically.
A full list of available result variables and their definition is given in the dedicated documentation about
Result Variables for Harmonics Analysis. The result variables listed below are described in terms of
current, but may be identically described for voltage by substituting 𝑉 for 𝐼 in all cases. It should be
noted that the reference value used in the equations depends upon the user selection in the Harmonic
Load Flow command dialog (as described in Section 36.2.3). The two possible options are:
(i) based on fundamental frequency values:

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = |𝐼1 | (36.1)

or (ii) based on rated voltage/current:

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = |𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 | (36.2)
The harmonic distortion (HD) of a waveform describes the individual harmonic contribution and is
described in terms of current by:
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ
𝐻𝐷𝐼 = (36.3)
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓
where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ is the RMS value of the waveform at harmonic order ℎ.

The harmonic factor (HF) is a measure of the individual harmonic contribution and is calculated accord-
ing to:
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ
𝐻𝐹𝐼 = √︁∑︀ (36.4)
𝑛 2
(𝐼
ℎ=1 𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )
where 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been defined.

The total harmonic distortion (THD) is the most common harmonic index, and describes the total
harmonic distortion of a current waveform as follows:
√︁∑︀
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
ℎ=2 (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝐼 = (36.5)
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓

where ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the user-specified maximum harmonic order up to which should be included the calcula-
tion of THD. This is the parameter Max. harmonic order for calculation of THD and THF available in
the harmonic load flow command dialog, and is explained further in Section 36.2.3.

The total harmonic factor (THF) is based on RMS values and is calculated as:
⎯
⎸ ∑︀ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
⎸ (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )
𝑇 𝐻𝐹𝐼 = ⎷ ∑︀ℎ=2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
(36.6)
ℎ=1 (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠ℎ )

The total arithmetic distortion (TAD) is calculated as:

1
𝑇 𝐴𝐷𝐼 = · [𝐼Σ𝐴 − |𝐼1 |] (36.7)
|𝐼1 |

where |𝐼1 | is the magnitude of the current at the fundamental frequency, and the arithmetic sum value
is given by:
𝑛
∑︁
𝐼Σ𝐴 = |𝐼ℎ | (36.8)
ℎ=1

where ℎ is the harmonic order and 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been
defined.

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The total power (TP) describes the power absorbed over all frequency components, as shown in:
𝑛
∑︁
𝑇𝑃 = 𝑃ℎ (36.9)
ℎ=1

where ℎ is the harmonic order and 𝑛 is the highest order for which harmonic injections have been
defined.

In addition, the following THD variables are provided (note that for the corresponding TAD variables,
similar definitions apply):

THDbal, excluding zero sequence:

√︀
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇 𝐻𝐷12 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷22 (36.10)

THDtot, including zero sequence:

√︀
𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇 𝐻𝐷12 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷22 + 𝑇 𝐻𝐷02 (36.11)

THDmx, maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷:𝑁 ] (36.12)

THDint, only considers integer harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (36.13)

THDnint, only considers non-integer harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (36.14)

THD_2, only considers even harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷_2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (36.15)

THD_3, only considers tripled harmonic orders; maximum of phase values:

𝑇 𝐻𝐷_3 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐴, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐵, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝐶, 𝑇 𝐻𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡:𝑁 ] (36.16)

It should be noted that for networks containing IEC 61000 harmonic current sources, result variables for
the voltage angle and current angle are not applicable (as the angles cannot be known). Additionally,
the following result variables are available:
• ku, ki: Voltage and current diversity factors, respectively (always ’1’ for networks containing only
phase correct sources). The voltage diversity factor is shown in (36.17):

𝑈ℎ2
𝑘𝑢 = (36.17)
(Σ|𝑈 |)2

where 𝑈ℎ is the IEC 61000 harmonic voltage magnitude as defined in (36.18) and |𝑈 | is the voltage
magnitude.
• HD, THD and TAD for non-integer harmonic orders.

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36.3 Frequency Sweep

To calculate frequency dependent impedances, the impedance characteristic can be computed for a
given frequency range using the Frequency Sweep command (ComFsweep). This function is available
by clicking on the Calculate Frequency Impedance Characteristic icon ( ) available in the Harmonics
toolbar.

Harmonic analysis by frequency sweep is normally used for analysing self- and mutual- network impe-
dances. However, it should be noted that not only self- and mutual-impedances can be analysed and
shown. The voltage source models (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) available in PowerFactory allow the definition
of any spectral density function. Hence, impulse or step responses of any variable can be calculated in
the frequency domain.

The most common application is the analysis of series and parallel resonance problems for filter design
purpose, power quality analyses or to verify oscillations seen in EMT simulations.
For the purpose of investigating the impact of capacitances on the network impedance and its reso-
nances, additional result variables of the impedance are available for a pure resistive/inductive network,
where all capacitive components will be neglected.

The following sections describe the options available in the harmonic frequency sweep command.

36.3.1 Basic Options

36.3.1.1 Network Representation

Balanced, positive sequence. This option uses a single-phase, positive sequence network represen-
tation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced representation of unbalanced objects is
used.

Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC). This option uses a full multiple-phase, unbalanced network representa-
tion.

By default any balanced or unbalanced frequency sweep is initialised with a load flow calculation (ticked
“Load Flow Initialisation” setting). The load flow calculation is used to determine for example tap
positions of capacitor banks, shunt reactors, filters and transformers, where controls are configured
and where the load flow results have an impact on the impedances involved. If the checkbox is not set,
the network is considered with actual positions for tap changers, consumption values for loads, dispatch
power for generators, etc. and the frequency characteristic of the network impedance at each point of
interest is evaluated based on this actual state of the network and its components.

36.3.1.2 Impedance Calculation

The frequency sweep will be performed for the frequency range defined by the Start Frequency and
the Stop Frequency, using the given Step Size. The Automatic Step Size Adaptation option allows an
adaptive step size. Enabling this option will normally speed up the calculation, and enhance the level of
detail in the results by automatically using a smaller step size when required. The settings for step size
adaptation can be changed on the Advanced Options tab.

36.3.1.3 Nominal Frequency, Output Frequency, Harmonic Order

Nominal Frequency. This is the fundamental frequency of the system, and the base frequency for the
harmonic orders (usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

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Output Frequency. This is the frequency for which the results in the single line diagram are shown.
This value has no effect on the actual calculation.

Harmonic Order. This is the harmonic order equivalent of the Output Frequency. The Harmonic Order
multiplied by the Nominal Frequency always equals the Output Frequency. Both floating-point and
integer values are valid as inputs.

36.3.1.4 Result Variables and Load Flow

Result Variables. Used to select the target results object which will store the results of the harmonic
frequency sweep. See Section 36.9 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information regarding
specifying result variables.

Load Flow. This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on the arrow button to
inspect and/or adjust the load flow command settings.
The Load Flow settings define the temperature, for which the load flow is calculated. The same
temperature is used for the frequency sweep, mentioned in the dialog under “Temperature Dependency:
Line/Cable Resistances”. In case that the “Load Flow Initialisation” checkbox is not ticked, the temper-
ature can be selected manually in the frequency sweep dialog. The available temperature settings
correspond to the ones from the load flow command dialog.

The results of PowerFactory ’s frequency sweep analysis are the characteristics of the impedances over
the frequency range.

36.3.2 Advanced Options

Selecting the option Automatic Step Size Adaptation on the Basic Data page of the frequency sweep
command is one way to increase the speed of the calculation. This option enables the use of the step
size adaptation algorithm for the frequency sweep. With this algorithm, the frequency step between
two calculations of all variables is not held constant, but is adapted according to the shape of the
sweep. When no resonances in the impedance occur, the frequency step can be increased without
compromising accuracy. If the impedance starts to change considerably with the next step, the step
size will be reduced again. The frequency step is set such that the prediction error will conform to the
two prediction error input parameters, as shown below:

• Maximum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.01)

• Minimum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.005)
• Step Size Increase Delay (typically 3 frequency steps)

Calculate R, X at output frequency for all nodes. PowerFactory calculates the equivalent impedance
only at selected nodes over the complete analysed frequency range. When this option is selected,
following the harmonic calculation, the equivalent impedance is available for all nodes, but only for the
output frequency.

36.4 Filter Analysis

The Filter Analysis command is a special form of the Output of Results command (ComSh), whose
function is to generate a report. The Filter Results and Filter Layout command generate a table
report. It outputs a summary of the harmonics for the terminals/busbars and branch elements at the
frequency specified in the Output Frequency field of the harmonic load flow command. It also reports
the parameters and different variables for the installed filters.

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The filter analysis command can be activated using the Filter Analysis button or by using the Output
Calculation Analysis button on the main icon bar (see also Section 19.4.2: Output of Results).
This will open the same dialog as that used for the reporting of harmonic results, as displayed in
Figure 36.4.1. This command can alternatively be launched from the single line graphic, after selecting
one or more elements, and right-clicking and selecting Output Data. . . → Results. Results will then be
output for the selected elements. It should be noted that elements should be selected according to the
type of report being generated. This means that for Busbars and Branches only terminals and branches
should be selected, for Busbars/Terminals only terminals should be selected; and for Filter Layout and
Filter Results only shunts and harmonic filters should be selected. In the dialog, the Output Frequency
specified in the harmonic load flow command is displayed in red text (see top of dialog in Figure 36.4.1).

Figure 36.4.1: Filter Analysis Report Command (ComSh)

There are four different reports available for selection:

Busbars and Branches. This displays the results of the harmonic load flow for all node and branch
elements in the network. The distortion for various electrical variables is printed and summarised.

Busbars/Terminals. For the electrical nodes, the rated voltage, the voltage at the calculation frequency,
as well as RMS values and distortion at the nodes are displayed.

Filter Layout. The filter layout of all active filters in the network is reported for the given frequency. The
rated values and impedances of the filter as well as the type and vector group are available as optional
columns in the tabular report. Additionally, the currents through the different components are shown, as
are the losses.

Filter Results. The filter results show the main layout of all filters in the network for the nominal
frequency and relevant results for all other frequencies evaluated from the harmonic load flow, e.g
the voltage across the capacitance or the currents through the internal components of the filters.

Use Selection. Results will only be reported for elements defined in a selection. A selection of elements
can be defined by selecting them either in the single line graphic or in the Data Manager, right-clicking
and choosing Define. . . → General Set. This General Set then exists in the Study Case and can be
selected when the Use Selection option is activated.

The default format used for the report in the output window is defined in the Used Format section on
the Advanced tab of the dialog and can be set or changed by clicking on the Filter Layout arrow button
.

36.5 Modelling Harmonic Sources

Every switched device produces harmonics and should therefore be modelled as a harmonic source. In
PowerFactory, harmonic sources can be either current sources or voltage sources. The models listed
in table 36.5.1 can be used to generate harmonics.

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 36.5. MODELLING HARMONIC SOURCES

The spectrum type can either be a current spectrum, defined by the linked type (TypHmccur ) or a
voltage spectrum defined in the element itself or a linked type (TypHmcvolt). The list also highlights
those models where a type assignment is not mandatory to consider the element as harmonic source.
In those cases the model itself calculates the injected harmonic spectrum based on the preceding load
flow calculation and the resulting firing angle of the power electronics circuit. Apart from the user defined
assignment of a spectrum, an idealised and a more realistic spectrum considering overlap angles can
be selected.

Object Spectrum Model

Element Remarks
class type spectrum
General Load ElmLod I
MV Load ElmLodmv I Norton Equivalent
ElmRecmono,
Rectifier/Inverter I X
ElmRec
ElmVscmono, Voltage source with series reactor
PWM Converter I/(U)
ElmVsc or Norton Equivalent
AC Current Source ElmIac, ElmIacbi I Inner Admittance
ElmGenstat,
Static Generator I Norton Equivalent
ElmPvsys
Static Var System ElmSvs I X
TCSC ElmTcsc I X
Separate definitions for inverter
HVDC LCC ElmHvdclcc I, I X, X
and rectifier side of the HVDC link
Doubly-Fed ElmAsm, Norton Equivalent or
I
Induction Machine ElmAsmsc pure current source
Synchronous machine ElmSym U Spectrum defined in type
AC Voltage Source ElmVac, ElmVacbi U Spectrum defined in element
External Grid ElmXnet U Spectrum defined in element

Table 36.5.1: List of models which can be configured as harmonic sources

See Section 36.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic Injections) for information on how to define harmonic injec-
tions for these sources based on the spectrum type.

Note: Harmonic injections can be modelled in EMT simulations using the Fourier source object. For
further details refer to the Technical References Document.

36.5.1 Definition of Harmonic Injections

When defining the spectrum via the Harmonic Sources type object, the harmonic infeeds can be entered
according to one of three options: Balanced, Phase Correct or Unbalanced, Phase Correct, or IEC
61000. The Harmonic Sources object is a PowerFactory ’type’ object, which means that it may be used
by many elements who have the same basic type. Multiple current source loads may, for example, use
the same Harmonic Sources object. Note that PowerFactory has no corresponding element for this
type.

Phase Correct Harmonic Sources

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For the Balanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, in both balanced and unbalanced harmonic
load flows, the magnitudes and phases of positive and negative sequence harmonic injections at odd
integer harmonic orders can be defined. This facilitates the representation of typical power system
odd-order harmonics (without including triplen).

For the Unbalanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, the magnitudes and phases for the avail-
able phases of the harmonic injections at integer and non-integer harmonic orders can be defined. In
the case of a balanced harmonic load flow, harmonic injections in the zero sequence are not considered,
and harmonic injections at non-integer harmonic orders are considered in the positive sequence. In the
case of an unbalanced harmonic load flow, harmonic injections in the zero sequence and at non-integer
harmonic orders are considered appropriately. See Table 36.5.3 for a complete summary.

IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources

The IEC 61000-3-6 standard [7] describes a “second summation law”, applicable to both voltage and
current, which is described mathematically as:

⎯
⎸ 𝑁
⎸ ∑︁
𝛼
𝑈ℎ = ⎷ 𝑈ℎ,𝑚 𝛼 (36.18)
𝑚=0

where 𝑈ℎ is the resultant harmonic voltage magnitude for the considered aggregation of 𝑁 sources at
order ℎ, and 𝛼 is the exponent as given in Table 36.5.2 [7].

The Harmonic Sources type set to option IEC 61000 allows the definition of integer and non-integer
harmonic current magnitude injections. In the case of balanced and unbalanced harmonic load flows,
zero sequence order injections and non-integer harmonic injections are considered in the positive
sequence. This is summarised in Table 36.5.3. It should be noted that in order to execute a harmonic
load flow according to IEC 61000-3-6, at least one harmonic source in the network must be defined
as IEC 61000.

Table 36.5.4 describes the consideration of the sequence components of the harmonic orders for the
AC voltage source (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), external grid (ElmXnet) and synchronous machine (ElmSym).

Additionally, the voltage source allows the following to be input for use in the Frequency Sweep calcula-
tion:

• Spectral density of voltage magnitude;

• Spectral density of voltage angle;

• Frequency dependencies (in the form of a Frequency Polynomial Characteristic). See Section 36.5.3
(Frequency Dependent Parameters) and Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and
Tariffs) for further details.

Background Harmonics

PowerFactory facilitates the modelling of background harmonics. This is done using either the external
grid element (ElmXnet) or the AC voltage source element (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), on their respective
Power Quality/Harmonics pages. If only the harmonic voltage amplitude is known (and not the angle),

Alpha Exponent Value Harmonic Order

1 ℎ<5
1.4 5 <= ℎ <= 10
2 ℎ > 10

Table 36.5.2: IEC 61000-3-6 Summation Exponents According to Harmonic Order

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the IEC 61000 option can be selected. Table 36.5.4 describes the consideration of the sequence
components of the harmonic orders for the AC voltage source and external grid.

Selection of Type of Harmonic Sources

The Harmonic Sources object (TypHmccur ) is independent of whether the harmonic source is a voltage
or a current source. The decision as to whether harmonic sources are fed into the system as harmonic
voltages or as harmonic currents is made exclusively by the element to which the Harmonic Sources
object is assigned. The consideration by the calculation of the sequence components of harmonic
injections is given in Table 36.5.3.

Magnitudes and Phase Values

The quantities of the spectrum type are defined as percentage based on a reference value. The
reference value for current (or voltage) can be selected in the element, which uses the linked harmonic
spectrum. For phase correct spectra, either the fundamental frequency result, determined through the
preceding load flow calculation, or the rated value of the element can be chosen as reference. For
spectra acc. to IEC 61000, the reference is always the rated value. The injected current at frequency 𝑓ℎ
of an IEC source is therefore defined by:
𝐼ℎ = 𝑘ℎ · 𝐼𝑟 (36.19)
where 𝑘ℎ = 𝐼ℎ /𝐼𝑟 is the harmonic content defined in the spectrum and 𝐼𝑟 is the rated current of the
source element. As phase angle information is not available, only magnitudes can be used for the
calculation.

For phase correct spectra, the actual harmonic current of a current source at frequency 𝑓ℎ is calculated
by:

𝐼 ℎ = 𝑘ℎ · 𝑒Δ𝜙ℎ · 𝐼1 · 𝑒ℎ·𝜙1 (36.20)

where ⎧
⎪
⎪ 𝐼ℎ /𝐼1 if balanced
⎪
𝐼𝑎ℎ /𝐼𝑎1 if unbalanced phase a
⎨
𝑘ℎ = (36.21)
⎪ 𝐼𝑏ℎ /𝐼𝑏1
⎪
⎪ if unbalanced phase b
⎩
𝐼𝑐ℎ /𝐼𝑐1 if unbalanced phase c

⎧
⎪
⎪ 𝜙ℎ − ℎ · 𝜙1 if balanced
⎪
𝜙𝑎ℎ − ℎ · 𝜙𝑎1 if unbalanced phase a
⎨
∆𝜙ℎ = (36.22)
⎪
⎪
⎪ 𝜙𝑏ℎ − ℎ · 𝜙𝑏1 if unbalanced phase b
⎩
𝜙𝑐ℎ − ℎ · 𝜙𝑐1 if unbalanced phase c

The values at the fundamental frequency, 𝐼1 and 𝜙1 , are taken from a preceding load flow calculation if
the spectrum is applied based on the fundamental frequency value. If the spectrum is applied based on
the rated value, instead of the load flow result the rated current of the source element is used as base
(𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑟 in equations 36.20 and 36.21) and only 𝜙1 is taken from the load flow calculation. A normal
load flow calculation is therefore required prior to a harmonic load flow calculation.

In the case of balanced systems in which only characteristic harmonics of orders 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,
etc. occur, the option Balanced, Phase Correct should be selected in the Type of Harmonics Sources
section. In this context, ’Balanced’ refers to characteristic harmonics. In the balanced case, the
harmonic frequencies are determined by the program and only characteristic orders are available in
the spectrum to assign values to (note that in the unbalanced case, the harmonic frequencies can be
freely-defined).

For harmonic sources which produce non-characteristic, unbalanced or inter-harmonics, the option Un-
balanced, Phase Correct should be set in the Type of Harmonics Sources section. In the Unbalanced,
Phase Correct case, the harmonic frequency, magnitude and phase angle of each phase can be chosen

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individually for each harmonic frequency. This mode therefore caters for every possible kind of harmonic
source.

The problem commonly arises as to how one can represent the harmonic content in a system which
differs from the native modal system (positive, negative or zero sequence system). The following
example illustrates how to represent the 3rd harmonic in a positive or negative sequence system (as
opposed to the native zero sequence system).

In the symmetrical case, the phase shift between the three phases is:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : −120∘
𝐶 : +120∘ (−240∘ )

For harmonics of order 𝑛:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : −𝑛 * 120∘
𝐶 : +𝑛 * 120∘

Taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:

𝐴 : 0∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐵 : −360∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐶 : +360∘ (= 0∘ )

Consequently, the 3rd harmonic in the ideally balanced case is only effective in the zero sequence, as its
native modal system. For representing 3rd harmonics (and multiples thereof) in the positive sequence
system, the following phase correction needs to be entered:

𝐴 : 0∘
𝐵 : +(𝑛 − 1) * 120∘
𝐶 : −(𝑛 − 1) * 120∘

Again taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:

𝐴 : 0∘ (= 0∘ )
𝐵 : −360∘ + 240∘ (= −120∘ )
𝐶 : +360∘ − 240∘ (= +120∘ )

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Harmonic Harmonic Current Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections

Load Flow Source Type
Command
Setting

Balanced Balanced, • Positive (e.g. 7, 13, 19, ...), negative (e.g. 5, 11, 17, ...);
Phase Correct • Typical integer orders only.

Unbalanced, • Positive (e.g. 4, 7, 10, ...), negative (e.g. 2, 5, 8, ...);

Phase Correct • Triplen harmonics (e.g. 3, 6, 9, ...) are ignored and
non-integer harmonic orders (e.g. 5.5, 6.2, 8.35, ...) are
considered in the positive sequence.

IEC 61000 • Positive (e.g. 4, 7, 10, ...), negative (e.g. 2, 5, 8, ...);

• Triplen harmonics and non-integer harmonics are con-

sidered in the positive sequence.

Unbalanced Balanced, • As for balanced harmonic load flow.

Phase Correct

Unbalanced, • Positive, negative, zero sequence;

Phase Correct • Integer and non-integer harmonics.

IEC 61000 • As for balanced harmonic load flow.

Table 36.5.3: Consideration of Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections for TypHmccur

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Harmonic ElmVac/ElmXnet/ Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections

Load Flow ElmSym Setting
Command
Setting

Balanced • Positive (i.e. 4, 7, 10, ...), negative (i.e. 2, 5, 8, ...);

Phase Correct
• Non-integer harmonic orders (i.e. 5.5, 6.2, 8.35, ...) are
considered in the positive sequence.
• Triplen harmonics (i.e. 3, 6, 9, ...) are ignored (with
warning).

IEC 61000 • Positive, negative;

• Triplen harmonics and non-integer harmonics are in the
positive sequence.

Unbalanced • Positive, negative, zero sequence;

Phase Correct
• Non-integer harmonics are considered.

IEC 61000 • As for balanced harmonic load flow.

Table 36.5.4: Consideration of Sequence Components of Harmonic Injections for AC Voltage Source,
External Grid and Synchronous Machine

36.5.2 Assignment of Harmonic Injections

The assignment of harmonic injections to the elements listed in table 36.5.1 is done via the individual
element’s dialog on the Power Quality/Harmonics page containing the following settings:

• Harmonic Currents: Used to assign the Harmonic Sources type (TypHmccur ).

• Type of Harmonic Sources: Displays the type of harmonic source selected in the assigned
Harmonic Sources type (TypHmccur ).
• Harmonic current referred to. For phase correct sources, the harmonic current may be referred
to either the fundamental current or the rated current. If the harmonic current source type has
been selected to be IEC 61000, the harmonic current is always referred to the rated current and
this option is read-only.

Harmonic injections defined for external grids (ElmXnet) and voltage sources (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) are
implicitly assigned, as they are defined on the elements’ respective Power Quality/Harmonics pages.
No further assignment is therefore necessary. See Section 36.5.1 (Definition of Harmonic Injections)
for further information.

36.5.3 Frequency Dependent Parameters

Due to the skin effect and variations in internal inductance, resistances and inductances are usually
frequency dependent. This can be modelled in PowerFactory by associating a “frequency character-
istic” with these quantities. Two types of characteristic may be used: either a Frequency Polynomial
Characteristic (ChaPol) as illustrated in Figure 36.5.1, or a user-defined frequency table (TriFreq and

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 36.5. MODELLING HARMONIC SOURCES

ChaVec). These kinds of characteristics are then assigned via the Power Quality/Harmonics page of
the corresponding element’s dialog, as illustrated by the example in Figure 36.5.2 for a line type.

Figure 36.5.1: The Frequency Polynomial Characteristic (ChaPol)

For the frequency polynomial characteristic object illustrated in Figure 36.5.1, the formula given by
(36.23) is used:

𝑓ℎ 𝑏
𝑦(𝑓ℎ ) = (1 − 𝑎) + 𝑎 · ( ) (36.23)
𝑓1

The parameters a and b are specified in the Frequency Polynomial Characteristic dialog. Variable y is
usually expressed as a percentage of the corresponding input parameters. For example, the resulting
line resistance is given by (36.24):

𝑅(𝑓ℎ ) = 𝑅 · 𝑦(𝑓ℎ ) (36.24)

An example of the use of the polynomial characteristic for a line type is shown in Figure 36.5.2.

Figure 36.5.2: Frequency Dependencies in a Line Type

It is also possible to define frequency dependent characteristics using a vectorial parameter character-
istic (ChaVec).

The following objects can have frequency dependent parameters defined using a frequency character-
istic.

Lines, Cables and Series Impedances:

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• Line type (TypLne)

• Series Reactor, Resistor, Capacitor (ElmSind, ElmScap))

• Series RLC-Filter (ElmSfilt)

Transformers and Grounding Elements:
• 2-, 3-, 4-winding transformers (TypTr2, TypTr3, TypTr4)
• Step-Voltage Regulator (TypVoltreg)

• NEC/NER (ElmNec)
Generators and Loads:
• Synchronous machine type (TypSym)

• Asynchronous machine types (TypAsmo, TypAsm1)

• Static Generator (ElmGenstat, ElmPVsys)
• Complex load type (TypLodind)
• Medium Voltage Load (ElmLodmv )

Sources:
• External Grid (ElmXnet)
• AC voltage source, single and double1 port (ElmVac, ElmVacbi)

• AC current source, single1 and double1 port (ElmIac, ElmIacbi)

Shunts and Filters:
• Shunt/Filter (ElmShnt)
• Harmonic Filter (ElmFilter )

Power Electronic Devices:

• PWM Converter, single and double port (ElmVscmono, ElmVsc)
• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor - TCSC (ElmTcsc)
Frequency-dependent impedances are automatically considered for lines represented by either a tower
type (TypTow, TypGeo) or a cable system type (TypCabsys).

36.5.4 Waveform Plot

The waveform plot is used to display the waveform of a voltage or a current following a harmonic load
flow calculation. The harmonics are typically emitted by a harmonic voltage or current source, as
described in Section 36.5 (Modelling Harmonic Sources).

The waveform is calculated according to the following formula:

𝑛
∑︁
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑖) · cos(2𝜋(𝑓 (𝑖) · 𝑡 + 𝜙(𝑖)) (36.25)
𝑖=1

where:
1 Frequency dependencies on spectral densities, considered only in the Frequency Sweep

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𝑖 Index of frequency
𝑛 Number of frequencies
𝑡 Time
𝑓 (𝑖) Frequency at index i
𝑢(𝑖) Magnitude at frequency i
𝑝ℎ𝑖(𝑖) Angle at frequency i

If a successful harmonic load-flow calculation with the option All Frequencies is performed, the wave-
form plot will show the results of any distorted or pure sinusoidal variable, e.g. voltages or currents,
from any element in the network.

The waveform plot can be created even if the preceding harmonic load-flow is not active anymore. An
example plot of harmonic distortion is shown in Figure 36.5.3.

500,00

250,00

0,00

-250,00

-500,00

-750,00
0,000 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 [ms] 50,00
3W HVDC: Current/HV-Side in A

Figure 36.5.3: Use of the Waveform Plot to display Harmonic Distortion

The variable definition requires a reference to the results object and the element as per the curve plot,
but in contrast to it, the magnitude of the variable and the angle relating to the magnitude can also be
defined.

The appropriate angle is automatically matched to the selected magnitude, if such angle is available in
the results and if the variable is a voltage or a current. When no appropriate angle is found, one may be
selected manually. Although the angle can be defined, the parameter is not obligatory.

The Waveform Plot Settings

The usage, settings and tools for this plot type are similar to the curve plot, described in Chapter 19:
Reporting and Visualising Results, section 19.7.8.1, however there are some specific settings unique
to the waveform plot, these include the step size and time range. The step size and time range are
specified within the waveform plot settings object stored in the “Settings” directory of the active project.

To change the waveform plot settings either press the Calculation button in the dialog of the plot
or select Calculation in the context sensitive menu on the plot. The Settings Waveform Plot object
(SetWave) holds the Step Size and the Range for the calculation of waveforms in the Waveform Plots
(see Figure 36.5.4).

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Figure 36.5.4: The waveform plot settings dialog

Step Size

The visible waveforms are calculated by the waveform plot itself.

The Number of Samples in Highest Frequency defines how many intermediate points of the highest
frequency are considered for the drawing of the waveform. In order to get a smooth waveform values
above 20 are recommended. The resulting Step Size is mentioned in the dialog together with the
Highest Frequency calculated in the Harmonic Load Flow calculation.

Range

To be independent of the basic frequency, the time range of the waveform is entered in Number of cycles
of Basic Frequency. Basic Frequency and the resulting Range are shown for information.

36.6 Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21)

The IEC standard 61400-21 [14] describes the measurement and assessment of power quality charac-
teristics of grid connected wind turbine generators (WTGs). One of these power quality characteristic
parameters pertains to voltage fluctuations. Voltage fluctuations can produce undesirable effects on the
consumer side which may manifest as ’flicker’ (visible flickering effects from light sources), and voltage
changes (voltage magnitude being too high or too low).

In the assessment of a WTG’s power quality in terms of voltage fluctuations, the operation of WTGs
can be subdivided into two modes: continuous operation and switching operations (see Sections 36.6.1
(Continuous Operation) and 36.6.2 (Switching Operations) for definitions). These modes of operation
are considered by the PowerFactory flicker calculation, which calculates the short-term and long-term
flicker disturbance factors. See Section 36.6.6 (Flicker Results Variables) for a list of the flicker results
variables available. The calculation of flicker is performed optionally as part of the harmonic load flow
command. For a detailed description of how to configure and execute a harmonic load flow, including
the calculation of flicker, refer to Section 36.2.1 (Basic Options).

36.6.1 Continuous Operation

Continuous operation is defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as the normal operation of the wind turbine
generator (WTG) excluding start-up and shut-down operations. The short-term and long-term flicker
disturbance factors during continuous operation are defined in [14] as:

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑙𝑡 = 𝑐(𝜓𝑘 ,𝑣𝑎 ) · (36.26)
𝑆𝑘

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where 𝑃𝑠𝑡 is the short-term flicker disturbance factor; 𝑃𝑙𝑡 is the long-term flicker disturbance factor; 𝑐 is
the flicker coefficient for continuous operation; 𝜓𝑘 is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑣𝑎 is the
average annual wind speed (m/s); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA); and 𝑆𝑘 is the
short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

When more than one WTG exists at the point of common coupling (PCC), the summed short-term and
long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation are described in [14] as:

⎯
⎸𝑁𝑤𝑡
1 ⎸ ∑︁
⎷ (𝑐(𝜓 ,𝑣 ) · 𝑆 )2
𝑃𝑠𝑡Σ = 𝑃𝑙𝑡Σ = 𝑘 𝑎 𝑛,𝑖 (36.27)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

where 𝑁𝑤𝑡 is the number of wind turbine generators at the PCC.

36.6.2 Switching Operations

Switching operations are defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as start-up or switching between wind
turbine generators (WTGs). In this mode of operation, the short-term and long-term flicker disturbance
factors during switching operations are defined in [14] as:

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 18 · 𝑁10 0.31 · 𝑘𝑓 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (36.28)
𝑆𝑘

where 𝑁10 is the number of switching operations in a 10-minute period; 𝑘𝑓 is the flicker step factor; 𝜓𝑘
is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA); and
𝑆𝑘 is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

𝑆𝑛
𝑃𝑙𝑡 = 8 · 𝑁120 0.31 · 𝑘𝑓 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (36.29)
𝑆𝑘

where 𝑁120 is the number of switching operations in a 120-minute period; 𝑘𝑓 is the flicker step factor;
𝜓𝑘 is the network impedance angle (degrees); 𝑆𝑛 is the rated apparent power of the wind turbine (VA);
and 𝑆𝑘 is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).

When more than one WTG exists at the PCC, the short-term flicker disturbance factor under switching
operations is defined in [14] as:

[︂ 𝑁𝑤𝑡 ]︂0.31
18 ∑︁ 3.2
𝑃𝑠𝑡Σ = 𝑁10,𝑖 · (𝑘𝑓,𝑖 (𝜓𝑘 ) · 𝑆𝑛,𝑖 ) (36.30)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

Likewise, the long-term flicker disturbance factor under switching operations is defined as:

[︂ 𝑁𝑤𝑡 ]︂0.31
8 ∑︁
𝑃𝑙𝑡Σ = 𝑁120,𝑖 · (𝑘𝑓,𝑖 (𝜓𝑘 ) · 𝑆𝑛,𝑖 )3.2 (36.31)
𝑆𝑘 𝑖=1

where 𝑁𝑤𝑡 is the number of WTGs at the PCC.

The relative voltage change (in units of %) due to the switching operation of a single WTG is computed
as [14]:

𝑆𝑛
𝑑 = 100 · (𝑘𝑢 (𝜓𝑘 ) · (36.32)
𝑆𝑘

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36.6.3 Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbine Generator Models

The calculation of flicker according to IEC standard 61400-21 in PowerFactory considers flicker contri-
butions of the following generator models:
• Static generator (ElmGenstat)
• Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm)
• Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc)

In order for these models to be able to contribute flicker, their flicker contributions must first be defined
and assigned, as described in Sections 36.6.4 (Definition of Flicker Coefficients) and 36.6.5 (Assign-
ment of Flicker Coefficients).

36.6.4 Definition of Flicker Coefficients

Flicker coefficients are defined in PowerFactory by means of the Flicker Coefficients type (TypFlicker ),
as illustrated in Figure 36.6.1. When created, this is stored by default in the Equipment Type Library
folder in the project tree.

Figure 36.6.1: Definition of Flicker Coefficients using the Flicker Coefficients Type (TypFlicker )

The Flicker Coefficients type allows the input of six parameters (all of which are defined in IEC standard
61400-21):

• Network Angle, psi (degrees). This is the network impedance angle and must be entered in
either the range [-180,180] (default), or [0,360]. Any mix of these ranges is not permitted. Network
angles must be entered in ascending order.
• Coefficient, c(psi). The flicker coefficient as a function of the network impedance angle.
• Step Factor, kf(psi). The flicker step factor as a function of the network impedance angle.
• Voltage Change Factor, ku(psi)The voltage change factor as a function of the network impedance
angle.

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 36.7. SHORT-CIRCUIT POWER

• Maximum Switching Operations: N10. The maximum number of switching operations in a 10-
minute period.
• Maximum Switching Operations: N120. The maximum number of switching operations in a
120-minute period.

36.6.5 Assignment of Flicker Coefficients

The Harmonics page of these elements’ dialogs contains a Flicker Contribution section or separate tab
which allows the assignment of Flicker Coefficients.

If the reference selection Flicker Coefficients is left unassigned, the generator is then considered to be
an ideal source for the flicker calculation.

36.6.6 Flicker Results Variables

Following the calculation of flicker according to IEC 61400-21, the following result variables for every
node in the network are available in the single line graphic. It should be noted that PowerFactory
calculates these flicker disturbance factors and relative voltage change for impedance angles with lines
at 20 degrees Celsius and at maximum operation temperature. The following result variables are the
worst-case values in the impedance angle range, which is based on the temperature range:

• Pst_cont; Plt_cont: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation
of the wind turbine generator/s;
• Pst_sw; Plt_sw: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for switching operations of
the wind turbine generator/s;
• d_sw: relative voltage change (as a percentage).

For the mathematical definitions of these result variables, refer to Sections 36.6.1 (Continuous Opera-
tion) and 36.6.2 (Switching Operations).

36.7 Short-Circuit Power

For power quality assessment, the network impedance of the grid under normal operating conditions is
usually used as the basis for calculations. This impedance is represented by the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘,
of the grid. Hence, for power quality assessment at a point V in the grid, this short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉 ,
under normal operating conditions is used instead of the short-circuit power of the faulted grid according
to short-circuit calculations. If the Harmonic Load Flow command option Calculate Sk at Fundamental
Frequency is enabled (see Section 36.2.1 (Basic Options)), the short-circuit power of the grid under
normal operation is available in the calculation results.

36.7.1 Balanced Harmonic Load Flow

For the balanced harmonic load flow, the calculation of the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, at each bus is as
follows:
1
𝑆𝑘 = (MVA) (36.33)
|𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 |
where 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the impedance calculated at the bus.

The calculation of the impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘, at each bus is as follows:

𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘 = ∠𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 (degrees) (36.34)

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where 𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the impedance calculated at the bus.

36.7.2 Unbalanced Harmonic Load Flow

For the unbalanced harmonic load flow, the calculation of the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, at each bus is as
follows:
1
𝑆𝑘 = (MVA) (36.35)
|𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 |
where 𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the positive sequence impedance calculated at the bus.

The calculation of the impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘, at each bus is calculated as follows:

𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘 = ∠𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 (degrees) (36.36)

where 𝑍1𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the positive sequence impedance calculated at the bus.

36.7.2.1 Calculation of Impedance Ratios

The following impedance ratios are calculated following an unbalanced harmonic load flow (if option
Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency has been selected):

|𝑍2|
𝑧2𝑡𝑧1𝑘𝑉 = (36.37)
|𝑍1|
𝑋0
𝑥0𝑡𝑥1𝑘𝑉 = (36.38)
𝑋1
𝑅0
𝑟0𝑡𝑥0𝑘𝑉 = (36.39)
𝑋0

36.7.3 Sk Result Variables

Following either a balanced or an unbalanced harmonic load flow calculation with the option Calculate
Sk at Fundamental Frequency selected, the following result variables are available for every 3-phase
bus in the network:

• SkV : short-circuit power (MVA)

• psikV : impedance angle (degrees)

For the mathematical definitions of these result variables, refer to Section 36.7.1 (Balanced Harmonic
Load Flow), and 36.7.2 (Unbalanced Harmonic Load Flow).

Following an unbalanced harmonic load flow with the option Calculate Sk at Fundamental Frequency
selected, the following additional result variables are available for every 3-phase bus in the network:

• z2tz1kV : Impedance ratio

• x0tx1kV : Impedance ratio

• r0tx0kV : Impedance ratio

For the mathematical definitions of these impedance ratio result variables, refer to Section 36.7.2.1
(Calculation of Impedance Ratios).

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36.7.4 Short-Circuit Power of the External Grid

The external grid element, ElmXnet, allows the calculation of the network impedance to be based on
the short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘, and impedance angle, 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑘. This option can be selected in the external
grid element on the Power Quality/Harmonics page, by using the Use for calculation drop-down box
and selecting Sk. User input fields are then available for the short-circuit power, Sk (MVA), impedance
angle, psik (deg), and impedance ratios z2tz1kV, x0tx1kV, and r0tx0kV.

The impedance of the external grid, which is taken into account for power quality assessment, is
calculated internally based on either the short-circuit power, Sk, at normal operation; the maximum
short-circuit power, Sk”max for faulted operation; or the minimum short-circuit power Sk”min for faulted
operation, depending on the user’s selection.

Data for input parameters (SkV, psikV, z2tz1kV, x0tx1kV, and r0tx0kV ) can first be calculated from a
detailed network model using the Harmonic Load Flow command option Calculate Sk at Fundamental
Frequency (refer to Section 36.7.3 (Sk Result Variables)), performed, for example, by the network
operator. A third party, (i.e. a wind farm planner) could get this information for the point of common
coupling (PCC for the planned wind farm) from the network operator. The planner can then enter the
data into the external grid element, which is a simplified representation of the network as seen from the
PCC.

36.8 Connection Request Assessment

For power quality assessment, PowerFactory offers a Connection Request Assessment command (
ComConreq) and corresponding element ( ElmConreq). The Connection Request Assessment
command, in conjunction with the Connection Request element, facilitates the execution of a power
quality assessment according to the Method selected in the command.

36.8.1 Connection Request Assessment: D-A-CH-CZ

The selection of D-A-CH-CZ as the Method in the Connection Request Assessment command carries
out a power quality assessment according to [12] and [16]. These guidelines consider the following
aspects of power quality for 50Hz networks, operating at low-voltage (LV), medium-voltage (MV) or
high-voltage (HV) levels:

• Voltage changes and flicker

• Voltage unbalance
• Harmonics
• Commutation notches
• Interharmonic voltages

The following assumptions apply to PowerFactory’s Connection Request Assessment according

to D-A-CH-CZ:

• Connection request elements are intended for use by the Connection Request Assessment. They
may be considered by the Load Flow but for all other calculations, it is recommended to set them
out of service.
• Calculations are valid for 50 Hz networks only;
• The PCC is the busbar to which the Connection Request element is connected;
• Each Connection Request element is assessed independently from all other Connection Request
elements (with the exception of voltage rise assessment for generating stations);

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• The short-circuit power, Sk, is calculated using a line/cable temperature of 70 ∘ C for LV networks,
and 20 ∘ C for MV and HV networks.
• For the calculation of flicker, voltage changes are regular and rectangular;
• For the calculation of flicker, Plt=Pst (i.e. 2h observation period);
• Classifications of voltage levels (LV, MV and HV) are strictly according to [12] and [16]. Dialog
options pertaining to HV networks are only available for Connection Request elements which are
connected to a HV PCC.

36.8.1.1 Basic Options

Method

• According to D-A-CH-CZ. Assesses network disturbances according to [12] and [16].

Calculations

All calculations are carried out according to the selection of Method described above.

• Voltage rise (generating stations only) Calculates the voltage rise via a balanced load flow.
– The PowerFactory elements that are considered as generation (for outaging) are: ElmSym,
ElmAsm, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmVsc, ElmVscmono and ElmConreq. The criterion used
to detect this generation is based on their calculated power flow. It should be noted that
generation defined as part of an MV load ElmLodmv, for example, is not considered. Only
generation which is connected to higher voltage levels (HV) is not outaged. Therefore, users
may define any LV generation that should not be considered by the assessment as an MV
load.
– If a higher voltage level exists in the network, and any step-up transformers with tap-changing
functionality are found (i.e. using voltage control on the LV side), their tap changer will be
set to continuous for the assessment (and returned to their original setting upon completion
of the assessment). If a higher voltage level exists and no such transformers are found, a
warning is issued. This is to avoid any voltage changes in the HV network impacting on the
assessment at lower voltage levels.
• Voltage changes and flicker. Calculates the voltage change, d and flicker severity Pst, Plt at the
point of common coupling, and assesses these according to appropriate limits. For the calculation
of flicker, voltage changes are assumed to be regular and rectangular.
• Voltage change:
– If no step-up transformer is found in the network, an assessment regarding the sudden
voltage change will not be provided (i.e. it will be “N/A”). This is because the voltage drop
across the transformer can not be considered.
– An initial load flow is executed with the network as-is, and using the Load Flow command
configured as-is. The tap positions of transformers and shunts are then saved. The outage
of each connection request element in turn is then considered via a subsequent load
flow, however this time configured with Load Flow options Automatic tap adjustment of trans-
formers and Automatic tap adjustment of shunts deselected. Following the assessment, all
transformer and shunt taps are set back to their original positions.
• Voltage unbalance. Calculates the voltage unbalance factor, kU, and assesses this according to
appropriate limits.
• Harmonics. Assesses the harmonic content based on user input in the Connection Request
element, and makes an assessment according to appropriate limits. For HV networks, the consid-
eration of resonances is optional.
• Commutation notches. Calculates the relative short-circuit voltage of the commutation reac-
tance, ukkom. It should be noted that no approval status is provided following the Commutation
Notches calculation, but instead a recommendation.

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• Interharmonic voltages. For LV and MV networks, assesses the effect of user-defined inter-
harmonic voltages in the flicker critical range and on the ripple control frequency. For LV and
MV networks, limits are taken from EN 61000-2-2. For HV networks, assesses the user-defined
harmonic load and user-defined interharmonic voltages against appropriate limits.

Resonances (HV Networks only)

• Consideration of resonances. Selection of either no consideration of resonances or approxi-

mate consideration of the first parallel resonance point. It should be noted that limits for reso-
nances are not a criteria for the assessment, but are output as information.
• Grid contains mostly. Selection of either cables or overhead lines. Used in the selection of the
resonance factor, 𝑘𝑣 (as defined in [16]), which is also dependent upon the harmonic order. It
should be noted that the highest resonance factors within the ranges stated in [16] are chosen.
• Calculation of emission limits. Calculates the emission limits according to either the simplified
method or the general (detailed) method, as defined in [16].
• Operation Scenario. An Operation Scenario may be optionally specified for the calculation of the
actual short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 . This scenario should represent the typical network operation
(switching status, etc), and must yield an actual short-circuit power such that 𝑆𝑘𝑉 <= 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 .
This implies that the network in its state at the time of execution of the Connection Request
command will produce a worst-case short-circuit power, 𝑆𝑘𝑉 . The Connection Request command
will then appropriately activate the specified scenario and deactivate it following the calculation of
𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 . If no scenario is specified, it is assumed that 𝑆𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑘𝑡 = 𝑆𝑘𝑉 .

36.8.1.2 Outputs

Report

Prints a Connection Request Assessment summary report in PowerFactory ’s output window. By select-
ing the option Detailed Output a more detailed report is shown.

36.8.2 Connection Request Assessment: BDEW, 4th Supplement

The selection of BDEW, 4th Supplement as the Method in the Connection Request Assessment com-
mand carries out a power quality assessment according to [13] and [17]. This guideline considers the
following aspects of power quality for 50Hz networks, operating at the medium-voltage (MV) level:

• Loading of network elements

• Admissible voltage changes
• Sudden voltage changes and flicker
• Harmonics, interharmonics and audio-frequency ripple control
• Commutation notches
• Maximum short-circuit current

The following assumptions apply to PowerFactory’s Connection Request Assessment according

to BDEW, 4th Supplement:

• Connection request elements are intended for use by the Connection Request Assessment. They
may be considered by the Load Flow and have a simplified consideration by the Short-Circuit. For
all other calculations, it is recommended to set them out of service.
• Calculations are valid for 50Hz networks only;
• The junction point is that specified in the Connection Request element; otherwise is automatically
selected to be the busbar to which the Connection Request element is connected;

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36.8.2.1 Basic Options

Method

• According to BDEW, 4th Supplement. Assesses network disturbances according to [13] and
[17].

Calculations

All calculations are carried out according to the selection of Method described above.

• Loading of network elements. Subsequent load flow calculations are executed for the following
cases: (i) loading without ElmConreq elements; (ii) loading with ElmConreq elements. Reports
overloadings (if any) of network equipment resulting from the VDE Connection Request elements.
If no overloadings occur, the five highest loadings in each case are displayed in the report.
• Admissible voltage changes. Uses the defined generation in any BDEW connection request
elements and executes a balanced load flow calculation. The same load flow calculation is then
carried out excluding all generation. The voltage change at buses is calculated and violations are
reported.
– The PowerFactory elements that are considered as generation (for outaging) are: ElmSym,
ElmAsm, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmVsc, ElmVscmono and ElmConreq. The criterion used
to detect this generation is based on their calculated power flow. It should be noted that
generation defined as part of an MV load ElmLodmv, for example, is not considered. Only
generation which is connected to higher voltage levels (HV) is not outaged. Therefore, users
may define any LV generation that should not be considered by the assessment as an MV
load.
– If a higher voltage level exists in the network, and any step-up transformers with tap-changing
functionality are found (i.e. using voltage control on the LV side), their tap changer will be
set to continuous for the assessment (and returned to their original setting upon completion
of the assessment). If a higher voltage level exists and no such transformers are found, a
warning is issued. This is to avoid any voltage changes in the HV network impacting on the
assessment at lower voltage levels.
• Sudden voltage changes and flicker. Calculates the sudden voltage change, d and flicker
severity Plt at the junction point, and assesses these according to appropriate limits. The sudden
voltage change as a result of switching of the entire plant is calculated using a balanced load flow.
– If no step-up transformer is found in the network, an assessment regarding the sudden
voltage change will not be provided (i.e. it will be “N/A”). This is because the voltage drop
across the transformer can not be considered.
– An initial load flow is executed with the network as-is, and using the Load Flow command
configured as-is. The tap positions of transformers and shunts are then saved. The outage
of each connection request element in turn is then considered via a subsequent load
flow, however this time configured with Load Flow options Automatic tap adjustment of trans-
formers and Automatic tap adjustment of shunts deselected. Following the assessment, all
transformer and shunt taps are set back to their original positions.
• Sudden voltage change due to switching of the entire plant. When assessing the sudden
voltage change due to the plant (as opposed to the individual units), a step-up transformer is
required. If no step-up transformer is found in the network, an assessment regarding the sudden
voltage change will not be provided (i.e. it will be “N/A”). This is because the voltage drop across
the transformer can not be considered. An initial load flow is executed with the network as-
is, and using the Load Flow command configured as-is. The tap positions of transformers and
shunts are then saved. The outage of each connection request element in turn is then considered
via a subsequent load flow, however this time configured with Load Flow options Automatic tap
adjustment of transformers and Automatic tap adjustment of shunts deselected. Following the
assessment, all transformer and shunt taps are set back to their original positions.
• Harmonics. Assesses the harmonic content based on user input in the Connection Request
element, and makes an assessment according to appropriate limits.

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• Commutation notches. Calculates the relative short-circuit voltage of the commutation reac-
tance, ukkom. It should be noted that no approval status is provided following the Commutation
Notches calculation, but instead a recommendation.

• Maximum short-circuit current. Uses the defined short-circuit current injection in any BDEW
connection request elements and executes a short-circuit calculation according to VDE. Short-
circuit current limit violations (obtained from busbar Types and line Types) are reported.

Agreed service voltage, Uc

The supply voltage agreed between the system operator and the connectee. According to the standard
it needs to be defined and is used to calculate the limits for the Sudden voltage change.

36.8.2.2 Outputs

Report

Prints a Connection Request Assessment summary report in PowerFactory ’s output window. By acti-
vating the option Detailed Output a more detailed report is shown.

36.8.3 Connection Request Assessment: VDE-AR-N 4105

The selection of VDE-AR-N 4105 as the Method in the Connection Request Assessment command
carries out a power quality assessment according to [15] and [19]. This guideline considers the following
aspects of power quality for 50Hz networks, operating at the low-voltage (LV) level:

• Minimum short-circuit power at junction point

• Loading of network components
• Admissible voltage changes

• Rapid voltage changes and flicker

• Voltage unbalance
• Harmonics, interharmonics and audio-frequency ripple control

• Commutation notches
• Maximum short-circuit current

The following assumptions apply to PowerFactory’s Connection Request Assessment according

to VDE-AR-N 4105:

• Calculations are valid for 50Hz networks only;

• The junction point is that specified in the Connection Request element; otherwise is automatically
selected to be the busbar to which the Connection Request element is connected;

36.8.3.1 Basic Options

Method

• According to VDE-AR-N 4105. Assesses network disturbances according to [15] in version 2011
and [19] in version 2018.

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Published

This option offers a sub-selection for the selected Method, where the version of the standard to be
used can be selected according to the year in which it was issued. The most recent standard is 2018,
however 2011 is still available for the verification of documented results. The selection of version 2018
enables the additional calculation of the minimum short-circuit power at junction point.

Calculations

All calculations are carried out according to the selection of Method described above.

• Minimum short-circuit power at junction point. Applicable to the 2018 version of VDE-AR-N
4105 only. The assessment calculates the short-circuit power (see section 36.7) at the junction
point and at the supply transformer busbar and verifies the results against the VDE-AR-N 4105
limits.
• Loading of network components. Subsequent load flow calculations are executed for the
following cases: (i) loading without ElmConreq elements; (ii) loading with ElmConreq elements.
Reports overloadings (if any) of network equipment resulting from the VDE-AR-N 4105 Connection
Request elements. If no overloadings occur, the five highest loadings in each case are displayed
in the report.
• Permissible voltage changes. Uses the generation defined in any VDE-AR-N 4105 connection
request elements and executes a balanced load flow calculation. The same load flow calculation is
then carried out excluding all generation. The voltage change at buses is calculated and violations
are reported.
– The assessment of the permissible voltage change requires that generation in the MV net-
work is outaged. The elements that are considered as generation (for outaging) are: Elm-
Sym, ElmAsm, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmVsc, ElmVscmono and ElmConreq. The criterion
used to detect this generation is based on their calculated power flow. It should be noted that
generation defined as part of an MV load ElmLodmv, for example, is not considered. Only
generation which is connected to higher voltage levels (HV) is not outaged. Therefore, users
may define any LV generation that should not be considered by the assessment as an MV
load.
– If a higher voltage level exists in the network, and any step-up transformers with tap-changing
functionality are found (i.e. using voltage control on the LV side), their tap changer will be
set to continuous for the assessment (and returned to their original setting upon completion
of the assessment). If a higher voltage level exists and no such transformers are found, a
warning is issued. This is to avoid any voltage changes in the HV network impacting on the
assessment at lower voltage levels.
• Rapid voltage changes. Calculates the sudden voltage change d for each generation unit at the
junction point, and assesses these according to appropriate limits.
• Rapid voltage changes due to switching of the entire plant. The rapid voltage change as a
result of switching of the entire plant is calculated using a balanced load flow. When assessing the
rapid voltage change due to the plant (as opposed to the individual units), a step-up transformer
is required.
– If no step-up transformer is found in the network, an assessment regarding the sudden
voltage change will not be provided (i.e. it will be “N/A”). This is because the voltage drop
across the transformer can not be considered.
– An initial load flow is executed with the network as-is, and using the Load Flow command
configured as-is. The tap positions of transformers and shunts are then saved. The outage
of each connection request element in turn is then considered via a subsequent load flow,
however this time configured with Load Flow options Automatic tap adjustment of trans-
formers and Automatic tap adjustment of shunts deselected. Following the assessment,
all transformer and shunt taps are set back to their original positions.
• Flicker. Calculates the flicker severity Plt of the individual generation units as well as the whole
plant and assesses the flicker disturbance factors according to appropriate limits.

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• Voltage unbalance. Calculates the voltage unbalance from user-input data and assesses this
according to the VDE-AR-N 4105 limit.
• Harmonics, interharmonics and audio frequency ripple control. Assesses the harmonic and
interharmonic content based on user input in the Connection Request element, and makes an
assessment according to appropriate limits. For the audio frequency ripple control it verifies if the
level is within the permitted range.
• Commutation notches. Calculates the relative short-circuit voltage of the commutation reac-
tance, ukkom. It should be noted that no approval status is provided following the Commutation
Notches calculation, but instead a recommendation.
• Maximum short-circuit current. Uses the short-circuit current injection defined in any VDE-AR-
N 4105 connection request elements and executes a short-circuit calculation according to DIN
60909 for a balanced 3-phase fault. The command Calculation option Max. short-circuit currents
is used and the Max. Voltage Tolerance for LV-Systems is temporarily set to 10%. Short-circuit
current limit violations (obtained from busbar and line types) are reported.

36.8.3.2 Outputs

Report

Prints a Connection Request Assessment summary report in PowerFactory ’s output window. By acti-
vating the option Detailed Output a more detailed report is shown.

36.8.4 Connection Request Assessment: VDE-AR-N 4110

The selection of VDE-AR-N 4110 as the Method in the Connection Request Assessment command
carries out a power quality assessment according to [20]. It is valid from the year 2018 and replaces the
BDEW Medium-Voltage Guideline (including the 4th Supplement) from 2008 described in section 36.8.2.
This guideline considers the following aspects of power quality for 50Hz networks, operating at the
medium-voltage (MV) level:

• Minimum short-circuit power at junction point

• Loading of network components

• Admissible voltage changes
• Rapid voltage changes and flicker

• Voltage unbalance
• Harmonics, interharmonics and audio-frequency ripple control
• Commutation notches
• Maximum short-circuit current

The guideline not only applies to generation plants such as wind turbines, photovoltaic and combustion
engines but it also considers storage systems and mixed plant (consumption and generation). It should
be noted that only generating plants that fulfil the following criteria are considered for the Connection
Request Assessment:

• Plants with a maximum active power (based on the installed power) of 𝑃𝐴.𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ 135𝑘𝑊 .
• Plants existing of individual unit types (such as CHP generation units, wind and hydropower
generation units, Stirling generators, fuel cells and asynchronous generators) where at least one
of the units has a total effective power of 𝑃𝐸.𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ 30𝑘𝑊 .

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If only one or none of these requirements is fulfilled the assessment of the generation plant should be
carried out and certified according to the VDE-AR-N 4105 (see section 36.8.3) regardless of the voltage
level.

The following assumptions apply to PowerFactory’s Connection Request Assessment according

to VDE-AR-N 4110:

• The MV network should be radial with the higher level network represented by an equivalent
external grid
• There should be a single supply transformer (user-defined)

36.8.4.1 Basic Options

Method

• According to VDE-AR-N 4110. Assesses network disturbances according to [20].

Calculations

All calculations are carried out according to the selection of Method described above.

• Minimum short-circuit power at junction point. The assessment calculates the short-circuit
power at the junction point and at the supply transformer busbar and verifies the results against
the VDE-AR-N 4110 limits.
– For the calculation of the limits, the following elements are taken into account if selected:
synchronous generator (ElmSym), static generator (ElmGenstat), connection request gen-
eration unit (ElmConreq) and external grid (ElmXnet). The user is required to specify those
elements that represent “Type-1” elements according to the standard.
– If no supply transformer is specified in the connection request element, an assessment of
N/A may be issued.
• Loading of network components. Subsequent load flow calculations are executed for the follow-
ing three cases: (i) loading without ElmConreq elements; (ii) loading with ElmConreq elements
(Loads table only); and (iii) loading with ElmConreq elements (Generation/Storage Units table
only). This will ensure that the worst case is considered. Overloadings of network equipment
resulting from the VDE-AR-N 4110 connection request elements are reported. If no overloadings
occur, the five highest loadings from all cases are displayed in the report.
• Admissible voltage changes. Uses the defined generation in any VDE-AR-N 4110 connection
request elements and executes a balanced load flow calculation. The same load flow calculation is
then carried out excluding all generation. The voltage change at buses is calculated and violations
are reported.
– The assessment of the admissible voltage change requires that generation in the MV network
is outaged. The elements that are considered as generation (for outaging) are: ElmSym,
ElmAsm, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmVsc, ElmVscmono and ElmConreq. The criterion used
to detect this generation is based on their calculated power flow. It should be noted that
generation defined as part of an MV load ElmLodmv, for example, is not considered. Only
generation which is connected to higher voltage levels (HV) is not outaged. Therefore, users
may define any LV generation that should not be considered by the assessment as an MV
load.
– If a higher voltage level exists in the network, and any step-up transformers with tap-changing
functionality are found (i.e. using voltage control on the LV side), their tap changer will be
set to continuous for the assessment (and returned to their original setting upon completion
of the assessment). If a higher voltage level exists and no such transformers are found, a
warning is issued. This is to avoid any voltage changes in the HV network impacting on the
assessment at lower voltage levels.
• Sudden voltage changes. Calculates the sudden voltage change d for each unit at the junction
point, and assesses these according to appropriate limits.

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• Sudden voltage change due to switching of the entire plant. For the load flow based sudden
voltage change (i.e. switching of the whole plant), the worst-case results are obtained considering
the following: (i) switching on/off the whole plant considering only the Loads table; and (ii) switch-
ing on/off the whole plant considering only the Generation/Storage Units table. This ensures that
the worst case is considered.
– When assessing the sudden voltage change due to the plant (as opposed to the individual
units), a step-up transformer is required.
– If no step-up transformer is found in the network, an assessment regarding the sudden
voltage change will not be provided (i.e. it will be “N/A”). This is because the voltage drop
across the transformer can not be considered.
– An initial load flow is executed with the network as-is, and using the Load Flow command
configured as-is. The tap positions of transformers and shunts are then saved. The outage
of each connection request element in turn is then considered via a subsequent load flow,
however this time configured with Load Flow options Automatic tap adjustment of trans-
formers and Automatic tap adjustment of shunts deselected. Following the assessment,
all transformer and shunt taps are set back to their original positions.

• Flicker. Calculated the flicker severity Plt of the individual generation units as well as the whole
plant and assesses the flicker disturbance factors according to appropriate limits. The calculation
of Pst for loads uses the Pst=1 curve as described in the D-A-CH-CZ guideline.
• Harmonics, interharmonics and supraharmonics. Assesses the harmonic and interharmonic
content based on user input in the connection request element, and makes an assessment
according to appropriate limits. By activating the option Simplified calculation of harmonic current
limits in the command, simplifying assumptions according to the standard are used. For the audio
frequency ripple control it verifies if the level is within the permitted range.
• Commutation notches. Calculates the relative short-circuit voltage of the commutation reac-
tance, ukkom.

• Maximum short-circuit current. Uses the defined short-circuit current injection in any VDE-AR-
N 4110 connection request elements and executes a short-circuit calculation according to DIN
60909 for a balanced 3-phase fault. The command Calculation option Max. short-circuit currents
is used. Short-circuit current limit violations (obtained from busbar and line types) are reported.

Agreed service voltage, Uc

The supply voltage agreed between the system operator and the connectee. According to the standard
it needs to be defined and is used to calculate the limits for the Sudden voltage change.

36.8.4.2 Outputs

Report

Prints a Connection Request Assessment summary report in PowerFactory ’s output window. By acti-
vating the option Detailed Output a more detailed report is shown.

36.8.5 Connection Request Assessment Report

Following the execution of a Connection Request Assessment, a detailed report for each Connection
Request element is printed in PowerFactory ś output window. The report is divided into the following
sections:
• Assessment status (overall, and per calculation). For HV networks, the Assessment Level (1 or 2,
according to [16]) at which the Connection Request was approved or not is also output.
• Basic Data

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• PCC Data
• Results per Calculation (depending on user selection of Calculations in Connection Request
Assessment command dialog.)

36.9 Definition of Result Variables

In order to record the results of either the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep calculation, the
variables of interest must be defined. However, for each of these calculations, a small selection of
variables are recorded by default in the results object defined on each command’s Basic Data page by
the Result Variables parameter. For the Harmonic Load Flow the following variables are recorded by
default (PowerFactory variable names are italicised):

• Harmonic order (-);

• Frequency (Hz);
• HD (%) (for terminals);
• Voltage across inductor (p.u.) (url) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor (p.u.) (uc) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through inductor (A) (IL) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through resistor Rp (A) (IRp) (for shunts/filters);
• Current through capacitor C (A) (IC) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C1 (p.u.) (uc1) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C2 (p.u.) (uc2) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp (p.u.) (urp) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across inductor (kV) (Url) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor (kV) (Uc) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C1 (kV) (Uc1) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across capacitor C2 (kV) (Uc2) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp (kV) (Urp) (for shunts/filters);
• Voltage across inductor L1 (p.u.) (url1) (for harmonic filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp1 (p.u.) (urp1) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through inductor L1 (A) (IL1) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through resistor Rp1 (A) (IRp1) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through capacitor C1 (A) (IC1) (for harmonic filters);
• Voltage across inductor L2 (p.u.) (url2) (for harmonic filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp2 (p.u.) (urp2) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through inductor L2 (A) (IL2) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through resistor Rp2 (A) (IRp2) (for harmonic filters);
• Current through capacitor C2 (A) (IC2) (for harmonic filters);
• Voltage across inductor L1 (kV) (url1) (for harmonic filters);

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• Voltage across resistor Rp1 (kV) (urp1) (for harmonic filters);

• Voltage across inductor L2 (kV) (url2) (for harmonic filters);
• Voltage across resistor Rp2 (kV) (urp2) (for harmonic filters);

For the Frequency Sweep, the following variables are recorded by default:

• Harmonic order (-);

• Frequency in Hz (Hz);
In order to define additional variables to be recorded, a two-step process is required of firstly creating
the desired Variable Set and then selecting the variables for recording within these sets. These steps
are described in sections 36.9.1 (Definition of Variable Sets) and 36.9.2 (Selection of Result Variables
within a Variable Set), respectively.

36.9.1 Definition of Variable Sets

To define a Variable Set, right-click on a network component (or multi-select several network compo-
nents and right-click), either in the single-line diagram or in the Data Manager, and select the option
Define → Results for Harmonic Load Flow; or Define → Results for Frequency Sweep. This will add a
new (but still empty) variable set for the selected object to the results object (referred to by parameter
Result Variables on the Basic Options page of the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep command
dialog).

All results of harmonic analysis, with the exception of the harmonic load flow using option Single
Frequency (for which no results are recorded), are stored in a normal results object (ElmRes). This
results object stores the result variables against the frequency for which they were calculated. For more
information about the results object, see Section 19.6 (Results Objects).

To access the variable sets, click on the Edit Result Variables button ( ) on the main toolbar. There are
two instances of this button: one associated with the Harmonic Load Flow and one associated with the
Frequency Sweep. Select the button associated with the relevant calculation. The variable set manager
dialog will open which displays the list of all defined variable sets for that calculation. After the variable
set has been created and its variables have been defined, each variable set contains the variables of
interest for a single object. A window is opened automatically following the definition of a new variable
set, as shown in Figure 36.9.1, displaying the list of variable sets. In Figure 36.9.1, three variable sets
have been defined for three different network elements.

Figure 36.9.1: Example of a List of Variable Sets

A new variable set can also be defined by clicking on the New button ( ), shown in the top left corner

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of Figure 36.9.1. By doing this, the Variable Set dialog will appear. To proceed with selecting the result
variables for the variable set, see Section 36.9.2 (Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set).
For further information on variable sets, refer to Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results.

36.9.2 Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set

The selection of result variables for a variable set can only proceed when the column labelled Object for
any defined variable set (as shown in Figure 36.9.1) is set. This can be done by either double-clicking
the appropriate cell of the Object column, or by right-clicking the cell and selecting Select Element....
This binds the variable set to a specific object or network element.

A single variable set from the variable sets list can be accessed (and the desired variables defined)
by either double-clicking on the icon in the corresponding row, or by right-clicking on the icon and
selecting the Edit menu option. The Variable Set object (IntMon) dialog opens. By selecting the Power
Quality/Harmonics page of this dialog, a list of all result variables that are available for the selected
object (applicable to harmonics analysis or frequency sweep) is then available for selection.

Result variables may be added or removed from the set of selected variables by highlighting the
desired variable and pressing the left or right arrow buttons . Additionally, different variables
are available for selection depending on the selection made from the Variable Set drop-down list. For
further information on variable sets, refer to Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results.

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Chapter 37

Flickermeter

37.1 Introduction

In terms of power quality, the term flicker is used to describe the phenomenon of unwanted, rapidly
fluctuating light levels due to voltage fluctuations. The IEC 61000-4-15 standard specifies the function
and design of apparatus for the measurement of flicker, termed the Flickermeter. This Flickermeter
comprises five functional blocks which, via the use of multipliers, weighting filters, and smoothing and
squaring operations, perform the tasks of simulating the lamp-eye-brain chain response, and statistically
evaluating the flicker signal [11]. PowerFactory provides a Flickermeter command for the calculation of
the short-term and long-term flicker according to IEC 61000-4-15.

The following sections explain the calculation of short- and long-term flicker by the Flickermeter com-
mand, as well as its configuration and handling.

37.2 Flickermeter (IEC 61000-4-15)

37.2.1 Calculation of Short-Term Flicker

The short-term flicker value 𝑃𝑠𝑡 calculated according to IEC 61000-4-15 is a measure of the severity of
the flicker based on an observation period of 10 minutes. It is defined mathematically as follows [11]:

√︀
2
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = (0,0314 · 𝑃0.1 ) + (0,0525 · 𝑃1𝑠 ) + (0,0657 · 𝑃3𝑠 ) (37.1)
+(0,28 · 𝑃10𝑠 ) + (0,08 · 𝑃50𝑠 )

where the percentiles 𝑃0,1 ,𝑃1 ,𝑃3 ,𝑃1 0 and 𝑃5 0 are the flicker levels exceeded for 0.1; 1; 3; 10; and 50%
of the time during the observation period. The subscript 𝑠 used in the above formula indicates that
smoothed values should be used, which are defined as follows [11]:

𝑃30 + 𝑃50 + 𝑃80

𝑃50𝑠 = (37.2)
3
𝑃6 + 𝑃8 + 𝑃10 + 𝑃13 + 𝑃17
𝑃10𝑠 = (37.3)
5
𝑃2,2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4
𝑃3𝑠 = (37.4)
3

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𝑃0,7 + 𝑃1 + 𝑃1,5
𝑃1𝑠 = (37.5)
3

37.2.2 Calculation of Long-Term Flicker

The calculation of the severity of long-term flicker, 𝑃𝑙𝑡 , considers the short-term flicker severity values
over a longer period of time and is calculated according to the following equation [11]:

√︃
∑︀𝑁 3
3
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑖
𝑃𝑙𝑡 = (37.6)
𝑁

where 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . .) are the consecutive 𝑃𝑠𝑡 values and 𝑁 is the number of observation periods. It
can be seen from [11] that when 𝑁 = 1, 𝑃 𝑙𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑠𝑡.

37.3 Flickermeter Calculation

37.3.1 Flickermeter Command

This command is accessible via the Flickermeter button in the Harmonics toolbar, which is accessi-
ble by selecting Harmonics/Power Quality when clicking on the button Change Toolbox .

37.3.2 Data Source

37.3.2.1 File Input

Import data from: specifies the type of data file containing the input data. There are five file types
available for selection.

Filename: the name of the input data file.

Results File: relevant to Results File input files only. The name of the PowerFactory results file.

Configuration File: relevant to ComTrade input files only. The name of the corresponding configuration
file.

Info: a summary of information read from the file.

Use System Separators: relevant to comma-separated value (CSV) input files only. Tick the checkbox
to use the same separators for parsing the file as those used by the operating system. When unchecked,
separators are user-definable.

Separator for columns: in the case of a Power Factory Measurement File as the input file type, this
indicates the character used as a separator for the columns in the file. In the case of a User Defined Text
File as the input file type, the separator may be selected as one of Tab, Space or Other (user-defined).

Decimal Separator: indicates the separator used for decimal numbers. This is user-definable for a
User Defined Text File as the input file type

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37.3.2.2 Selection of Data for Calculation

This table allows the selection of input file data to be analysed. The leftmost column (with labels 𝑦1, . . .,
𝑦24’) provides a naming convention for the output of results, indicating which time-series signals from
the input file were analysed.

Element: relevant only to a Results File input file type. Used to specify the element from the results file
for which a variable to analyse will be selected. This variable is then specified in the Variable column of
the same table

Variable: relevant only to a Results File input file type. Used to specify the variable for the Flickermeter
command to analyse. This variable is associated with the selected Element (see above).

Column Number: refers to the column/s in the input file which correspond to the time-series signal/s to
be analysed.

Variable Name: for ComTrade files, the variable name is automatically read from the input file and
displayed in the Variable Name column. No variable name is provided for other file types.

Calculate Pst: allows the user to select the signals in the input file for which to calculate the short-term
flicker (𝑃𝑠𝑡 ). Valid for all input file types with the exception of results files.

37.3.3 Signal Settings

37.3.3.1 Signal Settings

Signal Type: selection of either EMT or RMS input signal type. In EMT, RMS values are calculated by
squaring the signal and this introduces a small ripple which contributes to the flicker. In RMS however,
this ripple is not present. To calibrate the Flickermeter, one must use the signals defined in the standard
(i.e. modulation, etc.) and the results must lie within the defined tolerance band. In order to achieve this,
the minimum sampling frequency required for RMS signals is 800 Hz, because at 400 Hz the computed
flicker would otherwise be too low.

Specify start time: user-defined start time at which data should be read from file. This is an absolute
time value that exists within the input file, from which data will be read. If this value cannot be found in
the file, the next time point after the specified start time will be used instead.

Resample Data: the input data will be resampled by the user-defined New Sampling Rate. If the
time step of the data within the input file is not constant, the Flickermeter calculation will automatically
resample the data at the average sampling rate taken from the input file.

New Sampling Rate: user-defined sampling rate at which data will be resampled if option Resample
Data has been selected.

Note: The minimum sampling rate required for instantaneous input data is 400 Hz, and for RMS input
data is 800 Hz.

37.3.3.2 Calculation Settings

Observation Period: the time period over which the flicker will be analysed.

Calculate Plt: perform calculation of long-term flicker 𝑃𝑙𝑡 . When this option is checked, a results file is
written.

Observation Periods: the number of successive observation periods (or “time windows”) to analyse.

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37.3.4 Advanced Options

Input signals for Flickermeter can be either RMS or EMT signals. The algorithm treats both of these in-
puts the same, with the exception of the weight filter coefficients, scaling factor and the cut-off frequency
used. The weight filter coefficients are preset (see Table 37.3.1), however the scaling factor and cut-off
frequency are user-definable parameters and are described below.

37.3.4.1 Parameter Definitions

Cut-off Frequency Cut-off frequency of Butterworth filter (Hz). When using an RMS input signal, the
cut-off frequency is set to 50Hz; when using an EMT input signal, its default value is 35Hz but can be
user-defined.

Filter Offset The offset (in seconds) for the filters to stabilise. A positive, non-zero offset should always
be entered. When using an RMS input signal, the filter offset is set to 5s; when using an EMT input
signal its default value is 5s but can be user-defined. A value of 5s is the minimum amount of time
required to initialise the filters and to attenuate the initial transient.

Scaling Factor Calibration parameter. When using an RMS input signal, the scaling factor is set to
300469,4835 (defined as 2 / (0.0025*0.0025) / 1.065). When using an EMT input signal, its default
value is 303317,5 but can be user-defined.

Set to default Resets the Cut-off Frequency, Filter Offset and Scaling Factor to default values.

37.3.4.2 Constant Sampling Rate

Tolerance: tolerance for determining whether the sampling rate is constant or not. This tolerance is
considered on the Data Source page in the Info frame when displaying the Constant Sampling Rate
parameter.

37.3.4.3 Report

Results of the Flickermeter calculation are displayed in PowerFactory ś output window provided that
Report has been selected.

Note: When executing the Flickermeter command within DPL, the command option ’Report’ must be
disabled.

Command: displays the command used to output results. The Flickermeter command will write results
to a results file provided that option Calculate Plt on the Signal Settings page has been selected. The
results file used can be accessed via the dialog which opens when the Command button is pressed.

Variable EMT (from IEC 61000-4-15) RMS

𝜅 1,74802 1,74
𝜆 2 · 𝜋 · 4,05981 2 · 𝜋 · 4,1
𝜔1 2 · 𝜋 · 9,15494 2 · 𝜋 · 9,15
𝜔2 2 · 𝜋 · 2,27979 2 · 𝜋 · 2,27979
𝜔3 2 · 𝜋 · 1,22535 2 · 𝜋 · 1,22535
𝜔4 2 · 𝜋 · 21,9 2 · 𝜋 · 1000

Table 37.3.1: Flickermeter Weight Filter Coefficients

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 37.3. FLICKERMETER CALCULATION

Additionally, results of the Flickermeter command can be viewed within the Data Manager as Flexible
Data of the Flickermeter command itself. The relevant variable names for selection when defining the
Flexible Data are 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑠𝑡_𝑦1, . . ., 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑠𝑡_𝑦24, for short-term flicker values; and 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑙𝑡_𝑦1, . . ., 𝑏 : 𝑃 𝑙𝑡_𝑦24
for long-term flicker values). In this case, viewing the results of a Flickermeter calculation will appear
similar to that illustrated in Figure 37.3.1. It should be noted that when multiple Observation Periods
have been calculated, only the Plt results will be displayed (Pst results are shown as ’0’); and for a single
Observation Period the Pst results will be displayed. For further information on defining Flexible Data in
the Data Manager in PowerFactory, refer to Chapter 10: Data Manager, Section 10.6(The Flexible Data
Page Tab).

Figure 37.3.1: Using Flexible Data to Access Flickermeter Results

37.3.5 Input File Types

The Flickermeter command can handle five different input file types. The configuration of the Flick-
ermeter command for each file type differs slightly, and is therefore described for each case in this
section.

Note: The minimum sampling rate required for instantaneous input data is 400 Hz, and for RMS input
data is 800 Hz.

37.3.5.1 ComTrade

If a ComTrade file has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the Configuration File
corresponding to the ComTrade data file is automatically displayed, as is the Sampling Rate as read
from the ComTrade configuration file. The Selection of Data for Calculation table shows the column
number and corresponding variable name as read from the ComTrade configuration file and also a
user selection for which the short-term flicker value should be calculated (checkbox in the Calculate Pst
column). In the example shown in Figure 37.3.2, a single variable has been selected for analysis. It can
be read from this table that this variable corresponds to column 1 of recorded data in the ComTrade input
data file. See Section 37.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.

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 37.3. FLICKERMETER CALCULATION

Figure 37.3.2: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for ComTrade Input File

37.3.5.2 Comma Separated Values and User Defined Text Files

For a CSV file or user defined text file, the Selection of Data for Calculation table shows that variables
can be selected for analysis according to their corresponding column number in the input file. See
Section 37.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.

37.3.5.3 PowerFactory Measurement File

The PowerFactory Measurement File is a simple ASCII file containing a column of data for each
variable recorded in it. The PowerFactory Measurement File can be used to record results from
other PowerFactory calculations and then used as input to the Flickermeter command. For further
information on the use of PowerFactory Measurement Files, refer to the technical references of the
Measurement File (ElmFile). See Section 37.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter
command options.

37.3.5.4 Results File

If a Results File has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the command dialog will look
similar to that shown in Figure 37.3.3. Using a PowerFactory results file as the input file type is practical
when the user wants to first record results from, for example, an EMS/RMS simulation in a results
file, and then analyse the flicker contribution of one or more variables from this file. In the example in
Figure 37.3.3, the specified Element in the Selection of Data for Calculation table is a terminal element
(named “LV Busbar”) recorded in the results file, with its corresponding voltage selected as the Variable
to analyse. See Section 37.3.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.

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 37.3. FLICKERMETER CALCULATION

Figure 37.3.3: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for Results File

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Chapter 38

Optimal Power Flow

38.1 Introduction

The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) module in PowerFactory optimises a certain objective function in a
network whilst fulfilling equality constraints (the load flow equations) and inequality constraints (e.g.
generator reactive power limits). The user can choose between interior point and linear optimisation
methods. In the case of linear optimisation, contingency constraints can also be enforced within OPF.

An OPF calculation in PowerFactory can be initiated by one of the following means:

• Via the main menu Calculation → Optimal Power Flow. . . ; or

• By selecting Optimal Power Flow / Unit Commitment from the Change Toolbox button ( )and
then click on the Calculate Optimal Power Flow icon .

In both cases, the calculation is started by pressing the Execute button in the OPF command dialog.

38.2 AC Optimisation (Interior Point Method)

If the AC Optimisation method is selected, the OPF performs a non-linear optimisation based on a state-
of-the-art interior point algorithm. The following sections explain the selection of objective function to be
optimised, the selection of control variables, and the definition of inequality constraints.

38.2.1 AC Optimisation - Basic Options

38.2.1.1 Objective Function

The Optimal Power Flow command dialog, configured for AC optimisation, has a selection of five distinct
objective functions. These are:

• Minimisation of losses (total)

• Minimisation of losses (selection)

• Minimisation of costs
• Minimisation of load shedding
• Maximisation of reactive power reserve

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 38.2. AC OPTIMISATION (INTERIOR POINT METHOD)

• Minimisation of control variable deviations

Minimisation of losses (total)

When this objective function is selected, the goal of the optimisation is to find a power dispatch which
minimises the overall active power losses.

Minimisation of losses (selection)

The sum of active power losses of all the elements within the set is minimised. To use this option a set
must be defined. The definition of the set is done by selecting the elements, right clicking on them and
selecting Define → General Set. The newly created set is stored within the study case folder.

Minimisation of costs

When this objective function is selected, the goal of the optimisation is to supply the system under
optimal operating costs. More specifically, the aim is to minimise the cost of power dispatch based on
non-linear operating cost functions for each generator and on tariff systems for each external grid.

For this purpose, it is necessary to introduce for each generator, a cost function for its power dispatch;
and for each external grid, a tariff system.

• Cost Functions for Generators: imposing an operating cost function on a generator element
is done as follows: on the Operating Cost tab of Optimal Load Flow page of each synchronous
machine (ElmSym) element’s dialog, it is possible to specify the operating costs of the unit with the
aid of the Operating Costs table (which relates active power produced (in MW) to the correspond-
ing cost (in $/h)). This data is then represented graphically beside the Operating Costs table, for
verification purposes. The number of rows that can be entered into the table is unlimited. To add
or delete table rows, right-click on a row number in the table and select the appropriate command
(i.e. Copy, Paste, Select All; Insert Rows, Append Rows, Append n Rows, Delete Rows, etc.). If
there are more than two rows, spline or piecewise linear interpolation can be selected.
• Tariff Systems for External Grids: an external grid contributes to the overall cost function by
a predefined tariff system. On the Optimal Load Flow page of each external grid (ElmXnet)
element’s dialog , the tariffs can be edited via the Incremental Costs table. This table relates the
cost (in $/MWh) over a certain range of active power exchange. The input data is represented
graphically beneath the Incremental Costs table. In addition, the user can enter a monthly no load
cost (in $/month), which can be interpreted as a vertical shift of the cost function.

In contrast to a synchronous machine, where the cost curve is directly expressed in $/h, the cost curve
of an external grid is defined by means of a tariff which holds within certain intervals. Mathematically
speaking, the cost curve of a synchronous machine is calculated as the interpolation of predefined cost
points, whereas the cost curve of an external grid is a piecewise linear function with predefined slopes
in each interval.

Note that this piecewise linear function is not differentiable at the interval limits. Since non-differentiable
functions might cause problems within the optimisation routine, PowerFactory smooths the cost function
slightly over a small range around the non-differentiable points. The width of this range can be defined
by the user through the Smoothing of Cost Function factor. A value of 0% corresponds to no smoothing
of the curve, whereas a value of 100% corresponds to full interpolation. The default value is 5%. It is
recommended to leave this value at its default setting.

Minimisation of load shedding

The goal of this objective function is to minimise the overall cost of load shedding, such that all con-
straints can be fulfilled. A typical application for this objective function is “Infeasibility Handling”. For
the above mentioned objective functions, it may occur that the constraints imposed on the network are
such that no feasible solution exists. This is evidenced by a lack of convergence of the optimisation. In
such cases, it is highly likely that not all loads can be supplied due to constraint restrictions. Hence it is
recommended in these situations to firstly perform a Minimisation of Load Shedding.

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 38.2. AC OPTIMISATION (INTERIOR POINT METHOD)

In this (and only this) optimisation scenario, all load elements which have the option Allow load shedding
enabled will act as controls. This option is enabled in the load (ElmLod) element’s dialog on the Optimal
Load Flow page in the Controls section. All loads without this option enabled will behave as they would
in a conventional load flow calculation. In order to minimise the overall load shedding, for each individual
load, the user must specify the cost of shedding (in $ per shed MVA).

For each load that participates as a control in the optimisation, the scaling factor will be optimised. The
optimisation is such that the overall cost of load shedding is minimised. Additionally, the user can specify
the range over which the load may be scaled (options Min. load shedding and Max. load shedding), as
shown in figure 38.2.1.

Figure 38.2.1: Editing a Load Element (ElmLod) for Minimisation of Load Shedding

Maximisation of reactive power reserve

The objective of this function is to maximise the overall reactive power reserve of all participating
generation units. There are three options to select how the maximisation is performed:

• Min. deviations from Q target value: if this option is selected the maximisation of reserve is
done by keeping the reactive power of the generators as close as possible to a defined value “Q
target”. The Q target value is set on the Optimal Power Flow page of the generator. It can be
defined as a percentage of the reactive power limits or a percentage of the nominal power.
This approach is useful to reserve reactive power while monitoring both, critical voltage drop- and
rise scenarios.
• Min. deviations from min. Q: if this option is selected the target reactive power of the generator
is set to its lowest limit. This approach is particularly useful to reserve reactive power for a critical
voltage drop scenario.

• Min. deviations from max. Q: if this option is selected the target reactive power of the generator
is set to its highest limit. This concept is reserved for critical voltage rise scenarios.

Minimisation of control variable deviations

When this objective function is selected, the goal of the optimisation is to minimise changes to the
control variables whilst satisfying all the constraints.

38.2.1.2 Controls

The global control parameters can be selected on the Basic Options page of the OPF dialog. The user
can specify which parameters might serve as potential degrees of freedom for the OPF algorithm; i.e.

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which parameters will contribute as controls. The set of potential controls can be grouped into four
categories:

1. Generator active power dispatch (ElmSym, ElmXnet, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmAsm (only if
DFIG and type is TypAsmo))
2. Generator/SVS reactive power dispatch (ElmSym, ElmSvs, ElmXnet, ElmGenstat, ElmAsm (Only
if DFIG and type is TypAsmo, ElmPvsys)

3. Transformer tap positions:

• 2-Winding Transformer (ElmTr2):
– Tap position, Tap Changer 1 (continuous or discrete)
• 3-Winding Transformer (ElmTr3):
– Tap position HV-side (continuous or discrete)
– Tap position MV-side (continuous or discrete)
– Tap position LV-side (continuous or discrete)
• 4-Winding Transformer (ElmTr4):
– Tap position HV-side (continuous or discrete)
– Tap position LV1-side (continuous or discrete)
– Tap position LV2-side (continuous or discrete)
– Tap position LV3-side (continuous or discrete)
4. Step-Voltage Regulator (ElmVoltreg):
• S-Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
• L-Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
5. Switchable shunts (ElmShnt, ElmSvs):
• Shunts: number of steps (continuous or discrete)

It should be noted that the load scaling factors will only be taken into account for the Minimisation of
load shedding objective function. In this case, all loads which allow load shedding are automatically
used as controls.

These global controls determine which element controls will be considered in the optimisation. The
general rule is as follows: a parameter will be considered as a control if the corresponding flag is set
on the Optimal Load Flow page of the element’s dialog and if, in addition, the corresponding global
parameter is set on the Basic Options page of the Optimal Power Flow command dialog.

For example, if the control parameter Tap position HV-side of a 3-winding transformer is enabled (as
shown in figure 38.2.3), it will only be included in the OPF as a control parameter if the corresponding
option Transformer tap positions is enabled in the OPF command dialog.

If enabled, the above mentioned control parameters serve as variable setpoints during the OPF. How-
ever, if a parameter is not enabled as a control parameter, the OPF will treat this parameter according
to the load flow settings.

This could be a fixed position or a position found due to the option Automatic tap adjustment of trans-
formers being selected in the Load Flow Calculation command. In this mode, the transformer tap
position could be found in order to control the voltage of a certain node, or to be a slave that is externally
controlled by some other transformer tap.

Setting Individual Model-Based Controls

Each control can be individually selected to take part in the optimisation. Specifically, for each generator,
each transformer, each shunt and each static var system, the user can check the corresponding Controls
flag on the Optimal Flow Page page of the element’s dialog. Network elements and their available
controls are listed below:

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1. Generators (ElmSym, ElmXnet, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmAsm (only if DFIG and type is Ty-
pAsmo))

Figure 38.2.2: Active and Reactive Power Controls of a Synchronous Machine (ElmSym)

2. 2- 3- and 4-Winding Transformers

If a transformer has the Tap Position option selected, the user can further select the associated
Control Mode to be used. This determines whether the tap position will be treated as a continuous
or a discrete control parameter in OPF. Note that 3- and 4- winding transformers and have up to
three/four tap changers which may individually be used as either continuous or discrete control
parameters in OPF.
Figure 38.2.3 shows the Controls section of the dialog for a 3-winding transformer. It should be
noted that the Optimise section with the selection of Pre- and post-fault position or Only pre-fault
position are only considered by the DC OPF.

Figure 38.2.3: Tap Position Control for a 3-Winding Transformer

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3. Shunts
In a similar fashion to transformers, the number of steps for a shunt may serve as either a
continuous or a discrete optimisation parameter.

4. Static Var Systems

The control variable of a static var system enters the optimisation process as a continuous vari-
able.
5. PWM Converter
The power over an HVDC link can be controlled in the PWM Converter similar to a generator in
the OPF. Therefore it is included in the generator active and reactive power control category. If the
control shall be disabled for PWM Converts this has to be done on the individual element.

38.2.1.3 Constraints

The user can formulate various inequality constraints for certain system parameters, such that the OPF
solution lies within these defined limits. The inequality constraints can be defined as “hard constraints”
or “soft constraints”. If “hard constraints” are considered in the OPF it may result in no feasible solution
being found.

The handling of OPF constraints in PowerFactory is very flexible, and various categories of constraints
exist. A constraint is considered in the OPF if and only if the individual constraint flag is checked in the
element and the corresponding global flag is enabled in the OPF dialog.

The optimisation uses further constraints that are automatically imposed as soon as the corresponding
parameter is used as a control. Examples of such constraints are tap position limits and the number of
steps for switchable shunts.

Network elements and their available constraints are listed below:

• Synchronous Machine (ElmSym), Static Generator (ElmGenstat), Asynchronous Machine (El-

mAsm) (only considered if its type is TypAsmo, it is set as a Generator and its Machine Type
is Double Fed Induction Machine), PV System (ElmPvsys), External Grid (ElmXnet), PWM Con-
verter (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono):
– Minimum active power
– Maximum active power
– Minimum reactive power
– Maximum reactive power

• Lines (ElmLne):
– Maximum loading

• Transformers (ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4, ElmVoltreg):

– Maximum loading
– Tap position range (if corresponding tap is a designated control parameter)
• Busbars and Terminals (ElmTerm):
– Minimum voltage
– Maximum voltage
• Shunts (ElmShnt):
– Controller steps range (if switchable steps are designated control parameters)
• Boundary (ElmBoundary ):
– Minimum active boundary flow
– Maximum active boundary flow

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– Minimum reactive boundary flow

– Maximum reactive boundary flow

• Static Var System (ElmSvs):

– Minimum reactive power
– Maximum reactive power

Active and Reactive Power Limits of Generators and External Grids

For generators and external grids, the user may impose up to four inequality constraints: namely a
minimum and maximum value for active power generation; and a minimum and maximum value for
reactive power generation. Active power limits are specified as MW values; reactive power limits may
be specified as either absolute values or as per unit values (i.e. referred to the type’s nominal apparent
power). Alternatively, it is possible to directly use the reactive power limits specified in the synchronous
machine’s type (TypSym). Again, the user is free to select any number and combination of the available
constraints.

Branch Flow Limits (max. loading)

Branch flow limits formulate an upper bound on the loading of any branch (ElmLne, ElmTr2, ElmTr3,
ElmTr4). The user has to specify a maximum value for the loading on the element’s Optimal Load Flow
page. If specified, this constraint is only taken into consideration if the corresponding flag (Branch flow
limits (max. loading)) in the OPF dialog is also ticked. Loading limits are supported for lines and 2- 3-
and 4-winding transformers.

Voltage Limits of Busbars/Terminals

The maximum and minimum allowable voltages for each terminal or busbar element (ElmTerm) can
be specified in the corresponding element’s dialog. Therefore, each terminal or busbar may contribute
at most two inequality constraints to the OPF. Maximum and minimum voltage limits may be imposed
individually; i.e. it is possible to specify an upper limit without specifying a lower limit.

Boundary Flow Limits

PowerFactory boundary elements (ElmBoundary ), icon define topological regions in a power system
by a user-specified topological cut through the network. Constraints can be defined for the flow of active
and reactive power in a network (over a defined boundary or between internal and external regions
of a boundary), and this constraint can then be enforced in OPF. For detailed information on defining
boundaries, refer to Section 15.3: Boundaries.

38.2.1.4 Mathematical Background

The non-linear optimisation is implemented using an iterative interior-point algorithm based on the
Newton-Lagrange method. Recall that the goal of the optimisation is to minimise an objective function
f subject to the equality constraints imposed by the load flow equations and also to the inequality
constraints defined for various power system elements. This is summarised mathematically as follows:

𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓 (⃗𝑥)

subject to:

𝑔(⃗𝑥) = 0 ℎ(⃗𝑥) ≤ 0

where g represents the load flow equations and h is the set of inequality constraints. Introducing a slack
variable for each inequality constraint, this can be reformulated as:

𝑔(⃗𝑥) = 0 ℎ(⃗𝑥) + ⃗𝑠 = 0 ⃗𝑠 ≥ 0

We then incorporate logarithmic penalties and minimise the function:

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∑︀
min = 𝑓 (⃗𝑥) − 𝜇 · 𝑖 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑠𝑖 )

where 𝜇 is the penalty weighting factor. In order to change the contribution of the penalty function:
∑︀
𝑓𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝑖 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑠𝑖 )

to the overall minimisation, the penalty weighting factor 𝜇 will be decreased from a user-defined initial
value (𝜇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) to a user-defined target value (𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ).

The smaller the minimum penalty weighting factor, the less the applied penalty will be for a solution
which is close to the constraint limits. This may result in a solution that is close to the limiting constraint
bounds (if necessary). However, a smaller minimum penalty weighting factor will result in a higher
number of iterations required.

38.2.1.5 Results

The presentation of OPF results is integrated into the user interface, in that the OPF solution is available
via the complete set of variables available for conventional load flow calculations. These can be viewed
in the single line diagram or through a data browser. The inclusion of the following variables in the
Flexible Data tab (for synchronous machines and grids) is suggested. The Variable Set must be set to
’Calculation Parameter’ as indicated below, and the actual variable names are given in parentheses.

Synchronous machines:

• Active Power (c:P:bus1)

• Reactive Power (c:Q:bus1)
• Apparent Power (c:S:bus1)

• Voltage Magnitude (c:u:bus1)

Grids:

• Total Production Cost, including costs through external grids (c:cst_disp). It should be noted
that the production costs are expressed in the same units utilised in the production cost tables of
the individual generator elements.
• Active Power Losses (c:LossP)
• Reactive Power Losses (c:LossQ)

• Active Power Generation (c:GenP)

• Reactive Power Generation (c:GenQ)

In addition to these results, the complete set of variables from conventional load flow calculations is
available. For further information on defining Flexible Data in PowerFactory, refer to Chapter 10: Data
Manager, Section 10.6.

A text report is also available and can be generated by clicking on the Output Calculation Analysis
icon on the main toolbar. This offers various templates for detailed result documentation.

38.2.2 AC Optimisation - Initialisation

The non-linear optimisation requires initialisation to generate an initial starting condition. The Iteration
page of the OPF dialog allows the user to select the initialisation method.

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Load Flow
Displays the load flow command which is used for initialisation in the case that no flat start initialisation
is used.

Initialise by flat-start
The user may choose whether the initialisation is performed by a load flow calculation or by a flat start.
If it is known in advance that the final solution of the optimisation is close to a valid load flow solution,
initialisation using a load flow calculation results in faster convergence.

No flat initialisation (use load flow result)

If this option is selected, the OPF checks whether an “OPF-initialising” load flow result has been
calculated prior to the OPF. Here, “OPF-initialising” means that the flag Use this load flow for initialisation
of OPF was enabled in the load flow command dialog before execution. This flag can be found on the
second page of the Advanced Options page in the load flow command dialog. The result of this load flow
is then used as a starting point for the iterative OPF interior-point algorithm. If no valid OPF-initialising
load flow result is found, the OPF will recalculate a new load flow.

38.2.3 AC Optimisation - Advanced Options

Penalty Weighting Factor

The penalty weighting factor determines the amount by which the penalty is applied. For example, the
smaller the specified penalty weighting factor, the less the penalty will be applied for solutions which are
close to constraint limits.

Initial value
Initial value of the penalty weighting factor.

Target value
Target value of the penalty weighting factor.

Reduction factor
A factor by which the current penalty weighting factor will be divided by between the iterations.

Adaption based on complementary slackness

The penalty weighting factor is adapted during the optimisation. This leads to less iterations and
better convergence of the OPF.

Start outer loops with initial penalty factor

The penalty weighting factor is reset to the initial value for each outer loop iteration.

Soft constraints

Penalty factor for soft constraints

Initial value of the penalty factor for soft constraints is 1000.

With the setting Enforce soft ... it is possible to overwrite the setting in the network elements
whether a limit shall be interpreted as soft or hard. So for the selected constraints on the Basic
Options page all the limits of a chosen class are interpreted as soft constraints if the option
Enforce soft ... is selected.

38.2.4 AC Optimisation - Iteration Control

PowerFactory offers the user flexibility in configuring of the number of iterations and the convergence
criteria for OPF. The available options on the Iteration Control page of the OPF dialog are described
below.

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The implementation of the Lagrange-Newton method means that the OPF will internally minimise the
resulting Lagrange function:

∑︁
𝐿(⃗𝑥,⃗𝑠,⃗𝜆) = 𝑓 (⃗𝑥) − 𝜇 · 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑠𝑖 ) + ⃗𝜆𝑇 · [𝑔(⃗𝑥) + ℎ(⃗𝑥) + 𝑠] (38.1)
𝑖

with the Lagrange multipliers (⃗𝜆).

The following parameters can be used to alter the stopping criteria for this iterative process. The
algorithm stops successfully if the following three criteria are fulfilled:

1. The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached.

2. All load flow constraint equations g(x)=0 are fulfilled to a predefined degree of exactness (i.e.
within an allowable tolerance), which means:
• all nodal equations are fulfilled
• all model equations are fulfilled
3. The Lagrange function L converges. This can be achieved if:
• either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or the gradient of the
objective function converges to zero.

The following parameters are used to configure these stopping criteria. The alteration of the default
values for these parameters is recommended only for advanced users.

Maximum Number of Iterations

Interior-Point Algorithm (Inner Loop)

Maximum number of iterations for the interior-point algorithm.

Control Loop (Outer Loop)

Maximum number of iterations of the outer loop.

Convergence Criteria

Max. Acceptable Error for Nodes

The maximum allowable error for the nodal equations (in kVA) can be entered for high, medium
and low voltage nodes as in the load flow command. The thresholds can be defined in the project
settings.

Max. Acceptable Error for Model Equations

The maximum allowable error for the model equations (in %).

Max. Change of Objective Function

Used when Convergence of Objective Function option values of objective function become con-
stant is selected. The user enters a value (in %), below which the Lagrangian is considered to
have converged.

Max. Value for Gradient of Objective Function

Used when Convergence of Objective Function option gradient of objective function converges to
zero is selected. The user enters an absolute value, below which the Lagrangian is considered
to have converged.

Convergence of Objective Function

Options relating to the convergence criteria for the Lagrangian function: either the value of the
function itself is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gradient of the Lagrangian is
required to converge, as described below.

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Values of objective function become constant

If this option is selected, the user is asked to enter a value for the Max. Change of Objective
Function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls below this value, the
Lagrangian is considered to have converged.

Gradient of objective function converges to zero If this option is selected, the user is asked
to enter a value for the Max. Value for Gradient of Objective Function. If the gradient falls below
this value, the Lagrangian is considered to have converged.

For reasons of mathematical exactness, it is strongly recommended to select the latter option, gradient
of objective function converges to zero. If the underlying Jacobian matrix is numerically instable,
this often results in oscillatory behaviour in the last iterations. Therefore, the latter method provides
assurance that the result is in fact a minimum.

38.2.5 AC Optimisation - Output

Prior to the non-linear optimisation, the OPF informs the user (in the output window) of the total number
of constraints and controls that will be considered in the subsequent calculation. This information is
detailed such that the imposed constraints and the participating controls are counted for each constraint
and control categories separately. Two options are available to select the level of detail contained in
output messages. These options are available in the Output page of the OPF dialog and are described
below.

38.2.5.1 Show convergence progress report

If this flag is checked on the Output page of the OPF command dialog, the user will get a detailed report
on the convergence of the non-linear optimisation. For each step of the iteration, the following figures
are displayed in the output window (actual variable names are shown parenthesised in italics):

• The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Err.Nodes);

• The current error of the constraint model equations (Err.ModelEqu);

• The current error of the inequality constraints (eInequ);
• The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (gradLagFunc);

• The current value of the Lagrangian function (LagFunc);

• The current value of the objective function f to be minimised (ObjFunc);
• The current value of the penalty function fpen (PenFunc);
• The current values of the relaxation factors (Rlx1, Rlx2) for the primal and dual variables;

• The current value of the penalty factor 𝜇 (PenFac)).

38.2.5.2 Show max. nodal and model equation error elements

If this flag is checked, the algorithm outputs per iteration, the components which have the largest error
in the equality constraints (i.e. mismatch in the load flow equations).
An outer loop is wrapped around the central non-linear optimisation algorithm. This outer loop is
required to perform rounding and optimisation of the evaluated tap and shunt positions to discrete
values (if desired by the user). The maximum number of outer loops is defined on the Iteration Control
page of the dialog. However, if no convergence is reached with the defined number of outer loops, the
user will be informed via a message in the output window that further outer loop iterations are required.

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38.2.5.3 Show marginal costs of constraints

If this flag is checked, the marginal costs of inequality constraints with respect to the objective function
can be issued. Then, the benefit on the objective of releasing a particular constraint of an element is
shown in the output window.
This information is issued per iteration and can be used to determine where limiting constraints of the
OPF are or which constraint is responsible for a possible infeasibility. The user can also define the
number of reported cost factors per iteration.

Figure 38.2.4 shows an example of the output printed when the option Show marginal costs of con-
straints is selected and the Number of reported cost factors per iteration is set to 2. It indicates that the
upper voltage limit of terminal “23 BUS 23” is being the most restrictive one and keeps the algorithm
from achieving even better results.

Figure 38.2.4: Example output when Show marginal costs of constraints is selected

38.3 DC Optimisation (Linear Programming)

The following describes the configuration of the DC optimisation formulation of OPF in PowerFactory.

Internally, from the settings provided, a linear programming (LP) formulation of the problem is derived.
The load flow is calculated using the linear DC load flow method. For general information regarding DC
load flow, refer to Chapter 25(Load Flow Analysis). PowerFactory uses a standard LP-solver (based
on the simplex method and a branch-and-bound algorithm) which ascertains whether the solution is
feasible. The result of the linear optimisation tool includes calculated results for control variables, such
that all imposed constraints are fulfilled and the objective function is optimised.

Provided that a feasible solution exists, the optimal solution will be available as a calculation result. That
is, the algorithm will provide a DC load flow solution where all generator injections and tap positions are
set to optimal values. The DC load flow solution includes the following calculated parameters (parameter
names are given in italics):

• For terminals:
– Voltage Angle (phiu [deg])
– Voltage Magnitude (u [p.u.]; assumed to be 1.0 p.u. in DC calculation)

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– Voltage Magnitude (upc [%]; assumed to be 100 % in DC calculation)

– Line-Ground Voltage Magnitude (U [kV])
– Line-Line Voltage Magnitude (U1 [kV])

• For branches:
– Active Power Flow (P [MW])
– Active Power Losses (Ploss [MW]; assumed to be 0 MW in DC calculation)
– Reactive Power Flow (Q [Mvar]; assumed to be 0 Mvar in DC calculation)
– Reactive Power Losses (Qloss [Mvar]; assumed to be 0 Mvar in DC calculation)
– Loading (loading [%]; Loading with respect to continuous rating)

The following parameters are calculated in addition to the results found by the DC load flow:

• For generators:
– c:avgCosts
The fixed cost factor [$/MWh] used in the objective function (i.e. average cost considering
the costs at the generator’s active power limits).
– c:Pdisp
Optimal power dispatch for generator.
– c:cst_disp
Production costs in optimal solution:
cst_disp = costs * Pdisp
• For Transformers:
– c:nntap
Optimal tap position.

• For loads:
– c:Pdisp
Optimal load shedding for load.

38.3.1 DC Optimisation - Basic Options

38.3.1.1 Objective Function

The following objective functions are available when executing a DC Optimisation:

Feasibility Check
Performs a feasibility check of the network considering the specified controls and constraints (i.e.
performs a constrained load flow).

Minimisation of Costs
The objective is to minimise generation costs. To perform a cost minimisation calculation for each
generator, a cost factor needs to be entered:

Cost curve $/MWh per generator element (ElmSym)

The (linear) algorithm uses a fixed cost-factor [$/MWh] per generator. This cost factor is the average
cost considering the costs at the generator’s active power limits. The selection of this objective function
provides the option of calculating the Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs). For further information on this
option refer to: Shadow Prices and Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs).

Min. Generator Dispatch Change

Minimises the change in generator dispatch from the generators’ initial value.

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38.3.1.2 Controls

The basic role of each control for the DC Optimisation method is as described for the AC optimisation
method in section 38.2.1.2.

The user can select from the following control variables (the names of the associated PowerFactory
elements are provided in parentheses):

• Generator Active Power Dispatch (ElmSym)

In generator optimisation, for each selected generator a single control variable is introduced to
the system. The total number of generator controls in this case equals the number of selected
generators.
• Transformer Tap Positions (ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4)
In tap optimisation, for each selected transformer a single control variable is introduced to the
system. The total number of tap controls in this case equals the number of selected transformers.
• Allow Load Shedding (ElmLod)
A separate control variable is introduced to the system for each selected load. The total number
of load controls in this case equals the number of selected loads. This control variable can be
selected in conjunction with any objective function.

Note: At least one type of control variable in the Controls section of the OPF dialog must be selected.

38.3.1.3 Constraints

The three constraints are as described for the AC optimisation method in section 38.2.1.3.

For DC optimisation the following constraint is also imposed:

Transformer Tap Constraints (implicitly imposed)

Minimum and maximum tap positions for transformers (ElmTr2, ElmTr3,ElmTr4) are considered. These
constraints are implicitly imposed when transformer tap positions are specified as controls in the Con-
trols section of the dialog. This means that two constraints are introduced to the LP for the base case
tap position calculation.

Handling

Active power dispatch constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per generator.
The minimum and maximum constraints for generators are set on the Optimal Power Flow page of
the generators. It should be noted that generator constraints are not implicitly imposed when active
power dispatch is selected as a control. Tap position constraints will be implicitly imposed whenever the
corresponding tap is a designated control variable.

Loading constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per line element (ElmLne).
If loading constraints are included, the maximum loading limits will be calculated with respect to the
type of the element, or with respect to a thermal rating object (IntThrating). If a thermal rating object is
selected, the limits will be calculated with respect to the Continuous Rating value.

Boundary flow constraints can be chosen on an individual basis per boundary element (ElmBoundary ).

38.3.1.4 Shadow Prices and Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs)

If the option Calculate Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs) is selected, the Locational Marginal Price
(LMP) is calculated. The Shadow Price is always calculated. The LMP represents the change in the
system’s total production costs based on a unit change of load at the bus. The calculation of LMP takes
into account the network constraints.

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The system lambda represents the change in the system’s total production costs based on a unit change
of any load in the absence of network constraints.

With the Calculate Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs) option ticked, the execution of the OPF will (on
the fly) calculate the LMP for each busbar. The following quantities (current, voltage and powers) are
available for all busbars (i.e. ElmTerm elements with Usage set to Busbar ):

• LMP in $/MWh (Locational marginal price)

• SysLambda in $/MWh (System lambda)

In addition to the LMPs, the DC Optimisation always computes the shadow prices. These quantities
are available per component, which introduces a constraint to the system. The shadow price then
represents the change in the objective function if the constraint is released by a unit change. The
shadow prices are available as results for the PowerFactory elements listed below (result variable
names are given followed by their corresponding unit). These result variable names are available as
Calculation Parameters when defining variable sets for each element. For more information on defining
variable sets, refer to Chapter 13: Study Cases, Section 19.3 (Variable Sets).

• Line (ElmLne):
– ShadowPrice in $/MWh (Shadow price)
• 2-Winding Transformer (ElmTr2):
– ShadowPrice in $/MWh Shadow price (loading constraint))
– ShadTapMax in $/MWh Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint))
– ShadTapMin in $/MWh Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint))
• 3-Winding Transformer (ElmTr3):
– ShadowPrice in $/MWh (Shadow price (loading constraint))
– ShadTapMaxLV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (LV)))
– ShadTapMinLV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (LV)))
– ShadTapMaxMV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (MV)))
– ShadTapMinMV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (MV)))
– ShadTapMaxHV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (HV)))
– ShadTapMinHV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (HV)))
• Boundary (ElmBoundary ):
– ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (max. total active power constraint))
– ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (min. total active power constraint))
• Synchronous Machine (ElmSym):
– ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (upper limit active power))
– ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (lower limit active power))
• External Grid (ElmXnet):
– ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (upper limit active power))
– ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (lower limit active power))
• General Load (ElmLod):
– ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (max. load shedding))
– ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (min. load shedding))

38.3.2 DC Optimisation - Initialisation

The OPF calculation is initialised by a load flow, which is displayed by the Load Flow parameter on the
Initialisation page of the OPF dialog. The user can inspect the load flow settings by clicking on the
button. The load flow command contained in the current study case is set here automatically. Within
the load flow command, the Calculation Method will be automatically set to DC Load Flow (linear) for
use by OPF (when Method is set to one of the LP variants).

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38.3.3 DC Optimisation - Advanced Options

Load Shedding Options

If Allow Load Shedding is among the selected Controls (see Section 38.3.1: Basic Options) on the
Basic Options tab, an additional term will be added to the objective function. The weight of this term
can be controlled using the Penalty Factor in the Load Shedding Options section of the OPF dialog.

The following term will be added to the objective function, where 𝜔 is the specified Penalty Factor, and
𝑐 is the cost factor of load 𝑖:

𝑛𝐶𝑜 𝑛∑︁
∑︁ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝜔 𝑐𝑖 |𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑖 − 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟
𝑖 | (38.2)
𝑗=1 𝑖=1

Transformer Tap Deviation Control

If tap positions are to be optimised, different solutions can yield the same optimal value for the objective
function. One can therefore impose a term to the objective function, which forces the solution to be as
close as possible to the initial transformer tap positions.

Use Penalty Factor for Tap Deviation

If enabled, the following additional term is added to the objective function:

𝑛𝑇 𝑟
∑︁
𝜔 |𝑡𝑎𝑝0𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟
𝑖 | (38.3)
𝑖=1

Penalty Factor
Specifies the weighting factor for the additional objective function term above.

Calculation of Transformer Tap Positions

Discrete controls (Using direct method)

This method calculates discrete tap position values within the LP (known as the “direct method”).
This method may provide better accuracy, however will yield fewer solutions.

Continuous controls (Using outer loop rounding)

This method calculates continuous tap position values and then rounds these values to discrete
values in the outer loop of the calculation. This method may be faster but the values may not be
optimal.

Calculation method for transformer tap sensitivities

Linearisation of transformer tap changes uses linearised load flow equations around the
operating point to derive sensitivities to transformer tap positions.

Discrete transformer tap assessment provides a more accurate assessment in cases where
there is a strong dependence of the impedance on the current tap position (e.g. through use of a
measurement report). If the degree of dependence between the impedance and the current tap
position is not significant, the (faster) linearisation algorithm will be used.

Additional Settings

Check for Constraint Violations after Optimisation

If this option is selected the violated constraints are written to the output window after the OPF.

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Use Presolve procedure

If selected, the LP is checked for linear dependencies of constraints. They will be eliminated and
only the corresponding (smaller) system is solved.

38.3.4 DC Optimisation - Iteration Control

Two outer loop settings are available: (i) control of the number of iterations of the algorithm; and (ii)
definition of a constraint tolerance. These settings are described below.

Outer Loop

Following the solution of the LP problem, it may be the case that loading constraints are not within
their boundaries. The reason is that for taps, the algorithm uses tap sensitivities which assume a linear
change in MW flow per tap step. Since these tap sensitivities depend on the initial tap position, the
result becomes inaccurate if the optimal tap position is far from the initial tap position. This inaccuracy
can be remedied by an additional outer loop. At each iteration, this outer loop starts with the optimised
tap positions which were calculated in the previous loop. The following Outer Loop settings can be
entered on this tab:

Max. Number of Iterations

Maximum number of outer loop iterations until all constraints are fulfilled (within a defined toler-
ance).

Max. Acceptable Error for Constraints

Maximum relative error (in %) by which a constraint can be violated while still being considered a
feasible solution.

It should be noted that when Max. Number of Iterations is set to ’1’, the LP is solved without outer loops.

Limitation of Branch Flow Constraints

This option is useful for avoiding long calculation times for large systems. If selected, the LP is solved
via an iterative procedure which iterates until no further constraint violations are found (with respect to
the Max. Acceptable Error for Constraints parameter). It should be noted that the option Check for
Constraint Violations after Optimisation on the Advanced Options page must be selected in order to
utilise this iterative procedure. An initial set of branch flow constraints must be selected by the user, as
described below.

Initial Set of Branch Flow Constraints

The set of branch flow constraints to be considered can either be the set of N most highly loaded
components or a user-defined set. In the case of the set of N most highly loaded components,
the program finds these automatically either by using a contingency analysis calculation (in the
case of a contingency constrained DC OPF) or by using the initial load flow (for the other OPF
methods). In the case of a user-defined set, the user must define and assign a set of components.
A set of components can be defined either via the single line graphic or Data Manager, by multi-
selecting the desired components, right-clicking and selecting Define. . . → General Set. . . . This
set can then be selected and assigned via the button.

Max. number of additional constraints per iteration

After solving the LP with an initial set of constraints, the solution is checked against all loading
constraints and overloaded components are added to the LP. The parameter Max. number of
additional constraints per iteration specifies the maximal number of added components.

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38.4 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation (LP Method)

The Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation performs an OPF using DC optimisation (as described
in Section 38.3: DC Optimisation (Linear Programming)), subject to various user defined constraints
and subject also to the constraints imposed by a set of selected contingencies.

The Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation also considers user-defined post-fault actions. That is,
the optimisation can be carried out using contingency cases that include any specified post-fault action.
These actions include switch events, generator redispatch events, load shedding events and tap change
events.

In order for the OPF to consider post-fault actions, the contingency analysis command that is assigned
to the OPF must be set to “Multiple Time Phases”. The contingency cases can then be defined to
contain post-fault actions. For further information on defining contingency cases with post-fault actions,
see Chapter 27: Contingency Analysis.

In addition to the result variables available for DC optimisation, the contingency constrained OPF
offers the following result variables (as well as those provided by the DC load flow, as described in
Section 38.3: DC Optimisation (Linear Programming)):

• For generators:
– c:Pdisp
Optimal generation for each contingency case. The optimum generation for each contin-
gency case is stored as a parameter event object in the corresponding contingency object
(ComOutage). Thus, each contingency object will hold parameter events for each selected
generator (the name of the parameter event is the name of the generator). The parameter
event reflects the optimal generation for that generator in the given contingency case.
• For Transformers:
– c:nntap
Optimal tap positions for each contingency case. The optimum tap positions for each con-
tingency case are stored as a parameter event object in the corresponding contingency
case object (ComOutage). Thus, each contingency object (ComOutage) will hold parameter
events for each selected transformer (the name of the parameter event is the name of the
transformer). The parameter event reflects the optimal tap position for that transformer in the
given contingency case
– c:mxTpChng (_l,_m, _h)
mxTapChng is the maximum tap change deviation between the optimal base case tap posi-
tion and the optimal tap position considering all contingencies. For 3-winding transformers,
HV-, MV- and LV-side tap changes are calculated individually.
• For loads:
– c:Pdisp
Optimal load shedding for each contingency case. The optimum load shedding for each
contingency case is stored as a parameter event object in the corresponding contingency
case object (ComOutage). Thus, each contingency object will hold parameter events for
each selected load (the name of the parameter event is the name of the load). The parameter
event reflects the optimal load shedding for that load in the given contingency case.

38.4.1 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Basic Options

38.4.1.1 Contingency Analysis

This is a reference to the Contingency Analysis (ComSimoutage) command to be used during the
contingency constrained OPF. The user can select and set this contingency analysis command via the
button, and view or edit the contingency analysis command settings using the arrow button . If

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the user would like the contingency cases to use post-fault actions, the Method used by the contingency
analysis command must be set to Multiple Time Phases. See Chapter 27: Contingency Analysis.

38.4.1.2 Objective Function

The selection of objective function for Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation includes the same
objective functions as those provided for DC Optimisation (see Section 38.3.1: Basic Options). Two
additional objective functions are provided:

Min. Generator Dispatch Change (Pre-to-Postfault)

Minimises the sum of the generator dispatch changes between the base case and each contingency
case.

Min. Transformer Tap Change (Pre-to-Postfault)

Minimises the sum of the tap position changes between the base case and each contingency case.

38.4.1.3 Controls

The definition of control variables for the contingency constrained DC optimisation method differs slightly
from the DC optimisation method, however the basic fundamental role of each control is as described
for the AC optimisation method in Section 38.2.1 (Basic Options).

The user can select from the following control variables:

• Generator Active Power Dispatch (ElmSym, ElmXnet)

Dispatch in Contingencies
– Use base case dispatch: for all contingency cases, use the generator dispatch from the
base case. Using this setting, a single control variable is introduced to the system for each
selected generator. The total number of generator controls in this case equals the number of
selected generators and/or external grids.
– Allow different dispatch: for each contingency case, allow a generator dispatch different to
that used in the base case. Using this setting, for each selected generator, a control variable
is introduced for the base case and for each contingency case. This option must be selected
from the drop-down box when the objective function Min. Generator Dispatch Change (Pre-
to-Postfault) has been selected. The total number of generator controls in this case equals:
(number of selected generators) * (1 + number of selected contingencies)
• Transformer Tap Positions (ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4)
Tap Positions in Contingencies
– Use base case tap positions: for all contingency cases, use the transformer tap positions
from the base case. Using this setting, a single control variable is introduced to the system for
each selected transformer. The total number of tap controls in this case equals the number
of selected transformers.
– Allow different tap positions: for each contingency case, allow tap positions different to
those used in the base case. Using this setting, for each selected transformer, a control
variable is introduced for the base case and for each contingency case. This option must be
selected from the drop-down box when the objective function Min. Transformer Tap Change
(Pre-to-Postfault) has been selected. The total number of tap controls in this case equals:
(number of selected transformers) * (1 + number of selected contingencies)
• Allow Load Shedding (ElmLod)
A separate control variable is introduced to the system for the base case and for each contingency
case. This control variable can be selected in conjunction with any objective function. The total
number of load controls equals: (number of selected loads)*(1 + number of selected contingen-
cies)

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38.4.1.4 Constraints

This formulation of OPF performs a contingency analysis for a predefined set of contingencies (Co-
mOutage objects; i.e. a set of interrupted components per contingency case). The Max. Loading
(parameter name: maxload) for lines and transformers (ElmLne, ElmTr2, ElmTr3; (one constraint per
bus)) for each contingency case is considered in the calculation. For each loading constraint, the
number of constraints added to the LP will be: 2*(number of contingencies).

In addition to the constraints provided for DC optimisation (for further information see Section 38.3.1:
Basic Options), the contingency constrained DC optimisation method offers additional constraints:

Maximum Number of Tap Changes per Contingency

If this checkbox is ticked, then for each contingency, no more than the maximum tap position change
steps from the base case to the contingency case are allowed over all transformers (i.e. for a given
contingency, a constraint is enforced on the sum of all maximum difference of base case to contingency
case taps, over all transformers).

Transformer Tap Constraints (implicitly imposed)

Minimum and maximum tap positions for transformers(ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4) are considered. These
constraints are implicitly imposed when transformer tap positions are specified as controls in the Con-
trols section of the OPF command dialog. This leads to two constraints in LP formulation for the base
case tap position calculation, and to: 2 x (1 + number of contingencies) constraints for contingency case
calculations.

Handling

Active power dispatch constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per generator.

Tap position constraints will be implicitly imposed whenever the corresponding tap is a designated
control variable. The tap position limits are defined in the transformer’s assigned Type.

Loading constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per line element (ElmLne)
and per transformer element (ElmTr2, ElmTr3). Once a loading constraint for a specific line or trans-
former is imposed, it will be considered by all contingencies contained in the contingency list. If loading
constraints are included, the maximum loading limits will be calculated with respect to the type of the
element, or with respect to a thermal rating object (IntThrating). If a thermal rating object is selected,
the limits will be calculated with respect to the Continuous Rating value.

Boundary flow constraints can be chosen on an individual basis per boundary (ElmBoundary ). Once a
boundary constraint for either the maximum total active power limit or minimum total active power limit
is imposed, it will be considered by all contingencies in the contingency list.

The list of contingencies to be considered by the OPF is selected by choosing a specific contingency
analysis command (parameter Contingency Analysis in the OPF dialog, Basic Options tab), which
contains in its folder the contingency objects (ComOutage) to be considered.

38.4.2 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Initialisation

As described for DC optimisation. Refer to Section 38.3.2 (Initialisation).

38.4.3 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Advanced Options

As described for DC optimisation. Refer to Section 38.3.3 (Advanced Options).

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38.4.4 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Iteration Control

As described for DC optimisation. Refer to Section 38.3.4 (Iteration Control).

38.4.5 Contingency Constrained DC Optimisation - Output

For contingency constrained DC OPF, results can be optionally recorded for those branches which
exceed a selected limit value. This can be done for both the non-optimised results and the optimised
results. For each recording of results (i.e. with optimised or non-optimised values) a separate results
file must be chosen.

Contingency Analysis Results

Allows the selection of results files for the contingency analysis results with and/or without optimised
controls.

Results (before optimisation)

The results file in which to store the non-optimised results.

Results (after optimisation)

The results file in which to store the calculated (optimised) results.

Limits for Recording

The limits displayed here are set in the selected Contingency Analysis command on the Basic Options
page of the contingency analysis command dialog. They define the limits outside of which results
will be written to the results file(s). See Chapter 27: Contingency Analysis, Section 27.4.1 for further
information.

Reports

Following a contingency constrained DC OPF calculation, the Output of Results command button
on the main toolbar becomes active. This command allows the printing of various reports. The following
reports are offered:

Optimal Solution
Prints a detailed report to the output window, showing all optimal settings for generators, trans-
formers and loads, component-wise, for all contingencies. An additional flag (Report only Contin-
gency with max. Deviations) can be checked to show only the settings for the contingency where
the maximum deviation occurs.

Optimal Solution (per Contingency)

Prints a detailed report to the output window, showing all optimal settings, on a per-contingency
basis.

Maximum Loadings
Prints a detailed report to the output window showing the maximum loadings of components
against the relevant contingency. The user may define the loading limit for which to report
violations, and may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch components.
Moreover, this report facilitates the display of results before and after the optimisation.

Loading Violations
Prints a report to the output window showing components with loading violations, against the
relevant contingency. The user may define the loading limit for which to report violations, and
may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch components. Additionally, the
reporting of violations in contingency cases may be suppressed if violations already exist in the
base case.

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Violations per Case

Prints a report to the output window showing components with loading violations, on a per-
contingency case basis. The user may define the loading limit for which to report violations,
and may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch components. Additionally,
the reporting of violations in contingency cases may be suppressed if violations already exist in
the base case.

38.5 Troubleshooting Optimal Power Flow Problems

In general, if a solution can be found, i.e. the optimisation is mathematically solvable, PowerFactory
will find a solution. In some cases the number of controls and constraints, the bandwidth for the target
values and the cost definition of the generators, might lead to non-convergence.

It should be noted that executing an Optimal Power Flow calculation on a large network generally
requires careful adjustment of the controlled elements.

This section explains a typical approach to achieve convergence of an Optimal Power Flow calculation.

38.5.1 Verification of Load Flow Options and Results

Although the solution of the load flow calculation is only used as starting point of the optimisation if the
option no flat initialisation is selected from the Initialisation page of the command, it should be noted
that it is always recommended to have a working load flow before performing an optimisation (see
section 25.6: Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation).

Since the load flow solution is important to the optimal power flow calculation, the first step when
troubleshooting a non-convergent optimal load flow is to check the load flow results and options.

Some of the options for active power control and balancing are not supported by the OPF command.
The optimal power flow is solved with the following load flow options:

• Active power control set to As Dispatched

• Balancing set to by reference machine

Therefore, if these are not the options used by the load flow and the OPF is not set to flat start, the
Update Database command can be used to save the dispatch of the machines to a new operation
scenario. It is recommended to compare the results of the load flow with the original active power
control options against the results of the load flow after updating the database and the active power
control set As Dispatched and by reference machine.

38.5.2 Verifications of OPF Constraints

The introduction of constraints into the optimisation function has a big impact on the convergence. For
example, if no constraints are selected, the OPF might find a mathematical solution that is not physically
feasible (e.g. infinite active power on a generator); on the other hand having too many constraints
selected complicates the convergence process.

In this sense, the regulation of active and reactive power options during the load flow, i.e. power
limits and tap changers, is also important for OPF. It is quite unlikely that an OPF will converge if the
constraints to be considered during the OPF are violated during the load flow calculation, regardless of
the initialisation option selected; being too close to the limit might also make convergence difficult.

A good approach to verify this is to execute a load flow calculation and use the flexible data page of the
elements to check if the limits are violated, or nearly violated.

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It is also important is to check whether the limits are “reasonable”. Sometimes limits are entered via
scripts or an import, and experience is that it is easy for the comma-separator of some limit to be in
the wrong place. Note that very broad limits might disturb the OPF since the problem might become
unbounded. Reasonable restrictions generally help. For the external grid, the default Q-limits are ±9999,
which is not helpful for OPF convergence.

Once this is done, it can be decided which elements should be considered in the OPF, by selecting the
corresponding check box of each element.

For the voltage limits, the OPF voltage constraint should not be set on terminals with internal or junction
node usage. Terminals with this usage belonging to a substation automatically take the value of the
substation.

38.5.3 Verification of the OPF Controls

The elements selected as controls should also be verified when troubleshooting an OPF. It is important
to note that if the elements selected for the control are also participating in station controllers, they won’t
be able to assist in maintaining a corresponding voltage setpoint during the optimisation.

38.5.4 Step-by-Step Approach

In a first step, the OPF should feature simple control variables which are not being used for control by
the Load Flow. Below is a step-by-step procedure for an OPF with Maximisation of Reactive Power
Reserve as objective function; the procedure is similar for other objectives.

1. Select all non-controlling units without capability curves (PQ-generators, not in station-controller,
not PV) from the set of potential control machines and mark the “Reactive Power”-control flag.
Don’t select any limits yet!
2. Configure the OPF command as follows:
• Select “Reactive Power”-controls.
• Initialise with “Load Flow”.
• Penalty weighting factor should start at 50 and terminate at 1.0e-05. In this way, we initially
give more weight to satisfying the constraints (at penalty 50) and finally give very little weight
to this, helping to find the optimal solution.
• Gradient value for convergence should be set to 1.0e-05 (helps to find the optimal solution).
3. Calculate the OPF and check the deviations from the Q-target values. If it does not converge, add
generators one-by-one to find the problematic control.
4. Configure the OPF command to include Reactive Power-constraints. Activate the Q-limits of the
currently participating units and run OPF again. If it does not converge, add constraint-pairs
(min/max) one-by-one to find the problematic constraints.
5. Include all non-controlling units with capability curves in the tab Controls and Constraints on the
OPF page and optimise again. Generally, capability curves can cause difficulties in convergence
when they are voltage dependent or not differentiable. If it does not converge, add controls and
constraint-pairs (min/max) one-by-one to find the problematic ones.

In the next step, we can add generating units that are contained in a station controller or PV-generators
to the OPF:

1. Configure the OPF command to include voltage constraints.

2. If Q-setpoints are controlled by a station controller, the corresponding generation units can be
added to the OPF directly (controls / constraints). If the OPF shows convergence problems, a
boundary can be defined at the Q-setpoint cubicle of the station controller. Then, add Q-limits

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(only) around that setpoint to the OPF in the boundary and activate Boundary Flow limits in the
OPF command.
3. For voltage controlling units: Find the controlled terminal of such a generation unit. Check the
calculated voltage in the Load Flow and define the upper and lower limit around this value with
some bandwidth. Activate the voltage constraints in the terminal.
4. Add the generation units (control/Q-constraints) to the OPF and run it. Do this one-by-one to
recognise problematic control variables and limits. Sometimes one may hit an essential controller
for the Load Flow.

If tap positions are added to the OPF, note the effect on station controllers: transformers which are
selected to participate in the optimisation will no longer be used by the station controllers, which can
lead to voltage set points not being met.

When further constraints (voltage or reactive power) are added, one must keep in mind that the selected
controls actually need to have an impact on these constraints. This can again be evaluated step-by-step.

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Chapter 39

Unit Commitment and Dispatch

Optimisation

39.1 Introduction

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation allows the user to complement the traditional
network simulation with a market simulation, without any need for an external tool. It solves the
unit commitment linear-programming problem over a predefined period of time, while optimising the
operating point of the dispatched generators such to minimise overall operating costs. The module
combines functionalities of a Quasi Dynamic Simulation with the Optimal Power Flow and the Con-
tingency Analysis. The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation functionalities are placed in the
toolbar “Optimal Power Flow / Unit Commitment”.

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation can be executed based on a balanced AC load flow
or a linear DC load flow. A time range and step size for the simulation are defined, and the user can
specify whether contingencies should be considered for the optimisation.

The tool offers a wide range of configuration possibility and allows selective configurations to the
objective functions, the controls and constraints to match specific requirements.

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation is referred to as Unit Commitment in a short form in
several places in PowerFactory and in the User Manual.

39.2 Application Cases for the Unit Commitment

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch optimisation module can be used in various set ups from a basic
market simulation to a pure redispatch calculation. This can be achieved by selectively enabling the
constraints and controls in the network and differentiating in an AC or DC load flow based calculation.
In general the controls and constraints can be selectively enabled for single units or globally in the Unit
Commitment command. Thus it is possible to optimise and investigate the whole system, only certain
network parts or even individual units.

39.2.1 Full Unit Commitment

The main application is to execute a full Unit Commitment for a network. A Unit Commitment is
optimising various control variables in an electrical network, like the power dispatch of generators and
tap positions of switchable equipment, in order to achieve a common target. This can be done for a

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single point in time or for a time range. The dependencies between the time steps can be considered via
minimum up and down time and ramp limits. A Unit Commitment is considering the network limitations
via definable constraints for equipment loading, power flow limitations and voltage ranges. The goal is
to match demand and generation at the most economical operating point by modifying the generator
dispatch or load shedding. Each control variable has assigned costs as base for the optimisation. In
PowerFactory the Unit Commitment can directly provide a full redispatch solution since the network
constraints can be directly regarded for the base case and selected contingency cases in each time
step. Usually all costs in the system are minimised while regarding all network constraints directly in
one execution of the command. If the Unit Commitment shall be independent from the previous dispatch
the additional redispatch costs should not be regarded.

39.2.2 Market Simulation

The Unit Commitment and Redispatch Optimisation module can also be used to execute a market
simulation without considering any network constraints. Thus, the resulting dispatch represents the
solution of a free, unconstrained market in which the cheapest units are generating the needed power
independent from the feed-in point. A market simulation may be needed to determine the power plant
schedule of the unregulated marked and derive the needed redispatch in a second iteration.

The constraints of the generating units like ramps and minimum downtimes can optionally be regarded
to have a feasible solution for the individual units. Also cross border flows can be considered via
boundary constraints. Usually the DC load flow based Unit Commitment is used when executing a
market simulation and the additional redispatch costs are not regarded.

39.2.3 Redispatch Calculation

A pure redispatch calculation can be carried out with the Unit Commitment module by first executing a
market simulation without considering network constraints and then running a Unit Commitment while
regarding network constraints like line loadings with and without considering contingencies. The results
from the market simulation can also be imported to PowerFactory via characteristics, if the market
simulation is executed in an external program which might not be able to consider network constraints
for n-x cases. It might be a good option to disregard the operational costs in the objective function
for a redispatch calculation and work with positive and negative additional redispatch costs. Since
a redispatch calculation is strongly focussed on the network limitations, the AC load flow based Unit
Commitment should be used to consider the influence of the reactive power on the critical loaded
elements as well.

39.3 Unit Commitment Command

39.3.1 Basic Options

39.3.1.1 Load flow

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation can be executed based on an AC balanced load
flow calculation or a linearised DC load flow. If the AC load flow is selected, the Unit Commitment can
optimise the active and reactive power dispatch and can additionally include voltage and reactive power
constraints. For the DC-based simulation only the active power dispatch is optimised. The load flow
method is automatically set in the load flow command. Other load flow settings can be changed via the
pointer to the load flow command. Keep in mind that the optimisation is always linear. Therefore the
control parameters for an AC Load Flow based Unit Commitment are also set bases on the linearised
optimisation and can lead to deviations in set constraint values or even non-convergence.

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39.3.1.2 Consider Contingencies

When ticked, one common dispatch is determined respecting base- and outage situations simultane-
ously. Only network constraints such as loading-, boundary- and voltage constraints are formulated
with the base case control variables for the contingencies. The constraint group can be individually
selected to feature contingency constraints. It is also possible to determine an optimal dispatch with
this tool incorporating all base case constraints only. In a second step, the algorithm can then write the
corresponding results for all contingencies to result files. The contingency command can be accessed
and modified via the pointer to the Contingency Analysis. Please note that only a very restricted part
of the contingency Analysis features is supported.

• Only Single Time Phase is supported

• Contingency screening and Remedial Actions are not supported

In the Algorithm settings (see Section 39.3.7) a contingency filter can be defined to restrict the consid-
eration of the individual constraints to the most relevant ones.

If the Use linearised calculation is selected the contingency analysis will execute feasible contingen-
cies with a fast linearisation method (for AC or DC).

39.3.1.3 Time Period

The calculation time period can be defined via default time periods like a day a month or a year or as
a user-defined range. The calculation is then executed for certain time points over the defined time
period. These calculation points can either be equidistant with a specified step size or, if “User-defined
study times” is selected, individually defined.

39.3.2 Objective Function

The objective function of the minimisation can be defined by the user, who chooses either “Minimisa-
tion of total costs” or “User-defined”. “Minimisation of total costs” defines the complete objective
function with all function components, which then minimises the overall network operating costs. This
means all costs selected in the models will be used. If the “User-defined” objective function is chosen
the function components can be selected individually. If a function component is disabled it overwrites
the settings in the corresponding network elements. The available function components are:

• Minimise generator operating costs: The generator operating cost include the fuel costs,
emission costs and other fixed and variable costs. The operating costs can be defined via
a table directly in the generator or in a cost curve model for generators (ElmSym), external
grids (ElmXnet), static generators (ElmGenstat), PV-systems (ElmPvsys) or doubly-fed induction
machines (certain ElmAsm models), whenever they are not selected to be variable renewable
energy sources (VREs).
• Minimise additional generator redispatch costs: The objective function participation tries to
keep generator active power values as close as possible to the values prior to the optimisation
and can be defined for the same elements as above.
• Minimise generator start-up/shut-down costs: Start-up/shut-down costs can be defined for the
same elements as operating costs. The costs can be entered via a constant cost value, a simple
model with cold and warm-start-up costs or a step-function (via a table) depending on the off-line
time.
• Minimise curtailment of variable renewable energy sources (VREs): Curtailable elements
where the flag Variable Renewable energy source is ticked on the Unit commitment page can
reduce their injection. This part of the objective minimises the curtailment of these VREs. All
generator elements that feature production costs above can be selected to be VREs, but typically
they would be of class ElmGenstat or ElmPvsys.

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• Minimise load shedding: Load shedding is a last emergency step for network operators. This
is possible for loads where the flag “Allow load shedding” is ticked on the Unit Commitment page.
This part of the objective minimises the shedding of loads based on the Load Flow values.
• Minimise control variable deviations of transformers, shunts and HVDCs: The objective
function participation tries to keep taps and HVDC-controls as close as possible to the values prior
to the optimisation, i.e., the Load Flow tap/control. Costs for deviations are defined within the indi-
vidual elements, which are ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4, ElmVoltreg, ElmShnt, ElmVsc, ElmVscmono.
When minimising the taps/shunt controls or HVDC-controls it can mean keeping the positions as
close as possible to the values prior to the optimisation, i.e., the Load Flow tap/controls (default if
“Minimisation of total costs” is objective function) or as close as possible to the optimised values
of the previous timestep.

39.3.3 Controls/Constraints

39.3.3.1 General

The “General” tab contains the main settings of the controls and constraints in the Unit Commitment.
A control or constraint is only used if it is specified in the network element and globally in the Unit
Commitment / Dispatch Optimisation command.

Controls

The offered controls are depended from the selected load flow method and the controls linked to reactive
power are not available if DC load flow initialisation is used. The supported controls are:

• Active power dispatch: Synchronous generators (ElmSym), external grids (ElmXnet), static gen-
erators (ElmGenstat), PV-systems (ElmPvsys) or doubly-fed induction machines (certain ElmAsm
models) may contribute such a control variable. HVDCs (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono) can also be
selected as control variables, if they are AC active power controllers in the load flow as well. The
slack or reference machine should always be included as an active power control.
• Transformer tap positions: Quad-Boosters in particular can be very effective in reducing loading
violations. Elements that may participate here are ElmTr2, ElmTr3, ElmTr4, ElmVoltreg. The
general representation as continuous or discrete controls is configured on the Advanced page.
Please note that this only applies to controls that are selected to be discrete controls in the element
itself. Tap controllers for parallel transformers can be used.
• Load shedding: Loads can be shed to eliminate overloadings, when this option is selected. The
priority is based on the cost in the element.
• Reactive power dispatch (only AC): Synchronous generators (ElmSym), external grids (ElmXnet),
static generators (ElmGenstat), PV-systems (ElmPvsys) or doubly-fed induction machines (certain
ElmAsm models), HVDCs (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono) may contribute such a control variable.
• Switchable shunts (only AC): This control may assist when it comes to voltage constraints /
stability. The general representation as continuous or discrete controls in the Unit Commitment
simulation is configured on the advanced page of the Unit Commitment / Dispatch Optimisation
command. Please note that this only applies to controls that are selected to be discrete controls
in the elements itself.

Constraints

Constraints can be defined in the network elements and selected for consideration in the Unit Com-
mitment dialog. A constraint is only active if it is specified in the network element and globally in the
Unit Commitment / Dispatch Optimisation command. Some constraints can be defined as soft or hard
constraints in the network elements.

• Control variable constraints are defined in the network elements as limits of the control vari-
ables. It can be selected whether the limits should be considered or not via list boxes on the

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right side of the control variables. The control variable constraints are always hard constraints if
enabled.
– Active power limits
– Transformer tap positions limits
– Load shedding limits
– Reactive Power limits (only AC)
– Shunt tap positions limits (only AC)
• Power flow / Voltage constraints are network constraints which can be considered for the Unit
commitment simulation. The constraints can be defined as hard or soft constraints
– Branch flow constraints (max. loading) are available for transformers and lines.
– Boundary flow constraints can be defined for boundaries to limit the active and/or reactive
power exchange over boundaries. A use case would be a limitation of the power exchange
between neighbouring countries.
– Voltage constraints of busbars (AC only): This constraint keeps the voltage at busbars
between their upper and lower voltage limit.
• Generator Constraints comprise further limitations of generators besides the power limits. The
generator constraints can be defined in the generators which can be controlled by the Unit Com-
mitment.
– Ramp rate constraints define the speed that the injected active power of a generator is able
to change over time (in MW/h). Moreover, there can be max. start-up ramps and shut-down
ramps defined. This constraint is always considered as a hard constraint.
– Minimum up-/down-times specify how long a unit must run, once switched on, or remain off,
once switched off. These are generally constraints with a high number of additional variables
and involving time-coupling. It is advised to add them with care. This constraint is always
considered as a hard constraint.
– Spinning reserve constraints are defined for regions (grids (ElmNet), zones (ElmZone)
and areas (ElmArea)) and define the minimum value for the spinning reserve. Contributing
generators to the spinning reserve are defined on the generator “Load Flow” page via the
checkmark “Consider for region spinning reserve” on the “Automatic Dispatch” tab. The
constraint value for the spinning reserve is entered in MW and the available spinning reserve
for a region can be determined by checking its contents. This constraint can be defined as a
hard or soft constraint in the network elements.
– Energy/Storage constraints indicate whether the energy limits and target value at the end
of a unit commitment for storage models (ElmStorage) shall be considered (see 39.6).

39.3.3.2 Soft Constraints

Soft constraints are constraints that need not necessarily be satisfied by the optimiser. An additional
positive variable is added to the LP for such constraints and penalise its size with this coefficient in
the objective function. Whether a constraint is soft or hard has to be defined in the network elements
on the Unit Commitment page. If a constraint is marked as soft, it will also be marked soft in all its
contingencies.

Penalty cost type for constraint violations: This option enables to force all cost for constraint violation
globally to be linear for all constraints. this is overwriting then the definition in the network element on
whether the cost for constraint violation shall be linear or non-linear.

Linear penalty cost for constraint violations: Specifies the for elements in which the linear soft
constraint option is selected of if the option Penalty cost type for constraint violations is set to linear
for all soft constraints. The scaling factors specified in the individual network elements can be used to
individualise the used costs for each constraint violation.

Non-linear penalty costs:

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The use of non-linear soft constraints can be configured in this table if the non-linear option enabled.
Instead of constant costs as in the linear option, the costs change for discrete violation ranges as
specified in the table. The idea is to have increasing costs for more severe violations, so that a solution
with a larger number of slight violations is preferred over a solution with just a few very severe violations.

39.3.3.3 Advanced

Additional controls

• Active/reactive power controls for virtual power plants: The participation of virtual power
plants can be enabled or disables for the unit commitment with this setting.
• HVDC active/reactive power controls are important for the redirection of power flows in order to
reduce overloadings. It can be changed when active or reactive power controls are selected.
• Allow curtailment of variable renewable energy sources: Generators marked as VRE can be
shed to eliminate overloadings, when this option is selected. It is active and can be changed when
active or reactive power controls are selected. The priority is based on the cost in the element.

Modelling of Discrete Controls

Transformer tap positions and switchable shunts can either be modelled as discrete variables in the
optimisation, or as continuous variables which are rounded at the end of the optimisation. This approach
will be applied whenever there is an element in the system where the control type of the tap/shunt is
discrete.

Additional constraint settings

• Ignore violated constraints without effective controls: Some violated constraints cannot be
cured by the unit commitment and would lead to an infeasibility An example would be an over-
loaded transformer that is supplying a network area with no controls and a fixed power demand.
• Enforce control variable power balance: This option will force the unit commitment to do a
redispatch only to keep the power balance before and after the optimisation If this option is not
selected and the slack not included in the unit commitment as a control, the optimisation would
use this degree of freedom and reduce the infeed of power with the controlled machines.

39.3.4 Results/Output

The Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation simulation writes three result files during execution.
The main result file is the “Unit Commitment (summary)” where the overall results simulation are stored.
The “Unit Commitment (before optimisation)” result file saves the load flow results of each time step
before the optimisation and is equivalent to the results from a quasi dynamic simulation. The “Unit
Commitment (after optimisation)” result file saves the load flow results for each time step after the
adaptation of the control variables.

The available settings on this page are:

Record all optimal control variables: Should assist the user and simply records all optimisation
control variables in the optimal state. If the checkmark Record redispatch costs per time step is
selected the redispatch results, such as redispatch costs, are additionally recorded for every timepoint.

Calculate and record load flow results with optimal controls: The optimal controls are calculated
by the solver. The user can select whether these controls are simply stored in the result file with a fast
timesweep or whether a real second load flow sweep should be calculated verifying the optimal solution.
With the latter option, we can also verify and record transmission constraints of the grid. This can be
done by enabling the checkbox Record all constraint result variables.

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Result file Time sweep results (after optimisation): Optimal results are recorded in this result file.
One row corresponds to one time step. The result file is dense and similar to the one of the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation

Result file Summary results: Similar to the Probabilistic Analysis, summary quantities of control
variables can be recorded here, without being defined in the large time sweep result file. This result
file will thus contain only one row. Variables are not configurable by the user but are implicitly given by
the controls during the optimisation. The results are used for reports later on.

Contingency results: Similar to the contingency time sweep calculation, a list of sparse sub-result
files will hold the contingency results when optimised controls are applied. Each such sub-result file has
contingency-results as rows.

Result file Time sweep results (before optimisation): The load flow results before the optimisation
are recorded in this result file. At least the original status of all control variables is recorded automatically
(needed for optimized results and creating reports). The original status of the constraints can also be
recorded automatically if the corresponding checkbox is ticked. One row corresponds to one time step.
The result file is dense and similar to the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation result file. Additional variables to
be recorded can be defined by the user.

Output: The user can choose whether there should be only a start- and end message for the ComUc,
more details such as the current calculation step (time sweep, optimisation, critical contingency filtering,
etc.) or even the full output of the contingency time-sweep and optimisation.

39.3.5 Maintenance

Planned outages can be defined on the maintenance page of the Unit Commitment dialog. The button
“Show all” opens the outage library folder and shows all available planned outages (IntPlannedout) of
the project. The button “Show used ones” shows a browser with the selected planned outages for the
simulation.

39.3.6 Algorithm

39.3.6.1 General

Restrict simultaneous optimisation period (rolling horizon): If this option is selected, the optimi-
sation is separated in time periods of length number of study times. These time periods are optimised
individually, but using the optimisation results of the prior periods. The overlap is not used after the
optimisation; it is only there to consider an outlook on the variable behaviour for the next period. The
linear problem can therefore be reduced significantly in size by solving several sub problems. So using
this rolling horizon leads to a significant decrease in memory usage, an increase in performance and
can help to improve solvability. Keep in mind the minimisation can only find the optimum for each single
time period and the found solutions are therefore local optima. But if the time period is significantly
longer then the minimum up and down times of generating units the found local optimum will be very
close to the global optimum.

Max acceptable error for constraints defines a threshold for which the optimal solution is chosen to
be verified on the Results page. When the solution is verified and violations are detected, there will be
sets of violation elements reported in the output window.

39.3.6.2 Solver

PowerFactory offers different possibilities to solve the mixed-integer linear program (MILP) given by the
Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation. There are two internal MILP solvers available, that allow

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the simulation of small to medium size optimisation problems:

• PowerFactory comes with two built in linear programming solvers, the “lp_solve”-solver and the
“cbc”-solver. The “cbc”-solver is the default and recommended, if no commercial solvers are
available.
• It is also possible to use commercial external MILP solvers for optimising large-scale Unit Com-
mitment problems. The supported external solvers are the IBM CPLEX-solver and the GUROBI-
solver. The solvers are not included in the purchase of the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Opti-
misation module and have to be acquired separately But the external solvers can fully integrated
in PowerFactory and only the link to the “.dll” has to be added as administrator in the Linear
Programming Configuration. The supported version for CPLEX are starting from 12.8 and for
GUROBI starting from 8.0.x. With new versions of PowerFactory, later versions of the external
solvers are supported on a regular basis.
• The “Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation” also allows the export of the MILP problem as
an AMPL-file (.nl) so that the problem can be solved by any user-specific solver.
The solver is selected on the algorithm page of the Unit Commitment / Dispatch Optimisation com-
mand. In order to configure the solvers the User needs to log into PowerFactory as Administrator and
access the Linear Programming Configuration. It is placed in Configuration → Optimisation→ Linear
Programming Configuration and can also be accessed via Administration → Calculation Settings→
Linear Programming Configuration. The built in solvers are included in the PowerFactory installation
and need no further configuration. But they can be enabled or disabled. The link to the “.dll” of the
external solvers has to be added here (If the solver is marked the list of its dialog becomes editable).
After configuring the solvers centrally, the solvers have to be specified for each user is the user edit
dialog on the Optimisation page. This allows to restrict the available solvers for each individual user.
When the problem is transferred to the solver the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation can not
be interrupted since this is an external process. If the simulation shall be interrupted the user has to
close PowerFactory.

Basic parameters: A time limit for the solving time of the solver can be set to avoid very long run times.

Solver parameters configuration: Each MILP-solver has some input parameters which are preconfig-
ured with defaults. The inputs are different for each solver and can change or be extended as new solver
versions are linked. If the Advanced option is selected, a table with the available input parameters of
the selected solver is offered and the values can be modified, for example the relative optimality gap
(mipGapRel) and the absolute optimality gap (mipGapAbs).

39.3.6.3 Effectiveness

Update of effectiveness for power flow/voltage constraints: Calculating the sensitivities/effective-

ness of the control variables on power flow and voltage constraints can be demanding. A new calculation
is always needed when the topology of the network is changing. Optional this can be triggered after a
fixed number of calculation steps.

Effectiveness thresholds: When loading/boundary/voltage constraints are formulated, the effective-

ness of generators, transformers, loads, HVDCs and shunts is calculated in order to estimate the
constraint values with varying controls. These thresholds provide the minimum effect to consider such
a sensitivity.

39.3.7 Constraint Filter

The number of constraints has a big impact on performance when executing a Unit Commitment
calculation. Hence, it is beneficial to reduce the number of constraints to be considered. This subsection
describes several options to reduce the number of constraints depending on the dispatch for each time
step.

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39.3.7.1 General

Constraint filter for power flow constraints: When loading/boundary constraints are formulated the
margin to the max/min allowed values before the optimisation is calculated. This value indicates the
likelihood on the constraint to be overloaded by the algorithm. This setting allows the algorithm to ar-
range the constraints into general, lazy and low priority depending on a specified margin. They are then
incorporated differently into the algorithm. This is done to improve memory usage and performance.
The usage/application can be adapted to be for loading constraints only, for boundary constraints only
or for both. Please note that, if the filter is active, constraints above the callback margin will not be added
to the optimisation. However, if they are violated after the optimisation, they will be reported when verify
optimal solution is selected. Also note that the values for general/lazy/low priority should be increasing.

Constraints filter for voltage constraints: When voltage constraints are formulated the margin to the
max/min allowed values before the optimisation is calculated. This value indicates the likelihood on the
constraint to be overloaded by the algorithm. This setting allows the algorithm to arrange the constraints
into general, lazy and low priority depending on a specified margin. They are incorporated differently
into the algorithm. Please note that, if the filter is active, constraints above the callback margin will not
be added to the optimisation. However, if they are violated after the optimisation, they will be reported
when verify optimal solution is selected. This is done to improve memory usage and performance. Also
note that the values for general/lazy/low priority should be increasing.

39.3.7.2 Contingency Filter

The options on this page will only be shown if contingencies are considered.

Filter by outage distribution factor: The outage distribution factor describes the change in power flow
on a circuit as a result of the (fault) outage of another circuit. The minimum absolute and relative outage
effect thresholds for consideration of contingency constraints can be entered.

Restrict number of critical constraints: The maximum number of contingency constraints which are
formulated in the MILP for a constraints can be limited separately for branch flows, boundaries and
busbar voltages. The criterion for the selection of the most critical constraints is based on the effect of
a contingency on the element and its margin.

Filter equal constraints: Several constraints can be very similar in the Unit Commitment. It can be
sufficient to only considerer one of these similar constraints. Constraints are regarded as similar if the
Max. constraint value deviation and the Max. effectiveness deviation are under a specified threshold. In
the first step groups of contingencies are assembled for each constraint based on the Max. constraint
value deviation and then the effectiveness values are compared within a group. If the option Use fast
comparison heuristic is enabled, the comparison of the effectiveness deviations are not compared one
by one for each contingency but with some heuristics to increase performance.

39.3.8 Parallel Computing

Parallel computation of contingencies is supported in Unit Commitment. In addition to a link to the

user’s Parallel computation settings, the following options are offered:

• The Additional objects to transfer option may be needed to transfer some external objects which
are not stored in the project or the global library itself, since not all external references are
automatically resolved by the sub-processes.
• The Minimum number of contingencies to specify the threshold number of contingencies for the
use of parallel computation.

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39.4 Handling of results

39.4.1 Reports

The toolbar of the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation includes a Report command for the Unit
Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation . The reports available are:
• Unit Commitment grid summary report The resulting costs and redispatch amounts for each
time step and the complete simulation are displayed for each control element class. Different
grouping elements like grid, zones and areas can be selected as base for the report.
• Unit Commitment optimal solution report This report shows the resulting values for the control
variables and the according costs for each participating network element in the Unit Commitment.
• Non-Convergent Load Flow Cases This report lists the points in time where the load flow is not
converging before and after the optimisation.

• Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Report: Loading Ranges This report displays the elements loaded
over a threshold within a specified time range.
• Quasi-Dynamic Simulation Report: Voltage Ranges This report displays the terminals violating
a defined voltage band within a specified time range.

An extra contingency report is available in the toolbar. This report opens the standard report from
the Contingency Analysis with time sweep and summary results for the contingencies considered in the
Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation.

39.4.2 Plots

The create plot button is also included in the “Optimal Power Flow / Unit Commitment” toolbar.
Typical plots for the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation are On/Off curve of generators and
the redispatch over the simulation time.

The energy plots for time sweep calculations like the aggregated generation per plant category and
fossil vs renewable generation are also available like in the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.

39.4.3 Colouring Mode

PowerFactory offers a colouring mode for the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation. The gener-
ation units and the substations can be coloured separately depending on the absolute redispatch cost or
the relative redispatch in percent. The relative redispatch is calculated as absolute redispatch in MWh
per energy generation of a unit/in a station before the optimisation in MWh over the entire simulation
time frame.

39.4.4 Load Unit Commitment Results

The “Load Time Sweep Results” functionality allows to reload the results of a specific time step from
the result file to the network elements. This enables the user to investigate critical hours in the network
model.

The “Load Unit Commitment Results” functionality allows to investigate the results of a Unit Commit-
ment directly in the network model based on the result file. The Load results of single point in time
functionality reloads the results of a specific point in time from the result file to the network elements.

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This enables the user to investigate the results of critical hours in the network model in an efficient way
without executing a load flow calculation.

The Assign time characteristics with optimal controls functionality enables the user to write back
the resulting optimal controls from the result file to characteristics in a new study case or directly to
the existing network. This allows the user to execute continuing investigations and calculations based
on the Unit Commitment results directly. This offers also the possibility to execute a market simulation
without network constraints in a fist Unit Commitment and then do a second Unit Commitment with
enabled network constraints to do a redispatch calculation. The old characteristics and variations are
replaced by the unit commitment results. Please be aware that the applied time characteristics are
therefore only valid for the time range of the unit commitment.

39.4.5 Flexible Data Page

There are two additional sets of statistics variables available for certain elements after the execution of
the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation in the variable selection on the flexible data page.

• Statistics: Currents, Voltages and Powers This variable set contains statistical values for control
variables like for example average, minimum, maximum and variance over the complete simulation
time.

• Statistics: Calculation Parameter This variable set contains statistical values like redispatch
costs and amounts or loadings.

The other pages like “Calculation Parameter” and “Currents, Voltages and Powers” show the results of
the last time step of the simulation. Note: The summary result file also contains result parameters from
the entire simulation period.

39.5 Generating Units

It is essential for the simulation to specify which generating units shall participate in the Unit Commitment
and Dispatch Optimisation and assign costs to these units. The “Operating Costs”, “Redispatch costs”,
“Start-Up/Shut-down Costs” can only be defined on the Unit Commitment page of the element if the
generator (ElmSym, ElmGenstat, ElmPvsys, ElmAsm, ElmXnet) is participating as a control in the
Unit Commitment. Characteristics are generally supported by the Unit Commitment and Dispatch
Optimisation. So all costs and related variables can be adapted during a simulation.

Generating units can be categorised in different types:

• Single thermal generating unit
• Variable renewable energy source (VRE)

• Coupled with storage model

• Part of Virtual Power Plant

39.5.1 Controls and Limits

If the generating unit is specified as Variable renewable energy source (VRE) it belongs to the
separate class of control variables. These can be curtailed to reduce overloadings in the system. The
reactive power of generating units can not be curtailed.

If the generator is not a VRE, it can be selected whether the generator shall be part of the optimisation
as a control variable by varying its active and/or reactive power output. This can be defined via a

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characteristic as well. The global setting for this control variable type is in the Unit Commitment /
Dispatch Optimisation command (ComUc).

If the active or reactive power controls is enabled, the operational limits of the generating unit can be
specified.

If the generating unit is coupled with a storage unit, either direct or via a virtual power plant, an extra
control can be enabled to Allow the consumption mode for this unit (e.g. Battery or pump storage)
and an additional set of operational limits for the consumption mode can be entered. Also Efficiency
curves can be defined for the generation and consumption mode (see 39.6.1)

When a generator is set as a control variable, the optimisation might decide to switch it off at some point
in time. This can be prevented with the Must run flag. It will prevent “Switch off” actions and can be set
via a characteristic. Note: Switch-on actions can be prevented by using planned outages.

Fix controls to Load Flow values is intended to be controlled by a characteristic and it allows the user
to specify the simulation points for which the generation unit is not participating in the Unit Commitment
and Dispatch Optimisation and so the operation point is kept at the load flow value.

39.5.2 Operating Costs

The Operating costs for the generating units and external grids can be entered on the operational
cost tap directly as “local cost definition” or specified via a “Generator Cost Curve” from the operational
library.

In the local cost definition the Operating/Fuel costs are entered via a table with different active power
nodes. The associated cost values are in USD/h, except for the external grid, where these costs are in
USD/MWh (The currency unit can be selected in the project settings / ElmPvsys is entered in USD/kWh).
This means that the slope of the curve is defined for the external grid, rather than the actual cost values
(similar to the OPF). The entered list for the active power has to be in an increasing order and are the
variable costs of the generating unit. The Fixed costs can be specified separately and are added to the
variable costs in the table. Additional Penalty costs in USD per MWh can be assigned to a generator.
An approximation curve, such as polynomial, spline, etc., will be used to generate a cost curve from
the entered data.

The Generator Cost Curve is described in 39.5.2.1

The resulting cost curve from the entered operation costs has to be linearised in both cases for the
market simulation. This can be done via the Piecewise linearisation for LP by using the resulting
average costs between the operating limits of the generating unit or linearisation of the cost curve by
equidistant or user specified breakpoints. If a linearised cost curve is used the size of the optimisation
problem increases with the number of break points. Therefore it is important to keep the number of
breakpoints as low as possible.

The Operating costs plot displays the cost curve from the entered operational data with the specified
approximation and the linearised cost curve used in the solver.

39.5.2.1 Generator Cost Curves

Generator Cost Curves offer a flexible way to enter the cost data of a generating unit. The entered
costs in a cost curve can be modified during the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation simulation
by characteristics. The following components can be specified:

• Primary fuel costs (FuelC in USD/MWh_th), describe the cost for the primary energy source.
• Fixed costs (FixC in USD/h), are the fixed cost of the generating unit.
• Emission costs (EmisC in USD/t), specify the cost for the generating units emissions. The

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emission amount is calculated via the Emission intensity (EmisInt in t/MWh_th) and the rated
efficiency of the generating unit. The emission cost are intended to represent the costs for CO2
certificates.
• Other thermal costs (OtThC in USD/MWh_th), are additional costs that can be added depending
on the fuel amount.
• Other electrical costs (OtElC in USD/MWh), are additional costs that can be added depending
on the electrical generation of the generating unit.
• Rated efficiency (Eff in pu): The rated efficiency is based on the nominal power of the generator
and thus specified in per unit at certain percentages of the active power. A Spline, Piecewise
linear, Polynomial or Hermite Approximation is used for the cost curve. The cost curve is
displayed in USD per hour over the nominal power of the machine in percent.

Based on the entered data the generator costs are calculated. The variable costs for each operation
point i of the generator can be calculated as follows from the individual components based on the active
power:

𝐹 𝑢𝑒𝑙𝐶 + 𝑂𝑡𝑇 ℎ𝐶 + 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝐶 * 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑖

𝑉 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑖 = ( + 𝑂𝑡𝐸𝑙𝐶) * 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑃 𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖 (39.1)
𝐸𝑓 𝑓𝑖

So the resulting online costs for each operating point i of the generating unit are:

𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑖 = 𝐹 𝑖𝑥𝐶 + 𝑉 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑖 (39.2)

The operating cost plot in the Generator Cost Curve dialog is based on a 100 MW generating unit and
displays the resulting operating costs per hour over the rated efficiency. The same Approximations are
available as in the local cost curve definition (39.5.2).

39.5.3 Redispatch Costs

Additional redispatch cost can only be entered if the generating unit is not a VRE. The upward and
downward redispatch cost can be entered separately for the active power. The “Redispatch costs for
reactive power change” are entered in USD/Mvarh and have no differentiation between capacitive or
inductive reactive power. The additional redispatch costs penalise the deviation from the load flow
values prior to the optimisation.

If the generating unit is flagged as a VRE only the Costs for curtailment can be specified.

39.5.4 Start-Up/Shut-down Costs

The Shut-down costs of a generating unit can be specified as a fixed amount in USD. There are
different possibilities to define the Start-up costs:
• Constant: The cost can be entered as a fixed amount equal to the Shut-down costs.
• Warm-/Cold start-up costs: The Start-up cost can be entered for a cold start and a warm start.
The cold start time specifies the downtime of the generating unit after which the start up costs are
switched from warm- to cold start.
• User-defined discretisation: The start up costs for different down times can be specified via a
table. Typically, the temperature dependence is exponential in time which can be modelled via a
step function here. Please note that these costs might drastically affect the performance of the
solver.

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The cost for the Start-up over the down time of the generating unit are displayed in the diagram on the
right side of the tab.

39.5.5 Constraints

The constraints of a generating unit have to be defined in the unit itself. In the Unit Commitment /
Dispatch Optimisation command it can be specified whether a specific constraint should be regarded in
the simulation. The available limitations of generating units are:

• Ramp rate constraints The limitation for the ramp rate is distinct between ramp rates when the
generator is on-line and start-up/shut down ramp limits. The up and down ramp limits are defined
in MW/h or in pu/h. The start up and shut down ramp limit can be entered in MW or pu. This
means the first/last step of the generator is limited to a certain value.
• Start-up/shut-down time constraints When the optimiser decides to switch a machine off, it will
remain off for at least this specified time period. Similarly, a minimum up time can be defined.

39.6 Storage Units

Storage models (ElmStorage) can be linked with generators and allow the generated and consumed
energy of the generators to be restricted.

Storage models can be linked directly with one generating unit (39.5) or with several generators via a
virtual power plant (39.7). A storage model can only be linked to one generating unit or one virtual
power plant. There are three storage types available:

• Battery: This represents storage without any inflow but with a self discharge. The Capacity can
only be entered as energy in MWh.
• Hydropower: This represents storage with the possibility to have a natural inflow. Also all Energy
figures can be entered directly in MWh or as Water volumes which are then converted with the
Head of water.
• General Storage: This option allows the user to enter all storage properties in MW and MWh,
without specifying the storage technology.

The available constraints for the unit commitment are:

• Operational energy limits
• Energy constraint at study period end
• Energy at study period start
• Water spillage/self discharge
• Inflow/Additional charge
The rolling horizon (39.3.6) functionality will cause some drawbacks in the optimisation of storage units,
since the storage is then only optimised for the individual time range.

39.6.1 Efficiency curves

Storage models are linked to generators via efficiency curves. The efficiency curves can be distin-
guished between generation and consumption mode. If no efficiency curve is defined the efficiency of
1 pu or 100 percent is used. The rated efficiency of the conversion between stored energy and the
electrical infeed of a generating unit can be entered via a table and is then approximated. The efficiency
curve is then linearised for the optimisation. The options are:

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• Use average efficiency w.r.t. operational limits

• Use efficiency at nominal power

• Use efficiency at max. operational limit

• Use efficiency at min. operational limit
The recalculation is done exactly with the determined control values.

39.7 Virtual Power Plants

The basic functionality and handling of virtual power plants is described in 15. This section focusses
only on the aspects of a virtual power plant for a unit commitment. The idea of a virtual power plant in
the unit commitment is to combine several generating units into one unit for the optimisation. Possible
examples are the aggregation of all turbines of an wind park or the combination of all generators in one
region. Also virtual power plants can be used to link several generator/turbines of a hydro power plant
to one storage model (see 39.6). The available types of power plant usage of the virtual power plant
are:
• Thermal generation unit
• Variable renewable energy source (VRE)

• Coupled with storage model

The usage types and the available constraints are, thus very similar to a single generating unit (see
39.5). In the virtual power plant the single limits and costs can either be aggregated from the single
units or entered globally in the virtual power plant. When using a global constraint the aggregated value
for the limits of the individual units should be respected, otherwise this may lead to infeasibility.

The unit commitment returns only one value for a control for the virtual power plant. This figure, for
example the active power contribution of the virtual power plant, has then to be distributed to the single
units within the virtual power plant. The options for the Power distribution to the single generating
units are:
• According to nominal power
• According to dispatched power

• According to generation shift keys

The Respect individual operational machine limits flag will ensure that the individual limits of the
machines are respected in the distribution after the optimisation.

The virtual power plant is always a simplification for the optimisation in unit commitment. It is not
possible to use the linearised method for the contingency calculation if using virtual power plants.

39.8 Other Network Elements

39.8.1 Advanced constraint settings

On the “Advanced” tab on the “Unit Commitment” page of network elements which represent network
constraints in the unit commitment, such as lines, transformers and boundaries, some additional settings
are available:

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39.8.1.1 Penalty cost for soft constraints

The cost for soft constraint violation is globally specified in the Unit Commitment command. The cost
can be specified as linear or non-linear and each constraint element has the possibility to select which
option shall be used. The Cost scaling factor gives an additional possibility to scale the soft constraints
for each element individually. The options in “Penalty cost for soft constraints” enable the management
of unavoidable constraint violations.

39.8.1.2 Constraint filtering

In order to improve performance, it is possible to disregard certain less critical constraints by using the
filters on the “Constraint Filter” page of the Unit Commitment command. If certain constraints have to be
considered in a certain setup, the filtering can be disabled in for each network element by deselecting
the Allow filtering by constraint margin and/or Allow contingency filtering by number of critical
constraints.

39.8.2 Transformers, voltage regulators and shunts

The tap positions of transformers, voltage regulators and shunts can be defined as control variables
to govern active/reactive power flows. This control variable can be modelled as a discrete variable
directly or as a continuous variable, which simplifies the algorithm. If discrete is selected, the actual
algorithm depends on the setting of the Unit Commitment Advanced tab on the Controls/Constraints
page cf. 39.3.3.

The Penalty costs per Tap deviation can specified in the element as well. The participation as a
control can be specified separately for each tap for 3- and 4-winding transformers

The maximum loading of transformers and voltage regulators can be defined as a hard or soft con-
straint.

39.8.3 Tap Controllers

If several transformers are connected in parallel or should be handled as a group, a tap controller can
be used. The tap controller aggregates all selected transformer as one control for the unit commitment
and guarantees coherent tapping of the transformers.

39.8.4 Loads

Loads (ElmLod, ElmLodlv, ElmLodmv) can also be used as control variable for the Unit Commitment
and Dispatch Optimisation by allowing load shedding. Costs for load shedding can be assigned to
each load in costs per MWh. The limits for the shedding of the load can be specified in percent of the
load’s apparent power. The Unit Commitment then sheds the load based on the before optimisation
load flow value. Note: For DC Unit Commitment this is only an active power value.

39.8.5 Boundaries

The minimal and maximal active and reactive power flow over a boundary can be defined for the Unit
commitment. Each component can be activated separately and it can be defined whether the entered
active and/or reactive constraints should be soft constraints for the Unit Commitment and Dispatch
Optimisation.

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The limits for the boundary flow can be specified as absolute limits or relative to the pre optimisation
load flow value.

39.8.6 Terminals

The voltages on the terminals can be limited for the Unit Commitment and Dispatch Optimisation. These
constraints can be entered as upper and lower limit in pu and specified as hard or soft constraints.

39.8.7 Lines

The maximum loading of lines can be defined as a hard or soft constraint.

39.8.8 Regions: Grids, Zones and Areas

A minimum value for the spinning reserve in MW can be defined for regions (grids (ElmNet), zones
(ElmZone) and areas (ElmArea)). This can be defined as a hard or soft constraint. The available
reserve can be determined via the summation of the active power of the machines of the region.

39.8.9 HVDC Converters

The reactive power flow over HVDC branches can be controlled by the Unit Commitment. The minimum
and maximum power flow limits can be set in the element (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono) and Penalty costs in
USD/MVAh can be assigned.

39.9 Troubleshooting

39.9.1 Solver Selection

The solver selection for the optimisation problems has not only an influence on performance but also in
the solvability itself. Some optimisation problems might not be solvable with the included solvers and
using a commercial solver might be beneficial This can be the case for large and complex problems
with a lot of time dependencies

39.9.2 Soft Constraints

The optimisation can become infeasible if a set constraint cannot be kept or cured with the given
controls. To avoid this soft constraints can be used. To influence the effect the price for violating
soft constraints can be set in the Unit Commitment command.

39.9.3 Performance

The total calculation time for a Unit Commitment execution in PowerFactory can be split in several parts,
with different possibilities for impact on the performance:

• Calculation of the original load flow results for each point in time to initialise the Unit Commitment:
The only possibility to increase performance in this step is to gain time in the load flow calculation
itself. Generally the DC load flow should be faster than the AC load flow. If AC load flow is

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selected, improving the convergence behaviour can help; if possible, reduce the number of outer
loop iterations required.
• Calculation of sensitivities for the selected controls on the selected constraints: When formulating
the MILP the sensitivities are needed. Every topology change requires the calculation of new
sensitivities. If the topology does not change, the sensitivities can be assumed as constant. If this
is done the number of sensitivity calculations can be decreased (see 39.3.6.3).
• If contingencies are considered it is possible to use the linearised method which is generally faster.
Also parallel computation of contingencies is supported.

• Solving the MILP using an external solver: The time for solving the MILP itself can be influenced by
the solver selection and the adjustment of advanced solver parameters. Generally the commercial
solvers (CPLEX and GUROBI) are faster and are beneficial for large Unit Commitment problems.
The solving time can increase strongly (non-linearly) for more complex problems. Thus it is
generally recommended to use as few controls and formulate as few constraints as possible when
setting up a Unit Commitment, if performance is important. In addition, discrete controls and time
dependencies are expensive for the performance of the MILP. The rolling horizon also offers the
possibility to split up a large problem is several smaller problems which can help with performance
and also solvability.
• Recalculation with optimal controls is an optional feature to check the validity of the solution and
obtain the corresponding results. This step is optional and can be skipped to gain performance.

39.9.4 Voltage Controlling Elements

If the network includes a lot of voltage controlling elements with narrow limits it can be the case that
certain setpoints cannot be kept after the optimisation and thus lead to non-convergent cases when
using an AC load flow.

39.9.5 Reference Machine

If the reference machine is not included as a control in the Unit Commitment the optimisation as a
degree of freedom will reduce the power of the controlled units. This delta will then be compensated
for by the reference machine. If the reference machine shall not actively participate but the described
power shift shall be avoided, the additional redispatch costs of the reference machine can be set to a
very high value.

The active power control can also be crucial for the load flow convergence after the optimisation. A
single slack might not be able to balance the active power especially if contingencies are considered.
An option to improve the convergence behaviour can be to select a distributed slack by generators.

39.9.6 Not Regarded Constraints

In order to reduce the optimisation problem the Unit Commitment offers a constraint filter on the Al-
gorithm page. Some constraints may be neglected in the optimisation because of this filter. Also
the optimisation is always executed on the linearised system. This can result in deviations when
recalculating the system with a non-linear AC load flow. In general warnings will be raised if a constraint
is violated.

39.9.7 Rolling horizon and time dependencies

The rolling horizon (39.3.6) function will impact the optimisation of time depended constraints strongly.
This means constraints for max. downtimes and ramps can only be optimised for the specified time

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range given by the number of simultaneous time steps and the step size. The overlapping time steps
with next period allows to consider these dependencies. The optimisation of the storage units is also
just done for the time specified with the rolling horizon and not globally if the rolling horizon is used. It
is recommended not using the rolling horizon if working with storage units.

39.10 Redundant Constraint Filter

The “Redundant Constraint Filter” is an extension tool of the Unit Commitment toolbox and offers a
powerful possibility to determine the relevant and limiting network constraints for a selection of controls.
The filter compares all the selected constraints and flags the limiting ones for the Unit Commitment.
Each constraint which is not flagged by the filter is therefore redundant and can be neglected for this
particular Unit Commitment setup.

In the Constraint Filter contingencies are fully supported. Hence, it is possible to determine the Critical
Branch Critical Outage combinations (CBCOs or also called CNECs for Critical Network Element and
Contingency) for a single point in time or a specified time period. This finds application when deriving a
Flow-Based model for Market Simulations.

39.10.1 Basic Options

The Redundant Constraint Filter contains a link to the Unit Commitment command. The selected
settings in the Unit Commitment command determine which controls and constraints shall be regarded
and which contingency cases are considered. Also the constraint filters from the Unit Commitment
command can be used.

The individual Filters are available and can be applied selectively:

• Apply constraint filters from Unit Commitment: In the Unit Commitment command, constraint
filters for active, lazy and low priority constraints and filters for contingency constraints can be
specified. (39.3.7). These constraint filters are applied if this option is selected.
• Apply filter w.r.t control variable bounds: If several controls have an effect on a constraint,
the filter checks whether the constraint would be violated if the respective controls were on their
variable bounds. If there is no possibility for a violation, the constraint is redundant.
• Check redundancy w.r.t. contingency constraints: All contingencies are compared to find the
critical constraints for each constraint element. This filter supports parallel computing.

• Check redundancy w.r.t. whole system: Each constraint is checked against the entire system
regarding all controls and the remaining constraints to identify further redundancies.

39.10.2 Algorithm

39.10.2.1 General

Additional settings for the redundant constraint filter are:

• Relax constraint violations: If a constraint is already violated, either in the base load flow
or a contingency, this constraint will always be limiting in the MILP. The filter will detect the
violation as a strong limitation of the system and mark therefore some other constraints as non-
redundant. When assembling a flow based model for a market simulation, only the free capacities
of constraints are of interest. Violations shall not be resolved and are relaxed to a fictive value.
If this relaxation is done afterwards it has an impact on the remaining non-redundant constraints.
The redundant constraint filter can consider this later relaxation if this option is selected.

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• Detailed constraint redundancy detection: This is only relevant for loading constraints. If a
branch element has several end the loadings are different for each end. Thus only the highest
loading of an element is considered. If this setting is active the loadings from all sides are
considered.
• Tolerated violation for redundant constraints: If the violation difference on a branch is smaller
then the specified threshold it is regarded as redundant.

The Modelling of discrete controls is possible as discrete or continuous.

Soft constraints can be ignored or considered as hard constraints.

39.10.2.2 Advanced

Advanced settings:

• Apply multi-threading for redundancy check: Multi-threading can be used to increase perfor-
mance. The multi-threading can only be applied in the “Check redundancy w.r.t. contingency
constraints” filter
• Apply filter w.r.t control variable effectiveness: This filter is designed to detect constraints
which have a relevant sensitivity to the selected control variables.

The Initialisation of redundancy checks enables a selection between two algorithmic approaches.
Either starting with No constraints and adding constraints to the list of non-redundant constraints or
starting with All constraints and removing redundant ones accordingly. The result should be quite
similar but there can be differences since different sets of constraints can constrain the same set of
controls. The default is to start with “No constraints”, for better performance.

39.10.3 Results

The Results are written to a result file. The result file is a matrix where the columns are all the regarded
constraints in the Unit Commitment and the rows correspond to the selected contingencies (The first row
represents the base case). The non-redundant Critical Branch Critical Outage (CBCO) combinations
are indicated with a “1”

The option Write results to output window complements the result file and gives the information about
the non-redundant constraints to the output window.

The Verification w.r.t. final system can be used to evaluate the selection made by the contingency
filter and the whole system filter. Due to numerical reasons it can happen that a constraint is invalidly
flagged as redundant. The verification goes over all the filtered constraints and compares them with the
final solution. If one of the constraints is not redundant, taking into account the Add. tolerated violation
for redundant constraints, it can be reported and/or added to the list of non-redundant constraints.
The following options are available for the verification:

• Off
• Report non-redundant constraints only

• Reactivate non-redundant constraints only

• Reactivate and report non-redundant constraints

39.10.3.1 Report

The dedicated report can also be used to visualise the non-redundant constraints found by the filter.

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Chapter 40

Transmission Network Tools

40.1 Introduction

The chapter presents the transmission networks tools available in PowerFactory :

• PV Curves Calculation (section 40.2.1)

• PV Curves Plot (section 40.2.2)

• QV Curves Calculation (section 40.3.1)

• QV Curves Plot (section 40.3.2)
• PTDF Calculation (section 40.4)

• Transfer Capacity Analysis (section 40.5)

These tools are accessible as illustrated in Figure 40.1.1, and this chapter introduces each respective
tool, providing general descriptions and details pertaining to the command dialogs.

Figure 40.1.1: Accessing Transmission Network tools

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40.2 PV Curves

PV curves are essential for analysing the voltage stability of power systems. The PV Curves Calculation
finds the critical point of voltage instability by increasing the power demand of user-selected loads until
the load flow calculation no longer converges; i.e. until the stability limit is reached. The critical demand
is reported in the output window, and the voltage drop (V), and increasing power (P), can then be plotted
using the PV Curves Plot command, as illustrated in Figure 40.2.1.

Figure 40.2.1: Network PV curve

The calculation and the corresponding plots are made available via two separate commands, both of
which are available either via the Calculation main menu, under Transmission Network Tools, or the
main toolbar using the following icons:

• PV Curves Calculation (calculates the critical demand); see Section 40.2.1.

• PV Curves Plot (plots the PV curve); see Section 40.2.2.

In addition, the PV Curves Calculation is accessible via the single line diagram or Data Manager, when
right-clicking on network element/s and selecting Calculate → PV Curves. . .

40.2.1 PV Curves Calculation

The different pages options of the PV Curves Calculation command are explained below.

40.2.1.1 Basic Options

Calculation

Selection of either AC load flow, balanced or AC load flow, unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC). The Load Flow
button provides access to the Load Flow Calculation command settings. It should be noted that some
load flow settings, such as Automatic Tap Adjust of Transformers, have a strong influence on the PV

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Curves Calculation results. Decreasing the setting Break if no progress in X iterations (e.g. from 10 to
5) may significantly improve performance for some large systems. This setting is available in the Load
Flow Calculation command, Iteration Control page, Advanced Settings tab.

Consider contingencies

If this option is ticked, an existing Contingency Analysis command can be selected. The PV Curve
Calculation will apply each defined contingency and calculate the resulting PV curves accordingly.

Multiple time phase and single time phase contingencies are considered. The post-fault time of the
contingency is considered in the calculation when applying the contingencies, and must already be
defined in the Contingency Analysis command.

Regardless of whether contingencies are considered, the beginning of the PV Curve Calculation is
always executed with no contingencies in order to calculate the base case.

Scale loads

The loads that are to be increased can be those contained in either the Whole system or a User-defined
selection. Zero- and negative loads are neglected.

Record terminal results

Selection of terminals for the PV curves may be either All busbars in system or a User-defined selection.
The latter may include terminals defined as internal nodes. The voltage and the gradient of the voltage
for each terminal are saved at each iteration in the file specified by Results. For each contingency a
separate sub-results file is created. These sub-results files can be accessed via the primary results file
(i.e. that specified by Results).

40.2.1.2 Iteration Control

Step size algorithm

Two step size algorithms are available for selection:

• Binomial search: doubles the step size up to the maximum step size (until the point of divergence)
and then continuously halves it until the minimum step size is reached.

• Adaptive step size (default): reduces the step size before reaching the stability limit.
Step size definition

Definition of the step size and the number of iterations, and therefore influences the accuracy, calculation
speed and smoothness of the plotted curves.

The Minimum step size defines the threshold of the iteration: it stops when the iteration step gets smaller
than this value, which ends the PV Curve Calculation of this case. The smaller this value is, the closer
the calculation gets to the stability limit, however more iteration steps are required which increases the
calculation time. Adjustment of the Maximum iterations is not recommended, rather adjustment of the
maximum step size (or the Multiplication factor, depending on what is of interest). The units of the
initial-, maximum- and minimum step size are in percent of the initial power demand of each load.

Initial load scaling

Defines the starting point for the load scaling and therefore the starting point of the iteration. The Multi-
plication factor provides the user with the means to choose a different starting point for the calculation.
When set to ’1’, the PV Curves Calculation will start from the current operating point of the selected
loads.

Show detailed output Provides information about each iteration, allowing the user to fine-tune the step

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size. For further information refer to Section 40.2.3.1.

40.2.2 PV Curves Plot

By default, the PV Curves Plot command plots the critical busbar of the critical contingency. If the
calculation has been made with no consideration of contingencies, the base case will automatically
be selected. The PV Curves Plot options, outputs and results are explained in Section 40.2.2.1 -
Section 40.2.3.4.

40.2.2.1 Data input

The results file specified in, and created by, the PV Curves Calculation command (see Section 40.2.1).

40.2.2.2 Busbars

The selection of busbar/s for which PV curves are to be plotted. This can be set to Only plot critical bus-
bar or User-defined selection. If the PV Curves Calculation has been carried out with no consideration
of contingencies, the base case will be selected by default. If the calculation has been carried out with
consideration of contingencies, the critical busbar of the critical contingency will be plotted.

40.2.2.3 Contingencies

If the PV Curves Calculation has been executed with consideration of contingencies, the user can
either choose to plot the busbar of the critical contingency (default), or may select the busbar/s to
be plotted from the list of calculated contingencies. In the latter case, the contingencies should be
selected from the Contingencies table before selecting the associated busbars. For a selection of
multiple contingencies, the option Plot each contingency in a separate sub-plot causes the selected
busbars to be plotted for each contingency.

40.2.3 Outputs and Results

40.2.3.1 Output Window

During the calculation, the initial-, scalable- and critical demand are printed out for each contingency.
If the detailed output option is selected, the number of successfully converged load flows and the total
number of load flows for each contingency are displayed, as well as the load flow convergence, current
scaling factor and demand for each iteration-step (per contingency).

Following the calculation, a ’PV Curve Study Summary’ is printed in the output window, summarising
every contingency by showing the limiting bus and the power demand at the critical point of instability.
The contingencies are sorted according to the power demand at the critical point. The most critical
contingency is reported; it is the contingency where the critical point has the smallest power demand.

40.2.3.2 Single Line Diagram

After the calculation, the single line diagram displays the results of the load flow calculation for the most
critical contingency at the critical point of calculation.

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40.2.3.3 Results File

For every contingency a results file is created which contains the name of the contingency and a result
matrix which is organised as follows:
• The rows of the matrix represent each iteration step of the calculated power demand. The last
row is the maximum power demand and thus the critical point of the system.
• There are two columns for every busbar in the calculation: the first contains the voltage of each
iteration-step, and the second displays the gradient of the voltage (compared to the previous
row/iteration-step). After the calculation has finished, this gradient is also available on the Flexible
Data page for busbars, by selecting the calculation variable b:uGradient in the Variable Selection
editor.

40.2.3.4 Estimated Critical Busbar

The estimated critical busbar is the one with the highest gradient in the last converging iteration-step
(i.e. in the last row of the results file). If the total voltage drop from the first to the last iteration of this
bus is less than half the drop of the bus with the maximum drop, then the bus with the maximum drop
is considered to be the critical bus. The total drop of the busbar is checked in case the final gradient is
positive. This occurs when the load flow solver finds the wrong solution (e.g. in the iteration before the
last step), which might happen when the load scaling is too large near the stability limit.

40.3 QV Curves

QV curves are very useful when analysing voltage stability of power systems. The QV Curves show
the sensitivity and variation of bus voltages with respect to injected reactive power. Since all reactive
power control devices are designed to operate satisfactorily when a increase of reactive power (Q) is
accompanied by an increase in voltage (V), operation on the right side of the curve is stable and on
the left side unstable. The bottom of the curve, where the derivative dV/dQ is equal to zero, represents
not only the voltage stability limit but also the minimum amount of reactive power required for stable
operation.

When executing a QV Curves Calculation, the critical reactive power and voltage are reported in the
output window. The reactive power (Q) and corresponding voltage drop (V), can then be plotted in a QV
curve, as shown in Figure 40.3.1.

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Figure 40.3.1: Network QV curves

To execute a QV Curve calculation, at least one busbar should be selected. If there is more than one
study busbar, they will be calculated iteratively and not simultaneously.

The calculation and the corresponding plots are made available via two separate commands, both of
which are available either via the Calculation main menu, under Transmission Network Tools, or the
main toolbar using the following icons:

• QV Curves Calculation (executes the calculation); see Section 40.3.1.

• QV Curves Plot (plots the QV curve); see Section 40.3.2.

In addition, the QV Curves Calculation is accessible via the single line diagram or Data Manager, when
right-clicking on network element/s and selecting Calculate → QV Curves. . .

40.3.1 QV Curves Calculation

The different pages options of the QV Curves Calculation command are explained below.

40.3.1.1 Basic Options

Calculation

Selection of either AC load flow, balanced or AC load flow, unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC). The Load Flow
button provides access to the Load Flow Calculation command settings. It should be noted that some
load flow settings, such as Automatic Shunts Adjustment, have a strong influence on the QV Curves
Calculation results.

Consider contingencies

If this option is ticked, an existing Contingency Analysis command can be selected. The QV Curve
Calculation will apply each defined contingency and calculate the resulting QV curves for each study

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busbar accordingly.

Multiple time phase and single time phase contingencies are considered. The post-fault time of the
contingency is considered in the calculation when applying the contingencies, and must already be
defined in the Contingency Analysis command.

Regardless of whether contingencies are considered, the beginning of the QV Curve Calculation is
always executed with no contingencies in order to calculate the base case.

Analysed nodes

The terminals where the reactive power will be injected. When clicking on the select button ( ) the list
of busbars relevant for calculation is displayed. When a group of busbars is selected, a set named “QV
Curves Set” is automatically created inside the active study case.

Results

The voltage for each terminal is saved at each iteration in the file specified by Results. For each
contingency a separate sub-results file is created. These sub-results files can be accessed via the
primary results file (i.e. that specified by Results).

40.3.1.2 Voltage Iteration

Voltage range

Two options are available for selection:

• Global voltage range for each terminal: a global maximum and minimum voltage will be set for all
the busbars.
• Range around base case voltage of each terminal: the solution of the load flow will be used as
base voltage for each terminal, afterwards a range around this voltage can be defined for all the
selected busbars.

Voltage iteration

On this part it is possible to select the start (maximum) and end (minimum) of the voltage iteration, as
well as the step size, which will stay constant for each iteration.

Additionally, there is an option to continue the calculation if the starting (maximum) voltage load flow
does not converge. PowerFactory then reduces the starting voltage until the load flow converges.

40.3.1.3 Active Power Injection

By default the injection of active power at the study busbar(s) is set to zero. In the Active Power Injection
page it is possible to define a list or a range of additional active power injections on the busbar(s).

If the User defined range option is selected, a minimum, maximum and step size for the active power
injection can be defined.

If the User defined list option is selected, a list of active power values can be defined. Additional rows
can be added by right-clicking and selecting Append Row.

For each set point a QV-Curve will be calculated.

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40.3.1.4 Output

Normally the critical voltage and the amount of reactive power injected at the study busbar(s) are printed
in the output window; however additional output options can be printed in the output window, in case the
user is interested to see the iteration process. The following options are available in the Output page of
the QV Curves Calculation command:

• Voltage iterations: the reactive power and voltage values for each voltage iteration are printed.

• Messages of initial Load Flow of each curve: self explanatory.

• Deactivated voltage controllers: since the QV calculation controls the voltage at the selected
busbar, all the elements that might affect the voltage control (e.g. station controllers, tap changers,
voltage control of generators, etc.) are set to the base case value, for example, for a synchronous
machine with voltage control, the controller mode will be changed form const.V to const.Q, fixing
the dispatched reactive power value to the one obtained from the base case. Activating this option,
all the disabled controller devices are printed in the output window.

40.3.2 QV Curves Plot

By default, the QV Curves Plot command plots the critical busbar of the critical contingency. If the
calculation has been made with no consideration of contingencies, the base case will automatically be
selected. The QV Curves Plot options are explained below.

40.3.2.1 Basic Options

Data Input: the results file specified in, and created by, the QV Curves Calculation command (see
Section 40.3.1).

QV-Curves: the following options are available:

• Only plot critical case: this is the default option, it plots the critical contingency and busbar per
active power injection (if more than one active power injection is calculated).

• User defined selection: the user can select the contingencies and busbars to be plotted.
• Critical node for selected contingencies: only the critical busbars for the selected contingencies
are plotted. When this option is selected it is also possible to plot as many plots as contingencies.

40.3.2.2 Active Power Injections

If several active power injections are calculated when executing the QV Curves Calculation command
(see Section 40.3.1.3), it is possible to select between plotting all the active power injections or select
only some cases.

40.3.2.3 Capacitors

In this page it is possible to define additional capacitors in every plotted QV curve. These additional
capacitors are useful to determine the behaviour of the system when compensated.

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40.4 Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDF)

Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDFs) are used to evaluate the change in power flow across a
set of branches, while changing production and consumption, respectively, in two predefined regions.
Knowledge of these factors assists greatly when analysing the impact of commercial transactions on
cross-border transmission capacities. The PTDF command is available under the Transmission Network
Tools, and the following sections explain how to use it.

Since PowerFactory 2020, the earlier Load Flow sensitivities function has been extended and additional
distribution factor calculations developed. These include a more flexible and potentially faster PTDF
calculation. For details, please see chapter 48.

40.4.1 Calculation Options

40.4.1.1 Basic Data

Calculation Method

Selection of either AC load flow, balanced or DC load flow (linear). The Load Flow button provides
access to the Load Flow command settings.

Region data

The Region Data defines the exporting and importing regions. The interchange region can be a zone
(ElmZone), grid (ElmNet), area (ElmArea) or boundary (ElmBoundary ). The selection here should be
kept consistent; i.e. if areas are selected as ’Exporting regions’, then areas should also be selected as
’Importing regions’.

If more than one element is selected, a PTDF set is automatically created. If a PTDF - Export or Import
Set is available, then the user can select it by using the Select Set option.

Flowgates

The Flowgates are the interconnections between the exporting and importing regions; these can either
be automatically determined according to adjacent regions, or can be user-defined by selecting one or
more boundaries.

Scaling elements

These are the elements that are going to be scaled, and a selection of generators or loads is available. It
is possible to either use all the elements available in the regions or select a User defined set of ’Scaling
elements’.

• Generators: all synchronous machines (ElmSym) and Static Generators (ElmGenstat) that are
in-service and connected are considered.
• Loads: all loads (ElmLod) that are in-service and connected are considered.
Generators scaling mode

If generators are selected as scaling elements, the user can select between different scaling modes:
• Nominal active power : generation shift is proportionally scaled for the generators according to
their nominal active power.
• Remaining active power : generation shift is scaled for the generators according to the “remaining
active power”. The definition of “remaining active power” depends on the location of the genera-
tors: for generators in the exporting region, the value equals the difference between the maximum

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active power and operating active power; for generators in the importing region, the value equals
the difference between the operating active power and minimum active power.
• Merit-order table: generation shift is scaled for the generators according to the merit-order table.
When the Merit-order table option is selected, it is possible to define the power transfer between
the two regions.

40.4.1.2 Output of Results

The result of this calculation is the increase or decrease of power flow through the Flowgates according
to the change of power in both the exporting and importing regions. All possible combinations of ex-
porting and importing regions are calculated. An example result overview can be seen in Figure 40.4.1.
In this example, the regions are different grids and the Flowgates are user-defined boundaries. In the
tabular report each row represents the transaction between the exporting and importing regions, and
the PTDFs are provided in the corresponding cell of the Flowgate column.

Figure 40.4.1: PTDF result table

The results can be output in either ASCII or tabular format, selected on the Output page. There is a
link to the actual reporting command, which is the same reporting command used for the more general
Sensitivities / Distribution Factors calculation (see Chapter 48).

40.4.1.3 Advanced Page

On the Advanced page, the user can define a set of scenarios (IntScenario) to calculate the PTDFs. If
no set is provided, PTDFs are only calculated for the current operation point.

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40.5 Transfer Capacity Analysis

The Transfer Capacity Analysis determines the maximum power transfer capacity between two regions,
or between two sets of generators and/or loads, by scaling generation or load until a limit is reached.

If the region-based option is used, an importing and an exporting region are defined, and the capacity
is calculated either for the lines connecting the regions or across a user-defined boundary.

If the element-based option is used, the user has to specify a boundary for which the capacity will be
calculated.

40.5.1 Basic Data

Calculation Method

Selection of either AC load flow, balanced or DC load flow (linear). The Load Flow button provides
access to the Load Flow command settings.

Contingency Constrained

The analysis is carried out considering the contingencies defined in the Contingency Analysis com-
mand.

Transfer capacity definition

Here, the user specifies how the elements for scaling are selected. The choice here determines which
other options are offered on this page.

• Region Based: The user will specify one importing and one exporting region, which can be grids
or grouping objects such as Areas.

• Element selection: The user will provide two sets of elements, Exporting and Importing. The sets
must be mutually exclusive.

Measured transfer capacity - for Region-based calculation

If the transfer capacity is calculated using Regions, there are two options for where the final transfer
should be measured.

• Interconnection lines: In this case the automatically-determined interconnection lines are used as
the interconnection border across which the transfer is measured and reported as the capacity.
• Boundary : This option can be selected if the user is in fact interested in the transfer across a
different border, which will be specified as a Boundary (ElmBoundary ).
Interconnection regions - for Region-based calculation

Two interconnection regions are selected; an interconnecting region can be a zone (ElmZone), grid
(ElmNet), area (ElmArea) or boundary (ElmBoundary ). The regions must be adjacent, i.e. have
interconnecting lines, but must not overlap. The interconnecting lines are determined automatically
and can be shown via the button Show interconnection lines.

Scaling elements - for Region-based calculation

The user may select between generators and loads. By default, all relevant elements are scaled, but on
the Scaling elements tab, there are options for restricting the scaling to user-defined sets of elements.

• Generators: all synchronous machines (ElmSym) and static generators (ElmGenstat) that are
in-service and connected are considered.

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• Loads: all loads (ElmLod) that are in-service and connected are considered. The load shift is
proportionally scaled for the loads according to their active power at the operating point.
• Both generators and loads: all the generators and loads in-service and connected are scaled.

User defined elements - for Element-based calculation

Here, the user specifies the elements that will form the Exporting and Importing sets. Using the down-
arrow, the user can select elements or select a previously-defined set of elements. Generation or loads,
or a combination can be used, but the two sets must be mutually exclusive.

A boundary (ElmBoundary ), across which the transfer is to be measured, is also selected.

40.5.2 Constraints

Consider thermal constraints (branches)

If this option is selected, the thermal constraints for branch elements are considered. The available
options are:
• Global constraint for all components: the limit defined in the Maximum thermal loading of compo-
nents field is used for all branch elements.

• Individual constraint per component: the limit defined on the Load Flow page of every branch
element is used.
The flag Continue calculation if base case is overloaded allows execution of the Transfer Capacity
Analysis even if relevant constraints are not complied with in the base calculation. If this option is
selected, the user must specify a relaxation factor to be applied to the limits for those elements which
are overloaded in the base calculation.

Consider voltage limits (terminals)

If this option is selected, the voltage limits of all the terminals are considered for the Transfer Capacity
analysis. The available options are:
• Global constraint for all terminals: the limits defined in the Upper and Lower limit of allowed voltage
fields are used for all terminals.
• Individual constraint per terminal: the limits defined on the Load Flow page of the terminals are
used.

The flag Continue calculation if base case has voltage violations allows execution of the Transfer
Capacity Analysis even if relevant constraints are not complied with in the base calculation. If this
option is selected, the user must specify a relaxation factor to be applied to the limits for those elements
where limits are violated in the base calculation.

Consider active power limits

The active power limits of the generators are considered in the analysis. The limit used is the minimum
of the Operational limit and the Rating limit defined on the Load Flow page of the generator.

The user has the option to consider the active power limits for only certain objects, which are selected
as a set.

Only consider constraints of selected region(s)

With this option, a specific region, where the constraint will be verified, can be defined. Single or multiple
areas, zones and grids are supported as regions.

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40.5.3 Output

When the Transfer Capacity Analysis is executed, the operational point of the network is modified in
order to get a better solution. These modifications are not saved by default. However, the user can
choose to save the data for the last feasible solution by using the following options available on the
Output page:

• Do not save

• Save to a new operation scenario

• Save to a user defined operation scenario

The results of the Transfer Capacity Analysis are printed in the output window as shown in Figure 40.5.1.
In the example shown, the scaling mode was selected for all generators. PowerFactory generates a
status report for each iteration while the power scaling process is running.

Figure 40.5.1: Transfer Capacity Analysis output

40.5.4 Iteration Control

In the Initial Conditions the Initial scaling factor of the scaling elements and the Initial step size for the
analysis are defined.

In the Convergence Criteria the Min. step size and the Max. number of iterations are defined.

40.5.5 Advanced

Use fictitious border network

This option is by default not selected and for most networks is not needed. It is provided for use with
networks where adjacent regions, normally modelling adjacent countries, are not connected directly but
via a so-called “fictitious border grid”, as shown in figure 40.5.2 below. In order that the calculation
recognises such configurations as interconnections, the option Use fictitious border network should be
checked, and the border grid selected.

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 40.5. TRANSFER CAPACITY ANALYSIS

Figure 40.5.2: Network regions without and with fictitious border network

Generators scaling mode

If generators are selected as scaling elements, the user can select between different scaling modes:
• Nominal active power: generation shift is proportionally scaled for the generators according to
their nominal active power.
• Remaining active power: generation shift is scaled for the generators according to the “remaining
active power”. The definition of “remaining active power” depends on the location of the genera-
tors: for generators in the exporting region, the value equals the difference between the maximum
active power and operating active power; for generators in the importing region, the value equals
the difference between the operating active power and minimum active power.

• Merit-order table: generation shift is scaled for the generators according to the merit-order table.
• Generation shift key: this scaling mode allows the assignment of individual participation factors
for each power generating unit. Via their specification, it is possible to define how the regional
change in power generation has to be mapped to each of the generating units within the exporting
and the importing region.
The default set value of this attribute is 100% and it can be entered on the Advanced tab on the
Load Flow page.
The actual shift factors of the generators that assume the power transfer changes between the
exporting and importing regions, i.e. those set as “Dispatchable” on the field Generator Dispatch
(Automatic Dispatch tab), are generally calculated as follows:

𝐺𝑆𝐾𝑖,𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝐺𝑆𝐾𝑖,𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑛 (40.1)
∑︁
𝐺𝑆𝐾𝑖,𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝑖=1

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Chapter 41

Distribution Network Tools

41.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the PowerFactory Distribution Network Tools, which are dedicated functions for
the analysis and optimisation of distribution networks. Each section of this chapter introduces the tool,
presenting a general description, the objective function, the optimisation procedure, and the command
dialogs.

The set of functions is organised into two sub-groups, namely Distribution Network Analysis and Distri-
bution Network Optimisation. The toolbox for each subgroup is accessible through the Change Toolbox
button on the Main Toolbar.

The toolbox “Distribution Network Analysis” is shown in Figure 41.1.1. It contains following functions:

• Hosting Capacity Analysis, described in Section 41.2

• Backbone Calculation, described in Section 41.3
• Voltage Sag Table Assessment, described in Section 41.4

Figure 41.1.1: Distribution Network Analysis Toolbox

The Toolbox “Distribution Network Optimisation” is shown in Figure 41.1.2. It contains following func-
tions:

• Tie Open Point Optimisation, described in Section 41.5

• Phase Balance Optimisation, described in Section 41.6
• Voltage Profile Optimisation, described in Section 41.7

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 41.2. HOSTING CAPACITY

• Optimal Equipment Placement, described in Section 41.8

• Optimal Capacitor Placement, described in Section 41.9

Figure 41.1.2: Distribution Network Optimisation Toolbox

Additionally, the Section 41.10 provides a description of the stochastic optimization algorithms used.

41.2 Hosting Capacity

The Hosting Capacity tool allows the analysis of the impact of adding generation (Distributed Energy
Resource (DER) Capacity) or load (Spare Load Capacity) to a power system.

Hosting capacity is generally defined as the amount of new generation or consumption that can be con-
nected to the grid without violation of system constraints (e.g. power quality for connected customers)
and without any network expansion. All constraints used to determine the level of possible generation
or load accommodation can be quantified using the performance index. This index can correlate
with voltage violation, loading violation, protection setup etc. and can be interpreted as the system
robustness. Therefore, the hosting capacity can also be defined as the amount of new generation or
consumption where the performance index reaches its limit. This is illustrated in the following figure:

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 41.2. HOSTING CAPACITY

Figure 41.2.1: Performance Index limiting the max. amount of generation/load

41.2.1 Technical Background

In this section the process of the Hosting Capacity Analysis, depending on the command settings, is
described. It also contains references to the below sections describing the available settings (like cal-
culation objective, constraints, etc.), in order to quickly find the corresponding settings in the command.

As described in Section 41.2.2, first the hosting sites to be analysed have to be selected. From
the selection, the corresponding terminals (internal nodes are ignored) are collected, for which the
maximum hosting capacity or spare load capacity is calculated. The calculation objective (see Section
41.2.2.1) determines whether generation or load is scaled:

• When option “Distributed Energy Resource (DER) Capacity” is selected each node is processed
individually. A virtual generator (ElmGenstat) is internally connected to the first terminal from
the hosting sites selection. Beginning from the initial power value (see Sections 41.2.2.3 and
41.2.2.4), the power of this generator is scaled until one of the user-defined constraints is violated.
Then, the analysis continues with the next node until all hosting sites are processed.
• If the option “Spare Load Capacity” is selected, per default all loads already connected to the
terminals to be analysed are scaled simultaneously. The maximum spare load capacity is obtained
when one of the user-defined constraints is violated. Another option (see Section 41.2.2.1,
Advanced tab) allows each load to be analysed separately. Here, as well, only terminals to which
a load is already connected are processed. On the “Configuration” page (see Section 41.2.2.3)
however the user can activate the option “Connect new load”. In this case, the same algorithm as
for DER Capacity is used to increase the load at the terminals one after the other.
The algorithm used to obtain the maximum hosting or spare load capacity is based on the binomial
search method. It starts from an initial active power value. The power is then increased by the initial
step size defined on the Iteration Control page (see Section 41.2.2.4).

A load flow calculation is executed and the constraints defined by the user on the Constraints page (see
Section 41.2.2.2) are checked for limit violations. If no violation has occurred, the algorithm continues
with the double of the previous step size and checks again for violations. This process is kept up

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until a limit violation occurs. In this case, the half of the previous step size is used. This process
is continued until the algorithm converges to the correct solution without violations or the maximum
number of iterations is reached.

41.2.2 Hosting Capacity Analysis Configuration

The Hosting Capacity analysis can be opened by pressing Hosting Capacity Analysis button in the
Distribution Network Analysis Toolbox. More information about the available settings can be found in
the following subsections.

41.2.2.1 Basic Options Page

Hosting sites

Contains one or multiple:

• Terminal(s)

• Substation(s)
• Secondary Substation(s)
• Feeder(s)

• Area(s)
• Zone(s)
• Grid(s)
If a grouping object is selected, the calculation will extract the relevant terminals.

Hosting sites can either be selected from the network graphic, Network Model or Data Manager, by
right clicking on the selection and choosing Calculate → Hosting Capacity Analysis. . . or through the
command. In the former case, a general selection is automatically assigned. In the latter case, the user
has to click on and then Select. . . . A selection browser will open, from which the desired object(s)
can be selected (multi-selection is possible). After confirming with OK, a general set is also created
automatically. In both cases, the set can be edited by clicking on .

Calculation objective

1. Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Capacity: assessment of maximum connectible DER hosting
capacity for each terminal within the selection.
2. Spare Load Capacity: assessment of maximum connectible Load Capacity by terminal or overall
by increase the power demand of all loads simultaneously.

41.2.2.2 Constraints

Thermal limits:
• Maximum thermal loading of elements can be defined globally or individual constraints per ele-
ment can be considered.

Voltage limits:

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1. upper and lower voltage limit can be entered as global constraint or individual constraints per node
can be defined.

Important: The following three settings only apply if the Advanced Option Ignore terminals which
are not part of a feeder is selected or the selection of Hosting Sites only contains one or more
feeders.
2. within the setting voltage regulator tap change, a limit of the number of tap changes can be
defined.
• the maximum number of taps for voltage regulator and capacitor can be defined.
3. The Permissible voltage change setting analyses the maximum voltage change ratio between no
DER infeed and full DER infeed.
• For this analysis, a separate Load Flow Command can be defined.
• The assessment is based on the generators selected within the Advanced tab, Generators
to be switched off.
4. The Max. voltage unbalance factor is a relevant constraint in case of having the Basic Option
System type selected to be unbalanced.
Protection Limits:

The user can choose between the consideration of all relevant protection devices or a user defined set
of protection devices. Please note that the Relay or fuse does not have to be modelled as a separate
device within the network model, but can also be defined through the circuit breaker setting Consider
as switch with protection device.
1. Reversed power flow option to prohibit the occurrence of reverse power flow during Hosting
Capacity analysis.
• Reversed power flow is analysed for switches where the setting Consider in the reversed
power flow analysis is set.
2. Relay/fuse tripping option to set up relay or fuse tripping to be a hosting capacity limiting constraint.

3. Limit Fuse current change by the entered value in relation to base case Fuse current.
4. The Total fault contribution limits the maximum allowed fault contribution of one Generator in
relation to the base case Short-Circuit results.
• This constraint is only available for calculation objective Distributed Energy Resource Capac-
ity.
Power Quality:

1. The percentage Total Harmonic voltage distortion can be selected, where the limit will be assessed
based on the Harmonic Load Flow command (chapter 36.2).
2. Short-term flicker disturbance factor (continuous operation) according to Harmonic Load Flow
analysis can be defined.

Advanced:
1. Ignore all constraints for nominal voltage below or above the given value.
2. Constraints check
• Per feeder: Only violated constraints within feeders will be assessed.
• Whole system: Constraints are checked within the whole system.
3. Generators to be switched off
• Choose between all static generators to be switched off or a user defined set of generators.
• This set of generators will be used for assessment of Permissible voltage change within the
voltage limits constraints settings.

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4. Short circuit calculation

• The Short Circuit calculation can be executed at all terminals within the feeder or only at the
DER location.

41.2.2.3 Configuration

Depending on the Calculation objective selected on the Basic Options page (see Section 41.2.2.1),
either the Distributed Energy Resource (DER) or the load to be connected can be configured. The
phase technology of the connected element is modified according to the phase technology of the
corresponding terminal.

Connected DER: Two options for the generator to be connected are available.

• Use generator with settings below: A Static Generator (ElmGenstat) is internally set up according
to the available settings on this page and used in the analysis.
• User-defined template: In order to allow more flexibility a Static Generator template can be
configured as required. It can be opened by clicking on the blue arrow . Please note that
options like the phase technology or the dispatch of the generator can be defined in the template
but are overwritten by the Hosting Capacity command.
For more information about the Static Generator model, please refer to the corresponding techni-
cal reference.

The following settings define the generator which is connected to the terminals during the analysis.
Some of them will only be available if Use generator with settings below is selected.

• DER power factor : The Power Factor used for the generator can be specified.
• User-defined active power limits: If activated, the initial and the final generated power can be
defined. If deactivated, the final generated power is not limited. The initial power is automatically
adapted to the voltage level, in order to accelerate the convergence process. The corresponding
mapping table is shown in Table 41.2.1.
– Final generated power : This value will limit the maximum active power that is connected to a
terminal, if the algorithm does not stop earlier because of a constraint violation.
– Initial generated power : This value is useful if the hosted power value is approximately known
(this will accelerate the convergence process) or if the initial generated power defined in the
internal mapping table shown above is too big (algorithm will find no solution).

Note: Please ensure that the initial power value is below any constraint violating power. Otherwise, the
algorithm will not find a solution.

Voltage Level in kV Initial Power

< 9.5 5 kW
< 39.5 200 kW
< 100 1 MW
>= 100 10 MW

Table 41.2.1: Mapping Table: Nominal Voltage vs Initial Generated Power

• Short-circuit contribution: This field will only be available if Short-circuit contribution limits option
is enabled on the Basic Options page (see Section 41.2.2.1). More information about the effect of
the parameters R/X” and Short-circuit model are available in the technical reference of the Static
Generator.
• Harmonics contribution: This field will only be available if Power quality limits option is enabled on
the Basic Options page (see Section 41.2.2.1). Depending on the settings on the Power Quality
tab of the Constraints page (see Section 41.2.2.2), the following two settings are available:

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 41.2. HOSTING CAPACITY

– Harmonic currents: Available if Total harmonic voltage distortion option is activated. A Har-
monic Source (TypHmccur ) can be selected from the global or project library. It is assigned
to the generator that is connected to the terminals during the analysis. The definition of the
Harmonic Source is necessary to evaluate the effect of the increasing generation on the Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD) in the network.
– Flicker coefficients: Available if Short-term flicker disturbance factor (continuous operation)
option is activated. A Flicker Coefficient (TypFlicker ) can be selected from the global or
project library. The object is assigned to the generator that is connected to the terminals
during the analysis, in order to evaluate the Short-term flicker disturbance factor (continuous
operation) with increasing generation.

Connect new load: This option is only available if calculation objective Spare Load Capacity is chosen
and option Each load separately is enabled on the Advanced tab of the Basic Options page. The
Hosting Capacity algorithm will connect new load only to those terminals where no load element is
already connected. Where loads are directly connected to the analysed terminals, they will be taken
and scaled instead.

If the Connect new load option is enabled, the following two settings can be configured:
• Initial load active power : Active power value from which the algorithm starts
• Load power factor :The Power Factor used for the load can be specified
For the calculation of the Spare Load Capacity, the Power Factor of the loads can be configured in two
ways:
• Keep constant power factor : The power factor of the loads will be constant, which means that both
active and reactive power will be scaled equally.
• Keep constant reactive power : The reactive power of the loads will be constant, which means that
only the active power will be scaled. The power factor changes accordingly.

41.2.2.4 Iteration Control

On this page, settings affecting the iteration process and the convergence of the algorithm can be
specified.

Initial conditions: In this field, the initial step size can be defined. The first step is then calculated by
the initial power multiplied by the initial step size, e.g. 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖 · (1 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖 /100%) = 1𝑀 𝑊 · (1 +
1%/100%) = 1.01𝑀 𝑊 .

Convergence criteria: Min. step size defines the smallest step size of the algorithm before it stops. A
value of 1% means a step size of 0.01 MW. The algorithm will also stop if the Max. number of iterations
is reached.

41.2.2.5 Output

Results: Link to the result object (ElmRes) for the Hosting Capacity Analysis. A result object can be
selected by clicking on and then Select. . . . An already selected one can be edited by pressing the
Edit button .

Note: Depending on which calculation objective (Distributed Energy Resource (DER) Capacity or
Spare Load Capacity ) is selected, a different result object (ElmRes) is automatically created and
assigned to the command.

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41.2.2.6 Advanced

Ignore terminals which are not part of a feeder:

• Disabled: If a set of terminals is selected, the Hosting Capacity command does not automatically
search for the corresponding feeders. All nodes are processed individually.

• If activated, only terminals which are part of a feeder are processed. Furthermore, the algorithm
analyses the terminals feeder by feeder. It also affects the Spare Load Capacity option All loads
simultaneously (see Section 41.2.2.1). If this option is activated, all loads within a feeder are
scaled simultaneously.
Include feeder starting terminal: A feeder which is defined in the Branch direction does not automati-
cally include the feeder starting terminal. If this terminal should be considered in the Hosting Capacity
Analysis, this option can be activated.

Ignore time trigger: By activating this option, all time triggers will be ignored in the analysis. This can
be used to avoid a time dependency of the results.

41.2.2.7 Parallel Computing

Parallel computation: By activating this option, a user-definable number of calculation objects (nodes)
is distributed to different cores, for which the solution of the Hosting Capacity analysis under consider-
ation of all selected constraints is then calculated and returned to the main process. Due to the parallel
computation the performance is multiplied, resulting in a significant reduction in the calculation time.

• Minimum number of calculation objects: The number of calculation objects must exceed this
number, in order that the analysis is executed in parallel.

• Package size for parallel process: Number of calculation objects/nodes that are transferred to
each core per cycle.
• Parallel computing manager : Refer to Section 22.4 for more information.

41.2.3 Results of the Hosting Capacity

This section informs about the possibilities to evaluate the Hosting Capacity results. For the analysed
terminals Statistics:Calculation Parameter are available that can be displayed in the Network Model or
Data Manager or in the Result Boxes in the single line or geographical diagram.

Result Boxes:

By right clicking on a result box of a terminal in the network graphic, a predefined format for the Hosting
Capacity can be selected (Format for Nodes → Hosted Power (P, Q)), in order to display the active and
reactive hosted power at the nodes.

Furthermore, different colouring schemes are available, in order to colour the schematic or geographical
diagrams according to different parameters. Several tabular reports help the user to easily find for
example the maximum hosted power or the limiting component. More information about the diagram
colouring and the reports can be found in the following sections.

41.2.3.1 Graphical Representation

Hosting Capacity Circles:

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In geographic diagrams circles can be displayed around substations, sites, secondary substations and
nodes, whose sizes represent the power that can be connected without violating the user-defined
constraints. This option can be enabled/disabled by clicking on and editing the layer Load/generation
distribution. On the page Load/Generation the option to show the Hosting capacity circles can be
activated or deactivated and the colour for the circles (Circle colour ) can be defined (see section 9.10
for more information). This option is available for the Displayed variables “P” and “Q”.

Diagram Colouring Scheme:

The colouring can be enabled by clicking on the Diagram Colouring. . . button and opening the
Hosting Capacity page. Activate 3. Others and select Results → Hosted Powers. By clicking on
Colour Settings. . . , the colouring mode can be determined.

Four colouring modes are available. For each one, the colour gradient can be defined in the alongside
table called Hosted Power.
• hosted power at nodes
• maximum feeder power
• minimum feeder power
• average feeder power

Note: The feeder colouring is only possible if feeders have been analysed (i.e. feeder object(s) selected
as Hosting Site).

Substation colouring: This option is only available if colouring mode hosted power at nodes is se-
lected. Substations can then be coloured according to the

• maximum power of connected terminals or

• minimum power of connected terminals.
Enable branch colouring: This option is only available if colouring mode hosted power at nodes is
selected. If enabled, branches can be coloured according to the

• maximum power of two connected terminals or

• minimum power of two connected terminals.

41.2.3.2 Tabular Reports

The results can also be evaluated by tabular report. These can be created by clicking on the Hosting
Capacity Reports button in the Distribution Network Analysis toolbar. A dialog will open, in which
the tabular report types to be created as well as the constraints to report, can be selected.

Results: The result object (ElmRes) to be analysed can be selected by clicking on and then
Select. . . . A window showing all result objects contained in the active study case will open and the
result object can be selected.

Report tables: The following types of tabular reports can be selected:

• Feeders: The report shows the maximum, minimum and average hosted active power within the
analysed feeders. The table report will only display feeders that have been selected as Hosting
Sites.
• Terminals: For each analysed terminal the maximum active and reactive hosted power that can be
connected before a constraint is violated, the corresponding violated constraint (if selected, see
Constraints to report) and the limiting component are displayed. The limiting component is the
element at which a limit has first been violated.

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• Ignored terminals: Lists all terminals that were selected but have been ignored in the Hosting
Capacity analysis.
Constraints to report: By selecting the following constraints, columns will be added to the tabular
report.
• Thermal
• Voltage
• Protection

• Power quality (only available for DER Capacity analysis)

Filters:
• Results per phase: If selected and an unbalanced analysis has been performed, columns will be
added in the table report, displaying the connectable power per phase.

• Show apparent power : If selected, a column will be added to the table report, displaying the
connectable apparent power.
• Colouring threshold: Threshold for the colouring of the limiting values. A value will be coloured in
red, if its relative value based on the limit in percent exceeds the threshold.
– Loading Colouring Threshold: Is used to colour loading values. For example: If the loading
threshold is set to 99.8% and the loading limit is 100%, all loading values over this threshold
will be coloured.
– Voltage Colouring Threshold: Is used to colour voltage values. For example: If the voltage
threshold is set to 1%, and the maximum and minimum voltage limits are 1.04 p.u. and
0.96 p.u. respectively, then all voltage values over 1.039 p.u. and under 0.961 p.u. will be
coloured.
– THD Colouring Threshold: Is used to colour THD values. For example: If the THD threshold
is set to 10% and the THD limit is 5%, all THD values over 4.5% will be coloured.
Used format: Links to the different format templates for the table reports.

41.2.3.3 Load Hosting Capacity Results

By clicking on the Load Hosting Capacity Analysis Results button in the Distribution Network Analy-
sis toolbar, previous results can be reloaded.

In the dialog window, a Hosting Capacity result object has to be selected, by clicking on and then
Select. . . . From the selection browser the desired result object (ElmRes) can be selected. After
confirming with Execute, the results are reloaded and can be evaluated in the network graphic, the
Network Model Manager or Data Manager.

41.3 Backbone Calculation

This section describes the Backbone Calculation command (ComBbone) dialogs and presents an
example calculation. To run a Backbone Calculation, either:

• Select the Backbone Calculation icon under Distribution Network Analysis as shown in Figure 41.1.1.
• From the Data Manager, select and then right-click previously defined feeders and click Calculate
→ Backbone Calculation. . . .
• From the main menu, select Calculation → Distribution Network Analysis→ Backbone Calculation.

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The Backbone Calculation is used to determine the main paths between adjacent feeders connected via
open points, that may serve to restore lost load in case of failures inside a feeder. The command creates
objects in the Network Data folder (ElmBbone) with the Backbones constituent network elements. This
simplifies visualisation of the main path(s) between feeder(s), particularly in large distribution networks
where the main paths may not be apparent from the single line diagram.

Backbone objects are created for all feeders or a user-defined set of feeders based on path load, cross-
section, network structure, or scoring method criteria. The command can optionally consider existing
remote controlled switches at open points, and the availability of connections to alternative transformers
or substations when creating Backbones.

From the Backbone dialog, the Backbone contents (elements) can be viewed, marked in the graphic,
and checked (see example in Section 41.3.4). The Check Backbone button is used to verify that the
backbone object still defines a valid inter-feeder path matching its calculated parameters.

41.3.1 Basic Options Page

Generate backbones

Specify all feeders or a user-defined set of feeder/s for the Backbone Calculation.

Calculation based on:

Note: For all calculation methods, feeder is supposed to be operated radially must be selected on the
Basic Options page of the relevant Feeder/s.

• Path load: Backbones are determined based on the MVA load on the paths between adjacent
feeders.
– (Optional) specify the max. number of backbones per feeder.
– Optionally select to Report results to the output window, including details of backbone open
points.
– Pointer to load-flow command (note for balanced calculations only).
• Cross section: Backbones are determined based on the cross-section of lines/cables connecting
adjacent feeders.
– (Optional) specify the max. number of backbones per feeder.
– Choose to determine backbone using either the mean cross section of lines in the path or
the minimum cross section in path.
– Optionally select to Report results to the output window, including details of backbone open
points, and minimum and mean cross-section.
• Network structure: Backbones are determined based on the network structure. If none of the
options are selected, Backbones are calculated for all feasible inter-feeder paths.
– (Optional) create backbones only if path leads to different substation.
– (Optional) create backbones only if path leads to different HV/MV-transformer.
– (Optional) create backbones only if tie open point is remote-controlled (as specified on the
Reliability page of each switch).
– Optionally select to Report results to the output window, including details of backbone open
points.
• Scoring method: Backbones are determined using a scoring algorithm based on the restoration
ability of the adjacent feeder. Scoring method settings are entered on the Scoring Settings page.
– (Optional) specify the max. number of backbones per feeder.
– Optionally select to Report results to the output window, including details of backbone open
points, and loading/voltages of limiting elements.
– Pointer to load-flow command (note for balanced AC calculation only).

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41.3.2 Scoring Settings Page

If scoring method is selected on the Basic Options page, enter scoring settings on the Scoring Settings
page. Backbones are determined based on the restoration ability of every inter-feeder path using
Topology, Loading violation, and Voltage violation criteria.

For each criteria satisfied, the path receives the entered number of points. The path with the greatest
number of points is the “winning” path.

Topology scoring

Define scoring settings for Topology scoring criteria:

• Path leads to different substation.

• Path leads to different HV/MV-transformer.
• Tie open point is remote controlled.
• Greater than a specified number of remote-controlled switches on path. A path to another Feeder
receives the entered number of points if more (closed) remote-controlled switches than the entered
number are on the path of the Backbone contained in the initial feeder.

Loading violation scoring

Assign Points for loading violations based on individual loading constraints or global loading constraints.
If no element is overloaded, the calculation assigns the specified number of points. If global loading
constraints is selected, then Max. Loading should also be defined.

Define scoring settings for Loading violation scoring criteria:

• Restoring transformer (restoration mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder B”.
“Feeder A” is de-energised and the connection to “feeder B” via the tie open point is closed.
A load flow is calculated in this so-called restoring mode and the entered number of points is
assigned if the supplying HV/MV-transformer is not overloaded.
• On backbone of restoring feeder (normal mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder
B”. A load flow is calculated (in so-called normal mode) and the entered number of points is
assigned if no element on the potential backbone path contained in “feeder B”, the restoring feeder
is overloaded in the base case.
• On complete backbone (restoration mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder B”.
“Feeder A” is de-energised and the connection to “feeder B” via the tie open point is closed. A load
flow is calculated in this so-called restoring mode and the entered number of points is assigned if
no element on the potential backbone path is overloaded.
• In complete feeder (restoration mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder B”. “Feeder
A” is de-energised and the connection to “feeder B” via the tie open point is closed. A load flow
is calculated in this so-called restoring mode and the entered number of points is assigned if
no element in the complete resulting feeder is overloaded (not only on the backbone as for the
previous option).
Voltage violation scoring

Define scoring settings for voltage violation criteria based on individual voltage drop/rise constraints or
global voltage drop/rise constraints. If global voltage drop/rise constraints is selected, then Max. drop
and Max. rise should also be defined. If no voltage limits are violated, the calculation assigns the
specified number of points.

• On backbone of restoring feeder (normal mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder
B”. A load flow is calculated (in so-called normal mode) and the entered number of points is
assigned if no terminal on the potential backbone path contained in “feeder B” violates its voltage
drop constraint and voltage rise constraint.

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• On complete backbone (restoration mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder B”.
“Feeder A” is de-energised and the connection to “feeder B” via the tie open point is closed. A load
flow is calculated in this so-called restoring mode and the entered number of points is assigned if
no terminal on the potential backbone path violates its voltage drop and rise constraint.
• In complete feeder (restoration mode). Consider a path from initial “feeder A” to “feeder B”. “Feeder
A” is de-energised and the connection to “feeder B” via the tie open point is closed. A load flow
is calculated in this so-called restoring mode and the entered number of points is assigned if no
terminal in the complete resulting feeder violates its voltage drop and rise constraint (not only on
the backbone as for the previous option).

41.3.3 Tracing Backbones

When a Backbone is calculated, it always contains a connection to another Feeder via a tie open point.
In the worst case of an outage close to the feeding point of the initial feeder, the initial feeder is de-
energised by opening its feeding switch and restored by the second Feeder via the tie open point. These
restoration steps can be simulated for an existing Backbone using the Backbone trace functionality. The
trace buttons are located beside the ComBbone command, and can also be accessed via the main
menu Calculation → Distribution Network Analysis→ Start trace. . . .

41.3.4 Example Backbone Calculation

Consider a case where there are two parallel feeders with multiple open-points. A Backbone calculation
is conducted based on a criteria of minimum cross section in path, and with the Max. number of
backbones per feeder set to “1”. Backbone objects are created within the Network Data folder.

To highlight Backbones, from the main menu select View → Diagram Colouring (or select the Diagram
Colouring icon). Under 3. Other select Topology Feeders. Click on Colour Settings, and on the Feeders
page select Highlight backbones.

Figure 41.3.1 shows the result, where the path through “Open Point 2” is highlighted as a result of the
cross section of conductors in this path. Refer to Section 41.3.3 for details of how to trace the Backbone
restoration steps.

Figure 41.3.1: Example Backbone Calculation

41.4 Voltage Sag

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The Voltage Sag Table Assessment (ComVsag) can be used to assess the expected frequency and
severity of voltage sags within a network during an operating period, and determine the expected
number of equipment trips due to deep sags. The PowerFactory Voltage Sag tool calculates a short-
circuit at the selected load points within the system and uses the failure data of the system components
to determine the voltage sag probabilities.

Voltage sag analysis is similar to probabilistic reliability analysis, in that it uses fault statistics to describe
the frequency of faults, and then use these statistics to weight the results of each event and to calculate
the overall effects of failures. However, reliability analysis looks for sustained interruptions as one aspect
of quality of supply, whereas voltage sag analysis calculates the voltage drop during the fault until the
protection system has disconnected the defective component.

This section describes the calculation options, how to perform a Voltage Sag Table Assessment, and
how to view the results.

41.4.1 Calculation Options

41.4.1.1 Basic Options Page

Load selection

Reference to the set of load points. A load point can be defined by a busbar, terminal, or load.

Short-circuit command

Displays the short-circuit command that is used. The options for the short-circuit type will be changed
during the voltage sag calculation, depending on the Advanced Options specified in the ComVsag
dialog. However, other settings can be inspected or changed by clicking on the Edit button ( ).

Results

Reference to the results file that is used for storage of results.

Exposed area limit

This defines the minimum remaining voltage for the voltage sag calculation to continue calculating short-
circuits at busbars which are further away from the selected load points. If short-circuits at all busbars
(at a certain distance away from all load points) result in voltages at the load points being higher than
this limit, then no further short-circuit will be analysed.

41.4.1.2 Advanced Options Page

TheAdvanced Options page shows the various short-circuit types that can be analysed by the voltage
sag assessment command. All components for which a failure model has been defined use the same
short-circuit frequency. The relative frequency for each type of short-circuit is entered uniformly for all
components.

41.4.2 How to Perform a Voltage Sag Table Assessment

A voltage sag table assessment is performed in two phases:

1. A results file with remaining voltages and short-circuit impedances is created by executing the
ComVsag command. This can be done by selecting one or more nodes, right-clicking and
executing the Calculate. . . → Voltage sag table. . . option, or by initiating the command directly
from the main toolbar by clicking on the Voltage Sag Table Assessment icon ( ).

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2. A voltage sag plot is created by selecting one or more of the nodes for which the ComVsag
command was executed, right-clicking and selecting the option Show → Voltage Sag Plot. . .
Alternatively,

• The Load selection in the ComVsag dialog can be completed manually with a set of objects. A
load point is defined by a terminal, a busbar, or by a single-connection element (a load, motor,
generator, etc.). These kinds of elements can be multi-selected from the single-line diagram or
Data Manager. Once selected, right-click on them and select Define. . . → General Set from the
context-sensitive menu. This set can then be selected as the Load selection.

• A voltage sag plot can be created from the Insert Plot dialog ( ) manually, and the load points
can then be selected from the list of analysed load points.
If several objects are selected which are all connected to the same busbar, then that busbar will be
added only once to the set of load points.

The Load selection parameter in the voltage sag assessment command should be set to use the
SetSelect which has the Used for: Voltage sag table flag set. However, any other selection can be
assigned to the Load selection.

The voltage sag analysis simulates various faults at the selected busbars. The calculation starts with
the selected load points, and proceeds to neighbouring busbars until the remaining voltage at all load
points does not drop below the defined Exposed area limit. The remaining voltages and the short-circuit
impedances for all load points are written to the results file specified by the Results parameter.

After all relevant busbars have been analysed, the sag table assessment continues by analysing short-
circuits at the midpoint of all lines and cables that are connected between the relevant busbars. Again,
the remaining voltages and short-circuit impedances for all load points are written to the results file.

After the complete exposed area has been analysed in this way, the results file contains the values for
Z_F1, Z_F2, Z_F0, Z_S1, Z_S2, Z_S0 and ura, uia, urb, uib, urc, uic for the two ends of all relevant
lines and cables and at their midpoints.

To reduce computation time, the written impedances are interpolated between the ends of a line and the
middle with a second-order polynomial. Then, the remaining voltages and various source impedances
are estimated. These estimated impedances are also interpolated between the ends and the midpoint.
The interpolated impedances are then used to estimate the remaining voltages between the ends and
the midpoints of the lines or cables. This quadratic interpolation gives a good approximation for longer
lines, as well as parallel lines.

41.4.3 Voltage Sag Table Assessment Results

The voltage sag tables are not calculated until a voltage sag plot is constructed. Upon reading the
remaining voltages, short-circuit frequencies and short-circuit impedances from the results file, a voltage
sag table is constructed for each selected load point.

Because there is no single definition of a voltage sag, the plot offers a selection of sag definitions:
• Minimum of Line-Neutral Voltages.

• Minimum of Line-Line Voltages.

• Minimum of Line-Line and Line-Neutral Voltage.
• Positive Sequence Voltage.

Secondly, the x-variable against which the sag frequency will be shown has to be selected. Possible
x-variables are:
• Remaining Voltage.

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• Nom. Voltage at Shc-Busbar.

• Fault Clearing Time.
• Short-Circuit Type.

Additionally, the x-variable can be sub-divided according to a split-variable (parameter name: Split Bars
in). Possible split variables are:
• no split.
• any of the possible x-variables.
The same parameter cannot be selected for the x-variable and the split-variable.

An example of the resulting voltage sag plot, is shown in Figure 41.4.1.

Figure 41.4.1: Example Voltage Sag Plot

The voltage sag plot always shows the annual frequency of occurrence on the y-axis.

The example plot shows a bar for each load point for each x-variable, which is the Remaining Voltage.
All three loads can be seen to suffer either deep sags (remaining voltage less than 0.4 p.u.), or shallow
sags, although the values at 0.8 p.u. are also significant. Each bar is subdivided to the nominal voltage
at SHC-Busbar. The shallow sags are caused by the low voltage network, as well as the deep sags.
The high voltage network seems to cause moderate voltage sags. This is caused by the fact that the
low voltage networks in this example are radially operated and the higher voltage networks are meshed.
More detailed information about a specific value in the voltage sag plot can be viewed in the balloon
help that appears when placing the mouse over a bar or part of a bar (without clicking).

The voltage sag plot dialog has a Report button which outputs the voltage sag plot data to the output
window. A table for each selected load point will be written in accordance to the selected Voltage Sag
definition, x-Variable and Split Bars in selection.

41.5 Tie Open Point Optimisation

The function of the Tie Open Point Optimisation (TOPO) (ComTieopt) is to optimise a radial system
of connected feeders by determining the best location for network open points. An open point can be
moved by the TOPO tool by opening and closing switches on the networks to be optimised.

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This chapter is separated into three sub-sections. Firstly, the steps to access the TOPO tool are
described. Next, the background and function of the TOPO tool is presented and finally the procedure
for running a Tie Open Point Optimisation is described. The TOPO command can be accessed from
the Distribution Network Optimisation Tools, as shown in Figure 41.1.2

41.5.1 Tie Open Point Optimisation Background

The function of the Tie Open Point Optimisation (TOPO) tool is best explained using an example.
Consider the network illustrated in Figure 41.5.1

Figure 41.5.1: Example network for Tie Open Point Optimisation

The network consists of three feeders, one from each of the three “stations”. Each feeder begins at a
“station” and ends at one of the two illustrated open points. The two open points in this network are not
necessarily the optimum open points. For example, it might be more economic (i.e. less network losses
and / or less impact of outages) to shift these open points by closing the open switches and opening
two switches in different positions on the feeders. The purpose of the TOPO tool is determine these
optimum open points automatically. Additionally, the TOPO tool can automatically consider network
voltage and thermal constraints - for instance it might be economic to shift an open point in terms of
reducing systems losses, however doing so might cause a cable to overload.

41.5.2 How to run a Tie Open Point Optimisation

This section describes the procedure for running a Tie Open Point Optimisation (TOPO) calculation.
The steps are summarised below, and discussed in more detail in the following sections:
• How to Create Feeders.

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 41.5. TIE OPEN POINT OPTIMISATION

• How to configure the Tie Open Point Optimisation Command.

• How to configure constraints for the Tie Open Point Optimisation.

• How to configure the Advanced Options.

• How to configure Reliability Options.
How to Create Feeders

The TOPO tool requires that feeders are defined for the section of the network that you wish to opti-
mise. Additionally, the TOPO tool only works on radial feeders - mesh systems cannot be optimised
automatically. Furthermore, it is recommended that the target feeders for optimisation do not have any
overloaded components or voltage violations in the base case.

To define a feeder, right-click the cubicle at the beginning of the feeder and select the Define → Feeder.
Alternatively, for fast creation of multiple feeders right-click the bus the feeder/s are connected to and
select the option Define → Feeder. More information on feeders and feeder creation can be found in
Chapter 15: Grouping Objects, Section 15.5.

How to configure the Tie Open Point Optimisation Command

After a set of feeders has been defined, open the TOPO tool and configure the basic options:

1. Click the Change Toolbox icon ( ) and select Distribution Network Optimisation.

2. Open the dialog for the Tie Open Point Optimisation tool ( ).

3. Use the selection control for Feeding Points to select previously defined feeder/s, or a feeder
“Set”. If the Select option is chosen and multiple feeders are selected, a “Set” of feeders will
automatically be created within the active study case. By default the set will be named ’Tie Open
Point Optim. - Feeder Set’.

Note: It is generally recommended to define all feeders in the network as Feeders, and to conduct
a TOPO calculation for ’All Feeders’.

4. Select the desired Objective Function to minimise losses and / or reliability indices. If Optimisation
of Reliability Indices or Cost Optimisation (Losses + Reliability) is selected, complete the required
fields on the Reliability page, see (How to configure Reliability Options).
5. “Method” can be selected, where the optimisation explores the meshes iteratively, uses a stochas-
tic optimisation according to section 41.10 (Simulated Annealing or Genetic Algorithm).
6. “Balanced, positive sequence” or “Unbalanced” network representation can be selected. The
Load-flow command referenced below these radio buttons is automatically adjusted to the correct
calculation method based on this selection.

7. Optional: You can inspect and alter the settings of the load-flow command that is used for deter-
mining the losses and identifying the constraints of the system by clicking the blue selection arrow
next to load-flow command.
8. Optional: Change the “Saving of solution” option. The two options are as follows:
• Change Existing Network (Operation Scenario). This is the default option. The TOPO tool
modifies the base network model. Note that if a variation is active, the changes will be
implemented in the variation.
• Record to Operation Scenario. If you choose this option a selection control appears and you
can choose an existing operation scenario to save the results of the Optimisation procedure
to. Alternatively, you can leave the selection empty and PowerFactory automatically activates
a new Operation Scenario called “Tie Open Point Optimisation Results”. Any changes made
to the network as a result of the optimisation procedure are stored within this operation
scenario. You can revert to the original network by disabling the scenario.

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9. Optional: Disable the “Report” flag. This control, enabled by default, allows you to turn off the
automatic printing of an ASCII report to the output window.
10. Optional: Select the Before Optimisation and After Optimisation results objects.
How to configure constraints for the Tie Open Point Optimisation

It is optional whether you choose to consider thermal and voltage constraints for the Tie Open Point
Optimisation. If you wish to consider constraints follow these steps:

1. Open the Tie Open Point Optimisation dialog and select the Constraints page.
2. Optional: Choose to enable or disable the option Consider Thermal Constraints. If enabled,
the TOPO tool will automatically consider thermal constraints in the network. Therefore, if an
optimal point were to cause an thermal overload on any system component, then this would not
be considered as a valid open point for reconfiguration of the system. There are two more options
for thermal constraints:
• Global constraint for all components. This is the default option. If enabled you must enter a
maximum thermal loading percentage in the Max. thermal loading of components field. Note
this option overrides the individual component thermal limits.
• Individual constraint per component. Select this option to automatically consider each com-
ponent’s unique thermal rating. Note, the thermal rating for each component is determined
by the field Max Loading within the Tie Open Point Optimisation page of each component.
3. Optional: Choose to enable or disable the option Consider Voltage Constraints. If this option is
enabled then each terminal in the system is checked against the Lower and Upper limit of allowed
voltage. If a particular open point causes a voltage violation, then such an open point cannot be
considered as “optimal”. There are two options for configuring the upper and lower voltage limits:
• Global constraints for all terminals (absolute value). If you choose this option then you must
enter an upper and lower voltage limit in the two corresponding fields within this dialog box.
• Individual constraint per terminal. If you choose this option, then each terminal has a unique
voltage limit which is assigned on the Tie Open Point Optimisation page of each terminal
(note that this excludes Substation internal nodes).
4. Optional: Choose to enable or disable the option Consider Voltage Drop / Rise. If this option is
enabled then each feeder in the system is checked against the Maximum Voltage Drop / Rise. If
a particular open point causes a voltage violation, then such an open point cannot be considered
as “optimal”. There are two options for configuring the maximum voltage drop / rise limits:
• Global constraints for all feeders (percent). If you choose this option then you must enter the
Maximum Voltage Drop and Maximum Voltage Rise in the two corresponding fields within
this dialog box.
• Individual constraint per feeder. If you choose this option, then each feeder has a unique
voltage drop / rise limit which is assigned on the Tie Open Point Optimisation page of each
feeder.
5. If the option Consider Boundary Constraints outside feeders is set, the boundary constraints,
applied on the boundaries “Reliability” settings are considered.
6. Choose the ignore all constraints for. . . option. You can use these options to optionally ignore
constraints where the nominal voltage is above or below user-defined thresholds entered here.
This can be useful for example to exclude all LV systems (say less than 1 kV) from the constraints
identification process as it may be acceptable to have these systems outside the “normal” range.

How to configure the Switching Options

The options in the Advanced page can generally be left on default values. The options are described
as follows:
• Switches to be optimised. These options configure the switches / elements considered by the
optimisation procedure.
– All switches. All switches will participate in the optimisation.

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– Selected switches. Only the selected switch types will participate in the optimisation. For
example, if “Circuit-Breaker” and “Load-Breaker-Switch” are ticked, then both circuit breakers
and load breakers will be considered by the optimisation. The switch type is defined on the
switch element “Basic Data” page. Similar to Switch type, only the selected control types will
participate in the optimisation. The control type is defined in switch element “Reliability” page
in the “Sectionalising” field. Switches are considered in the optimisation only when its switch
type AND the control type satisfies the selected settings.
– Assume each edge element is switchable. If selected, lines that do not have a switch can
also be switchable (either out of service or in service).

How to configure Reliability Options

If Optimisation of Reliability Indices is selected, the user may select between optimisation of SAIFI or
EPNS indices on the Reliability page. Where:
• SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index) in units of [1/C/a], indicates how often the
average customer experiences a sustained interruption in one year. Note that the number of
customers at each load should be defined on the Reliability page.

• EPNS (Expected Power Not Supplied) is in units of [MW]. Multiplying EPNS by the study duration
gives the expected energy not supplied.
Contingency definitions can be optionally considered for Busbar / terminals, Lines / Cables, and Trans-
formers.

If Cost Optimisation (Losses + Reliability) is selected, Costs for Losses and Interruption costs per
customer should be defined, as these are used in the Objective Function calculation to determine
the network configuration that optimises both Losses and Reliability.

How to configure Explore Meshes Options

• Maximum number of outer loops. This option controls the maximum number of outer loops which
is the total number of times the optimisation procedure will be repeated when searching for an
optimal solution.
• Maximum change in system losses. This option determines the threshold above which a change
in open point is considered. If the reduction in losses is below this threshold, the iteration will stop.

• Constraint Priority options can be selected for the relevant constraints. For example, consider the
following scenario:
– The TOPO calculation is to consider Global Thermal constraints, with the Max. thermal
loading of components set to 100 %, and Global Voltage Constraints with a Lower limit of
0.90 p.u.
– The constraint priorities for loading constraint is set to 1, and for voltage lower limit is set to
3.
– In the current configuration, a line is loaded to 102 % of rating.
– Shifting the open point causes the voltage at a terminal on an adjacent feeder to decrease
5 % below 0.90 p.u. (i.e. 0.855 p.u).
– As a result of the priorities, the thermal loading deviation will be “penalised” to a greater
extent than the voltage deviation, and the open point will change, despite the resultant voltage
deviation.

How to configure Simulated Annealing and Genetic Algorithm options

Please refer to section 41.10 for details about this method and its input parameter.

41.6 Phase Balance Optimisation

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Distribution networks are generally designed to support asymmetric loads and feed in. This fact leads
to asymmetric load flows, which can be calculated with PowerFactory using the unbalanced Load Flow
Calculation. The asymmetric load flows result in higher loadings and losses in single phases and
transformer windings and are therefore not welcome. In networks with a high number of asymmetric
loads and/or elements with less than 3 phases, the Phase Balance Optimisation offers a possibility
to distribute the connected phases of asymmetric elements in a way to minimise the power unbalance
in the network. The feature works on radially operated feeders using one of two possible algorithms to
satisfy the chosen objective function.

The following sections describe the objective functions of the Phase Balance Optimisation, the imple-
mented algorithms and the possibilities regarding the solution and its output.

41.6.1 Objective functions

The optimisation algorithm may be executed for two different objective functions. The minimised quantity
is in both cases the power unbalance 𝑠. It is defined for branch elements as follows:
Let 𝑁 be the number of phases, and let
𝑁
1 ∑︁
𝑆ˆ = 𝑆𝑖
𝑁 𝑖=1

be the average complex power (at one end) of a branch element, where 𝑆𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, . . . ,𝑁 are the complex
powers on phases 1, . . . ,𝑁 . Let
𝑁
1 ∑︁
𝑆¯ = |𝑆𝑖 |
𝑁 𝑖=1

be the average of the absolute values of the powers on the different phases. Then the power unbalance
factor 𝑠𝑏 for the branch element 𝑏 is defined as
¯ max {|𝑆𝑖 − 𝑆|}.
𝑠𝑏 := (1/𝑆) ˆ
𝑖=1,...,𝑁

The user can choose between the following two objective functions for the optimisation:

• Minimise average power unbalance: This function takes into account the power unbalance of
all 𝑀 branch elements, which are part of the analysed feeder. The average power unbalance is
defined as:
𝑀
1 ∑︁
𝑠¯ = 𝑠𝑏 .
𝑀
𝑏=1

• Minimise power unbalance at feeding point: This function permutes the connection of the
feeders elements to get a minimum power unbalance at the feeding point (branch element, where
feeder ’starts’), regardless the unbalance of the rest of the feeder elements.

41.6.2 Methods

To achieve the minimisation of power unbalance, three different algorithms are available to choose from:
• Large loads and generators first
• Simulated annealing

• Genetic Algorithm
All three methods have their advantages. The Large loads and generators first method is easier to
understand and to configure, and leads in most cases to very good solutions. The Simulated annealing
and genetic algorithm methods are more theoretical regarding the configuration, but due to the random
approach can find solutions for networks in which the power balance is difficult to achieve.

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Large loads and generators first:

This algorithm iterates over all loads and generators in order of their apparent power, starting with the
largest load or generator. For each load or generator, it will permute the connections of the load or
generator or their supplying branch elements. After calculating the objective function for all possible
connections, it will choose the best connection for this load or generator.

Settings:

The behaviour of the algorithm can be controlled with the following two settings:
The setting ’Disconnect loads and generators at beginning’ will disconnect all loads and generators
before the algorithm starts to iterate, and in each iteration, the actual load or generator will be connected
to the grid in the best way for this iteration step. If this setting is not chosen, the actual load or generator
will be just reconnected.
At each iteration, the algorithm will evaluate several modifications. The threshold in the frame ’Accep-
tance of change’ determines the minimal improvement required for such a modification. If a modification
does not lead to an improvement larger than this threshold, it is not applied to the solution.

Simulated annealing

This algorithm as well as the input parameters are described in detail in section 41.10.

41.6.3 Eléments considérés

The set of elements, whose connections are permuted during the optimisation can be parameterised
by the following settings:
• Allow phase permutation: defines, which types of elements are considered by the algorithm. At
least one box has to be checked.
• Elements with fixed phases: a selection of various elements may be chosen, which are excluded
from the optimisation.

41.6.4 Representation of solution

The optimised connections of the affected elements can be applied to the network by choosing one of
the two possible options:

The preferable option is to use ’Create new Variation’, where all connection changes will be stored into
a new variation. They can be undone by deactivating the newly created variation. This option is also
advantageous if the impact of the optimisation has to be analysed or if different settings have to be
compared between each other.

As alternative, the changes may be set directly in the network without creating a new variation. Select
this option only if surely intended!

After the execution of the optimisation the result boxes show the unbalance factors of power, current
(for branch elements) and voltage (nodes). By calculating another load flow, the result boxes are reset
to the normally shown variables.

41.6.5 Output

The Phase Balance Optimisation tool displays by default some information in the output window. The
internal and effective objective function value before and after the optimisation are printed (the internal
objective value may differ from the effective objective value due to an approximation made to achieve the
high performance). The number of modified elements, differentiated for the element types, are listed,

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too. Additional information may be displayed by checking the following settings in the Output page of
the ComBalance-dialog:

• Output changed elements: lists after execution of the optimisation all elements, which were
changed including the affected phases.
• Report objective value after each iteration: displays the internal objective value for every
iteration in the output window.

41.7 Voltage Profile Optimisation

The Voltage Profile Optimisation (VPO) command (ComVoltplan) is used to optimise distribution trans-
former taps over the expected range of network load and generation conditions. It can be selected from
the Distribution Network Optimisation Tools, as shown in Figure 41.1.2. The VPO calculation considers
two scenarios:

• A maximum demand/minimum generation scenario, or “Consumption Case”.

• A minimum demand/maximum generation scenario, or “Production Case”.

For the representation of the transformer and the supplied LV network the user can choose between
two possible modelling solutions:

• MV Load: This requires that loads be represented as medium voltage (MV) loads (ElmLodmv ).
MV load elements include transformer type data and LV network parameters, as illustrated in
Figure 41.7.1a.

• Transformer in a secondary substation: This requires that a MV/LV-transformer is located

within a secondary substation (ElmTrfstat). All supplied loads and generators that are modelled
to represent the LV network will be considered. The more detailed modelling gives the user
more accurate results for the voltage drop/rise over the transformer. An example is shown in
Figure 41.7.1b.

To show terminal colouring based on maximum/minimum LV grid voltages, select View → Diagram
Colouring from the main menu (or select the Diagram Colouring icon). Under 3. Other, select Results
→ Voltages / Loading. Click on Colour Settings, go to the second page of the Voltages / Loading page,
and select Consider LV grid voltages for colouring. In the example below, the minimum voltage is below
the lower limit and the maximum voltage is above the upper limit (the limits set in the colouring options)
and the terminal therefore shows two colours.

The load and generation scaling factors used in the tap optimisation calculation override the values
specified on the “Load Generation Scaling” tab of the Load Flow Calculation, but the Load Flow Calcu-
lation settings remain unchanged.

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(a) MV load model (b) Transformer model supplying a LV network

Figure 41.7.1: Use of different transformer representations for the Voltage Profile Optimisation

Note: In the MV load model, the transformer tap changer is represented on the LV side of the trans-
former.

41.7.1 Optimisation Procedure

The optimisation procedure can be summarised as follows:

1. If Distribution Transformer Tap Limits are specified by the user, the tap range of transformers will
be limited within Min. allowed tap position and Max. allowed tap position. This is illustrated in
Figure 41.7.2, where a transformer with seven tap positions is limited to taps “-1” to “2”, which
limits the transformer voltage rise to 7 % and voltage drop to -5 %. The height of each bar is
determined by the voltage rise and voltage drop across the transformer in the production and
consumption cases, respectively.

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Figure 41.7.2: Distribution transformer tap limits

2. The Upper tap limit and Lower tap limit are calculated based on settings that will keep the range of
expected LV grid voltages within the Upper voltage limit and Lower voltage limit. This is illustrated
in Figure 41.7.3, where the limits are set to between 0.92 p.u. and 1.10 p.u. In cases where only
Production case or Consumption case is set, only the corresponding voltages within the LV grid
will be considered.
3. Both tap positions “0” and “1” would be acceptable, and maintain transformer voltage drop and
LV grid voltages within acceptable limits. The optimisation routine selects the optimal tap position
based on the objective function defined in the command. Figure 41.7.3 shows an example for the
objective function Maximisation of generation. The lower tap limit (position “0” in Figure 41.7.3) is
selected in order to minimise the voltage rise.

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Figure 41.7.3: Voltage limits for LV grids with the objective function Maximisation of generation selected

The possible scenarios for optimisation are summarised as follows:

1. There is a single tap position that will satisfy both LV grid lower and upper voltage limits -> this
tap is selected.
2. There are multiple tap positions that will satisfy both LV grid lower and upper voltage limits -> the
selected objective function defines which tap position is selected.
3. There is no tap position at all, that will satisfy either the lower nor upper voltage limits of the LV grid
-> PowerFactory will try to secure the LV grid violations of either the minimum (for Maximisation
of consumption) or maximum (for Maximisation of generation) voltage limit.
4. There are tap positions that will satisfy the LV grid upper voltage limit, but all of them violate the
lower voltage limit -> the highest tap position that will not violate the upper voltage limit is selected.
5. There are tap positions that will satisfy the LV grid lower voltage limit, but all of them violate the
upper voltage limit -> the lowest tap position that will not violate the lower voltage limit is selected.
Note that Distribution Transformer Tap Limits, if specified on the Advanced Options page, take prece-
dence over the Upper voltage limit and Lower voltage limit specified on the Basic Options page. This
means that if distribution tap limits are considered, a tap range is first determined which respects these
drop/rise limits over the MV/LV transformer (HV to LV side of the MV/LV transformer). Afterwards, an
optimal tap position which obeys the voltage limits (in the LV feeder) for the selected Calculated cases
is sought within this range.

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41.7.2 Basic Options Page

• Calculation mode
– Optimisation: the tap of the distribution transformers will be set to the optimal position within
the given limits.
– Verification: the tap position of the distribution transformers will remain as-is. The algorithm
checks whether this setting exceeds the given limits. This could be used to verify whether
the given tap positions in a network are still valid after changes within the LV grid.
• Calculation cases
– Consumption- and production case simultaneously: the consumption- and production
case will be calculated and shown in the results. In addition, a tap position which conforms
in both cases is selected.
– Consumption case only: the consumption case will be calculated with the Voltage limits for
LV grids. Hence, the tap position will be optimised for the highest possible voltage within the
limit. A typical application would be a LV grid with high power consumption and no generation
units.
– Production case only: the production case will be calculated with the Voltage limits for LV
grids. Hence, the tap position will be optimised for the lowest possible voltage within the limit.
A typical application would be a LV grid with a high proportion of photovoltaic.
• Objective function (only available for Calculation method: Optimisation)
– Maximisation of generation: if multiple tap positions of the distribution transformer meet the
given limits for the consumption- and/or production case, the result with the lowest voltage
level will be used.
– Maximisation of consumption: if multiple tap positions of the distribution transformer meet
the given limits for the consumption- and/or production case, the result with the highest
voltage level will be used.
• Voltage limits for LV grids
– Upper voltage limit: upper limit that the LV grid must not exceed (e.g. 1.1 p.u.).
– Lower voltage limit: lower limit that the LV grid must not fall below (e.g. 0.9 p.u.).
• Consumption case (not available for Production case only )
– Load scaling factor: percentage load scaling for the calculation of the consumption case
(e.g. 100 %).
– Generation scaling factor: percentage generation scaling for the calculation of the con-
sumption case (e.g. 0 %).
• Production case (not available for Consumption case only )
– Load scaling factor: percentage load scaling for the calculation of the production case (e.g.
25 %).
– Generation scaling factor: percentage generation scaling for the calculation of the produc-
tion case (e.g. 100 %).
• Load Flow calculation: a reference to the Load Flow command used by the optimisation algo-
rithm. A copy is made of the command meaning that any changes made do not affect the settings
of the original Load Flow command.

41.7.3 Output Page

In cases where Calculation method “Consumption- and production case simultaneously” is used, the
following option is available:

• Shown results
– Consumption case: the results for the consumption case are shown.
– Production case: the results for the production case are shown.

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41.7.4 Advanced Options Page

Distribution Transformer Tap Limits

Transformer Maximum Allowed Voltage Rise and Maximum Allowed Voltage Drop can be optionally
specified. These limits restrict the feasible range of taps in the optimisation procedure.

41.7.5 Results of Voltage Profile Optimisation

The result of the Voltage Profile Optimisation can be shown as a tabular or ASCII report, or as a voltage
profile plot.

Tabular and ASCII report

The tabular or ASCII reports, which show the recommended tap settings, including details of MV loads
with critical voltage drop or rise can be accessed after the Voltage Profile Optimisation has been calcu-
lated. This is done by clicking on “Reports Voltage Profile Optimisation” ( ). An example of the Optimal
Transformer Tap Positions section of the report is shown below in Figure 41.7.4 (results consistent
with Figure 41.7.1 and the discussion in Section 41.7.1). In the case where only the production or
consumption case are calculated, only the corresponding results will be available in the last columns
(voltages).

Figure 41.7.4: Voltage profile results

The recommended tap settings are also available on the Flexible Data page of MV loads under the
Voltage Profile Optimisation calculation parameter “c:nntap”. To update the network model with the
recommended tap settings, the user may either manually adjust MV load tap positions, or click the
Update Database icon on the main toolbar ( ), and update the case with the calculated distribution
transformer taps.

Voltage profile diagram

To display a plot of the resultant profile for one feeder for the consumption case, production case or both,
select the Voltage Profile Plot icon ( ). Figure 41.7.5 shows an example plot for the consumption case
only:

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Figure 41.7.5: Voltage profile plot for the consumption case

41.8 Optimal Equipment Placement

The Optimal Equipment Placement function ( ) allows the user to place storage units and voltage
regulators at optimal locations in the network. In addition, existing storage units and voltage regulators
can be optimised.

In distribution networks, the operator is often faced with temporarily high loading of equipment or
voltages that lie outside the required voltage band. Due to increasing decentralised generation units
and more variable loads, fluctuations in networks increase. Besides traditional network expansion, there
is need for more smart equipment such as batteries and voltage regulators. The Optimal Equipment
Placement function can therefore help to determine the right installation location of storage models and
voltage regulators.

There are several optimisation options available:

• Placement of new storage models with a pre-defined capacity
• Placement of new storage models with optimised capacity
• Optimise existing storage models

• Placement of new pre-defined voltage regulators

• Optimise tap positions of existing voltage regulators and transformers
Optimal Equipment Placement can be executed using a balanced AC load flow for a user-defined time
range and step size. The tool offers a wide range of configuration possibilities for the equipment to be
used, as well as constraints to match specific requirements.

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The objective function of the Optimal Equipment Placement is to minimise the total installation and
operation costs of the equipment under consideration, taking pre-defined constraints into account.

41.8.1 Optimal Equipment Placement Configuration

The Optimal Equipment Placement command can be found in the Distribution Network Optimisation
toolbar. More information about the available settings can be found in the following subsections.

41.8.1.1 Basic Options

Equipment type:

There are two equipment types available that can be used in the Optimal Equipment Placement:
• Voltage regulators
• Storage models

The options seen on the different pages of the command can change depending on the equipment type
used.

Feeder:

The optimisation will always be executed for one defined feeder. The necessary selection can be done
by clicking on the ( ) button and then press Select. . . . From the selection browser the desired feeder
(ElmFeeder ) for the investigation can be selected. Detailed information on feeders and how to define
them, can be found in Section 15.5.

Load Flow:

For each time step that is defined on the Time Sweep page in the command (see Section 41.8.1.5), a
balanced AC Load Flow calculation is executed. The command used can be edited by pressing the Edit
button ( ). Detailed information on the options of the Load Flow Calculation command can be found
in Section 25.3.

Saving of solution:

There are two options for saving the solution of the optimisation (newly placed/optimised equipment):
• Change existing network : If this option is selected, all changes will be directly recorded in the
current network configuration. If a variation with a recording expansion stage is present, the
changes will be recorded by this variation.

Note: It is important to be aware of the current network configuration and where the changes will
be recorded.

• Create new variation: This option will create a new variation with a dedicated Variation name. The
activation time of the expansion stage will be set to the first time step of the simulation.

41.8.1.2 Equipment

The input parameters and tables on the Equipment page depend on the Equipment type that is selected
for the optimisation. Here the user is able to define the available equipment for the Optimal Equipment
Placement.

Voltage regulators:

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The definition of new voltage regulators is done via the table for Available Equipment. The following
configurations can be defined:
• Type (TypVoltreg): The type of the Step-Voltage Regulator contains all electrical parameters.
Available types can be selected from the Equipment Type Library or can be newly created ( ).
More information on the different parameters of the type can be found in the corresponding
technical reference document.
• Voltage Regulator element (ElmVoltreg): For each row of the table a new Step-voltage Regula-
tor is created, which will use the defined type (TypVoltreg) in the same row. The following options
can be specified for the Optimal Equipment Placement:
– The parameter Position of tap 1 cannot be changed for new equipment. For existing Step-
Voltage Regulators this option can be either activated to optimise the tap position or deacti-
vated to leave the tap changer at its current position during the optimisation.
– The Penalty costs per Tap deviation is used by the solver to find the cheapest solution. This
is only a virtual parameter which does not contain actual operation costs.
Note: It is recommended to enter a value > 0 so that the solver can find the cheapest
available solution. Without penalty costs for a tap change, the solver can theoretically
change the tap position within the limits as often as possible, which is usually not wanted.

– The Max. loading of the voltage regulator can be considered in the optimisation. The user
has the option to turn this constraint off, or to define the maximum loading as hard or soft
constraint.
– Installation costs for one element.
– Maintenance costs for one element per year. The resulting maintenance costs depend on
the Planning Period of the optimisation.
• Min. number : Defines the minimum number of voltage regulators for each row that have to be
placed.
• Max. number : Defines the maximum number voltage regulators for each row that are allowed to
be placed.

For the definition of new voltage regulators, the button Add voltage regulator can be used. Al-
ternatively, the user can insert or append new rows by right-clicking into the table and choose the
corresponding option.

With the buttons Browse chosen types and Browse voltage regulators, the user can see a list of
objects that are defined in the table. The displayed table selection gives the user a good overview of
the parameters of the available equipment.

By activating the option Max. total number of placed voltage regulators the user can define the
maximum number of voltage regulators within the feeder being investigated. Note that existing voltage
regulators are included in the total number.

The Planning period for the Optimal Equipment Placement can be defined in years. With this param-
eter, the user is able to determine the total investment costs of the equipment for the defined planning
period.
• Installation Costs are defined in the Voltage Regulator (ElmVoltreg) and are only considered once
to install the new equipment.
• Maintenance Costs are defined per year in the Voltage Regulator (ElmVoltreg) and are scaled
according to the planning period.

The total costs over the whole Planning period can be found in the result file Summary (see Sec-
tion 41.8.1.7).

In addition to the installation of new equipment, the Optimal Equipment Placement is also able to
optimise the operation of Existing Equipment. For this, the option Optimise tap positions of existing

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voltage regulators and transformers is activated. For each existing transformer and voltage regulator
element within the feeder being investigated, the following options on the Optimal Equipment Placement
page can be configured:

• The parameter Position of tap 1 can be either activated to optimise the tap position of the element
or deactivated to leave the tap changer at its current position.
• The Penalty costs per Tap deviation is used by the solver to find the cheapest solution during the
optimisation. This is only a virtual parameter which does not contain actual operation costs.

Note: It is recommended to enter a value > 0 so that the solver can find the cheapest available
solution. Without penalty costs for a tap change, the solver can theoretically change the tap
position within the limits as often as possible, which is usually not wanted.

• The Max. loading can also be considered. The user has the option to turn this constraint off, or to
define the maximum loading as hard or soft constraint.
On the Advanced tab of the Equipment page, the strategy for the optimisation of the tap position can
be specified. For the Minimisation of voltage regulator and transformer tap change the user has
two options:
• Based on current/neutral position: Here the preferred tap position is the neutral tap position (for
new elements) or the current tap position (for existing elements) of the equipment, which can be
specified on the load flow page in each element.
• Based on optimised value of previous time point: Here the objective is to minimise the overall tap
changes, so the preferred tap position is the one of the previous time point.
Storage models:

The definition of new storage models is done via the table for Available Equipment. The Storage model
(ElmStorage) will be linked to the Static Generator (ElmGenstat) for each row to restrict the generated
and consumed energy by the charging/dischanging power of the generator. The following configurations
can be defined:

• Storage model (ElmStorage): For each row of the table a new storage model is created. It
contains all energy related parameters and constraints of the storage:
– Storage type: There are three storage types available. Battery, Hydropower and General
Storage.
– Capacity : Represents the size of the storage model. For the types Battery and General
Storage the capacity can only be entered in MWh. For Hydropower the capacity can be
entered in MWh or as water volumes which are then converted with the head of water.
– Operational energy limits: Minimum and maximum operational limits can be defined in p.u.
values. The limits can be considered as soft constraints.
– Energy constraint at study period end: Option to define the energy of the storage at the end
of the time period being investigated. The user can either define no constraint, a min. energy
that the storage should have or decide that the energy at study period end is equal to the
energy at study period start. It is possible to define the energy constraint at study period end
as soft constraint.
– Energy at study period start: It can be defined by a fixed value or it can be optimised by the
Optimal Equipment Placement.
– The Self-discharge of the storage model can be defined in p.u. per hour.
• Static Generator (ElmGenstat): For each row of the table a new generator is created. The gen-
erator is linked to the storage model of the same row and contains the power related parameters
and constraints as well as the costs:
– Efficiency : For the generation and consumption mode an Efficiency curve (IntEffcurve) can
be selected. The user can define the rated efficiency in p.u. at different active power dis-
patches. More details on the different options for the piecewise linearisation of the efficiency
curve can be found in section 39.6.1.

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– The parameter Optimise active power cannot be changed for new equipment. For existing
storage models this option can be activated to optimise the power dispatch.
– Active Power Operational Limits: The minimum power limit is used for the consumption mode
and defines the maximum charging power, while the maximum power limit is used for the
generation mode and defines the maximum discharging power.
– The Generation costs contain Penalty costs that represent the costs per MWh in generation
mode as well as Fixed costs per hour.
– The Consumption costs represent the costs per MWh in consumption mode.
– The General costs contain the Installation costs of the entire storage model as well as the
Maintenance costs per year.
• Min. number: Defines the minimum number of storage models for each row that have to be
placed.
• Max. number: Defines the maximum number storage models for each row that are allowed to be
placed.
• Optimise capacity: Option to optimise the capacity of the selected storage model (row). If this
option is selected, then the min. and max. capacity columns in the table will define the limits for the
optimal size. The capacity costs will be considered in the optimisation process. The objective of
the Optimal Equipment Placement is to find a large enough storage model to reduce the constraint
violations, that is as cheap as possible.
• Capacity costs: Costs per MWh for the storage model that is to be optimised.
• Min. capacity of the storage model that is to be optimised.
• Max. capacity of the storage model that is to be optimised.

For the definition of new storage models, the button Add storage can be used. Alternatively, the user
can insert or append new rows by right-clicking into the table and choose the corresponding option.

With the buttons Browse chosen storage models and Browse chosen generators, the user can
see a list of objects that are defined in the table. The displayed table selection gives the user a good
overview of the parameters of the available equipment.

By activating the option Max. total number of placed storage models the user can define the
maximum number of storage models within the feeder being investigated. Note that existing storage
models are included in the total number.

The Planning period for the Optimal Equipment Placement can be defined in years. With this param-
eter, the user is able to determine the total investment costs of the equipment for the defined planning
period.
• Installation Costs are defined in the Generator (ElmGenstat) and are only considered once to
install the new equipment.
• Maintenance Costs are defined per year in the Generator (ElmGenstat) and are scaled according
to the planning period.
• Operation Costs are defined in the Generator (ElmGenstat) and are calculated for the time period
being investigated. These costs contain the generation as well as the consumption costs and are
scaled according to the planning period.
The total costs over the whole Planning period can be found in the result file Summary (see Sec-
tion 41.8.1.7).

In addition to the installation of new equipment, the Optimal Equipment Placement tool is also able
to optimise the operation of Existing equipment. For this, the option Optimise existing storage
models is activated. To optimise the power dispatch of existing storage models within the feeder being
investigated, the following options in the Generator (ElmGenstat) on the Optimal Equipment Placement
page can be configured:

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• Optimise active power : If this option is activated, the active power dispatch of the storage model
will be optimised. If the option is deactivated, the power dispatch will not be changed.
• Active Power Operational Limits: The minimum power limit is used for the consumption mode and
defines the maximum charging power, while the maximum power limit is used for the generation
mode and defines the maximum discharging power.
• Separate consumption mode: If this option is activated, separate consumption power limits can
be defined. The max. power corresponds then to the maximum charging power of the storage
model.
Note: When the Separate consumption mode is active, the minimum operational limits will only
be considered for values > 0, because smaller values are already defined by the max. limit
of the other mode.

• Generation and Consumption costs per MWh and hour.

41.8.1.3 Locations

For the optimisation, a feeder has to be defined on the Basic Options page. Only locations within this
feeder are considered for the placement of new equipment. The following options are available to define
the candidate locations:
• All terminals
• Only busbars

• A user-defined Terminal selection. By clicking on the ( ) button and choose Select. . . , the
Candidate terminals from the selection browser can be selected.

Equipment that is to be optimised also needs to be located within the specified feeder.

41.8.1.4 Constraints

Within the feeder being investigated, the following General Constraints are considered:

• Consider thermal constraints (loading) of all components within the feeder:

– If the option Global constraint for all components is selected, then a Maximum thermal
loading has to be defined.
– If the option Individual constraint per component is selected, then the maximum loading
constraint can be specified within each component on the Optimal Equipment Placement
page.
– The Constraint type can either be regarded as hard or soft constraint.
Note: For the equipment being investigated, individual loading constraints can also be con-
sidered for candidate voltage regulators.

• Consider voltage limits of all terminals within the feeder:

– If the option Global constraint for all terminals is selected, then a Lower and Upper voltage
limit has to be defined.
– If the option Individual constraint per terminals is selected, then the voltage limits can be
specified within each terminal on the Optimal Equipment Placement page.
– The Constraint type can either be regarded as hard or soft constraint.
• Soft constraints
– The constraints for the Optimal Equipment Placement can be either hard or soft constraints.
When soft constraints are defined, violations are allowed, but cause additional costs. These
costs are defined by the Penalty factor for soft constraints.

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Note: The costs for soft constraints are only virtual to find the most cost-effective solution.
They are considered in the optimisation but not added to the total costs in the reported
results.

Furthermore, Advanced Constraints can be considered:

• Ignore all constraints for nominal voltage...:
– If this option is activated, the user can define voltage thresholds, above/below which all
constraints are ignored.
– The parameter < (below) defines the lower voltage threshold and > (above) defines the upper
voltage threshold.
• Constraints outside feeder :
– In addition to considering constraints within the feeder being investigated, voltage and loading
limits outside the feeder can also be observed. This allows the user to take into account
violations outside the feeder which have been caused by the new or optimised equipment.
– If the option In supplying substation is selected, an internal algorithm will find the substation
that is supplying the feeder. The constraints will then be considered for all elements within
the supplying substation.
– If the option For selection is selected, the user is able to define elements outside the feeder
where constraints should be observed. By clicking on the ( ) button and choose Select. . . ,
elements from the selection browser can be selected.
Note: When constraints outside feeder are considered, the optimisation does not only take
into account violations caused by the new equipment, but also tries to solve existing
constraint violations. Since new equipment may not have a big influence there, these
can cause the problem to become infeasible. The constraints outside the feeder should
therefore be chosen carefully.

Note: For the equipment being investigated, element-specific constraints are considered as well (see
section 41.8.1.2).

41.8.1.5 Time Sweep

The optimisation and placing of new equipment is always done for a user-defined time period. The
following options can be selected:

• Calculation time period:

– Complete day : a specific user-defined day can be selected as simulation time period. The
day is chosen in the corresponding field.
– Complete month: a specific user-defined month can be selected as simulation time period.
The month is chosen in the corresponding field.
– Complete year : a specific user-defined year can be selected as simulation time period. The
year is chosen in the corresponding field.
– User defined calculation times: specific user-defined calculation times can be added for
the simulation (using the time format dd:mm:yyyy hh:mm:ss). The simulation will only be
executed at the defined calculation times. The user also has the option to ignore certain
points in time by activating the associated option.
Note: The optimisation will only be executed for the defined calculation times, while all other
points in time are not considered. Therefore, the user has to choose the calculation times
carefully to get reliable results.

– User defined time range: a customisable time period can be chosen for the simulation by
defining the Begin and End time points (using the time format dd:mm:yyyy hh:mm:ss).

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• A fixed Step size is used for the simulation. The step size is defined by the Step (integer value)
and the Unit. The Unit can be selected from the corresponding drop-down list (Minutes, Hours,
Days, Months or Years).

41.8.1.6 Algorithm

Solver:

PowerFactory offers different possibilities for solving the mixed-integer linear program (MILP) problem
of the Optimal Equipment Placement function. The optimisation supports both internal solvers (lp_-
solver, cbc solver) as well as commercial external solvers like IBM CPLEX and GUROBI. More detailed
information on the different solvers can be found in section 39.3.6.2.

• The “Cbc”-solver is selected by default and is recommended if no commercial solvers are avail-
able.
One of the Basic parameters that can be defined is the Time limit. If activated, the user can set a time
limit for the solving time of the solver to avoid very long run times.

Note: If a very low time limit is set, the solver might not find the optimal solution or may find no solution
at all.

The Solver parameters configuration for each MILP-solver is usually set to pre-configured default values.
If the user wants to change the input parameters of the selected solver, the option Advanced can be
selected to modify the values.

Effectiveness:

To solve violated constraints within the feeder, the sensitivities/effectiveness of the equipment (gener-
ator, transformer, voltage-regulator) on the constraints has to be calculated. The option Thresholds for
power flow/voltage constraints allows the user to specify the Min. generator/transformer effectiveness
to be considered. If the effectiveness of an equipment on a constraint is below the defined limit, then it
is not considered in solving the constraint.

To Ignore violated constraints without effective controls, the corresponding option can be activated. If
this option is not active, a warning before the optimisation will inform the user that violated constraints
within the feeder can’t be resolved.

41.8.1.7 Results/Output

The Optimal Equipment Placement calculation writes three result files during execution. The main result
file is linked under the parameter Results. The linked result file contains three sub result files:
• “Optimal Element Placement (summary)”: This result file records the overall results of the calcu-
lation including installation, maintenance and operation costs of the placed equipment as well as
equipment-specific result variables.

• “Optimal Element Placement (before optimisation)”: This result file saves the load flow results of
each time step before the optimisation and is similar to the results of a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.
• “Optimal Element Placement (after optimisation)”: This result file saves the load flow results of
each time step after the placement and optimisation of equipment.

Note: Additional variables that should be recorded by the Optimal Equipment Placement can be de-
fined by the user via the Edit button ( ) from the toolbar. A detailed description on defining new
variables can be found in section 28.3.1. By default, the result files before/after the optimisation

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record all variables that are constrained or controlled by the optimisation. The variables recorded
in the summary result file are pre-defined and cannot be changed.

The Output options correspond to the degree of information that is shown on the Output Window for
the time period calculations before and after the optimisation. The user can choose between no output,
a Short summary or Detailed load flow information.

Note: When no output is selected, a summary report of the optimised equipment will still be written to
the Output Window.

Additionally, an Output message in case of constraint violations after the optimisation is written to the
Output Window. The Max. acceptable error for constraints defines a threshold against which the
optimal solution should be verified. When the solution is verified and violations are detected, there will
be sets of violation elements reported in the output window.

41.8.2 Results of the Optimal Equipment Placement

The newly placed or optimised equipment is either saved within a new variation or integrated into the
existing network (see Section 41.8.1.1).

The optimal power dispatch of storage units and the optimal tap position of voltage regulators that
are obtained by the Optimal Equipment Placement are stored within an additional result file “Optimal
controls” which is located in the active study case in a folder named “Result Characteristics Opt.
Placement”. The characteristics from this result file are created in the project Operational Library →
Characteristics→ “Placed equipment” and are linked to the corresponding equipment.

41.8.2.1 Output Window

For a first evaluation of the Optimal Equipment Placement results, the report in the Output Window can
be inspected. As well as the installed equipment and its configuration, the installation, maintenance and
operation costs are listed.

41.8.2.2 Graphical Representation

Newly placed equipment will be automatically built into the network model. In addition, the new equip-
ment is highlighted in any schematic diagram.

41.8.2.3 Flexible Data Page

After the execution of the Optimal Equipment Placement, there are two additional sets of statistics
variables available for certain elements, in the variable selection on the flexible data page.

• Statistics: Currents, Voltages and Powers This variable set contains statistical values for control
variables such as average, minimum, maximum and variance over the complete simulation time.
It is available for all variables that are recorded in the result files (see Section 41.8.1.7).
• Statistics: Calculation Parameter This variable set contains statistical values such as redispatch
costs and amounts or loadings. It is available for the optimised equipment.

The other pages such as “Calculation Parameter” and “Currents, Voltages and Powers” show the results
of the last time step of the simulation. Note: The summary result file also contains result parameters
from the entire simulation period.

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41.8.2.4 Plots

The Create curve plot button ( ) can be found in the “Distribution Network Optimisation” toolbar.
Similar to the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation curve plots over time, duration curves and energy plots are
available for the Optimal Equipment Placement.

41.8.2.5 Tabular Reports

The Optimal Equipment Placement Report ( ) is also found in the “Distribution Network Optimisation”
toolbar. Built-in reports are available for further analysing the Optimal Equipment Placement results:
• Optimisation results
– Optimal solution: This report lists the control elements (storage models, transformers/volt-
age regulators) and their power dispatch/tap position before and after the optimisation. The
costs of the equipment are also listed.
– Storage report: This report is specifically made to summarise the storage models of the
optimisation. Therefore different values such as storage energy at the start/end of the
optimisation as well as the generated/consumed energy and costs are listed.
– The Study time for the Optimisation results reports can be set to a single time point or to
summarise all investigated time points.
• Time sweep load flow results
– Loading ranges: This report lists the loading of all elements for the selected time range. A
threshold can also be defined, so as to only display elements which exceed this loading limit.
– Voltage ranges: This report lists the min. and max. voltage of all terminals for the selected
time range. Thresholds can also be defined, so as to only display elements which exceed
these lower or upper voltage limits.
– Non-convergent cases: This report lists the points in time where the load flow is not
converging before or after the optimisation.
– The results can either be reported Before or After the optimisation.
– The Time Range can be set to the Complete or a User defined time range.

41.8.2.6 Load Optimal Equipment Placement Results

The Load Time Sweep Load Flow Results functionality ( ) allows the user to reload the results from
the selected result file (ElmRes) to the network elements. The user can choose between the results
Before and After the optimisation. The results are loaded for a selected point in time of the available
Time Range. This enables the user to investigate critical hours in the network model.

41.8.3 Troubleshooting

Some model setups can lead to an infeasible problem for the solver, which makes it impossible for the
Optimal Equipment Placement function to find a solution. In the following sections, some factors that
can cause the infeasibility are described:

41.8.3.1 Solver Selection

The solver selection usually only has an influence on the performance. When a Time Limit is specified,
it might be the case that the included solvers are not able to find a solution within the defined limited
time. Therefore, it might be beneficial to increase the time limit. For large and complex problems in
particular, the commercial solvers should be able to find optimal solutions much faster.

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41.8.3.2 Soft Constraints

The optimisation can become infeasible if a set (hard) constraint cannot be kept or resolved with the
given controls. With more constraints and limited control options this problem increases. To avoid this,
soft constraints can be used instead of hard constraints. Soft constraints are allowed to be violated and
therefore the solver can find a solution more easily. To influence this effect, the price for violating soft
constraints can be set in the Optimal Equipment Placement command on the page Constraints (see
Section 41.8.1.4).

Note: Thermal and voltage constraints within the feeder are defined in the command. Additional
constraints of the equipment used also have to be considered.

41.8.3.3 Network Analysis

In general, network analysis before executing the Optimal Equipment Placement is always beneficial.
By executing a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation before the optimisation, the feeder can be investigated for the
specified time period. This can be especially beneficial if hard constraints are to be used. The following
list may help the user to investigate whether the equipment has the required capacity:

• Storage models:
– Capacity: Can the used storage model store enough energy for the time period under
investigation? It might help to optimise the capacity of new equipment.
– Energy Limits: The operational limits of the storage model as well as a required energy at
the start and end of the simulation can limit the capacity used.
– Charging/Discharging Power: In the generator linked to the storage model, the max. charging
and discharging power are defined. It might be beneficial to check whether the operational
limits allow the storage model to charge/discharge with the required power.
• Voltage regulators/Transformers:
– Available tap positions: Are there enough tap positions available to solve the voltage viola-
tions?
– Min. and max. voltage in feeder: In some feeders it might happen that the voltage of the first
node of the feeder is under the min. voltage limit or over the max. voltage limit. In that or
similar cases, no voltage regulator within the feeder can solve the problem.
• Locations:
– Are suitable locations for the placement of equipment available to solve the current constraint
violations?

41.9 Optimal Capacitor Placement

Optimal Capacitor Placement (OCP) is an automatic algorithm that minimises the cost of losses and
voltage constraints (optional) in a distribution network by proposing the installation of new capacitors
at terminals along the selected feeder/s. The optimal size and type of capacitor is selected from a
list of available capacitors entered by the user. The algorithm also considers the annual cost of such
capacitors and only proposes new capacitors for installation when the reduction of energy loss and
voltage constraint costs exceeds the annual cost of the capacitor (investment, maintenance, insurance
etc).

The OPC functions can be found in the Distribution Network Optimisation toolbar and are as follows:

• The main Optimal Capacitor Placement command is started with the Calculate Optimal Capacitor
Placement icon ( ). The command and the various user-defined options are described in detail
in Sections 46.3.1 to 46.3.3.

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• After a successful optimisation, the list of nodes (terminals) where capacitors are proposed for
installation can be accessed by selecting the Show nodes with New Capacitors icon ( ).
• Following a successful OCP, the list of proposed capacitors can be accessed with the Show New
Capacitors icon ( ).

• The Remove previous solution icon ( ) deletes the results (removes all placed capacitors) from
a previous OCP routine.
• To list all results from the OCP in a ASCII text report printed to the output window use the Output
Calculation Analysis icon ( ). The report also displays the original system losses and voltage
constraint costs and such costs after the installation of the proposed capacitors.

41.9.1 OCP Objective Function

The OCP optimisation algorithm minimises the total annual network cost. This is the sum of the cost of
grid losses, the cost of installed capacitors, and optionally the fictitious penalty cost of voltage violations:

𝑚
∑︁ 𝑛
∑︁
𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 𝐶𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + (𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖 ) + (𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑉 𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑖 ) (41.1)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Where:
• 𝐶𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 is the annual cost of grid losses (i.e. including the grid losses, not only the feeder/s
for which the optimal capacitor placement is performed). Essentially, this is the 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss of all
elements in the network.
• 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖 is the annual cost of a capacitor (investment, maintenance, insurance), as entered by the
user in the list of possible capacitors. m is the total number of installed capacitors.
• 𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑉 𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑖 corresponds to a fictitious cost used to penalise a bus (terminal) voltage violation. 𝑛
is the total number of feeder terminals with voltage violations.
Note that if the OCP is not able to reduce the Total Costs by installation of a capacitor/s, the following
message will be reported:

Costs can not be reduced with the given “Available Capacitors”

Evaluating the Voltage Violation Cost

As there is no ’real’ cost for a voltage violation, if the user wants to consider voltage violations as part
of the OCP algorithm, they must assign a ’fictitious’ cost for such violations. The voltage violation
cost is calculated based on the user specified voltage limits and penalty factors. The voltage limits
are defined in the ’Basic Options’ tab of the OCP command dialog (’vmin’ and ’vmax’ parameters, see
Section 46.3.1: Basic Options Page). The penalty factors are defined in the ’Advanced Options’ tab of
the same command (’weight’ and ’weight2’ fields, see Section 46.3.3: Advanced Options Page). The
penalty values are applied for voltages inside the admissible voltage band (parameter ’weight’: Penalty
Factor 1) and for voltages outside the admissible band (parameter ’weight2’: Penalty Factor 2).

There are two possible situations for a terminal voltage and the calculation for the fictitious voltage
violation cost is slightly different for each situation. The two situations are explained as follows:
1. In situation one, the voltage 𝑈 of a terminal is within the allowed voltage band (between vmax and
vmin) but deviates from the nominal voltage of 1 p.u. The penalty cost is calculated as:
𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑉 𝑖𝑜𝑙 = 𝑤1 · ∆𝑈 (41.2)
where:
∆𝑈 is the absolute deviation from the nominal voltage in p.u. (∆𝑈 = |𝑈 − 𝑈𝑛 |).

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𝑤1 is the penalty factor (parameter ’weight’) inside the admissible voltage band in $/% from the
’Advanced Options’ tab.
2. For situation two, the voltage 𝑈 is outside the allowed voltage band (greater than vmax or less
than vmin) and the penalty cost is calculated as:
𝑈 > 𝑈𝑛 + ∆𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 , if voltage is higher than max. limit:
𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑉 𝑖𝑜𝑙 = 𝑤2 · (∆𝑈 − ∆𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + 𝑤1 · ∆𝑈
or
𝑈 < 𝑈𝑛 − ∆𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 , if voltage is lower than min. limit:
𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑉 𝑖𝑜𝑙 = 𝑤2 · (∆𝑈 − ∆𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) + 𝑤1 · ∆𝑈
where

• ∆𝑈 is the absolute deviation from the nominal voltage 𝑈𝑛 in p.u.

• 𝑈𝑛 + ∆𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the higher voltage limit in p.u.
• 𝑈𝑛 − ∆𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the lower voltage limit in p.u.
• 𝑤1 is the penalty factor (parameter ’weight’) for voltage inside the admissible voltage band in
$/% from the ’Advanced Options’ tab.
• 𝑤2 is the penalty factor (parameter ’weight2’) for voltage outside the admissible voltage band
in $/% from the ’Advanced Options’ tab.
The algorithm can be summarised in as follows:
• If the voltages are inside the admissible band the penalty cost applied is equal to 𝑤1 · ∆𝑈

• If the voltages are outside the admissible band the penalty cost applied is equal to the penalty
inside the band (𝑤1 · ∆𝑈 ) plus the factor 𝑤2 · (∆𝑈 − ∆𝑈𝑙𝑖𝑚 , with ∆𝑈𝑙𝑖𝑚 being either the maximum
or the minimum limit value of the admissible band.
Figure 41.9.1 illustrates the concept of the voltage band violation cost.

Figure 41.9.1: Fictitious cost assigned by voltage band violations

41.9.2 OCP Optimisation Procedure

To find the optimal configuration of capacitors, PowerFactory applies the following steps:

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• First a sensitivity analysis determines the ’best’ candidate terminal; This involves evaluating the
impact on the total cost (Losses + Voltage Violations) by connecting the largest available capacitor
from the user-defined list of capacitors to each target feeder terminal. At this stage the cost of the
largest capacitor is excluded.
• Terminals are ranked in descending order of total cost reduction. The terminal that provides the
largest cost reduction becomes the ’best’ candidate terminal for a ’new’ capacitor.
• The optimisation routine then evaluates the cost reduction at the candidate terminal using each
available capacitor from the user-defined list including the cost of each capacitor. The ’best’
capacitor is the one that reduces the cost the most when also considering the annual cost of that
capacitor.
• Repeat step one but any terminals that have previously been selected as candidates for capacitor
installation are not included in the ranking of candidate terminals. The algorithm stops when all
terminals have had capacitors installed, or the installation of capacitors cannot reduce costs any
further.

Note: If Load Characteristics are considered, then the above algorithm will be completed for every
independent load state. See Section 41.9.5 for how the load states are determined.

41.9.3 Basic Options Page

Feeder

Here the target feeder for the optimum capacitor placement is selected. The feeder is a special
PowerFactory element that must be created by the user before it can be selected in this dialog (for
information about feeders refer to Chapter 15: Grouping Objects 15.5 (Feeders)).

Method
• Optimisation; This option calculates the optimal placement for capacitors using the methodology
described in Section 41.9.2. The output of the analysis is printed to the output window and any
new capacitors are connected to the target terminal/s if the ’Solution Action’ - ’Install capacitors’
is selected.
• Sensitivity Analysis; Performs the sensitivity analysis that ranks the candidate terminals according
to their impact on the total loss cost excluding the capacitor cost. The output is presented in the
output window. This option provides a quick indication of the most effective place for a single
capacitor. No capacitors are installed if this option is selected.

Network Representation

Here either a ’Balanced, positive sequence’ or a ’Unbalanced’ network representation can be selected.
The Load-flow command referenced below these radio buttons is automatically adjusted to the correct
calculation method based on this selection.

Constraints

Here the voltage constraint limits (upper and lower) can be entered, along with a limitation for the ’Total
Reactive Power of all Capacitors’ that can be added by the Optimal Capacitor Placement tool. The
total reactive power of all capacitors includes all existing capacitors along the feeder plus any more
capacitors proposed by the optimisation tool.

Note: The voltage constraints are meaningless if penalty factors for deviations outside of the nominal
range are not entered as discussed in detail in Section 41.9.1: OCP Objective Function.

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Energy Costs

The energy cost ($/kWh) can be entered manually or taken from an External Grid. Note, if more than
one External Grid exists in the network, the algorithm takes the first External Grid by database ID. The
calculation of the cost of the network losses is as follows:

𝑇 𝐶 = 𝑀 𝐶 × 8760 × 𝐿 (41.3)

where:
𝑇 𝐶 is the total cost per annum in $;
𝑀 𝐶 is the energy cost of losses in $/kWh; and
𝐿 is the total losses in kW.

Note that if characteristics are applied to the loads and the analysis uses the option ’Consider Load
Characteristics’ (see Section 41.9.5), then the losses calculation becomes a summation over each time
state considered.

Note: The default energy cost units are $/kWh. However, this can be changed to Euro or Sterling (£) via
the project settings from the main menu bar. Edit → Project. . . Project Settings→ Input Variables
tab→ Currency Unit.

Solution Action

• Report only (do not modify network); The result of the optimisation is a report to the output window
only, no modifications are made to the network model.
• Install capacitors (modify network). If this option is chosen, the capacitors that the optimisation
proposes for the network will be automatically installed. However, note that the single line diagram
is not automatically updated, only the network model database. To draw the installed capacitors
in the SLD the option must be selected in the Advanced Options page (see Section 46.3.3). The
placed capacitors can be also visualised on the Voltage Profile Plot of the Feeder, see (Viewing
results on the Voltage Profile Plot) in Section 41.9.7.

41.9.4 Available Capacitors Page

On this page, the user defines the available capacitors for the OCP command. One capacitor is entered
per row. To add a new capacitor, right-click within any cell and select the option ’Insert Rows’, ’Append
Rows’ or ’Append n Rows’. The following fields are mandatory for each row:

• Ignored; If this option is checked, then the capacitor specified in this row will be ignored by the
OCP command.
• Q per Step Mvar; Here the nominal reactive power of the capacitor in Mvar per step is specified.
• Switchable; If this option is enabled then the algorithm can use a capacitor with multiple steps.

• Max. Step; If the ’Switchable’ option is enabled, then this option specifies the maximum number of
steps available to the optimisation algorithm. The maximum available reactive power is therefore
Max. Step * Q per Step Mvar.
• Technology; Specifies whether the capacitor is Three-phase or Single-phase.

• Cost; Important. This is the total cost of the capacitor bank per annum. This is a critical parameter
for the OCP command as the capacitor will only be installed if the losses offset by its installation
are greater than the annual cost of the capacitor.

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Note: It is theoretically possible to force the installation of a particular capacitor at an optimal location
on a feeder by defining a very low cost for the capacitor, and limiting the number of capacitors to
say, one.

Available Capacitors
• Allow use of each capacitor multiple times; This is the default option and it means that every
capacitor in the list can be used at more than one feeder terminal (multiple times).
• Use each capacitor only once; If this option is enabled then each capacitor can only be placed at
one terminal along the target feeder.
Treatment of 3-phase capacitors This option allows the specification of the ’technology’ type for 3-
phase capacitors. This option is only available when the ’Network Representation’ is set to ’Unbalanced’
in the Basic Options page.

41.9.5 Load Characteristics Page

If load characteristics are to be considered by the optimisation algorithm, then the option ’Consider Load
Characteristics’ should be enabled on this page.

Load States

Two options are available:

1. ’Use existing Load States’; If this option is selected then the system load state that is active in
the system (the load state observed as a result of a single load-flow at the current point in time)
will be used as the load state for the optimisation algorithm. For example, if there is a 1 MW load
with a active characteristic that gives the current load value of 0.6 MW, then the load used for the
optimisation will be 0.6 MW, not 1 MW.
2. ’Create Load States’; If this option is selected then PowerFactory automatically discretises all load
characteristics into a number of ’states’ using a sophisticated algorithm. The algorithm iterates
through every hour of the selected time period to determine the number of unique operating load
states that exist. Every operating state is assigned a probability based on the number of times
that it occurs and this probability is used to determine the cost of losses for each state.

41.9.6 Advanced Options Page

Candidate Buses
• All terminals in feeder; If this option is selected, every terminal in the feeder is considered as a
possible candidate for a ’new’ capacitor.
• Percentage of terminals in feeder; Selecting this option and entering ’x’ percent for the parameter
means the optimisation algorithm will only consider ’x’ percent of the feeder terminals as targets
(candidates) for ’new’ capacitors. The ranking of terminals is according to the Sensitivity Analysis
as described in Section 41.9.2.
Max. Number of Iterations

This parameter determines the maximum number of iterations of the optimisation algorithm before it
automatically stops. As a maximum of one capacitor is placed per iteration, this can effectively limit the
total number of capacitors that can be placed by the optimisation routine.

Max. Execution Time

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This parameter specifies the maximum time the optimisation routine can run before it is automatically
interrupted.

Penalty Factors for Voltage Deviation

• Factor for Deviation from 1 p.u (weight); This parameter is used to determine the total ’fictitious
cost’ for terminals deviating from 1 p.u. The cost is applied to each phase of the terminal. For
example, if a three phase terminal voltage is measured at 0.95 p.u for each phase and the ’fictitious
cost rate’ is $10,000/% then the total cost of this deviation is $150,000 (5% * $10,000/% * 3).

Note: If no penalty costs are to be applied within the admissible band, this factor should be set to zero.
If this value is greater than zero, the program will add costs to all terminals with voltage different
than 1.0 p.u.

• Additional Factor outside range [vmin, vmax] (weight2); This parameter can be used to apply an
additional weighting factor to the first deviation factor when the terminal voltage falls outside the
voltage limits defined on the ’Basic Options’ page. The factor is cumulative, so using the previous
example and a additional factor of 20,000/% with a vmin of 0.975, the fictitious cost becomes
$300,000 (5% * $10,000/% + 2.5% * $20,000/%) * 3.

Note: The values for the two voltage penalties ’weight’ and ’weight2’ should be carefully chosen be-
cause the target optimisation function is a sum of three objective functions (losses, capacitor cost
and voltage deviation cost). If the voltage weights are too high, the algorithm might not consider
the other two objectives. Likewise, if they are very low, the algorithm may not consider voltage
violations at all.

Print report after optimisation

The automatic printing of the optimisation results can be disabled by unchecking this option.

Draw the installed capacitors

This option draw the installed capacitors in the Single Line Diagram when checked.

41.9.7 Results

The last three OCP tool-bar buttons give access to the optimisation results.

Show Nodes with New Capacitors

When pressing the Show Nodes with New Capacitors icon ( ), after a successful optimisation is
complete, a list appears of all terminals where capacitors are proposed for installation.

Show New Capacitors

Pressing the Show New Capacitors icon ( ) shows a list of proposed new capacitors.

Output Calculation Analysis

This Output Calculation Analysis icon ( ) generates a report with the results of the sensitivity analysis
and the final optimisation procedure.

Viewing results on the Voltage Profile Plot

Following a successful optimisation, the ’new’ capacitors can be visualised on the voltage profile plot of
the feeder. To enable this, navigate to the voltage profile plot display after the optimisation and click the
rebuild button. An example of such a plot showing the placed capacitors is shown in Figure 41.9.2.

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Figure 41.9.2: Voltage profile plot showing the new capacitors after an Optimal Capacitor Optimisation.

Removing Capacitors Placed by the Optimal Capacitor Placement Routine

The capacitors placed by the OCP command can be removed at any time after the analysis has been
completed by using the Remove previous solution icon ( ). This button is like an ’Undo’ for the ’Optimal
Capacitor Placement’.

41.10 Optimisation Algorithms

Genetic Algorithm and Simulated Annealing are well suited to solve the following optimisation problems.
• Objective function is not differentiable
• Only “discrete” states are allowed

• Possibility of having lots of local minima

• large amount of solutions within the state space

41.10.1 Genetic Algorithm

To illustrate how the Genetic Algorithm improves the optimisation process, the procedure for solving the
Phase Balance Optimisation using this algorithm is shown below.

The starting point of this algorithm is the state space. This set contains all possible phase connection
permutations within the network as a sequence, the so-called genotypes. These permutations are
coded numerically within the genotypes.

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Figure 41.10.1 illustrates one genotype used for Phase Balance Optimisation. In this example, the
numbers are the coded possibilities for phase permutations at the different cubicles within the network,
whereas each vertical line represents one cubicle.

Figure 41.10.1: Sample genotype for Phase Balance Optimisation simulation

Out of the set of possible genotypes, a user-defined number of states is drawn and defined to be the
population.

Starting from this population, the single genotypes are mutated and crossed over.

Mutation means the replacement of single code numbers, in this example phase permutations. A
possible mutation is shown in figure 41.10.2.

Figure 41.10.2: Sample genotype mutation for Phase Balance Optimisation simulation

Crossover stands for the exchange of sequences of code numbers (genes) between two genotypes.
These two steps are executed in every iteration.

In each iteration, the objective function is calculated for each genotype within the population. In this
example, the objective function would be the power unbalance. The genotype representing the minimum
of the objective function is stored globally and gives the resulting optimum at the end of the optimisation.

Settings: the algorithm stops if the ’Maximum number of iterations’ is reached or the objective value is
less than the defined value. If the latter is set to zero, the algorithm always stops after the maximum
number of iterations.
The population settings define how many genotypes will be considered.
The mutation rate defines the portion out of the population, for which a mutation will be executed.
The number of mutation points defines the number of mutations, executed within one genotype.
The number of crossover points defines the lengths of the sequence to be replaced during cross over
process.

41.10.2 Simulated Annealing

Simulated annealing is a stochastic optimisation method, which reconnects the grid randomly, and
during a cool down of the ’system’ will reach a good solution. During the execution of the algorithm, a
so called temperature 𝑇𝑛 is tracked, which reduces the longer the algorithm lasts.

At each iteration 𝑛 of the algorithm, first a new proposal for possible solutions is generated. These
solutions are then applied to the grid and the objective value 𝑣𝑝 for this proposal is calculated.

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If the objective 𝑣𝑝 is better than the last objective value 𝑣𝑙 (meaning 𝑣𝑝 < 𝑣𝑙 ), the algorithm accepts the
proposal and will continue with the next iteration step.

If the objective 𝑣𝑝 is worse than the last objective value 𝑣𝑙 , with some probability 𝑝𝑛 ∈ (0, 1) the algorithm
still accepts the proposal. Note, that in this case 𝑣𝑝 > 𝑣𝑙 . The probability 𝑝𝑛 decays as the temperature
𝑇𝑛 decays:
𝑝𝑛 ∝ exp{−(𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑙 )𝐼𝑛 },
where 𝐼𝑛 = 1/𝑇𝑛 is the inverse temperature.

Some stopping criteria can be given, to determine when the algorithm should stop iterating.

Settings: the algorithm stops if the ’Maximum number of iterations’ is reached or the objective value is
less than the defined value. If the latter is set to zero, the algorithm always stops after the maximum
number of iterations.

The two settings in the frame for the inverse temperature 𝐼𝑛 define how fast the variation between two
iterations decreases.

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Chapter 42

Outage Planning

42.1 Introduction

With version 2017 of PowerFactory, a new methodology for modelling planned outages of elements of
the network was introduced. The underlying principle is that in the active scenario, the network is intact.
When the Planned Outage objects (IntPlannedout) are applied, the network changes are just held in
memory rather than being applied in the scenario. Thus, resetting of outages becomes straightforward.
All calculations will take account of applied changes such as switch positions and earths.

In addition, it is possible to add a range of associated actions to an outage, such as additional switch
actions, transformer tapping and power transfer, which will subsequently be enacted whenever the
outage is applied. A “record” mode is provided, which lets the user define events such as switch
operations simply by carrying out the open and close actions via a diagram or filter.

An Outage Planning toolbar is provided, to facilitate the handling of the Planned Outage objects.

42.2 Creating Planned Outages

By default, any new outages created will be objects of class IntPlannedout. Users wishing to create
IntOutage objects will need to enable a project setting: on the Project Settings, Miscellaneous page
select Create IntOutage (obsolete).

42.2.1 Creating Planned Outages from Graphic or Network Model Manager

To create a Planned Outage object, the elements to be outaged are first selected via a graphic or from
a Network Model Manager. Then right-click, Define → Planned Outage is used to create the object.
The Start and End dates will by default be the start and end of the year to which the study case refers,
and these can be edited. The selected element(s) form the contents of the outage. Two buttons are
available to the user at this stage to visualise the outage on a graphic before it is applied: The Outaged
Comp. button can be used to show the contents of the Planned Outage and the Affected Comp. button
can be used to show all the affected components; this will include for example loads which are isolated
by an outage.

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42.2.2 Creating Planned Outages in Data Manager

Outages can also be created from the Outage folder in a Data Manager. The new object icon is used
and the Element Planned Outage (IntPlannedout) selected from the drop-down menu. Elements can
then be selected to populate the Outaged components list.

42.2.3 Recurrent Outages

It is possible to define recurrence patterns for a planned outage. The box Recurrent is checked and
then the recurrence pattern can be edited. There are flexible options for specifying the recurrence of the
outage, and the outage is then applicable according to this specification within the start and end dates
and times defined on the Basic Data page.

42.2.4 Adding Additional Events to an Outage

A Planned Outage object can be modified to include events in addition to the outage of elements.
Typically, switch operations might be executed to alter the configuration of a substation, but transformer
tapping or Power Transfers can also be made. These are the events supported:
• EvtSwitch to open and close switches, or switch off and switch on elements
• EvtTap to change a tap setting
• EvtTransfer to transfer real and reactive power between load objects or between static generators.
• EvtParam to change other parameters such as generation or load set points
New events can be added to a particular Planned Outage object by editing the object and pressing the
Start Rec. button. This will automatically apply the outage to start with, then the dialog should be closed
and the user can return to the graphic or a filter of elements to start executing events which are to be
recorded in the Planned Outage object. It will be noted at this point that the Record Events button in
the Outage Planning toolbar (see section 42.3.4) will now appear depressed. When all required events
have been recorded, the Stop Rec. button in the Planned Outage object should then be pressed.

When an outage is selected for recording, this is reported in the Output Window. The name of the
outage will also appear in the status bar (at the bottom of the PowerFactory window) and stay there
until recording is turned off again.

Alternatively, additional events can be added to an outage by editing the outage object, using the Events
button to view the events, and using the new object icon to add more events.

When additional events have been added to an outage, they are stored in a IntEvtrel folder within the
Outage Object, called “Remedial Actions”. They can also be deleted from here if required.

Note: When an additional event is added to a Planned Outage using the recording feature, the infor-
mation is stored in terms of the resultant effect on the network. This means that if - for example
- a busbar is switched off, it is the actual switch open events which will be stored. A switch-off
event on the actual object itself instead is also possible and supported, but to achieve this, the
user must create such an event directly inside the outage object “Remedial Actions” folder instead
of using the recording feature.

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42.3 Handling Planned Outages using the Outage Planning tool-

bar

The Outage Planning toolbar offers the following options to facilitate working with Planned Outages.

42.3.1 Show Planned Outages

Pressing this button will bring up a filter of all the outage objects in the Outages folder of the Operational
Library.

42.3.2 Apply Planned Outages

Pressing this button will bring up a filter of all the outage objects in the Outages folder of the Operational
Library which are applicable for the current study case time. All or some of these may be selected, then
when OK is pressed these outages will be applied.

If multiple outages are selected, it is possible that there may be conflicts where more than one outage
(and its associated events) refers to the same network element. Outages are applied in sequential order
of start date, but if outages have the same start date, then there is a Priority flag on the Planned Outage
object which is used to determine which takes precedence. The parameter is called priority, and the
lower the number the higher the priority of that outage. (If the priorities are also the same, the outages
will then just be applied in alphabetical order of name.)

42.3.3 Reset All Planned Outages

This button will reset all the Planned Outages which have been applied.

42.3.4 Start Recording

If this button is pressed, a filter of possible outages in which to record events is presented. An outage is
selected, and upon pressing OK the record mode is started, and additional events can be added to the
chosen Planned Outage by making changes via a graphic or data filter. For example, a switch may be
closed, a transformer tapped, a running arrangement selected or a load set point changed.

42.3.5 Outage Schedule Report

This button is used to generate a list of all Planned Outages for a defined time period. When the button
is pressed, a dialog box is presented which can be used to set the start and end date of the report.
“Detect” buttons give the option to have the dates set automatically according to the start and end dates
of the earliest and latest Planned Outage objects. When the report is executed the list of Planned
Outages is presented in tabular format, including a bar-chart to give an overview of the outage plan.

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Chapter 43

Economic Analysis Tools

43.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the PowerFactory Economic Analysis Tools, which are dedicated functions for
the economic assessment and profitability evaluation of network elements.

The Economic Analysis Tools module is accessible through the Change Toolbox button on the Main
Toolbar and contains the following tools:

• Techno-Economical Calculation (ComTececo), described in Section 43.2

• Power Park Energy Analysis (ComPowpark ), described in Section 43.3

43.2 Techno-Economical Calculation

Techno-economical calculations are used to perform an economic assessment and comparison of

network expansions (projects) through an analysis of:

• The cost of electrical losses.

• The economic impact of failure rates (reliability).
• Investment costs, including initial costs, initial value, scrap value, and expected life span.

• Project timing.

This section presents the tools available to perform techno-economical calculations in PowerFactory.
It provides a general description, technical background, description of the command dialogs, and an
calculation example.

43.2.1 Requirements for Calculation

Prior to conducting a Techno-Economical Calculation, economic data should be defined within each
Expansion Stage (IntSstage). To define economic data, right-click on the Expansion Stage, click Edit,
and select the Economical Data tab. Parameters to be defined are as follows:

Costs for expansion

Define the Investment costs in “k$”, and Additional costs in “k$/a”.

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 43.2. TECHNO-ECONOMICAL CALCULATION

Commercial equipment value

Define the Original value in “k$”, Scrap value in “k$”, and Expected life span in years “a”. Note that the
Expected life span is used in the economic calculation, it does not take the Variation out of service at
the end of the expected life span.

43.2.2 Calculation Options

43.2.2.1 Basic Options Page

Calculation Points

Select to either Calculate:

• once per year. Calculations are executed once per year from the 1st day of the Calculation Period
Start (01.01.XXXX, 00:00:00) to the last day of the year at the calculation period End (31.12.YYYY,
23:59:59).

• for every expansion stage. Calculations are executed on the 1st day of the Calculation Period
Start, at the Activation Time of each Expansion Stage.
• for user-defined dates. Calculations are executed on the 1st day of the Calculation Period Start,
at each user-defined date. To define dates, Insert rows to the Calculation Points table and specify
the required dates. To automatically populate the table of calculation points with once per year
dates and for every expansion stage dates, select Get keyAll keyCalculation keyPoints. The dates
can then be edited as required (note that it is not possible to append rows beyond the end date).

Note: Irrespective of the calculation option selected, the results are reported annually. This provides
user-flexibility to optimise the performance of the Techno-Economical Calculation, whilst retaining
the ability to compare annual results with different calculation options.

Strategy

Click Show Activated Variations to show Activated Variations. Only Expansion Stages within Activated
Variations, and an Activation Time within the Calculation Period will be considered by the calculation.

Calculatory Interest Rate

Specify the Calculatory Interest Rate to be used in the Net Present Value (NPV) calculations.

Tolerance

Specify a “Tolerance for calculation points (in days)” for activation of Expansion Stages. If, for example,
a calculation is to be performed once per year, and all Expansion Stages with Activation Times within
January of that year are to be considered as in-service for the entire year, a tolerance of “31 days” could
be specified.

Load growth

Optionally Incorporate load growth in the calculation, to consider load growth within each calculation
interval. In contrast to the case where no load growth is incorporated and costs for a calculation period
are calculated at the beginning of that period, enabling this flag will lead to a second cost calculation at
the end of the current calculation period. Corresponding costs are then calculated based on both values.
Load growth is defined via parameter characteristics (see Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics, Load
States, and Tariffs for details of how to define parameter characteristics).

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43.2.2.2 Costs Page

Optionally consider Losses, Interruption Costs, User-defined Costs, and Annual additional costs, and
select whether to Optimise Tie Open Points.

Losses

• Optionally modify the Load Flow Calculation options via the pointer to the Load Flow Calculation
command.
• Select whether to consider losses for the whole system, or for a user-defined set of substation-
s/feeders. If more than one feeder or substation is selected, PowerFactory automatically creates
a Set within the active Study Case, by default named “Techno-eco. Calc. - Substations/Feeder
Set”.
• Define the Costs for Losses (Load) in “$/kWh”, relating to line losses.
• Define the Costs for Losses (no Load) in “$/kWh”, relating to transformer no-load losses.
Interruption Costs

Modify the Reliability Assessment options. By default, a new Reliability Assessment command object
is created within the Techno-Economical command. See Chapter 45 for details of how to configure the
Reliability Command options. For a Techno-Economical calculation, it is generally recommended that
the following options are selected in the Reliability Assessment Command:
• Basic Options → Load flow analysis
• Basic Options → Distribution (Sectionalising, Switching actions)
• Advanced Options → Automatic Power Restoration
• Advanced Options → Do not save corresponding events

User-defined costs

Optionally select a user-defined DPL Cost Assessment Script. This functionality may be required for
detailed analysis where factors besides losses and outage costs are to be considered in the calculation.

Annual additional costs

Optionally define Annual additional costs in “k$/a”. These are costs that are to be applied irrespective
of the network development strategy.

Optimise Tie Open Points

Optionally select to calculate losses from the output of the TOPO calculation. The network open
point(s) will be re-configured during the Techno-Economical Calculation in order to minimise losses, in
accordance with the options selected in the TOPO command. By default, a new TOPO command object
is created within the Techno-Economical command. See Section 41.5: Tie Open Point Optimisation, for
details on how to configure the TOPO command.

Note: If the costs of losses are not considered by the Techno-Economical command directly, Optimise
Tie Open Points may still be selected so that the impact of network switching configuration is
considered by the calculation, where either Interruption Costs or Additional Costs is selected.

43.2.2.3 Output Page

Results

A reference (pointer) to the results object.

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Report

(Optionally) select the format of results printed to the output window. The report includes a summary of
selected calculation options, and annual costs, total costs, and Net Present Value (NPV).

43.2.2.4 Parallel Computing Page

Parallel calculation of the Techno-Economical Calculation is possible and can be activated on the
Parallel Computing page of the Techno-Economical Calculation command dialog. The options provided
on this page are described below.

Parallel computation: if the checkbox is ticked, the Techno-Economical Calculation is executed in

parallel. Otherwise, the calculation is run sequentially.

Minimum number of calculation points: this parameter defines the minimum number of calculation
points necessary to start a parallel calculation. This means, if the number of calculation points is less
than the entered number, the calculation is run sequentially.

Parallel computing manager: the parallel computation settings are stored in a Parallel Computing
Manager object (SetParalman). Further information on the particular configuration is found in Sec-
tion 22.4.

43.2.2.5 Results Reports

After a Techno-Economical Calculation reports can be created in the output window. The corresponding
button is located to the right of the Techno-Economical Calculation icon on the Additional Functions
Toolbox. Depending on the options three reports can be created.

Settings of the Calculation: if the checkbox is ticked, a report is created reflecting the settings used
for the Techno-Economical Calculation

Variation Input Data: If this checkbox is selected, the configurations of the active expansion stages
containing economic data are reported.

Costs of indiv. Calculation Periods: if this option is selected, a report of the cash flows including a
summary of the annual costs, total costs, and Net Present Value (NPV) is created.

43.2.3 Example Calculation

Consider the following Techno-Economical Calculation example, which also consolidates functionality
presented on the following topics:

• Project Variations: Discussed in Chapter 17 (Network Variations and Expansion Stages).

• Reliability: Discussed in Chapter 45 (Reliability Assessment).
• Parameter Characteristics and Tariffs: Discussed in Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics, Load
States, and Tariffs).

The current year is “2010”. There are four 12 MW loads connected to DoubleBusbar/A and Dou-
bleBusbar/B. In the current arrangement the line “Existing Line” from “Sub 1” is lightly loaded (see
Figure 43.2.1).

High load growth is expected from 2010 to 2016, with constant demand thereafter. To model the
changes in demand, a One Dimension - Vector Characteristic from 2010 to 2020 has been defined
for each load. By setting the Study Time to 2014, it has been determined that “Existing Line” will be
loaded at close to the thermal rating in this year (see Figure 43.2.2).

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 43.2. TECHNO-ECONOMICAL CALCULATION

Based on this, it has been determined that a new substation is required in 2015 to off-load the existing
line. Figure 43.2.3 shows the case with the Study Time set to 2015, and the new substation “Sub 2” in
service. Half of the load from “Sub 1” has been transferred to “Sub 2”. Note that the new substation has
been implemented as a PowerFactory Variation, and hence is shown with yellow dashed lines in cases
where the Study Time is prior to 2015.

Figure 43.2.1: Example case,study time “2010”

Figure 43.2.2: Example case,study time “2014”

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 43.2. TECHNO-ECONOMICAL CALCULATION

Figure 43.2.3: Example case,study time “2015”

However, the previous analysis has not considered the economic impact of interruption costs. In the
“2010”, when there is an outage of the line from “Sub 1” there are no alternative paths to re-establish
supply to either load. With the new line and DoubleBusbar/A and B in service, there is an alternative
path to re-establish supply to loads in the event of an outage on either “New Line” or “Existing Line”.
To understand the economic implications of commissioning the project prior to 2015, in particular the
sensitivity of the cost of losses and cost of interruptions to the project commissioning date, a Techno-
Economical Analysis is performed for a number of Activation Times.

To perform the analysis, the Variation activation time T(act.) is varied from 2010 to 2015, and the Net
Present Value (NPV) of the Strategy is calculated over the period 2010 to 2020. In the example, outage
data has been entered for the lines “New Line” and “Existing Line”, and a Global Energy Tariff has
been defined for loads from the Reliability command Costs page. Due to the trade-off between Energy
Interruption Costs (increasing in this example due to load growth) and cost-benefits associated with
delaying the project (based on the specified interest rate), the optimum year for project commissioning is
determined to be 2011, and not 2015. The NPV is around 11 % lower in 2011 than in 2015. Table 43.2.1
below summarises the results of the Techno-Economical calculations.

Table 43.2.1: Summary of Calculation Results

Note: To automatically calculate the optimal Activation Time for an Expansion Stage, in the Data
Manager, right-click on the Expansion Stage, select “Execute Script” and run the “Efficiency ratio
calculation” script.

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43.3 Power Park Energy Analysis

The Power Park Energy Analysis function provides an evaluation of profitability of power plants based
on load flow calculations.

Network calculations are essential when it comes to determining the network losses of a power park,
based on the possibly volatile infeed of the generating units, and the topology as well as the mode
of operation of the power plant internal network. The Power Park Energy Analysis tool combines the
powerful network calculation functions of PowerFactory with an economical evaluation. With this tool,
the user can conveniently determine important quantities such as energies, and profit and loss for a
power plant, derived from network calculation results.

In the Power Park Energy Analysis tool, the following functions are available:

• Power Park Energy Analysis (see Section 43.3.1)

• Power Park Energy Analysis Report (see Section 43.3.2)

• Edit Result Variables (see Section 43.3.3.1)

• Create Curve Plot (see Section 43.3.3.2)

43.3.1 Power Park Energy Analysis Configuration

The Power Park Energy Analysis can be accessed by clicking on the Power Park Energy Analysis
button ( ) in the Economic Analysis Tools toolbox. In the following subsections, the settings for the
configuration of the Power Park Energy Analysis are described.

43.3.1.1 Basic Options - General

There are three calculation methods available for the Power Park Energy Analysis:
• Basic Analysis
• Time-series Analysis

• Probabilistic Analysis
After choosing the desired calculation method for the Power Park Energy Analysis, the corresponding
command of the selected method is accessible via the button underneath the selection area of the
calculation methods.

With regard to the Basic Analysis method, the Load Flow Calculation command (see Section 25.3) is
linked in the Power Park Energy Analysis command. For the Time-series Analysis, the Quasi-Dynamic
Simulation command (see Section 28.3) is accessible. Likewise for the Probabilistic Analysis, the
calculation command (see Section 44.3.4) of the same name is linked. Further settings can be made
in these respective calculation commands, which are taken into account accordingly in the Power Park
Energy Analysis.

Basic Analysis

The Basic Analysis is particularly designed for power plants consisting of wind generators and is carried
out by using load flow calculations.

In order for the Basic Analysis to be executed, the user needs to define the corresponding generating
units in the power plant as wind turbines. This can be achieved by selecting the plant category “Wind” in
the basic options of the generating unit element. In addition, the load flow model of the wind generator

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then needs to be configured with the “Wind speed input” and an associated “Wind Power Curve”. At
least one generating unit in the power park has to be modelled with wind speed input.

For the wind speed distribution of the entire power park a single Weibull distribution is used. This
implies that the wind speed distribution is identical for all wind turbines. The required data for the
Weibull distribution can be entered on the “Wind speed” tab (see Section 43.3.1.2).

Using the Basic Analysis method, the wind speed is swept from 0 m/s up to a value which is defined
via the “Confidence level” on the “Wind speed” tab (see Section 43.3.1.2) . For each wind speed step,
the active power output of the corresponding wind turbines is determined using their individual wind
power curves. Based on load flow calculations, the electrical losses in the power plant internal network
as well as relevant energy key figures are determined for each wind speed step. The corresponding
probabilities for the respective wind speeds from the specified Weibull distribution are used to determine
further quantities such as average powers and average electrical losses.

For the Basic Analysis, the use of the balanced as well as unbalanced AC load flow calculation is
supported.

Time-series Analysis

The Time-series Analysis provides the option to perform the energy yield analysis of power parks
combined with an economical evaluation over a user-defined period of time.

This calculation method of the Power Park Energy Analysis is based on the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation
(28). It uses a series of load-flow calculations with various network model parameters considered time
dependent. Time based parameter characteristics can be provided in order to define time dependencies
for many input parameters of numerous elements. For example, to consider a variable active power
injection of a generating unit over time, a time characteristic with regard to the active power input of the
unit can be used (refer to Chapter 18 for more information about characteristics).

In addition, within the Time-series Analysis user defined load flow and Quasi-Dynamic simulation
models of various power system equipment can be considered. For example, for a battery energy
system a Quasi-Dynamic Simulation model can be created in order to represent the time dependent
behaviour of the battery system including its state of charge. For information about how to develop a
QDSL-model, refer to Section 28.5.

Following the link in the Power Park Energy Analysis to the Quasi-Dynamic simulation command ( ),
there are further options available for setting up the calculation using the Time-series Analysis. These
include the determination of the user defined time period for the analysis as well as the step size and
other calculation settings. Moreover, maintenance outages and simulation events can be created via
the ’Maintenance & Events’ tab in the Quasi-Dynamic simulation command. To consider maintenance
outages and simulation events refer to Sections 28.3.2 and 28.3.3.

Probabilistic Analysis

The Probabilistic Analysis method enables the user to carry out the energy analysis taking probability
distributions of various quantities into account. For this reason, the Probabilistic Analysis calculation
method of the Power Park Energy Analysis uses the Probabilistic Analysis module functionality (44).

For many input parameters, probability distributions can be provided to be considered in the Probabilistic
Analysis calculation method. For example with respect to a wind turbine configured with the load
flow model “Wind Speed Input”, a Weibull distribution can be provided for statistical modelling of wind
speeds. Further information about the assignment of distributions and available types can be found in
Section 44.2.1.

For cases where random quantities in the power system are not independent from each other, correla-
tions can be defined using copula elements. A copula element can, for example, be used in a wind farm,
where the wind turbines are located relatively close to each other. In such case, it could be assumed
that the wind speeds at the individual turbines do not differ fundamentally but are correlated to each
other. For a description of how to define a copula, see Section 44.3.2.

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When selecting the Probabilistic Analysis calculation method in the Power Park Energy Analysis com-
mand, the calculation command of the Probabilistic Analysis module can be accessed via the button.
Here, further settings are available to the user. This includes the choice of either Monte Carlo or Quasi-
Monte Carlo method, the maximum number of samples, and the seeding type of the random number
generation.

Temperature Dependency: Line/Cable Resistances

For each calculation method of the Power Park Energy Analysis, the temperature dependency of
line/cable resistances can be configured using the dedicated drop-down menu. This allows the influence
of the cable and line temperature on the network losses to be investigated closely. The following
temperature options are available:

• 20 ∘ C

• Maximum operating temperature

• Operating temperature
• Temperature (specific temperature value)

Further information regarding the consideration of temperature dependency of lines and cables can be
accessed in chapter 25.4.5.

Power park

The power park can be specified by using one boundary element ( ). To select a boundary, click on
the button next to the words “Power park” and then Select. . . . This will open a list with the existing
boundaries in the active project from which the user can select a boundary element.

In general, with boundary objects topological regions can be defined. This is used in the Power Park
Energy Analysis to distinguish between the power plant and the rest of the network. For a general
description of how a boundary can be defined, see Section 15.3.

Since boundaries are defined by the cubicles that determine the cut through the network, these cubicles
together with the orientation define the corresponding “Interior Region” which is in this case the power
park. For the proper definition of the power park, it is especially important to configure the orientation
of the boundary so that it points to the power plant. The busbar(s) at which the boundary is defined
represent the point of connection of the corresponding power park. All elements that are inside of the
interior region of the boundary are seen as part of the power plant and are considered in the evaluation
of the Power Park Energy Analysis.

Agreed active connection power

The “Agreed active connection power” represents the nominal value of the active power of the power
park. It is used as a reference value for the calculation of the full load hours of the power plant.

43.3.1.2 Basic Options - Wind speed

The input data on the Wind speed tab is exclusively available for the Basic Analysis method.

Weibull curve data

For the Basic Analysis method, the user can define one Weibull distribution as a probability density
function for the wind speeds in the power park. The associated data for the Weibull curve that can be
provided are the scale factor and the shape factor. The input of the scale factor can also be changed to
the average wind speed via the adjacent button .

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Confidence level

The confidence level is used to define the range between 0 m/s and maximum wind speed in which
the true wind speed is present with the specified probability of the confidence level. For example, a
confidence level of 0.99 can be interpreted such that there is a 99 % probability that the true wind speed
is less than or equal to the wind speed value calculated with the cumulative Weibull distribution function
using the confidence level of 0.99. Up to this certain wind speed value, the wind speed sweep is carried
out within the Basic Analysis method

Wind speed step size

The wind speed step size indicates the intervals at which the wind speed is swept over the given Weibull
distribution curve, up to the maximum wind speed value determined by using the confidence level. For
each step of the wind speed, a load flow calculation is executed.

43.3.1.3 Tariffs

Feed-in tariff

Based on the feed-in tariff and the amount of energy fed into the network to which the power park under
consideration is connected, the feed-in remuneration is calculated.

Consumer tariff

The consumer tariff can be provided for the determination of the costs of the consumed energy of the
power plant.

43.3.1.4 Advanced Options

For the study year, there are three different options available for the Basic Analysis and the Probabilistic
Analysis calculation methods:

• Common year (total hours: 8760 h)

• Leap year (total hours: 8784 h)

• Mean year (total hours: 8765,82 h)

The study period for the Time-series Analysis can be configured via the associated command of the
Quasi-Dynamic Simulation.

43.3.1.5 Output/Results

Results

The results of the Power Park Energy Analysis are written in a result object, which can be selected next
to the “Results” label. By default, when the command of the Power Park Energy Analysis is opened
and no associated result object has been created yet, a new result object for the selected calculation
method of the Power Park Energy Analysis will be created automatically. This simplifies the handling of
the function.

The result objects used for the Power Park Energy Analysis contain sub-result objects, where the
calculated data is stored. In one sub-result object the results for the Power Park Energy Analysis
report is written. The other sub-result objects contain data series that, for example, can be visualised
using diagrams.

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Output

For displaying messages of the Power Park Energy Analysis in the output window, the user can choose
between the following output options:

• Off

• Short output
• Detailed output (full load flow output)

43.3.2 Power Park Energy Analysis Report

After the Power Park Energy Analysis has been carried out, the dedicated Power Park Energy Analysis
report command ( ) can be executed. The report is then displayed in the output window and contains
the evaluations of the energy and economic analysis. With the report function, many key indicators can
be displayed that allow the profitability of the power plant to be assessed. This includes the power park
energy data, electrical energy losses, operating hours, and economical quantities such as profits and
consumption costs.

43.3.2.1 General

Results

The result object from which the results of the Power Park Energy Analysis are to be displayed in the
report can be selected by clicking on the button and then Select. . . . By default, the result object of
the last execution of the Power Park Energy Analysis will automatically be selected for the report output.

Show title

With the option Show title, a title object can be selected by clicking on the button and then Select. . .
next to the “Title” inscription. The title will be inserted in the header of the Power Park Energy Analysis
report.

Report section(s)

Regarding the sections of the report to be displayed, the user can choose between “All” sections or
“Specific ones”. If the option “Specific ones” is ticked, the report sections can be selected individually.

Output confidence interval

The option “Output confidence interval” can be selected when the Monte-Carlo method in the command
of the Probabilistic Analysis has been chosen for the Probabilistic Analysis calculation method of the
Power Park Energy Analysis. The corresponding settings for the confidence interval can be changed in
the command of the Probabilistic Analysis on the tab “Recorded Statistics” in the input fields for “Statis-
tics recorded for all variables”. After the energy analysis is carried out using the Probabilistic Analysis
method based on the Monte-Carlo method, the confidence intervals for several result parameters can
be displayed within the report in the output window.

43.3.2.2 Advanced

ASCII Report

The sub-result object, which contains the information and evaluations for the Power Park Energy Anal-
ysis report, is automatically linked as soon as the corresponding result object on the “General” page of
the present report command is selected.

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Display Quasi-Dynamic Simulation report

The option to display the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation report is only available for the Time-series Analysis
method of the Power Park Energy Analysis. After selecting this option, a link to the Quasi-Dynamic
Simulation “Results” will be visible as well as a link to the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation “Reports”. By
clicking on the button next to the label “Reports”, the user can access the settings of the Quasi-
Dynamic Simulation Reports and can configure the desired output options. After executing the Power
Park Energy Analysis Report command, the Quasi-Dynamic Simulation report will be shown in tabular
form.

43.3.3 Visualisation of Power Park Energy Analysis Results

43.3.3.1 Edit Result Variables

Before executing the Power Park Energy Analysis, the user can click on the button “Edit Result Vari-
ables” in the Economic Analysis Tools toolbox. This opens a dialog where the desired method for
the variable selection can be chosen. After confirming with OK another window opens for the result
variable selection. Click on the New Object button ( ) to create a new Variable Selection object and
choose the result variables for previously selected method of the Power Park Energy Analysis or edit
the Variable Selection objects, if they already exist. The selected result variables are recorded when
the command of Power Park Energy Analysis is executed and are then available for visualisation in
diagrams.

43.3.3.2 Create Curve Plot

For the visualisation of the results from the Power Park Energy Analysis, the user has access to various
diagram types. By clicking on the button in the Economic Analysis Tools toolbox, the dialog for
inserting a plot is opened. Pre-configured plots are available in the Power Park Energy Analysis
category. For results from the Time-series Analysis and the Probabilistic Analysis calculation methods,
plots from the “Quasi-Dynamic Simulation” and “Probabilistic Analysis” categories respectively can also
be selected. In this case, in the window to specify the “Data Series”, the “Calculation type” needs to be
set to “Power Park Energy Analysis”. In addition, the sub-result objects containing the recorded data
series, from the corresponding result objects of the Power Park Energy Analysis, need to be selected.

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Probabilistic Analysis

44.1 Introduction

The probabilistic analysis tool allows network assessment based on probabilistic input data rather than
assessment of individual operation scenarios or time sweep analysis. It becomes important as soon as
input parameters are known to be random or if one wants to simulate the grid at some time in the future
with forecast errors.

With this functionality PowerFactory takes account of recent trends in power system studies, where
stochastic assessment is seen as an alternative to pure worst-case assessment of grid capabilities.

Generally speaking, a probabilistic assessment processes probabilistic data input and produces stochas-
tic results, i.e. each result quantity will no longer be a fixed number but a distribution from which statistic
quantities (e.g. mean values, standard deviations, min, max, etc.) can be derived.

The new PowerFactory approach for probabilistic data input is very generic, which means that distribu-
tion curves can be assigned to any arbitrary input parameter. In this sense, the concept of distributions
is very similar to that of characteristics.

Also, our approach is generic in terms of the calculation functions to be supported. Probabilistic Analysis
is offered for:

• Load Flow Analysis;

• Optimal Power Flow.

The Probabilistic Analysis of Load Flow could be used, for example, in order to determine the distribu-
tions of the loadings of lines, given some forecast errors of a predefined weather situation. The Optimal
Power Flow may be interpreted as a dispatch strategy under some given objective. In this respect, the
Probabilistic Analysis of OPF allows the distribution of controls to be calculated.

The fundamental functions of this module, i.e.

• Processing of input data;
• Executing a simulation;

• Defining result variables for the analysis;

• Detailed investigation of results including visualising via stochastic plots;
are grouped in PowerFactory in the main toolbar “Probabilistic Analysis”.

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44.2 Technical Background

44.2.1 Distributions

For the probabilistic analysis distributions are necessary, because they provide the probabilities of
occurrence of different quantities. In PowerFactory several types of distributions on parameters are
available, which are described in more detail in the following sections:

• Predefined distributions, such as Normal, Weibull, Lognormal, etc.

• Distributions based on available characteristics.

• Distributions based on wind power curve and Weibull distribution.

Information about the dialogs of these objects can be found in Section 44.3.1, whereas the technical
background is described here.

44.2.1.1 Representation of Distributions

For most of the available distributions two different types of representation can be selected:

• Probability density function:

This function specifies the infinitesimal probability at any point x. The area between the probability
density function 𝑓 (𝑡) and the x-axis from a point 𝑎 to a point 𝑏 corresponds to the probability of
having a value between 𝑎 and 𝑏:
∫︁ 𝑏
𝐹 (𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (44.1)
𝑎

• Cumulative distribution function: this representation can be obtained by integrating the proba-
bility density function. From this distribution the probability that the random variable is less than a
given value x can be extracted.

44.2.1.2 Predefined Distributions

Bernoulli distribution:
This distribution (RndBernoulli) is a probability distribution of a random variable with two possible
outcomes: 1 and 0. Value 1 occurs with a probability of 𝑝 (Probability of Success) and value 0 with
a probability of 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝. The probability mass function 𝑓 of the Bernoulli distribution can be expressed
as:

𝑓 (𝑘; 𝑝) = 𝑝𝑘 (1 − 𝑝)1−𝑘 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ∈ {0,1} (44.2)

Mean and standard deviation of this function are calculated by:

√︀
𝜇 = 𝑝, 𝜎 = 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) (44.3)

Discrete finite distribution:

In this distribution (RndFinite) probabilities for discrete values can be defined. The probability 𝑝𝑘 of a
discrete value results from the specified weightings (𝑤):
𝑤𝑘
𝑝𝑘 = ∑︀𝑁 (44.4)
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖

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Exponential distribution:
A continuous random variable 𝑋 satisfies the exponential distribution (RndExp) with the parameter 𝜆
(𝜆 > 0) (Rate), if it has the probability density function:

{︃
0 for 𝑡 < 0,
𝑓 (𝑡) = (44.5)
𝜆𝑒−𝜆𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0

Mean and standard deviation of this function are calculated by:

1 1
𝜇= , 𝜎= (44.6)
𝜆 𝜆

This distribution is often used to answer questions related to durations of random time intervals, like the
lifetime of components, if signs of ageing are not being considered.

Geometric distribution:
This distribution (RndGeo) is derived from independent Bernoulli experiments. In PowerFactory the
probability distribution of the number 𝑌 of failures before the first success is used. The probability mass
function can be expressed as:

𝑓 (𝑘; 𝑝) = (1 − 𝑝)𝑘 𝑝 for 𝑘 ∈ {0,1,2,3,...} (44.7)

Mean and standard deviation of this function are calculated by:

√︂
1−𝑝 1−𝑝
𝜇= , 𝜎= (44.8)
𝑝 𝑝2

Log-normal distribution:
This distribution (RndLognormal) might be used for modelling household loads probabilistically. The
probability density function of this distribution with the parameters 𝜇𝐿 (Mean of logarithm) and 𝜎𝐿
(Standard deviation of log.) can be expressed as:
{︃
0 for 𝑡 ≤ 0,
𝑓 (𝑡) = log 𝑒 (log 𝑡−𝜇𝐿 )2 (44.9)
𝑡𝜎
√
2𝜋
exp − 2𝜎2 for 𝑡 > 0
𝐿 𝐿

Mean and standard deviation of this function are calculated by:

𝜎2
√︁
𝜇 = exp(𝜇𝐿 + 𝐿 ), 𝜎 = (exp 𝜎𝐿 2 − 1) exp (2𝜇 + 𝜎 2 )
𝐿 𝐿 (44.10)
2

Normal distribution:
This distribution (RndNormal) can be applied in order to represent real-valued random variables (like
quantities with measurement errors), for which the distribution is not known. The probability density
function of this distribution with the parameters 𝜇 (Mean) and 𝜎 (Standard deviation) can be expressed
as:

1 (𝑡−𝜇)2
𝑓 (𝑡) = √ 𝑒− 2𝜎2 (44.11)
𝜎 2𝜋

If 𝜇 = 0 and 𝜎 = 1 the standard normal distribution with the probability density function is obtained:
1 1 2
𝑓 (𝑡) = √ 𝑒− 2 𝑡 (44.12)
2𝜋

Uniform distribution
This distribution (RndUnif ), which is also called rectangular distribution, has a constant probability

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density in the interval [𝑎,𝑏]. In other words: all subintervals with the same length have the same
probability. The probability density function can be written as:
{︃
1
for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏,
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑏−𝑎 (44.13)
0 for 𝑡 < 𝑎 or 𝑥 > 𝑏

The interval boundaries 𝑎 and 𝑏 can be calculated from the input parameters Mean (𝜇) and Magnitude
in PowerFactory by:
𝑎 = Mean − Magnitude 𝑏 = Mean + Magnitude (44.14)

The standard deviation can then be calculated by:

√︂ √︂
1 1
𝜎= (𝑏 − 𝑎)2 = (2 · Magnitude)2 (44.15)
12 12

Weibull distribution:
This distribution RndWeibull is often used to represent wind speed distributions. Its probability density
function with the parameters 𝛼 (Shape) and 𝛽 (Scale) is:
{︃
0 for 𝑡 < 0,
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝛼 𝑡 𝛼−1 𝑡 𝛼 (44.16)
𝛽 (𝛽) exp [−( 𝛽 ) ] for 𝑡 ≥ 0

Mean and standard deviation of this distribution are calculated by:

√︃ [︂ (︂ )︂ (︂ )︂]︂
1 2 1
𝜇 = 𝛽 Γ(1 + ), 𝜎 = 𝛽2 Γ 1 + − Γ2 1 + , (44.17)
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

in which Γ(𝑥) is the Gamma function:

∫︁∞
Γ(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑥−1 𝑒−𝑡 𝑑𝑡 for 𝑥 > 0. (44.18)
0

Parameter values of this distribution, in order to represent a wind speed distribution in a coastal area,
might be 𝛼 = 2 and 𝛽 = 9. For those values, the mean is 𝜇 = 7.976 𝑚/𝑠 and the standard deviation is
𝜎 = 4.169 𝑚/𝑠.

44.2.1.3 Transformed Distribution

This distribution (RndTransformed) can be used to transform any distribution using a Wind Power Curve
(TypPowercurve, see Section 47.3.2).
Figure 44.2.1 shows the process of transforming a distribution. In this example a Weibull distribution
(see upper left of the figure) is transformed with a wind power curve (upper right of the figure). The
result in form of a cumulative distribution function is shown in the lower plot of the figure. Since wind
speeds higher than 15 m/s lead to constant maximum power production of the wind turbine, a step can
be seen at 2.5 MW (nominal power) of the cumulated distribution curve.

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Figure 44.2.1: Process of transforming a distribution

44.2.1.4 Distribution Based on Characteristics

The Distribution Based on Characteristics object (RndCha) estimates from an assigned characteristic a
distribution. Two estimation methods are available, which are described in Section 44.2.5.

44.2.2 Modelling Dependencies

In many cases, random quantities in power systems are not independent, but have some underlying
dependencies.
• Wind turbines which are not too far from each other.

• PV generation units which are located close together.

• Consumption of different households.
Correlations describe the linear dependency structure. Given some correlations, the space of possible
couplings of marginals leading to these correlations is still infinite. A further notion is required in order
to be able to determine dependency structures fully:
A 𝑑-dimensional copula is the joint cumulative distribution function of some random vector on the unit
cube [0,1]𝑑 with uniformly distributed marginals. In particular, a copula fully describes the distribution of
a random vector on the unit cube with uniformly distributed marginals.
More generally, let 𝑋 = (𝑋1 , ...𝑋𝑛 ) be a random vector. Let 𝐹1 , ..., 𝐹𝑛 be the corresponding distribution
functions of the marginals. Then the random variables 𝐹1 (𝑋1 ), ...𝐹𝑛 (𝑋𝑛 ) are uniformly distributed on
[0,1] and the joint cumulative distribution function of 𝐹1 (𝑋1 ), ...𝐹𝑛 (𝑋𝑛 ) is called the copula of (𝑋1 , ...𝑋𝑛 ).

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An elliptic copula, which is used in PowerFactory, is the dependency structure of elliptic multidimen-
sional distributions.

In order to draw random values from a random vector 𝑋 = (𝑋1 , . . . 𝑋𝑛 ) of given marginals and a
dependency structure defined by an copula coming from an elliptic multidimensional distribution 𝑌 =
(𝑌1 , . . . , 𝑌𝑑 ), the following procedure is chosen:

• Generate random sample of the elliptic multidimensional distribution 𝑌 = (𝑌1 , . . . , 𝑌𝑑 ).

• Transform the vector 𝑌 to coupled uniform distributions on [0,1]𝑑 : 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐹𝑌𝑖 (𝑌𝑖 ).
−1
• Transform the vector 𝑈 of uniforms back to the desired distribution: 𝑋𝑖 = 𝐹𝑋𝑖
(𝑈𝑖 ).
Therefore, the following copulas are provided in PowerFactory.

• The Gaussian Copula is the elliptic copula corresponding to multidimensional normal distribu-
tions.
• The t-Copula is the elliptic copula corresponding to multidimensional t-distribution.

The difference between these two Copulas is mainly defined by the tail dependence:

Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 be two random variables defined on a common probability space. Let 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 be the
distribution functions respectively. Set

𝜆𝑢 = lim 𝑃 [𝑋1 ≥ 𝐹1−1 (𝑞)|𝑋2 ≥ 𝐹2−1 (𝑞)],

𝑞→1

provided that the limit 𝜆𝑢 ∈ [0,1] exists. 𝜆𝑢 is called the coefficient of upper tail dependence of 𝑋1 and
𝑋2 . If 𝜆𝑢 = 0, 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 are called asymptotically independent in the upper tail. Otherwise, they are
called asymptotically dependent in the upper tail.

Where random variables are coupled according to the Gaussian Copula, the upper and lower tails are
asymptotically independent.
Conversely, the components of a distribution coupled according to t-Copula are asymptotically depen-
dent in the tails, where
• with increasing “Degree of Freedom” the tails become more and more independent and

• with increasing correlation factors, tails become more dependent.

44.2.2.1 Correction of non-positive definite correlation matrices

Usually, when estimating correlations from given data, it is not guaranteed that the resulting matrix is
nonnegative definite. Since it is an pre-requirement for applying elliptic copula, a correction-algorithm
is provided, which calculates the nearest (euclidean distance) positive definite matrix to some given
matrix.
As matrices with eigenvalues 0 introduce numerical instabilities, the user may give some lower bound
for the eigenvalues of the resulting matrix. In this case, the algorithm calculates the nearest (euclidean
distance) positive matrix satisfying the lower bound of the eigenvalues. The implemented algorithm
is iterative and stops on reaching some allowed error threshold or after a given maximum number of
iterations. As the user may want to keep some entries of the correlation fixed, the algorithm supports
keeping specified entries fixed. In this case, there might not exist a nearest positive definite matrix, and
the algorithm will then return no solution.

44.2.3 Probabilistic Analysis Methods

The Probabilistic Analysis supports the following analyses probabilistically:

• Load Flow Calculation

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• Optimal Power Flow

Two main algorithms, each offering different advantages, have been implemented:

• Monte Carlo method

• Quasi-Monte Carlo method

44.2.3.1 Random Number Generation

The random number generation is according to the commonly used Mersenne Twister pseudorandom
number generator where the Seed can be defined within the Probabilistic Analysis Command.

44.2.3.2 Monte Carlo Method

The Monte Carlo method draws individual samples randomly, as the left plot of Figure 44.2.2 shows.
Thus, there are some regions with more and others with less information.

The Monte-Carlo method is a way to calculate numerically the expectation of some function 𝑓 : R𝑑 →
R which is subject to random input 𝑋, with 𝑋 taking values in R𝑑 . It generates 𝑁 identically and
independently distributed samples of 𝑋 : 𝑋1; ...𝑋𝑁 . Then the integral / expectation is approximated by:
∫︁ 𝑁
∑︁
𝐸[𝑓 (𝑋)] = 𝑓 (𝑋)𝑑𝑃 ≈ 𝑓 (𝑋𝑛 ) (44.19)
𝑛=1

where the convergence rate is of order √

𝑂(1/ 𝑁 ) (44.20)

Generally this means that in order to get one digit more precision, the Monte-Carlo method requires a
factor 100 more samples.

An important property of the Monte-Carlo Method is that the rate of convergence does not depend
explicitly on the dimension 𝑑 of the underlying space. Related to network models, this means that the
convergence is independent of the actual number of network elements.

When running Probabilistic Analysis according to the Monte-Carlo method, various well known statistic
parameters are automatically generated (see Section 44.2.4 for detailed information). These are:
• Mean,
• Standard deviation,
• Maximum,
• Minimum,
• Variance,
• 1st - 5th Moment and
• confidence interval for mean and standard deviation.

44.2.3.3 Quasi-Monte Carlo Method

The Quasi-Monte Carlo method uses special sequences, in order to cover the space more uniformly
(see right side of Figure 44.2.2). The rate of convergence of a Quasi-Monte-Carlo simulation is given
by:
𝑂(𝑙𝑛(𝑁 )𝑑 /𝑁 ) (44.21)

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which for a large number of samples 𝑁 behaves like 1/𝑁 . Thus, in order to get one digit more precision,
10 times more samples are required. Using this method, it has to be mentioned that the convergence
rate now depends on the dimension 𝑑, meaning the number of relevant elements within the network.

Figure 44.2.2: Comparison between Monte Carlo (left) and Quasi-Monte Carlo (right) samples

44.2.3.4 Comparison of Methods

The difference between the methods lies in the sequence of samples as shown in Figure 44.2.2. Due
to that, the Quasi-Monte Carlo method usually converges faster than the Monte Carlo method, but
because of the dependence of individual samples the confidence interval estimation is not possible
(refer to Section 44.2.4 for more information about the confidence interval).

Method MC QMC
Calculation of confidence intervals Yes No
Convergence rate 1/sqrt(N) 1/N
One digit more precision: factor 𝑥 more samples x=100 x=10
Convergence depends on dimension No Yes

Table 44.2.1: Comparison between Monte Carlo (MC) and Quasi-Monte Carlo (QMC)

44.2.4 Statistics

Statistics are available for two different use cases:

• Statistical results files: the statistics, defined in the Probabilistic Analysis command, will be calcu-
lated and stored during Probabilistic Analysis in the Statistical Result file.

• Plots: statistics may be plotted for variables stored in the Samples Result file.
Let 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , . . . 𝑥𝑛 be the observed samples of a random quantity 𝑋 during Monte Carlo or Quasi-Monte
Carlo Simulation. The statistics are defined in the following way:

• Mean:
The empirical mean 𝑥
¯ of a variable is calculated by:
𝑛
1 ∑︁
𝑥
¯= 𝑥𝑖 (44.22)
𝑛 𝑖=1

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• Variance:
The empirical variance 𝑠2 (𝑥) of a variable is calculated by:
𝑛
1 ∑︁
𝑠2 (𝑥) = ¯)2
(𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥 (44.23)
𝑛−1
𝑘=1

• Standard deviation:
The empirical standard deviation 𝑠(𝑥) is calculated by:
√︀
𝑠(𝑥) = 𝑠2 (𝑥) (44.24)

• Moments (up to fifth order):

The empirical 𝑙-th moment 𝑚𝑙 (𝑥) is calculated by:
𝑛
1 ∑︁ 𝑙
𝑚𝑙 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑘 . (44.25)
𝑛
𝑘=1

• Confidence interval of mean:

General meaning: the probability, that the true value is in the confidence interval, is greater than
1 − 𝛼 (𝛼 = level), as the number of observations goes to infinity.
Usually, the true probability distribution of the random quantity 𝑋 is unknown. Often, it is not
even known whether it is normally distributed or not. In such cases the estimation of a confidence
interval is possible, provided that the true probability distribution satisfies the central limit theorem.
Note: the central limit theorem relies on independent and identically distributed observations of
the random quantity. This is not the case for the Quasi-Monte Carlo Method.
The values for the upper and lower levels both have to be greater than 0 and less than 50.
• Confidence interval of standard deviation:
See Confidence interval of mean, but in this case for the standard deviation.
• Empirical probability:
The empirical probability for 𝑋 ∈ 𝐼 for some given interval 𝐼: 𝑝(𝐼,𝑥) is calculated by:
𝑛
1 ∑︁ 1
𝑝(𝐼,𝑥) = 1𝑥𝑘 ∈𝐼 = #{𝑥𝑘 ∈ 𝐼 : 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛} (44.26)
𝑛 𝑛
𝑘=1

The following intervals are supported:

– Upper bounded: 𝐼 = (−∞, 𝑏], meaning that 𝑏 is inside the interval.
– Lower bounded: 𝐼 = (𝑎, ∞), meaning that 𝑎 is not inside the interval.
– Upper and lower bounded: 𝐼 = (𝑎, 𝑏].
• Maximum:
The maximum value of the observed variable within the complete analysis.
• Iteration with max. value:
The sample number of the maximum value of the observed variable within the complete analysis.
• Minimum:
The minimum value of the observed variable within the complete analysis.
• Iteration with min. value:
The sample number of the minimum value of the observed variable within the complete analysis.

Note: Confidence intervals are not available for a Quasi-Monte Carlo simulation (see Section 44.2.3.3).

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44.2.5 Distribution Estimation

Two estimation methods are available, which are explained in the following subsections.

• Bootstrapping
• Histogram

44.2.5.1 Bootstrapping

Bootstrapping is commonly used to re-sample the data in order to refine the estimation of the underlying
distribution. The approach used here is the most basic one, which does not re-sample and draws
randomly from the given sample.

In the case of a characteristic that means that all values from this characteristic are converted into a
cumulative distribution function, from which random numbers are drawn during the analysis.
This process of drawing samples is illustrated in Figure 44.2.3. A number between zero and one is
randomly drawn. The corresponding x-value is then taken for the analysis.

Figure 44.2.3: Bootstrapping - Cumulative distribution function

For photovoltaic power curves, the bootstrapping method may be more suitable than the histogram,
since this method uses each single value from the characteristic and therefore represents night hours,
in which the production of PV systems is zero, more realistic. If the histogram method were to be used,
it would be rather improbable that zero would be drawn from the sample.

Mean and Standard deviation of the distribution are calculated by:

⎯
𝑁 ⎸ 𝑁
1 ∑︁ ⎸ 1 ∑︁
𝜇= 𝑥𝑖 , 𝜎=⎷ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 (44.27)
𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑁 𝑖=1

44.2.5.2 Histogram

For the generation of a histogram from a sample (with 𝑛 = number of samples), either the number of
bins 𝑘 or the bin width ℎ has to be defined. Note that the bin width is fixed, once the number of bins is

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determined (and vice-versa), if the first bin begins at the first sample and the last bin ends at the last
sample. For the definition of the bins the following options are available:

User-Defined: the user is able to specify either the number of bins or the bin width.

Automatic: will choose the maximum number of bins obtained using the Rice Rule and the Freedman-
Diaconis choice.

Rice Rule: 𝑘 = 2 * 𝑛1/3

3.5*𝜎
Scott’s Rule: ℎ = 𝑛1/3
, where 𝜎 is the standard deviation of the sample.

Freedman-Diaconis choice: ℎ = 2*𝐼𝑄𝑅 𝑛1/3

, where 𝐼𝑄𝑅 is the interquartile range of the sample. The
interquartile range is the difference between the first and the third quartile.

Figure 44.2.4 shows the probability density function of the histogram with 33 bins and a bandwidth of
0,02986 per unit. From this graphic the frequency of values within a specific interval can be extracted.
The histogram can also be represented as a cumulative distribution function, which is obtained by
integrating the probability density function.

Figure 44.2.4: Histogram - Probability density function

During the probabilistic analysis a value is randomly drawn from the sample. The algorithm checks to
which bin this value belongs and draws another value from within that bin, which is then used for the
analysis.

44.2.6 Distribution Fitting

The goal of distribution fitting is to determine the distribution of some random quantity based on some
statistical data. In PowerFactory, two fitting procedures are supported:

• Gram-Charlier A series
• Edgeworth expansion
Both fittings calculate distributions based on given moments 𝑚1 , . . . 𝑚𝑘 of the underlying distribution.

Note, that in both cases, the outcome is not necessarily a distribution function / probability density, but
just an approximation of the true distribution function / probability density.

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In both cases, the approximate cdf / pdf are given as follows:

𝑛
∑︁
𝑝𝑑𝑓 : 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑗 𝜑(𝑗) (𝑥) (44.28)
𝑗=0
𝑛
∑︁
𝑐𝑑𝑓 : 𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑗 Φ(𝑗) (𝑥), (44.29)
𝑗=0

where 𝜑 is the probability density of the standard normal distribution, and 𝜑(𝑗) is 𝑗-the derivative of 𝜑.
Analogously Φ is the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution, and Φ(𝑗) is
𝑗-the derivative of Φ. The coefficients 𝑐𝑗 are different for the different expansions, and depend on the
given moments of the underlying distributions. The order of the expansion is 𝑛.

The Gram-Charlier A series is based on the series representation of the characteristic function of
a distribution. In contrast, although having the same summands, the Edgeworth expansion uses a
different ordering of the summands which allows (with the help of the central limit theorem) for a more
precise control of the fitting error.

A rigorous treatment of series expansions for distributions may be found e.g. in [21] or [26].

44.3 Object Settings

In the following subsections the settings of the commands and objects related to the Probabilistic
Analysis are described.

44.3.1 Distributions

44.3.1.1 Assignment of distributions

Manual assignment of distributions: the manual assignment of distributions to parameters is possible

in two different ways:

• Object dialog: right click on a parameter and select Add project distribution. . . and then choose
one of the provided distributions. Already assigned distributions can be edited by right clicking on
the parameter and selecting Edit distribution(s). . . .
• Class Filters (e.g. Network Model Manager): select one or more cells (of one column) of a
desired parameter, right click the selection and choose Characteristic/Distribution → Add project
distribution. . . . From the provided list, select the desired distribution.

Automatic assignment of distributions based on characteristics: if characteristics have been as-

signed to parameters, distributions can be estimated automatically using the Distribution Estimation
command (see Section 44.3.3).

If a distribution has been assigned to a parameter, its input field or the corresponding cell in the browser
will be coloured, depending on the user settings (see section 7.8).

44.3.1.2 Application of random values

For all available distributions two options for the Application of random values are available:

• Usage: in general, all types of distributions can be applied to parameters with a selectable Usage.
The available options are explained below. The description also contains a formula, in which 𝑝 is
the value of the parameter, 𝑑 the value of the distribution and 𝑟 the resulting value.

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– Multiplicative in %: drawn percentage value is multiplied with the set parameter value.
𝑑
𝑟= ·𝑝 (44.30)
100
– Multiplicative: drawn value is multiplied with the set parameter value.

𝑟 =𝑑·𝑝 (44.31)

– Absolute: drawn value (absolute value) is directly applied to the parameter.

𝑟=𝑑 (44.32)

– Additive in %: from the drawn percentage value and the set parameter value an absolute
value is calculated, which is added to the set parameter.
𝑑
𝑟= ·𝑝+𝑝 (44.33)
100
– Additive: from the drawn value and the set parameter value an absolute value is calculated,
which is added to the set parameter.
𝑟 =𝑑+𝑝 (44.34)
• Based on: the drawn value from the distribution can be applied to the “Original value” (the entered
value) or the “Characteristics value” (actual value).

Note: If Usage is set to Absolute, the Based on option is disabled.

44.3.1.3 Standard Distributions

The following predefined distribution functions are available:

• Bernoulli distribution (RndBernoulli)

• Exponential distribution (RndExp)
• Geometric distribution (RndGeo)
• Log-normal distribution (RndLognormal)
• Normal distribution (RndNormal)
• Uniform distribution (RndUnif )
• Weibull distribution(RndWeibull)

For more information about the theoretical background of these distributions (like adjustable parame-
ters), refer to Section 44.2.1.2.

44.3.1.4 Special Distributions

Transformed distribution (RndTransformed): two references have to be assigned to this distribution:

• Distribution: any kind of distribution (Rnd*) can be assigned.

• Transformation: a Wind Power Curve (TypPowercurve) can be assigned.

Further information about this distribution can be found in Section 44.2.1.3.

Discrete finite distribution (RndFinite): in order to define desired states, first the Number of states
has to be specified. By changing this number, rows are appended or deleted from the table on the
right. In this table values and their weights can be defined. Depending on the weights the probability is
automatically calculated, as described in Section 44.2.1.2.

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44.3.1.5 Distribution based on characteristics

In the following, the input options of the RndCha object are described:

Characteristics: reference to a time characteristic (ChaTime, ChaProfile and ChaVec with time trigger)
or objects, which internally have a characteristic, like PV Systems (ElmPvsys) with a Solar Calculation
model or MV (ElmLodmv ) or LV loads (ElmLodlv ) with a Consumption Profile. A characteristic can be
assigned by clicking on and Select. . . and choosing a desired object of the previously mentioned
classes.

Time Range of data: two options are available:

• Take whole range: the complete time range of the characteristic will be used.
• Restrict time range: a Time Range object (SetTimerange) can be assigned, in order to specify the
time range of the data. For more information about this object refer to Section 44.3.1.7.
Distribution Estimation: one of the methods described in Section 44.2.5 can be selected.

Note: If a PV System with Solar Calculation Model has been assigned as characteristic, the Bootstrap-
ping method will automatically be applied.

44.3.1.6 Parameter Distribution - Reference

This reference (RndRef ) is the equivalent to the Characteristic Reference (ChaRef ). It connects the
distribution with the element’s parameter.

44.3.1.7 Time Range

This object (SetTimerange) can be assigned to a RndCha object, in order to convert a specific time
range from a characteristic into a distribution. Within this object (SetTimerange) a start and end time
(date and time) can be defined.

44.3.2 Dependencies

Dependencies, representing for example the correlation in terms of power infeed of locally clustered
wind turbines, can be defined in different ways:

• Through Single Line Diagram

It is possible to multi select several Elements within the SLD choosing “Define...” “Distribution
correlation”
• Through Element Filter
Within the Element Filter, it is also possible to mark several elements “Define...” “Distribution
correlation”

There is the possibility to choose between the correlation definitions, explained within the following
subsections.

44.3.2.1 Elliptic Copula - equally

Within this element the correlation between elements and/or parameters can be defined.
Once several elements are defined according to Section 44.3.2, the table containing elements is filled.
In this stage, all parameters of the defined elements, where distributions are defined, will be correlated.

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The column “Dists. (Distributions)” shows how many parameters are considered for every element
within the table. This can be enhanced by choosing a parameter within the column “Parameter”. In
this case, the correlation is only valid for this single parameter.
The correlation itself can be entered in the field “Correlation” and is valid for all selected Parameters.
Note, that when entering a correlation value lower than 1, the Copula type, “Gaussian” or “t-copula”,
according to Section 44.2.2 can be selected.

44.3.2.2 Elliptic Copula - detailed

Within this correlation element, coupled parameters can be defined, where a correlation parameter can
be entered for each individual pair of parameters, given within one row. This correlation can be set
within the table column “Correlation”. In addition, one “Default correlation factor” can be entered to
define the correlation between the parameters, where no explicit correlation is given within the table.
Again, it is possible to choose between the Copula type “Gaussian” or “t-copula” according to Sec-
tion 44.2.2.
On the Basic options page, there is also the possibility to “Show Matrix”, which is the overall correlation
matrix, containing every parameter to be correlated.
On the “Copula Correlation Matrix” page, there are several options to define the automatic correction
of Copula correlation matrix (if option “Automatically correct to pos. def. matrix” is enabled). The usage
of these parameters is explained in Section 44.2.2.1. The option “Keep specified entries fixed”
enables the specified correlation values defined within the Basic Options to be fixed, when the auto
correction tries to find a proper Copula Correlation matrix by adapting the non-specified entries.

44.3.2.3 Elliptic Copula - characteristics

This Copula element allows the user to automatically define copulas according to time characteristics.
To estimate the correlation between different characteristics, the user can tick the corresponding option
within the Distribution Estimation command, or link different characteristics manually within the Basic
Options page of the “Elliptic Copula - characteristics” Element. Further available options are explained
below:
• Correlation of parameters using same cha.:
The user can define whether all parameters using the same characteristics shall be “Fully cor-
related” or correlated with a “User-defined” correlation factor, which can be entered within the
“Characteristics” table on the same page.
• Restrict time range:
This setting allows the user to define a restricted time range out of which the correlation will be
estimated. More information about the time range object can be found in Section 44.3.1.7.

• Copula correlation Matrix:

These options refer to the separate page “Copula Correlation Matrix” and are explained below.
• The button Show correlation matrix of characteristics:
This button allows the user to access the correlation matrix as estimated by this “Elliptic Copula -
characteristics” Element.

The page “Copula Correlation Matrix” offers the possibility to define the automatic correction of the
copula correlation matrix. The procedure of this is explained in Section 44.2.2.1.

44.3.3 Distribution Estimation Command

This command Distribution Estimation (ComRndest) can be opened by clicking the Distribution Estima-
tion button available in the Probabilistic Analysis toolbar. It creates Distribution based on charac-
teristics objects, which convert time characteristics or specific time ranges of those into distributions.

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For more information about distributions based on characteristics and estimation methods, refer to
Sections 44.2.1.4 and 44.2.5 .

Characteristics
Within the first field called Characteristics the user can select which characteristics are to be converted
into distributions. There are two options:

• All active: for all active1 characteristics, distributions are created and assigned. If this option
is selected, there must be active characteristics in the project. Otherwise an error message will
occur when the command is executed.
The button Show input shows all active characteristics. Apart from time characteristics (ChaTime,
ChaProfile and ChaVec with time trigger), objects which internally have a characteristic, like PV
Systems (ElmPvsys) with a Solar Calculation model or MV (ElmLodmv ) or LV loads (ElmLodlv )
with a Consumption Profile, will also be listed.
• User-defined selection: by clicking on and Select. . . , a browser window with all active
characteristics will open, from which desired characteristics can be chosen. By confirming with
OK, a set (SetSelect), containing the selected characteristics, will automatically be created in the
active study case. If the Distribution Estimation command is executed, all parameters which refer
to the characteristics stored in this selection, will obtain a distribution.
By clicking on and Select Parameter. . . desired parameters, to which a characteristic has been
assigned, can be chosen. This selection is stored in a set (SetSelect), as well. For all parameters
contained in this set, distributions will be created and assigned to the corresponding parameters.

Two Estimation methods are available:

• Bootstrapping
• Histogram
The technical background information for these two methods can be found in Section 44.2.5.

By clicking the button Edit all references and distributions based on cha., a browser window will
open that shows all available references and distributions based on characteristics. This browser allows
the user to modify or delete existing distributions and references.

Time range
By activating the option Restrict time range a Time Range (SetTimerange) object can be assigned to the
command, which enables the possibility to convert only a specific time range from a characteristic into a
distribution. The reference to the time range object is applied to the Distribution based on characteristics
object. For more information about the time range object refer to Section 44.3.1.7. If the option Restrict
time range is deactivated the complete time range of the characteristic is used.

Advanced Options
On this page the Assignment of created distributions to parameters can be defined. Three options are
available:

• Do not assign: distributions are created but not assigned to the parameters.
• Ignore parameters which already have distributions assigned: new distributions will be cre-
ated, but for all parameters which already have a distribution assigned no new references will be
created. For all remaining parameters new references will be created and assigned to the new
distributions.
• Always assign and replace existing references: new distributions are created. Old references
are replaced by new ones, which refer to the newly created distributions.

If the check box Estimate correlations is selected, two options are available:
• Create new correlation: a new correlation (Elliptic Copula - characteristics (ElmCopellcha),
see Section 44.3.2.3) will be created and all characteristics which have been selected on the
Characteristics page, will be assigned to this copula.
1A characteristic is called active, if it has been assigned to a parameter within the network.

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• Add to existing correlation: an existing copula (ElmCopellcha, see Section 44.3.2.3) can be
selected, to which the characteristics defined on the Characteristics page will be added.

44.3.4 Probabilistic Analysis Command

The Probabilistic Analysis Command ( ) is the main Command in Probabilistic Analysis function within
PowerFactory. These are the settings for the command:

Basic Options:

• Analysed calculation:
Within this setting, it is possible to choose the calculation type to be Load Flow or Optimal Power
Flow.
– Load Flow:
Load Flow calculation is used to analyse power systems under steady-state non-faulted
conditions. All its available calculation settings are considered by the Probabilistic Analysis.
More information about the load flow and the settings of this command are available in
Chapter 25.

– Optimal Power Flow

The Probabilistic Analysis will analyse the Optimal Power Flow probabilistically. The Optimal
Power Flow (OPF) module optimises a certain objective function (e.g. Maximisation of reac-
tive power reserve) in a network whilst fulfilling equality constraints (the load flow equations)
and inequality constraints (i.e. generator reactive power limits). All its settings are considered
by the Probabilistic Analysis. More information about OPF and its settings are available in
Chapter 38.
The Probabilistic Analysis of the OPF can be used in order to determine the distributions of
controls for a dispatch strategy considering a given objective.
• Method:
As described in 44.2.3, it is possible to choose between the Monte Carlo (44.2.3.2) or Quasi-Monte
Carlo (44.2.3.3) methods.
• Max. number of samples:
Within this field, the number of samples can be defined.

• Pointer to Statistical results:

According to the chosen Method and Calculation type settings, the relevant Statistical results
file is given here. For more information about results files of the Probabilistic Analysis refer to
Section 44.3.7.
• Pointer to Sample results:
According to the chosen Method and Calculation type settings, the relevant Sample results file
is given here. For more information about results files of the Probabilistic Analysis refer to Sec-
tion 44.3.7.
Recorded Statistics
• Statistics recorded for all variables:
Within this table, all statistics to be recorded can be defined. Please note that the available
statistics depend on the simulation method. A list of available statistics together with possible
settings is given in Section 44.2.4. The settings can be entered by editing the Statistics.
The Button “Set statistics to default” resets the “Statistics recorded for all variables” selection to
contain the default values.

• Statistics recorded for specific variables:

An additional option is to record statistics only for specific variables. Therefore, it is possible to
choose one single object or a class of objects within the column “Variables”. If the variable consists

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of a class, a filter can be defined according to Section 44.3.7. The statistics to be recorded has to
be chosen within the column “Statistics”.
Advanced Options

• Random number generation:

The Seeding type can be selected to be “Automatic” or “User defined”. When set to be “User
defined”, a Seed value between 0 and (232 − 1) can be entered. This makes it possible to exactly
reproduce all samples drawn as described in Section 44.2.3.1.

• Output per sample:

If turned Off, no output will be shown during calculation of samples. Otherwise the output will
contain the information as described within the title.
• Consider distribution correlations:
This checkbox determines whether or not defined correlations will be considered during Proba-
bilistic analysis.
During the execution of Probabilistic Analysis command, the user can interrupt the calculation using this
button: (Stop Probabilistic Analysis).

44.3.5 Continue Probabilistic Analysis

Within the Continue Probabilistic Analysis command ( ), the user can enter the Max. number of
samples, which should be the resultant number of samples on completion of the simulation. The
currently executed and stored number of samples is given in the information field “Number of calculated
samples”.

44.3.6 Probabilistic Analysis Player

Investigation of worst and mean cases The Probabilistic Analysis Player can be used to reload
the results of a specific sample. This might be useful, for example, to analyse a sample in which a
specific line is overloaded. The sample number can be extracted from the statistics results file. After
the execution of this command the results can then be observed for example in the single line diagram
or on the Flexible Data page of the Network Model Manager.

44.3.7 Results File Handling

As for many other modules in PowerFactory, result variables have to be defined for the Probabilistic
Analysis2 as well, before the command is executed. For this analysis a distinction has to be made
between a:
• Sample results file and a
• Statistical results file.

Sample results: for the Sample result file, result parameters of the load flow calculation or the OPF
analysis like the “loading” of a line or the “active power dispatch” of a generator can be selected.
Statistical results: such parameters can also be selected for the Statistical result file. However, for this,
statistics (see Section 44.2.4) like the mean value or the standard deviation are recorded (dependent on
the settings on the Recorded Statistics page of the Probabilistic Analysis command, see Section 44.3.4).
The results files (ElmRes) for the Probabilistic Analysis are stored within an folder called Probabilistic
assessment inside the study case.

2 Some standard parameters for selected object classes have already been predefined.

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Within each iteration of the Probabilistic Analysis, samples are randomly drawn from the assigned
distributions and a Load Flow or Optimal Power Flow is executed. The results of each iteration for
the parameters to be recorded are stored within the Samples results file. After the maximum number
of samples has been reached, statistics are calculated for the selected variables and stored within the
Statistical result file.

Dependent on the Calculation Type and the Method selected in the Probabilistic Analysis as well as the
Load Flow or Optimal Power Flow command, different results files are used. For each of them, variables
can be defined individually.

Result variables can be defined by clicking the Edit Result Variables button from the Probabilistic
Analysis toolbar. A selection dialog will appear, in which the type of results file (Statistical or Sample
results) to be edited can be selected. After the confirmation of this dialog, a browser window opens,
which shows the content of the results file that has been selected in the Probabilistic Analysis command.
Information about the Variable Selection can be found in Section 19.3.
For Variable Selections that are applied to a complete class, a filter (see Section 10.3.3) can be defined.
This makes it possible for example to record parameters for elements of that class which are inside a
specific area.

44.3.8 Representation of results

44.3.8.1 Single Line Diagram

After the execution of the Probabilistic Analysis, statistics can be observed in the single line diagram in
two different ways.

Result Boxes:
By right clicking on a result box, different predefined statistics like the mean value and the standard
deviation for node voltages and branch flows can directly be selected (e.g. Format for Nodes → L-L
Voltage, Angle, mean value or Format for Edge Elements → Branch flow, mean value).
Of course every other variable recorded in the Statistical results file can be displayed in the result box
as well, by clicking on Edit Format for . . . .

Colouring:
Statistics can also be analysed by colouring the single line diagram as shown in Figure 44.3.1.

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Figure 44.3.1: Colouring of statistics (mean value) of Load Flow quantities in the Single Line Diagram

The colouring can be enabled by clicking on the Diagram Colouring. . . button and opening the
corresponding Probabilistic Analysis page. Activate 3. Others and select Results → Probabilistic Load
Flow. By clicking on Colour Settings. . . , the statistic to be used for the colouring as well as the colour
gradation can be defined.

For Statistical results, the following options are available:

• Mean values;
• Maximum or minimum;
• Standard deviation;

• Empirical probability.
For more information about statistics, refer to Section 44.2.4.

Depending on the selected statistic, different colour gradations can be defined.

Note: In order to colour the diagram according to the Empirical probability, the corresponding statistic
has to be recorded in the statistics results file (by default it is not recorded). E.g. if the Empirical
probability for the interval Lower unbounded with an Upper bound of 0.95 has been recorded for
the node voltage “m:u”, the variable “m:u:empPrLow_-Inf_-_0_95” should exist and can therefore
be used for the graphical analysis.

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44.3.8.2 Network Model Manager

Statistics can be displayed on the Flexible Data page in the Network Model Manager. This makes it
possible to sort parameter values according to their size or apply existing filter functions. By clicking
on the Variable selection button , statistics and other variables can be chosen for the selected class
to be displayed on the Flexible Data page. For more information regarding variable selections refer to
Section 19.3.

44.3.8.3 Convergence of Statistics Plot

Choosing this plot, the convergence behaviour of single element’s parameter can be analysed. It is
possible to analyse the convergence behaviour of Mean and Standard deviation. In these cases, the
plots will show the corresponding value as well as the confidence interval for a user defined percentage
level. More information about statistics can be found in Section 44.2.4.

Figure 44.3.2: Convergence Plot of Line Loading Mean value (red) and upper (green) and lower (blue)
5% Confidence interval

44.3.8.4 Correlation Plot

The correlation gives the resulting correlation between two parameters. By default, two parameters of
one element can be selected. However, if “Show x-Element in table” is selected, the correlation between
two parameters of two different elements can be plotted.

44.3.8.5 Distribution Estimation Plot

The Distribution Estimation plot returns the resulting distribution of one sample result variable. For
this purpose, the sample results file is analysed. The methods that are used are Bootstrapping and
Histogram, as explained in Section 44.2.5, the only difference being that the input data is not a time
characteristic but the result of all samples available after Probabilistic analysis.
For Histogram method, the bin width is estimated automatically but can also be set manually by selecting

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“User-defined” within the Distribution estimation dialog.

A Distribution Estimation plot is shown in Figure 44.3.3 (red curve), which is estimated from the samples
of the recorded quantity. From the curve shape it can be supposed that the underlying distribution was
a uniform one.

44.3.8.6 Distribution Fitting Plot

The Distribution Fitting Plot gives the distribution fitting according to the methods, explained in Sec-
tion 44.2.6. In context with these methods, an order of fitting can additionally be entered for fitting.
The blue cumulative distribution function of Figure 44.3.3 is the result of the Edgeworth Expansion (Ord.
4) distribution fitting method, which uses the statistical results of the same element parameter selected
for the distribution estimation.

Figure 44.3.3: Cumulative distribution function. Comparison between Distribution Estimation -

Bootstrapping (red curve) and Distribution Fitting - Edgeworth Expansion, Ord. 4 (blue curve)

44.3.8.7 Load Probabilistic Analysis Results

Depending on the size of the network, the number of active distributions and correlations and the
number of samples of the analysis, the Probabilistic Analysis might take a long time. Execution of
other commands or changes in element parameters will cause the results of the Probabilistic Analysis
to be reset. In order to avoid another execution of this analysis to obtain the same results, the Load
Probabilistic Analysis results button can be used to reload an existing probabilistic results file. The
results can then again be analysed in the single line diagram or the Network Model Manager.

Note: Users reloading earlier results should be aware that they may not be compatible with the current
network state, if changes have been made since the analysis was executed.

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Chapter 45

Reliability Analysis

45.1 Introduction

Reliability assessment involves determining, generally using statistical methods, the total electric inter-
ruptions for loads within a power system during an operating period. The interruptions are described by
several indices that consider aspects such as:
• The number of customers [N].

• The connected load, normally expressed in [kW].

• The duration of the interruptions, normally expressed in [H] = ’hours’.
• The amount of power interrupted, expressed in [kW].
• The frequency of interruptions, normally expressed in [1/a] = ’per annum’.

• Repair times are normally expressed in [H] = ’hours’.

• Probabilities or expectancies are expressed as a fraction or as time per year ([h/a], [min/a]).
Network reliability assessment is used to calculate expected interruption frequencies and annual in-
terruptions costs, and to compare alternative network designs. Reliability analysis is an automation
and probabilistic extension of contingency evaluation. For such analysis, it is not required to pre-define
outage events, instead the tool can automatically choose the outages to consider. The relevance of
each outage is considered using statistical data about the expected frequency and duration of outages
according to component type. The effect of each outage is analysed automatically such that the
software simulates the protection system and the network operator’s actions to re-supply interrupted
customers. Because statistical data regarding the frequency of such events is available, the results can
be formulated in probabilistic terms.

Note: Reliability assessment tools are commonly used to quantify the impact of power system equip-
ment outages in economic terms. The results of a reliability assessment study may be used
to justify investment in network upgrades such as new remote control switches, new lines /
transformers, or to assess the performance of under voltage load shedding schemes.

This chapter deals with probabilistic Network Reliability Assessment. For information on PowerFactory ’s
deterministic Contingency Analysis, refer to Chapter 27 (Contingency Analysis).

The reliability assessment functions can be accessed by selecting Reliability Analysis toolbar from the
Change Toolbox icon ( ). The Toolbox “Reliability Analysis” is shown in Figure 45.1.1.

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Figure 45.1.1: Reliability Analysis Toolbox

The basic user procedure for completing a reliability assessment consists of the following steps as
shown in Figure 45.1.2. Steps on the left are compulsory, while steps on the right are optional and can
be used to increase the detail of the calculation.

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Figure 45.1.2: Reliability Assessment User Procedure

These procedures are explained in detail in the following sections.

45.2 Probabilistic Reliability Assessment Technical Background

The Reliability Assessment procedure considers the network topology, protection systems, constraints
and stochastic failure and repair models to generate reliability indices. The technical background of the
procedure and Stochastic Models is described in this section.

Note: A quantity is said to be stochastic when it has a random probability distribution. A simple example
of a stochastic quantity is the expected repair duration for an item of equipment, which is based
on the total number of repairs and repair duration. This measured data can be used to build
Stochastic Models, and perform analysis using statistical calculation methods.

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45.2.1 Reliability Assessment Procedure

The generation of reliability indices, using the Reliability Assessment tool also known as ’reliability
analysis’, consists of the following:
• Failure modelling.
• Load modelling.
• System state creation.

• Failure Effect Analysis (FEA).

• Statistical analysis.
• Reporting.

Figure 45.2.1: Reliability Analysis: Basic Flow Diagram

The reliability analysis calculation flow diagram is depicted in Figure 45.2.1. The failure models describe
how system components can fail, how often they might fail and how long it takes to repair them when
they fail. The load models can consist of a few possible load demands, or can be based on a user-
defined load forecast and growth scenarios.

The combination of one or more simultaneous faults and a specific load condition is called a ’system
state’. Internally, PowerFactory ś system state generation engine uses the failure models and load
models to build a list of relevant system states. Subsequently, the Failure Effect Analysis (FEA) module
analyse the faulted system states by simulating the system reactions to these faults. The FEA takes the
power system through a number of post-fault operational states that can include:

• Fault clearance by tripping of protection breakers or fuses.

• Fault separation by opening separating switches.

• Power restoration by closing normally open switches.

• Overload alleviation by load transfer and load shedding.
• Voltage constraint alleviation by load shedding (only available when ’Distribution’ is selected within
the reliability command Basic Options).

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The objective of the FEA function is to determine if system faults will lead to load interruptions and if so,
which loads will be interrupted and for how long.

The results of the FEA are combined with the data that is provided by the system state generation mod-
ule to create the reliability statistics including indices such as SAIFI, SAIDI and CAIFI. The system state
data describes the expected frequency of occurrence of the system state and its expected duration.
However, the duration of these system states should not be confused with the interruption duration. For
example, a system state for a line outage, perhaps caused by a short-circuit on that line, will have a
duration equal to the time needed to repair that line. However, if the line is one of two parallel lines then
it is possible that no loads will be interrupted because the parallel line might be able to supply the full
load current.

Even if the loads are interrupted by the outage, the power could be restored by network reconfiguration
- by fault separation and closing a back-feed switch. The interruption duration will then equal the
restoration time, and not the repair duration (equivalent to the system state duration).

45.2.2 Stochastic Models

A stochastic reliability model is a statistical representation of the failure rate and repair duration time
for a power system component. For example, a line might suffer an outage due to a short-circuit. After
the outage, repair will begin and the line will be put into service again after a successful repair. If two
states for line A are defined as ’in service’ and ’under repair’, monitoring of the line could result in a time
sequence of outages and repairs as depicted in Figure 45.2.2.

Figure 45.2.2: Line availability states are described by the status of the line (in service or under repair).
Each of these states lasts for a certain time.

Line A in this example fails at time T1 after which it is repaired and put back into service at T2. It fails
again at T3, is repaired again, etc. The repair durations are also called the ’Time To Repair’ or ’TTR’.
The service durations 𝑆1 = 𝑇1 , 𝑆2 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 , etc. are called the ’life-time’, ’Time To Failure’ or ’TTF’.

Both the TTR and the TTF are stochastic quantities. By gathering failure data about a large group of
similar components in the power system, statistical information about the TTR and TTF, such as the
mean value and the standard deviation, can be calculated. The statistical information is then used to
define a Stochastic Model.

There are many ways in which to define a Stochastic Model. The so-called ’homogeneous Markov-
model’ is a highly simplified but generally used model. A homogeneous Markov model with two states
is defined by:
• A constant failure rate 𝜆; and
• A constant repair rate 𝜇.
These two parameters can be used to calculate the following quantities:

• mean time to failure, TTF = 1/𝜆;

• mean time to repair, TTR = 1/𝜇;
• availability, P = TTF/(TTF+TTR);

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• unavailability Q, = TTR/(TTF+TTR);
The availability is the fraction of time when the component is in service; the unavailability is the fraction
of time when it is in repair; and P+Q = 1.0.

Reminder: TTR is the ’Time To Repair’, and TTF is the ’Time To Failure’.

Example

If 7500 monitored transformers were to show 140 failures over 10 years, during which a total of 7360
hours was spent on repair, then:

140 1 1
𝜆= · = 0,00187 · (45.1)
10 · 7500 𝑎 𝑎

1
𝑇𝑇𝐹 = = 536𝑎 (45.2)
𝜆

7360
𝑇𝑇𝑅 = · ℎ = 52,6ℎ = 0,006𝑎 (45.3)
140

1 1
𝜇= = 167 · (45.4)
𝑇𝑇𝑅 𝑎

536
𝑃 = = 0,999989 (45.5)
536 + 0,006

0,006 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄= =6 (45.6)
536 + 0,006 𝑎

i.e. the expected outage duration is 6 minutes per annum.

45.2.3 Calculated Results for Reliability Assessment

The network reliability assessment produces two types of indices:

• Load point indices.
• System indices.
These indices are separated into frequency/expectancy indices and energy indices. Furthermore, there
are indices to describe the interruption costs.

Load point indices are calculated for each load (ElmLod), and are used in the calculation of many
system indices. This section describes the simplified equations for the reliability indices. However,
note that the PowerFactory reliability assessment calculations use more complex calculation methods.
Nevertheless, the simplified equations shown here can be used for hand calculations or to gain insight
into the reliability assessment results.

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45.2.3.1 Parameter Definitions

In the definitions for the reliability indices, the following parameters are used:

𝐶𝑖 The number of customers supplied by load point i

𝐴𝑖 The number of affected customers for an interruption at load point i
𝐹 𝑟𝑘 The frequency of occurrence of contingency k
𝑝𝑟𝑘 The probability of occurrence of contingency k
C The number of customers
A The number of affected customers
𝐿𝑚 The total connected kVA interrupted, for each interruption event, 𝑚
𝑟𝑚 Duration of each interruption event, 𝑚
𝐿𝑇 The total connected kVA supplied
𝑃 𝑐𝑖 Contracted active power at load point i

45.2.3.2 Load Point Frequency and Expectancy Indices

ACIF: Average Customer Interruption Frequency

ACIT: Average Customer Interruption Time
LPIF: Load Point Interruption Frequency
LPIT: Load Point Interruption Time
LPIC: Load Point Interruption Costs
AID: Average Interruption Duration
TCIF: Total Customer Interruption Frequency
TCIT: Total Customer Interruption Time
TPCONTIF: Total Contracted power Interruption Frequency
TPCONTIT: Total Contracted power Interruption Time

These indices are defined as follows:

∑︁
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹 𝑟𝑘 · 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝑎 (45.7)
𝑘

∑︁
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 = 8760 · 𝑃 𝑟𝑘 · 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ/𝑎 (45.8)
𝑘

∑︁
𝐿𝑃 𝐼𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹 𝑟𝑘 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝑎 (45.9)
𝑘

∑︁
𝐿𝑃 𝐼𝑇𝑖 = 8760 · 𝑃 𝑟𝑘 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ/𝑎 (45.10)
𝑘

Note: The parameters ACIF, ACIT, LPIF and LPIT are only calculated and considered if the duration of
the outage is longer than the time value “Calculation of SAIFI/SAIDI according to IEEE 1366”, that
is set within the Advanced Options of the Reliability Assessment command.

𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖
𝐴𝐼𝐷𝑖 = (45.11)
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖

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𝑇 𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 𝐶/𝑎 (45.12)

𝑇 𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 𝐶ℎ/𝑎 (45.13)

∑︁
𝑇 𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝐼𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹 𝑟𝑘 · 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 · 𝑃 𝑐𝑖 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 𝑀 𝑊/𝑎 (45.14)
𝑘

∑︁
𝑇 𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝐼𝑇𝑖 = 8760 · 𝑃 𝑟𝑘 · 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 · 𝑃 𝑐𝑖 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝑎 (45.15)
𝑘

where

𝑖 is the load point index

𝑘 is the contingency index
𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 is the fraction of the load which is lost at load point 𝑖, for contingency 𝑘.

For unsupplied loads, or for loads that are shed completely,𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 = 1.0.
For loads that are partially shed, 0.0 <= 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖,𝑘 < 1.0.

45.2.3.3 System Indices

SAIFI System Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/C/a], indicates how often the average
customer experiences a sustained interruption during the period specified in the calculation.
SAIFI_P Average Interruption Frequency (Contracted Power), in units of [1/a], indicates how often there
are contracted power interruptions during the period of the calculation.

CAIFI Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/A/a], is the mean frequency of
sustained interruptions for those customers experiencing sustained interruptions. Each customer
is counted once regardless of the number of times interrupted for this calculation.
ASIFI Average System Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/a], The calculation of this index
is based on load rather than customers affected. ASIFI can be used to measure distribution
performance in areas that supply relatively few customers having relatively large concentrations
of load, predominantly industrial/commercial customers
SAIDI System Average Interruption Duration Index, in units of [h/C/a], indicates the total duration of
interruption for the average customer during the period in the calculation. It is commonly measured
in customer minutes or customer hours of interruption.

SAIDI_P Average Interruption Duration (Contracted Power), in units of [h/a], indicates the total duration
of contracted power interruptions during the period of the calculation.
CAIDI Customer Average Interruption Duration Index, in units of [H], is the mean time to restore service.
ASIDI Average System Interruption Duration Index, in units of [h/a], is the equivalent of SAIDI but based
on load, rather than customers affected.
ASAI Average Service Availability Index, this represents the fraction of time that a customer is con-
nected during the defined calculation period.

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ASUI Average Service Unavailability Index, is the probability of having all loads supplied.
MAIFI Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/Ca], evaluates the average
frequency of momentary interruptions. The calculation is described in the IEEE Standard 1366
’IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices’.

∑︀
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖
𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐹 𝐼 = ∑︀ 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝐶/𝑎 (45.16)
𝐶𝑖

∑︀
𝑇 𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝐼𝐹𝑖
𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐹 𝐼_𝑃 = ∑︀ 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝑎 (45.17)
𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑖

∑︀
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐹𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖
𝐶𝐴𝐼𝐹 𝐼 = ∑︀ 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝐴/𝑎 (45.18)
𝐴𝑖

∑︀
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖
𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐷𝐼 = ∑︀ 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ/𝐶/𝑎 (45.19)
𝐶𝑖

∑︀
𝑇 𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝐼𝑇𝑖
𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐷𝐼_𝑃 = ∑︀ 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ/𝑎 (45.20)
𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑁 𝑇 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑖

𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐷𝐼
𝐶𝐴𝐼𝐷𝐼 = 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ (45.21)
𝑆𝐴𝐼𝐹 𝐼

∑︀
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 · 𝐶𝑖
𝐴𝑆𝑈 𝐼 = ∑︀ (45.22)
8760 · 𝐶𝑖

𝐴𝑆𝐴𝐼 = 1 − 𝐴𝑆𝑈 𝐼 (45.23)

∑︀
(𝑟𝑚 * 𝐿𝑚 )
𝐴𝑆𝐼𝐷𝐼 = 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : ℎ/𝑎 (45.24)
𝐿𝑇

∑︀
𝐿𝑚
𝐴𝑆𝐼𝐹 𝐼 = 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑡 : 1/𝑎 (45.25)
𝐿𝑇

∑︀
𝐼𝑀𝑖 · 𝑁𝑚𝑖
𝑀 𝐴𝐼𝐹 𝐼 = ∑︀ (45.26)
𝑁𝑖

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TECHNICAL BACKGROUND

45.2.3.4 Load Point Energy Indices

LPENS: Load Point Energy Not Supplied

LPES: Load Point Energy Shed

These indices are defined as follows:

⌢ ⌢
𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝑁 𝑆𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 · (𝑃 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑃 𝑠𝑖 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝑎 (45.27)

⌢
𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝑆𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑖 · 𝑃 𝑠𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝑎 (45.28)

Where
𝑃 𝑑𝑖 is the weighted average amount of power disconnected
𝑃 𝑠𝑖 is the weighted average amount of power shed at load point i.

45.2.3.5 Indices for Busbars/Terminals

AID: Average Interruption Duration [H]

AIF: Yearly Interruption Frequency [1/y]
AIT: Yearly Interruption Time [h/y]

45.2.3.6 System Energy Indices

ENS Energy Not Supplied, in units of [MWh/a], is the total amount of energy on average not delivered
to the system loads.
SES System Energy Shed, in units of [MWh/a], is the total amount of energy on average expected to
be shed in the system.
AENS Average Energy Not Supplied, in units of [MWh/Ca], is the average amount of energy not
supplied, for all customers.
ACCI Average Customer Curtailment Index, in units of [MWh/Ca], is the average amount of energy not
supplied, for all affected customers.

∑︁
𝐸𝑁 𝑆 = 𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝑁 𝑆𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝑎 (45.29)

∑︁
𝑆𝐸𝑆 = 𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝑆𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝑎 (45.30)

𝐸𝑁 𝑆
𝐴𝐸𝑁 𝑆 = ∑︀ 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝐶𝑎 (45.31)
𝐶𝑖

𝐸𝑁 𝑆
𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐼 = ∑︀ 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 𝑊 ℎ/𝐶𝑎 (45.32)
𝐴𝑖

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45.2.3.7 Load Point Interruption Cost

LPEIC is defined as

∑︁
𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝐼𝐶𝑖 = 𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝐼𝐶𝑖,𝑘 𝑖𝑛 $/𝑎 (45.33)

where

𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝐼𝐶𝑖,𝑘
is the average interruption cost for load point i and contingency case 𝑘, considering the load point
interruption costs function and the assessed distribution of the durations of the interruptions at
this load point for contingency case 𝑘. The interruption costs are calculated differently for different
cost functions. All cost functions express the costs as a function of the interruption duration. For
cost functions expressed in money per interrupted customer, the number of interrupted customers
is estimated for each interruption as the highest number of customers interrupted at any time
during the whole interruption duration.

45.2.3.8 System Interruption Costs

EIC Expected Interruption Cost, in units of [M$/y], is the total expected interruption cost.
IEAR Interrupted Energy Assessment Rate, in units of [$/kWh], is the total expected interruption cost
per not supplied kWh.

∑︁
𝐸𝐼𝐶 = 𝐿𝑃 𝐸𝐼𝐶𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑀 $/𝑎 (45.34)

𝐸𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐸𝐴𝑅 = 𝑖𝑛 $/𝑘𝑊 ℎ (45.35)
𝐸𝑁 𝑆

45.2.4 System State Enumeration in Reliability Assessment

In PowerFactory, Reliability Assessment uses a System State Enumeration to analyse all possible
system states, one by one. A fast ’topological’ method is used which ensures that each possible
system state is only analysed once. State frequencies (average occurrences per year) are calculated
by considering only the transitions from a healthy situation to an unhealthy one and back again. This
is important because the individual system states are analysed one by one, and the (chronological)
connection between them is therefore lost.

The enumerated calculation method is fast for quick investigation of large distribution networks, but does
not compromise accuracy. Exact analytic averages are calculated. Distributions of reliability indices,
however, cannot be calculated. For example, the average annual unavailability in hours/year can be
calculated, but the probability that this unavailability is less than 15 minutes for a certain year cannot be
calculated.

The state enumeration algorithm can include independent failures, simultaneous (n-2) failures, common
mode failures, numerous load states and planned outages.

An overview flow diagram for the reliability assessment by state enumeration is shown in Figure 45.2.3.

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Figure 45.2.3: Overview Flow Diagram for Reliability Assessment by State Enumeration

After the State Enumeration is complete, each simulated system state can be viewed using the ’tracing
tool’ on the Reliability Toolbar, see Section 46.2 for more information.

45.3 Setting up the Network Model for Reliability Assessment

Prior to starting a Reliability Assessment Calculation, you must setup the Network Model with specific
reliability data models. This chapter discusses the following procedures:
• How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair Models.
• How to Create Feeders for Reliability Assessment.
• How to Configure Switches for the Reliability Assessment.
• Load Modelling for Reliability Assessment.
• Considering Multiple System Demand Levels.
• Defining Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location.
• How to Consider Planned Maintenance.

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• Specifying Individual Component Constraints.

45.3.1 How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair models

Stochastic Failure models define the probability that a component will fail and when it does fail, the mean
time to repair the component. The following Stochastic failure models are supported by PowerFactory :

• Busbar/Terminal Stochastic Model.

• Line/Cable Stochastic Model.
• Transformer Stochastic Model.
• Distribution Transformer Stochastic Model for MV Loads

• Generator Stochastic Model

• Common Mode Stochastic Model.
• Protection/Switch Failure Model.

• Double Earth Fault Failure Model.

This section describes each of these Stochastic Models and the procedure for defining them.

45.3.1.1 Busbar/Terminal Stochastic Model (StoTypbar)

It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every busbar and terminal within the network. The
Stochastic Model can be defined either through the object type or through the object element. If you
want to use the same Stochastic Model for a number of different busbars/terminals then you should
define it through the object type. Alternatively, if you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one
element, then you should define it through the element Reliability page.

Busbar/Terminal type definition

You can use Stochastic Models defined through types and elements together as required - the element
definition always overrides the type definition.

To define a Stochastic Model for a busbar type follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the busbar type and select the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’Stochastic Model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Bar Type Failures’ will appear.
3. Enter the failure data for the busbar and the failure data per connection. Note that the probability
of the busbar failure is the sum of these two failure frequencies. For example a busbar with 3
connections, a failure frequency for the busbar of 0.002 and a failure frequency of 0.005 per
connection will have a total probability of failure of 0.002 + 3 · 0.005 = 0.017.

4. Enter the mean repair duration.

5. Press OK twice to return to the element dialog.
Busbar/Terminal element definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a busbar element follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the busbar element and navigate to the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’Element model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Bar Type Failures’ will appear.

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3. Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the busbar type.
4. Press OK to close the element dialog.

Note: If you define a stochastic element model for a busbar/terminal that also has a stochastic type
model within its corresponding type, the element model overrules the type model.

45.3.1.2 Line/Cable Stochastic Model (StoTyplne)

It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every line or cable within the network. The Stochastic
Model can be defined either through the object type or through the object element. If you want to use
the same Stochastic Model for a number of different lines/cables then you should define it through the
object type reliability page. Alternatively, if you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one element,
then you should define it through the element reliability page.

Cable type definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a line or cable type follow these steps:
1. Open the dialog for the line type and select the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’Stochastic Model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Line Type Failures’ will appear.
3. Enter the Sustained Failure Frequency. Note that the probability of the line failure is determined
using this value and the length of the line. For example, a 12 km line with a Sustained failure
frequency of 0.032(1/(𝑎 · 𝑘𝑚)) will have a failure probability of 12 · 0.032 = 0.384(1/(𝑎)).

4. Enter the mean repair duration in hours.

5. Enter the Transient Fault Frequency. Note this parameter is used for the calculation of the MAIFI
index.
6. Press OK twice to return to the element dialog.

Cable element definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a line or cable element follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the line element and navigate to the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’element model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Line Type Failures’ will appear.
3. Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the line type.

4. Press OK to return to the element dialog.

45.3.1.3 Transformer Stochastic Model (StoTyptrf)

It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every transformer within the network. The Stochastic
Model can be defined either through the object type or through the object element. If you want to use
the same Stochastic Model for a number of different transformers then you should define it through the
object type reliability page. Alternatively, if you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one transformer
element, then you should define it through the element reliability page.

Transformer type definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a transformer type follow these steps:

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1. Open the dialog for the transformer type and select the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’Stochastic Model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Transformer Type Failures’ will appear.
3. Enter the failure frequency data (1/a).
4. Enter the mean repair duration in hours.
5. Press OK twice to return to the element dialog.
Transformer element definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a transformer element follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the transformer element and select the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’element model’ selection control click the black triangle and select the option ’New
project type’. The dialog for the ’Transformer Type Failures’ will appear.
3. Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the transformer type.
4. Press OK to return to the element dialog.

45.3.1.4 Distribution Transformer Stochastic Model for MV Loads

In PowerFactory MV Loads can provide the functionality of a built-in distribution transformer. The fault
behaviour of the distribution transformer is the same as for other transformers, except for the fact that
the load connected behind the transformer is not supplied until the end of the repair duration.

To define a Stochastic Model for a distribution transformer within the MV Load element or type, open the
dialog for the MV Load element or type and select the Reliability tab. As the failure model is based on
the transformer (StoTyptrf), the following steps are equivalent to the ones described in Section 45.3.1.3.

45.3.1.5 Generator Stochastic Model (StoGen)

Within a network, it is possible to define a Stochastic Model for Generation (StoGen) for every generator
class (synchronous machines, static generators, PV systems, etc.) which can be used by both Reliability
and Generation Adequacy. For further information refer to Section 47.3.1. The Stochastic Model can
be defined using the element. The failure model can contain any number of load level states; each state
representing the availability of the generator over a year. This way, complete and/or partial outages can
be modelled.

Upon execution of Reliability Assessment, PowerFactory creates a separate contingency for each
defined state. A load flow is calculated considering the reduced availability (including 0 %) of the
generator, and depending on constraint violations, load shedding and/or re-dispatch of alternative
generators may result.

The Stochastic Model for Generation includes an unlimited number of states with each defined accord-
ing to:
• State: Name of the state
• Availability [%]: Percentage of the nominal power available
• Probability [%]: Probability that this state is valid (the sum of all probabilities must be 100 %)
• Duration [H]: Time needed to solve the given failure
• Frequency [1/a]: Number of incidents that cause the given state per year
• Total Duration [h/a]: Total duration of the given state per year

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Generator element definition

To define a Stochastic Model for a generator element follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the Generator element and select the Reliability tab.
2. Using the ’Stochastic Model’, click the black triangle and select the option ’Select. . . ’. The dialog
for the ’Equipment Types’ project library will appear.

3. Click the New Object button ( ) to create a Stochastic Model for Generation object (StoGen).
The dialog for the object should appear.
4. Enter the data according to one of the following:
• Probability and repair duration
• Repair duration and frequency per year
• Probability and frequency per year
5. Press OK to return to the element dialog.

45.3.1.6 Common Mode Stochastic Model

A common mode failure (StoCommon) involves the simultaneous failure of two or more power system
components. An example is a distribution feeder where two lines with different voltages share the
same poles. If one or more poles fail, for example a car hits a pole, then both lines will be interrupted
simultaneously: these lines have a ’common failure mode’. Such a failure will usually be more likely
than the probability of the two lines failing independently at the same time.

In PowerFactory, it is possible to define a common mode failure object to consider such failures in the
reliability calculation. These Stochastic Models consider the common mode failure probability in addition
to the independent failure mode of each component within the model.

To define a common mode failure Stochastic Model through the single line diagram follow these steps:
1. Mark two or more network objects.
2. Right-click on one of the marked elements and chose Define → Common Mode Failure.
3. To add a network element, add a cell below the last full cell by right-clicking within an empty area
of the dialog and selecting the option ’Append Rows’.
4. Double-click in the first empty cell of the ’Name’ column, to open an object selection browser.
5. Use the browser to find the object that is part of the Common Mode Failure that you are trying to
define.
6. Click OK to return to the Common Mode Failure dialog.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to add more objects to the Common Mode Failure.
8. Click the ’Failure Data’ tab and enter the Sustained Failure Frequency, Mean Outage duration and
Transient Fault Frequency data.
9. Click OK to save the changes.
To define a common mode failure Stochastic Model through the Data Manager (not suitable for the first
Common Mode Stochastic Model) follow these steps:
1. Using the Data Manager, select the ’Common Mode’ failures folder within the ’Operational Library’.

2. Click the New Object button ( ) to create a Stochastic Common Mode failure object (StoCom-
mon). The dialog for the object should appear.
3. Double click in the first empty cell of the ’Name’ column, to open an object selection browser.

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4. Use the browser to find the object that is part of the Common Mode Failure that you are trying to
define.
5. Click OK to return to the Common Mode Failure dialog.

6. Add a cell below the last full cell by right-clicking within an empty area of the dialog and selecting
the option ’Append Rows’.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to add more objects to the Common Mode Failure.
8. Click the ’Failure Data’ tab and enter the Sustained Failure Frequency, Mean Outage duration and
Transient Fault Frequency data.
9. Click OK to save the changes.

45.3.1.7 Protection/Switch Failures

PowerFactory can consider the failure of the protection system to clear the fault as a stochastic proba-
bility within the reliability calculation. This is enabled by entering a ’Probability of Failure’ into the switch
object. To enter this data:
1. Open the dialog for the switch object where you want to enter the switch failure probability.
Normally switches are accessed by right clicking their containing cubicle and selecting the option
’Edit Devices’.
2. On the Reliability tab of the switch object, enter the ’Fault Clearance: circuit breaker fails to open
probability’ in percent. For example, a 5 % failure rate means that on average 1 out of 20 attempted
fault clearance operations will fail.
3. “Unnecessary backup protection maloperation” gives the probability of the backup protection
operating unnecessarily. That is, the backup protection tripping in addition to the main protection
device.
4. “Frequency of spurious protection operation” gives the probability of a relay tripping spuriously,
without any indication.

Note: PowerFactory does not distinguish between a protection system failure and a switch failure. For
example, the reason that a switch fails to open could be caused by a faulty relay, a protection
mal-grading or a faulty circuit breaker. The cumulative probability of all these events should be
entered into the switch failure probability.

45.3.1.8 Double Earth Faults

A double earth fault in PowerFactory is defined as follows: a single earth fault on a component followed
by a second simultaneous earth fault on another component.

A double earth fault might occur after voltage rises on healthy phases on a feeder following a single
phase to earth fault on the feeder, causes a second phase to earth fault on the same feeder.

Double earth faults occur on lines, transformers (2 Winding and 3 Winding transformers) and busbars,
and PowerFactory supports adding the conditional probability data for double earth faults for Stochastic
Models of these components. The reliability calculation automatically generates a contingency event for
every double earth fault that meets the following conditions:
• Both objects are in the same part of the network (supplied by the same transformers).

• The star point of the transformers that supply that part of the network is isolated or compensated
(both star point grounded and Peterson Coil enabled).

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• The frequency of single earth faults of the first object is > 0

• The probability of double earth fault of the second object is > 0.

The frequency for single earth faults and the probability of the second earth fault data can be entered on
the ’Earth Fault’ page of every Stochastic Model. Follow these steps to enter data for a Line Stochastic
Model:
1. Open the Stochastic Failure Model for the line (either through the reliability page of the line type
or the line elements).

2. Select the Earth Fault page.

3. Enable the option ’Model Earth Faults’
4. Enter the data for the frequency of single earth faults

5. Enter the data for the conditional probability of a second earth fault
6. Enter the Repair duration in hours.
7. Close the Stochastic Model.

Note: The double earth fault is a conditional probability. Therefore, the probability of one occurring in
the network is the probability of an earth fault on component A * probability of an double earth
fault on component B

45.3.2 How to Create Feeders for Reliability Calculation

When performing a reliability calculation with the Distribution option set under ’Basic Options’, Power-
Factory requires that feeders have been defined in the model.

To create a feeder:
• Right click on the cubicle at the head of the feeder and select the option Define → Feeder ; or

• For fast creation of multiple feeders, right click the bus that the feeder/s are to be connected to
and select the option Define → Feeder. More information on feeders and feeder creation can be
found in Chapter 15: Grouping Objects, Section 15.5(Feeders).
When executing the Reliability Assessment in distribution networks with a focus on optimal power
restoration, the meshes within feeders are restricted to be of the following kinds:

1. Mesh within the feeder

In this case, the feeder is supplied from one point and the mesh is within the feeder itself.

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Figure 45.3.1: Mesh within feeder

2. Two feeders, starting from the same terminal, are connected

In this case, the feeders are connected and therefore result in a mesh as shown in figure 45.3.2.

Figure 45.3.2: Mesh containing two feeders starting from the same terminal

45.3.3 Configuring Switches for the Reliability Calculation

A critical component of the Failure Effect Analysis (FEA), is the behaviour of the switches in the network
model. Switches in PowerFactory are classified into four different categories:

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• Circuit Breakers; Typically these are automatic and controlled by relays and through remote
communications. They are used for clearing faults and for closing back-feeds for power restoration.
• Disconnectors; Used for isolation and power restoration.
• Load-Break-Switch; Used for isolation and power restoration.
• Switch Disconnector; Used for isolation and power restoration.

All switches in PowerFactory are modelled using the StaSwitch or ElmCoup objects. The switch
category (CB, disconnector etc) is selected on the basic data page of the switch. The actions that
the FEA analysis takes depends on the configuration of these switches and, optionally, the location of
protection devices.

Configuration steps

To configure a switch for reliability analysis follow these steps:

1. Open the dialog for the switch and select the reliability page. This can be done directly by editing
switches modelled explicitly on the single line diagram, or for switches embedded within a cubicle,
by right-clicking the cubicle and selecting the option ’edit devices’, to access the switch.
2. Select the ’Sectionalising’ option. The following choices are available:
• Remote controlled (Stage 1); This option means that the actuation time of this switch is taken
from the global ’remote controlled’ switch actuation time. The default time is 1 min but this
can be adjusted within the reliability command, see Section 45.4.1: How to run the Reliability
Assessment.Typically remote controlled switches are circuit breakers controlled by relays or
with communications from a control room.
• Indicator of Short Circuit (Stage 2); This option represents a switch that has an external
indication of status on the outside of the switch enclosure. This allows the operator/technician
to easily identify the switch status and actuate the switch.
• Manual (Stage 3); These switches need direct visual inspection to determine their status and
therefore take longer to actuate than either stage 1 or stage 2 switches.
3. Select the ’Power Restoration’ option. The following choices are available:
• Do not use for power restoration; If this option is selected the switch can only be used for
isolation of equipment or load shedding. It will not be used by the FEA calculation to restore
power.
• From Branch to Node; If this option is selected, the switch will only be used to restore power
if the post restoration power flow is in the direction from Branch to Node. The switch will not
be used for power restoration in the opposite direction.
• From Node to Branch; If this option is selected, the switch will only be used to restore power
if the post restoration power flow is in the direction from Node to Branch. The switch will not
be used for power restoration in the opposite direction.
• Independent of direction; If this option is selected the switch will be used to restore power
flow regardless of the direction of the post restoration power flow.
4. Enter the time to actuate switch (Stage 2 and 3 switches only); This field specifies the time taken
by the operator to actuate the switch. Note, this excludes the local access and access time if
the switch is within a substation. The total actuation time of such a switch is therefore the switch
actuation time + the substation access time + the local access time.
The complete switching times depend on the following settings:

• Switching procedure for fault separation / power restoration (page FEA of reliability command)
• Access time (of terminal for global terminals, of station for terminals inside stations)
• Local access time (of terminal for global terminals, of station for terminals inside stations)
• Time to open remote controlled switches (page FEA of reliability command) for remote controlled
switches

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• Time to actuate switch (page reliability of switch) for any other switch.

The final time to actuate a switch is calculated as follows:

The protection breakers/switches actuate immediately (at 0:00 minutes after the fault was applied).

Switching procedure for fault separation / power restoration:

– Concurrently:
* Remote controlled switches:Are actuated at the time entered in the reliability command.
* Any other switch: Access Time + Time to actuate switch
– Sequential (previous switching time is considered):
* Remote controlled switches: Are actuated at the time entered in the reliability command.
* Any other switch:
· If a manual switch was actuated before:
- –> If the switch is located in the same station as the switch previously actuated:
Last switch time + Time to actuate switch
- If switch is in a different substation: Last switch time + Local access time + Time to
actuate switch
· Last switch time + Access time + Time to actuate switch
A switch however, will never be closed for power restoration before the corresponding area was
separated from the fault. If an area can be separated from the fault after 15 minutes and the switch
for restoration is remote controlled (time of remote controlled switches is set to 3:00 minutes), it
will be restored after 15 minutes

Note: The Sectionalising options are only considered when the ’Distribution’ reliability analysis option
is selected under ’Basic Options’. If the ’Transmission’ mode is selected, then all switches are
assumed to be remote controlled.

45.3.4 Load Modelling for Reliability Assessment

This section provides a general description of the load element parameters that are used by the
reliability calculation. The first sub-section describes how to input the number of customers that each
load represents and how to classify each load. The second sub-section describes how to define load
shedding and transfer parameters.

45.3.4.1 Specifying the Number of Customers for a Load

Many of the reliability indices such as SAIFI and CAIFI are evaluated based on the number of customers
interrupted. Therefore, for accurate calculation of these indices it is important to specify the number of
customers that each load represents. To do this:

1. Open the dialog for the target load element.

2. Select the Reliability page.
3. In the ’Number of connected customers’ field, enter the number of customers that this load
represents.
4. Repeat this process for each load in the system you are modelling.

Load Classification

Every load can be optionally classified into agricultural, commercial, domestic or industrial load. This
option does not affect the calculation of the reliability indices and is provided for categorisation purposes
only.

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45.3.4.2 Specifying Load Shedding and Transfer Parameters

Load transfer and load shedding are used to alleviate violated voltage or thermal constraints caused
by the power restoration process. There is a distinction between load transfer for constraint alleviation,
such as described in this section, and load transfer for power restoration. Load transfer by isolating a
fault and closing a back-stop switch is considered automatically during the fault separation and power
restoration phase of the failure effect analysis.

If a violated constraint is detected in the post-fault system condition, a search begins for the loads
contributing to these overloads. The overloads are then alleviated by either:
• Transferring some of these loads, if possible; or

• Shedding some of these loads, starting with the lowest priority loads.
To define the load shedding parameters follow these steps:
1. Open the reliability page of the load element.

2. Enter the number of load shedding steps using the ’Shedding steps’ list box. For example, four
shedding steps means that the load can be shed to 25%, 50%, 75% or 100% of its base value.
Infinite shedding steps means that the load can be shed to the exact value required to alleviate
the constraint.
3. Enter the ’Load priority’. The reliability algorithm will always try to shed the loads with the lowest
priority first. However, high priority loads can still be shed if the algorithm determines this is the
only way to alleviate a constraint.
4. Enter the load transfer percentage in the ’Transferable’ parameter. This defines the percentage
of this load that can be transferred away from the current network. PowerFactory assumes that
the transferred load is picked up by another network that is not modelled, hence load transferring
in this way is equivalent to load shedding in terms of constraint alleviation. The difference is that
transferred load is still considered as supplied load, whereas shed load is obviously not supplied.
5. Optional: Use the selection control next to ’Alternative Supply (Load)’ to specify an alternative
load that picks up all transferred load.

Note: There is a critical difference between the transmission reliability and distribution reliability func-
tions. In distribution reliability all constraint alleviation is completed using switch actions, so
loads can only be fully shed (switched out) or they remain in service. However, by contrast,
the transmission reliability option can shed or transfer a percentage of the load.

45.3.5 Modelling Load Interruption Costs

When supply to a load is interrupted, there is a cost associated with the loss of supply. PowerFactory
supports the definition of cost curves for load elements using Energy Tariffs and Time Tariffs. They can
be defined using the ’Tariff’ characteristic on the reliability page of the load element, as discussed in
Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs, Section 18.5 (Tariffs).

Projects imported from previous versions of PowerFactory may include Vector Characteristics for the
definition of cost curves, which are discussed in Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics, Load States,
and Tariffs, Section 18.2.5 (Vector Characteristics with Time Scales).

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45.3.6 System Demand and Load States

Considering Multiple System Demand Levels

If time-based characteristics for the feeder loads, generators or both are defined so that the demand
changes depending on the study case time, these states can be considered in the reliability analysis.
Therefore, the load demand for a one year period can be discretised and converted into several so-
called ’load states’, and a probability of occurrence for each state. The Reliability Command does
not automatically generate the load states. One possibility is the specification of load characteristics
for individual loads and generators, and the second is by specification of load distribution states for
substations. The procedures for each method is described in Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics,
Load States, and Tariffs; Sections 18.3 (Load States) and 18.4 (Load Distribution States).

45.3.7 Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location

The Reliability Calculation has two options for fault clearance:

• Use all circuit breakers; or
• Use only circuit breakers controlled by protection devices (fuses or relays).
The second option is the more realistic option, because only locations within the network that can
automatically clear a fault will be used by the reliability calculation to clear the simulated faults.

Note: If there is no protection device entered in the network model, there is the possibility to define a
circuit breaker to be considered as switch with protection device for reliability calculations. This
setting can be found within the circuit breakers reliability tab. “Fault Clearance: Consider as switch
with protection device”

45.3.8 How to Consider Planned Maintenance

The PowerFactory reliability calculation supports the definition and automatic inclusion of planned
network maintenance. Maintenance is implemented with a planned outage object. These objects
are found within the ’Outages’ sub-folder within the project ’Operational Library’. The following steps
describe the procedure for creating a planned outage:

1. On the single line diagram (or within the Data Manager), select the object (or objects) that you
would like to define an outage for.
2. Right-click the selected object/s and from the menu that appears choose the option Define →
Planned Outage. The dialog box for the planned outage will appear.

3. Using the Start Time selection control ’...’, enter the time that the outage begins.
4. Using the End Time selection control ’...’, enter the time that the outage ends.
5. Optional: Adjust the Outage Type. Typically you would leave this on the default ’Outage of Element’
option, but if you wanted to model a generator derating, then you would choose the ’Generator
Derating’ option.

Note: When the reliability calculation considers outages it creates a unique contingency case for every
contingency with the outage applied and also without the outage. For example, for a network with
two planned outages and six contingencies there will be a total of 6 · 3 = 18 contingency cases.

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45.3.9 Specifying Individual Component Constraints

The reliability calculation can automatically consider voltage and thermal constraints for the power
restoration process. There are two options for specifying constraints applied to branch, terminal, and
feeder objects as follows:

Global Constraints; All network constraints are based on the constraints specified on the constraints tab
of the Reliability Command dialog.

Individual Constraints; If Individual Constraints are selected for branches, terminals, and / or feeders,
constraints should be defined by the user for each relevant object by taking the following steps:
1. Open the reliability page of the target terminal, branch (line/transformer), or feeder.
2. Enter the Max and Min Voltage limits, max loading, or voltage drop/rise for the terminal, branch,
or feeder respectively.
3. Click OK to close the dialog and save the changes.

45.3.10 Consider switching rules

Reliability Analysis in PowerFactory allows the user to consider predefined switching rules within sub-
stations according to chapter 11.2.7.4. Switching-rules are executed directly after protection operation.

45.4 Running The Reliability Assessment Calculation

The procedure for using the PowerFactory Reliability Assessment tool and analysing the results gener-
ated by the tool is described in this section.

45.4.1 How to run the Reliability Assessment

In PowerFactory the network Reliability Analysis is completed using the Reliability Assessment com-
mand (ComRel3 ). This command is found on the ’Reliability Analysis’ toolbar.

Alternatively, the commands can be executed for a single element by right-clicking the element and
selecting Calculate → Reliability Assessment or → Optimal Power Restoration. The options for the
reliability command that are presented within its dialog are described in the following sub-sections.

A reliability assessment is started when the Execute button is pressed. The calculation time required
for a reliability assessment can range from a few seconds for a small network only considering n-1 con-
tingencies, to several hours for a large network considering n-2 contingencies. A reliability assessment
calculation can be interrupted by clicking on the Break icon ( ) on the main toolbar.

45.4.1.1 Basic Options

The following options are available on the Basic Options page Reliability Assessment Command dialog.

Load Flow

This button is a link to the load-flow calculation command used for the analysis. The load demand is
calculated using this load-flow. In addition, its settings are used for the constraint evaluation load-flows.

Method

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• Connectivity analysis: this option enables failure effect analysis without considering constraints.
A load is assumed to be supplied if it is connected to a source of power before a contingency, and
assumed to undergo a loss of supply if the process of fault clearance separates the load from all
power sources. Because constraints are not considered, no load-flow is required for this option
and hence the analysis will be faster than when using the alternative load-flow analysis option.
• Load flow analysis: this option is the same as the connectivity analysis, except that constraints
are considered by completing load-flows for each contingency. Loads might be disconnected
to alleviate voltage or thermal constraints. For the transmission analysis option, Generator re-
dispatch, load transfer and load shedding are used to alleviate overloads.
Calculation time period
• Complete year: the reliability calculation is performed for the current year specified in the ’Date/-
Time of the Calculation Case’. This can be accessed and the date and time changed by clicking
the button.
• Single Point in Time: the Reliability Calculation is completed for the network in its current state
at the actual time specified by the ’Date/Time of the Calculation Case’.

Note: If load states or maintenance plans are not created and considered, then these options make no
difference because the reliability calculation is always completed at the single specified time.

Network

• Distribution: the reliability assessment will try to remove overloading at components and voltage
violations (at terminals) by optimising the switch positions in the system. If constraints occur in
the power restoration process, loads will be shed by opening available switches. This option is the
recommended analysis option for distribution and medium voltage networks.

Note: The reliability command optimises switch positions based on load shedding priorities, and
not network losses.

• Transmission: thermal overloads are removed by generator re-dispatch, load transfer and load
shedding. First generator re-dispatch and load transfer is attempted. If these cannot be completed
or do not remove the thermal overload, load shedding actions will occur. Generator re-dispatch
and load transfer do not affect the reliability indices. However, by contrast, load shedding leads to
unsupplied loads and therefore affects the reliability indices.

Automatic Contingency Definition

If the checkbox is selected, new contingencies will be created. If it is unchecked, existing contingencies
from previous calculations will be used for reliability assessment.

The ’Selection’ list presents two possible options for the contingency definition. These are:
• Whole system: PowerFactory will automatically create a contingency event for every object that
has a Stochastic Model defined.
• User Defined: Selecting this option shows a selection control. Now you can select a set of objects
(SetSelect), and contingencies will be created for each of these objects that has a Stochastic
Model defined.
In addition to the above contingency definition options, the automatic contingency definition can be
further controlled with the following checkboxes:

• Busbars/Terminals; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to create Busbar and terminal
contingencies.
• Lines/Cables; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to create Line/Cable contingencies.

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• Transformers; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to create transformer contingencies.
• Generators; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to create generator contingencies
(Load flow analysis only).

• Common Mode; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to create Common Mode contin-
gencies. See section 45.3.1.6 (Common Mode Stochastic Model) for more information.
• Independent second failures; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to consider n-2 out-
ages in addition to n-1 outages. Caution: n-2 outages for all combinations of n-1 outages are
considered. This means that for a system of n contingencies there are (𝑛 · (𝑛 − 1))/2) + 𝑛,
contingencies to consider. This equation is quadratic, and so to minimise the required time for
computation this option is disabled by default.
• Double-earth faults; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to consider double-earth faults.
See section 45.3.1.8 (Double Earth Faults) for more information.

• Protection/switching failures; This flag should be enabled for PowerFactory to consider the failure
to operate of protection devices or circuit breakers. See section 45.3.1.7 (Protection/Switch
Failures) for more information.
• Spurious protection operation; as explained in section 45.3.1.7.

• Backup protection maloperation; as explained in section 45.3.1.7.

45.4.1.2 Outputs

The following options are available on the Outputs tab of the Reliability command.

Results

This option allows the selection of the result element (ElmRes) where the results of the reliability
analysis will be stored. Normally, PowerFactory will create a results object within the active study
case.

Perform Evaluation of Results File

The Reliability Analysis automatically writes all simulation results to a results object specified above.
After completing the Reliability Calculation, PowerFactory automatically evaluates the results object to
compute the reliability indices. This button allows you to re-evaluate a results file that has previously
been created by this or another reliability calculation command. The benefit of this is that you do not
have to re-run the reliability calculation (which can be time consuming compared with the results object
evaluation) if you only want to recalculate the indices from an already completed calculation.

Report

Displays the form used for the output report. Report settings can be inspected and the format selected
by clicking on the button.

Show detailed output of initial load flow and top level feeders

If this option is checked, a detailed report of the initial load flow will be printed to the output window.

45.4.1.3 Protection

Fault Clearance Breakers

• Use all circuit breakers: all switches in the system whose Usage is set to Circuit Breaker can
be used for fault clearance.

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• Use only circuit breakers with protection device: all circuit breakers in the system which are
controlled by a protection device (fuse or relay) can be used for fault clearance. Circuit breakers
which are set to have a protection device are also considered.

Create Contingencies

These settings are the same as in “Automatic Contingency Definition”, described in section 45.4.1.1.
For convenience they are displayed within this tab as well.

45.4.1.4 Restoration

Automatic Power Restoration

The options described below will only be available if Automatic Power Restoration is selected.

Load/Generator Priorities

The two settings will be used to evaluate the element’s priority value, entered by the user.
• Lowest priority number refers to most critical load/generator: this means that higher priorities
are shed first.
• Highest priority number refers to most critical load/generator

Switching procedures for fault separation/power restoration

• Concurrent Switch Actions: it is assumed that the switching actions can be performed immedi-
ately following the specified switching time. However, a switch can be closed for power restoration
only after the faulted element was disconnected. The analogy for this mode is if there were a large
number of operators in the field that were able to communicate with each other to coordinate the
switching actions as quickly as possible. Therefore, this option gives an optimistic assessment of
the ’smart power restoration’.
• Sequential Switch Actions: it is assumed that all switching actions are performed sequentially.
The analogy for this mode is if there were only a single operator in the field, who was required to
complete all switching. The fault separation and power restoration is therefore slower when using
this mode compared with the ’concurrent’ mode.
• Consider Sectionalising (Distribution analysis only): if enabled, the FEA considers the switch
sectionalising stage when attempting fault separation and power restoration.

Time to open remote controlled switches

The time (in minutes) taken to open remote controlled switches.

Power restoration

After the isolation of failures, parts of the network may be unsupplied. However, the network can be
reconfigured by moving the tie open point in order to restore as much power as possible (partial power
restoration). This reconfiguration might lead to violations of constraints (e.g. overloading), which should
be avoided. For each sectionalising stage of switches, the optimisation method offers three power
restoration modes:

• Disabled (no movement of tie open points)

• Enabled without load transfer (tie open points can only be moved between the feeder and a
directly-bordering feeder)
• Enabled with load transfer (tie open points can be moved between a bordering feeder and a
second-level bordering feeder)

First sectionalising is attempted using only stage 1 switches, if this is not successful then stage 1 and 2
switches are used. Finally, if this is not successful, then stage 1, 2 and 3 switches are used.

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If Consider Sectionalising Actions is disabled, the stage of each switch is ignored and all switches will
be considered equally with one of the above mentioned methods.

Enhanced restoration

If this checkbox is enabled, the restoration uses a more precise algorithm to solve load flow convergence
issues during the restoration process. Setting this option can decrease the performance of the Reliability
assessment.

Consider a possible backward recovery of a feeder in a primary substation

Whenever the start point of a feeder is de-energised after a fault ( e.g. on a HV/MV-transformer),
backward recovery can be used to resupply this feeder. Backward recovery allows the restoration
through a substation. It is started in a case where the standard recovery could not resupply all loads
after the first stage of the recovery, e.g. because of constraint violations or because of de-energised
isolated feeders. The algorithm finds the best feeder for resupplying the substation and the interrupted
feeders. This can improve the restoration quality for a loss of a substation significantly, especially, for
example, for dedicated low-load feeders between substations or isolated feeders (see figure below).

(a) Initial State (b) Resupply of Feeder 1

Figure 45.4.1: Example of Backward Recovery

The Backward recovery option, located within the “Restoration” Option, can be set as follows.
• Do not allow: no backward recovery will be used for restoration
• Allow but prefer standard recovery: backward recovery is allowed, but standard recovery will be
preferred for restoration.
• Allow with user-defined preference: substations, where Backward recovery is allowed can be
selected here.
• Allow and prefer: whenever possible, backward recovery will be preferred.

45.4.1.5 Costs

Costs for energy not supplied

If this option is selected, an Energy Tariff can be selected. Energy Tariffs are discussed in Chapter 18:
Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs, Section 18.5.2(Defining Energy Tariffs).

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Costs for loads

If this option is selected, a Global cost curve for all loads can be selected. Alternatively, ’Individual cost
curve per load’ may be selected, allowing the user to define tariffs for individual loads. In both cases,
a Time Tariff or Energy Tariff may be defined, as discussed in Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics,
Load States, and Tariffs, Section 18.5 (Tariffs).

45.4.1.6 Constraints

The settings for global constraints are defined within this page. The options are as follows:

Consider Thermal Constraints (Loading)

If this option is enabled, thermal constraints are considered by the FEA.

• Global constraints for all components: constraints specified in ’Max thermal loading of compo-
nents’ apply to all components in percent value.
• Individual constraint per component: the maximum thermal loading limit is considered for each
component separately. This loading limit can be found on the Reliability tab of each component.

Consider Voltage Limits (Terminals)

If this option is enabled terminal voltage limits are considered by the FEA.

• Global Constraint for all terminals: constraints specified in Lower and Upper Limit of allowed
voltage in p.u. that will apply to all terminals.

• Individual Constraint per terminal: voltage constraints are considered for each terminal sepa-
rately. These constraints can be found on the Reliability tab of each terminal.

Consider Voltage Drop/Rise

If this option is enabled feeder voltage limits are considered by the FEA.

• Global Constraint for all feeders: constraints specified in Maximum Voltage Drop and Rise in
percent value that will apply to all feeders.
• Individual Constraint per feeder: voltage Drop/Rise constraints are considered for each feeder
separately. These constraints can be found on the Reliability tab of each feeder.

Consider Boundary Constraints outside feeders

If this option is set, the boundary constraints, applied on the boundaries “Reliability” settings are
considered during restoration.

Ignore all constraints for

Constraints are ignored for all terminals and components below the entered voltage level.

• Nominal voltage below or equal to: the voltage level in kV is specified here if ’Ignore all
constraints for...’ is enabled.

Note: Voltage constraints are only available when the ’Distribution’ analysis option is selected under
’Basic Options’. Thermal constraints are available when either the ’Transmission’ or ’Distribution’
analysis option is selected.

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45.4.1.7 Maintenance

This tab allows you to enable or disable the consideration of Maintenance based on the Planned
Outages you have defined. See Section 45.3.9, for more information on defining planned outages.
The following options are available on this page:

Consider Maintenance

If enabled, all maintenance that falls in the selected time period, whether it’s a year or a single point in
time, is considered.

• Show used planned outages: when clicked, this button will show a list of all planned outages
that will be considered by the calculation.
• Show all planned outages: when clicked, this button will show a list of all planned outages
created in the project, including those not considered by the analysis because they fall outside of
the selected time period.

45.4.1.8 Load Data

If the Reliability Calculation option ’Complete Year’ is selected on the basic options page, then the
following options are available on the Load Data page.

Load Variations

Enable the relevant flag to consider load states, load distribution states or Load and Generator States
according to section 45.3.6 in the reliability calculation. The reliability calculation does not create load
states automatically. If this flag is enabled but the states have not been created, then an error will be
printed to the output window and the reliability calculation will stop. Otherwise the following two buttons
are available.

Update/creation of States

• Manually: if selected, a button ’Create load states’ will be available. When clicked, it launches
the ’Load state creation’ command after closing the reliability command (see Chapter 18 for more
information on load state creation).
• Automatically before running reliability calculation: when selected, a pointer to the load state
creation command is available.

45.4.1.9 Advanced Options

Events created during restoration

• Only store them in the results file: events will only be stored in the results file and not be
saved as separate events in the contingency. This minimises the number of objects created
in the database while performing calculations with many contingencies in large networks (e.g
if independent second failures or double earth faults are enabled).
• Also save them in the corresponding contingency: switch events will be saved in the corre-
sponding contingency.

Stop calculation if base case is overloaded

If this option is set, the reliability assessment will stop if the base case is overloaded. If not, a user
defined threshold can be specified.

Calculation of SAIFI/SAIDI according to IEEE 1366

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• Do not consider interruptions shorter than or equal to: this option enables the possibility to
not consider interruptions shorter than a user defined duration for the calculation of SAIFI/SAIDI
according to section 45.2.3.3.

Trace Functionality (Jump to Last Step)

A user-defined ’Time delay in animation’ can be entered to delay the animation of power restorations
when the Jump to Last Step icon is pressed.

Switch/Load events

• Delete switch events: removes all switch events associated with the contingencies stored inside
the command.
• Delete load events: removes all load events associated with the contingencies stored inside the
command.

Failures, correction of forced outage rate

This option performs an automatic correction/normalisation of the reliability indices to allow for the fact
that not all unlikely but possible contingencies have been considered in the analysis. For instance, n-3
contingencies have a non-zero probability.

Note: ’Forced outage’ refers to the unplanned removal of a primary component from the system due to
one or more failures in the system.

45.4.1.10 Parallel Computing

Parallel calculation of the Reliability Assessment is possible and can be activated on the Parallel
Computing page of the Reliability Assessment command dialog. The options provided on this page
are described below.

Parallel computation of contingencies: if the checkbox is ticked, the Reliability Assessment is exe-
cuted in parallel. Otherwise, the calculation is run sequentially.

Minimum number of contingencies: this parameter defines the minimum number of contingencies
necessary to start a parallel calculation. This means, if the number of contingencies is less than the
entered number, the calculation is run sequentially.

Parallel Computing Manager: the parallel computation settings are stored in a Parallel Computing
Manager object (SetParalman). Further information on the particular configuration is found in Sec-
tion 22.4.

45.5 Results of the Reliability Analysis

45.5.1 Contribution to Reliability Indices

Contribution means the effects of the calculated contingencies to the reliability indices of all loads or
a selection of loads. This chapter describes an optional post processing step, which can be useful to
analyse the influence of a particular component or group of components on the calculated reliability
indices. This enables the identification of components that can be targeted for upgrade to improve
reliability, or to examine the impact of improved switch automation for example. This sub-section
describes the post-processing functionality that can be used for these purposes.

To analyse the contributions to the following indices

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1. SAIFI,
2. SAIDI,

3. ASIFI,
4. ASIDI,
5. ENS,
6. EIC,

the Reliability Assessment Calculation has to be executed once, or it has to be ensured that the currently
activated study case contains results of a previously executed reliability analysis.

• Choose the Contributions to Reliability Indices button ( ) in the Reliability Analysis toolbar menu.
• Choose between the contribution to all loads or to a user defined selection of loads. Loads can be
selected according to the following groupings.
– Grids,
– Feeders,
– Zones,
– Areas.
– and General Selections.
• Furthermore, it is possible to analyse the contribution of network elements to reliability indices of
one Load, which can be a General Load, LV-Loads or MV-Load.

• After setting the required set, the user can execute the post process.

Note: The Contributions to Reliability Indices is a post-processing command. Once calculated the
contributions for a selection, it is possible to change the selection or re-run the command for all
Loads without executing the Reliability Assessment once again.

45.5.2 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram

You can view the Reliability Assessment Load Point Indices in three ways: in the load result boxes
in single line graphic, in the data browser (Data Manager or load filter) or according to the diagram
colouring. This sub-section describes the first two of these methods. The third method is described in
chapter 45.5.2.2.

45.5.2.1 Result Boxes

After you have executed the Reliability Assessment Calculation, all loads within the Network Single Line
Graphic, will show the following load point indices:
• AID: Average Interruption Duration.

• LPIF: Load Point Interruption Frequency.

• LPIT: Load Point Interruption Time.
• LPIC: Load Point Interruption Costs.

As usual, with PowerFactory result boxes, you can hover the mouse pointer over the result box to show
an enlarged popup of the results. This is demonstrated in Figure 45.5.1

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Figure 45.5.1: Single Line Diagram Graphic Showing the Load Point Indices Results

Note: You can show any of the calculated load point indices in the load result boxes. To do this
modify the displayed variables as described in Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualising Results,
Section 19.3 (Variable Selection)

45.5.2.2 Diagram Colouring

For further analysis, which element contributes most to the reliability of a certain selection of customers,
it is possible to use the diagram colouring.

The colouring is according to results of the whole system or the selection that has been chosen as
described in chapter 45.5.1. The diagram colouring, especially for branches, terminals, MV Loads and
generators can be according to
• contribution to EIC,
• contribution to ENS,
• contribution to SAIDI,

• and contribution to SAIFI.

The colouring, especially for Loads, can be according to
• average interruption duration,

• load point energy not supplied,

• yearly interruption frequency,
• and yearly interruption time.
In addition, there are several colouring modes that can aid you when using the reliability assessment
functions. These are:
• Colouring according to Feeders; Use this to identify each Feeder and to see which feeder picks
up load when back-feed switches are closed.
• Colouring according to Connected Grid Components; Use this to identify de-energised sections
of the network during the fault isolation, separation and power restoration.

• Switches, type of usage. Use this mode to check the type of switches in the system when they
are not modelled explicitly in the single line diagram.

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To Colour According to Feeders

1. Click the Diagram Colouring button . The Diagram colouring dialog will appear.
2. Select the tab for the function you want to show the colouring mode for. For example, if you want
the feeder colouring to appear before a calculation, then select the Basic Data tab. If you want the
colouring to appear after a load-flow choose the load-flow tab.
3. Check the 3. Other box and select Topology from the drop down list.

4. Select Feeders in the second drop down box.

5. Optional: To change the feeder colour settings click the colour settings button. You can double
click the displayed colours in the colour column and select a different colour for each feeder as
desired.

6. Click OK to close the Diagram Colouring dialog and save your changes.

To Colour According to Connected Grid Components

The Connected Grid Components colouring mode displays all the network components that are elec-
trically connected together in the same colour. Other components are not coloured. To enable this
mode:
1. Click the Diagram Colouring button . The diagram colouring dialog will appear.

2. Select the load-flow tab.

3. Check the 3. Other box and select Topology from the drop down list.
4. Select Connected Grid Components in the second drop down box.

5. Click OK to close the Diagram Colouring dialog and save your changes.
To Colour According to Switch Type

The Switches: type of usage colouring mode displays all switches in the network with a different colour
depending on their switch type. For instance circuit breakers will be displayed in a different colour to
disconnectors. To enable this mode:
1. Click the Diagram Colouring button . The diagram colouring dialog will appear.

2. Select the tab for the function you want to show the colouring mode for. For example, if you want
the switch type colouring to appear before a calculation, then select the Basic Data tab. If you
want the colouring to appear after a load-flow choose the load-flow tab.
3. Check the 3. Other box and select Secondary Equipment from the drop down list.
4. Select Switches, Type of Usage in the second drop down box.

5. Optional: To change the switch colour settings, click the colour settings button. You can double
click the displayed colours in the colour column and select a different colour for each switch type
as desired.
6. Click OK to close the Diagram Colouring dialog and save your changes.

45.5.3 Viewing Results in the Data Browser

To view the load point and system reliability indices in the Data Browser (as a selectable spreadsheet
list), follow these steps:

1. Select the element or grouping element icon from the Network Model Manager button .
2. Choose the Flexible Data tab.

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3. Click the Define Flexible Data button , to show all available variables.
4. Add more variables to the Selected Variables by double-clicking the variable in the Available
Variables window.

5. Click OK to view the result variables in the data browser.

Note: Steps 3-5 are only required the first time you want to view the system reliability indices, or if you
want to change the displayed variables. PowerFactory ’remembers’ these settings within each
project.

45.5.4 Reliability Reports

The Report can be accessed through the Reliability Reports button ( ) within the Reliability Analysis
toolbar. The Report is based on the whole system or the selection that has been chosen as described
in chapter 45.5.1. The report offers the following functionalities.

ASCII Report

This report is writing the results into the output window.

• System Summary: reports a calculation summary of the Reliability Assessment together with
calculated system indices.
• Load Interruptions: reports the following indices for all Loads within the selection.
– TCIT
– TCIF
– AID
– LPENS
– LPIC
– ACIF
– ACIT
• Node Interruptions: reports the following indices, focused on nodes.
– AIT
– AIF
– AID

• Contribution of Component Classes: reports the contribution of Lines, Cables, Transformers,

Terminals, Generators, Common Mode Failures and Double-Earth Faults to the system-indices,
that are available for contributions mentioned in 45.5.1.
Tabular report of Contributions

This Report returns the contribution of one single element to the overall system-indices in a tabular
form. This contribution is given as absolute value and in per-cent.

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Optimal Power Restoration

The optimal power restoration functions can be accessed by activating the Optimal Power Restoration
toolbar using the icon on the toolbar selection control as illustrated in Figure 46.0.1

Figure 46.0.1: Optimal Power Restoration Selection

46.1 Failure Effect Analysis

The simulation of the system response to specific contingencies (ComContingency ) is called ’Failure
Effect Analysis’ (FEA). The System State Enumeration algorithm uses the FEA engine to analyse the
following steps after a contingency:

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• Fault Clearance;
• Fault Isolation;
• Power Restoration;
• Overload Alleviation;
• Voltage Constraint Alleviation;
• Load Transfer;
• Load Shedding;
FEA analysis for the network assessment can consider or ignore constraints. For overload alleviation,
the algorithm uses an AC load flow to search for overloaded branches and if any are identified then it
attempts to resolve them, firstly by load transfer and secondly by load shedding. If constraints are not
considered by the FEA, then a load-flow for each state is not required and consequently the simulation
is much faster.

For every simulated failure, a contingency is created by the FEA algorithm. If the calculation uses load
characteristics, a contingency is created for every combination of failure and load state. Likewise, when
maintenance (planned outages) are considered, there are more states for each outage and contingency
combination.

Fault Clearance

The fault clearance step of the FEA assumes 100% selectivity of the protection. Therefore, it is assumed
that the relays nearest to the failure will clear the fault. If protection/switching failures are considered
in the FEA, it is assumed that the next closest protection device (after the failed device) has 100%
selectivity. As described in (Protection/Switch Failures), PowerFactory does not consider separate
switch and protection failures, instead these are lumped together. In the pre-processing phase of the
reliability assessment, all breakers in the system that can be tripped by a relay, or fuse are marked as
’protection breakers’.

To clear the fault, the FEA starts a topological search from the faulted component/s to identify the closest
protection breaker/s that can clear the fault. These breaker/s are then opened to end the fault clearance
phase of the FEA. If it is not possible to isolate the fault because there are no appropriate protection
breakers, then an error message will be printed and the reliability assessment will end.

Fault Isolation

The next step of the FEA is to attempt to restore power to healthy network sections. It does this by
separating the faulted section from the healthy section by opening sectionalising switches.

The fault separation procedure uses the same topological search for switches as the fault clearance
phase. The fault separation phase starts a topological search from the faulted components to identify
the closest switches that will isolate the fault. These switches are subsequently opened. Note, all
closed switches can be used to separate the faulted area. The area that is enclosed by the identified
fault separation switches is called the ’separated area’. The separated area is smaller than, or equal to,
the ’protected area’. It will never extend beyond the ’protected area’.

The healthy section which is inside the ’protected area’, but outside of the ’separated area’ is called the
’restorable area’ because power can be restored to this area.

Power Restoration

The Power Restoration process of the FEA energises the healthy areas of the system after the fault
separation process has isolated the faulted area. Note that only open switches that are enabled for use
in power restoration will be considered by PowerFactory as candidate switches for power restoration.
Additionally, PowerFactory uses a ’smart power restoration’ procedure that also considers the direction
of the power restoration and the priority (stage) of the switch. The fastest candidate switch is always
selected when there is more than one restoration alternative. Each restorable area that is reconnected

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to the supplied network is called a ’restored’ area. For more information about the switch configuration
for smart power restoration, see Section 45.3.3.

If switching actions are not possible in order to return loads and terminals in a separated area to service,
then these loads and terminals will remain interrupted for the mean duration of the repair, which is
normally several hours. However, if switching actions are possible to return the loads and terminals
to service, they will only be interrupted for the time needed to open all separators and to close all
power restoration switches. The effects of network upgrades, including improved automation and remote
control of switches (by lowering switch actuation times), can be analysed.

An Optimal Power Restoration can also be conducted for a single contingency from outside the reliability
calculation through the Optimal Power Restoration command shown in Figure 46.0.1, or by right-clicking
an element and selecting Calculate → Optimal Power Restoration.

Overload Alleviation

If the power restoration does not cause any thermal overloads or voltage violations (if applicable),
then the FEA can proceed to calculate the statistics for that state and then analyse the next state.
However, if thermal constraints are enabled, then PowerFactory will complete load-flows to check
that all components are still within their thermal capability after the power restoration is complete. If
necessary, load transferring, partial or full load shedding might be required to alleviate the thermal
over-load. Note load transferring and partial load shedding are only considered when ’Transmission’
is selected in the Reliability command Basic Options. The distribution option considers only discrete
switch actions. Therefore, loads must be fully shed or remain in service.

Voltage Constraint Alleviation (Distribution Option only)

If the ’Distribution’ option is selected in ’Basic Options’, voltage constraints for busbars/terminals and
feeders can be considered in addition to thermal constraints. The voltage constraint alleviation process
is similar to the thermal overload alleviation process, where loads will be shed if necessary to maintain
system voltages within the defined limits.

Load Transfer (Transmission Option only)

In some cases, load transfer switches and/or the alternative feeders are not included in the network
model where reliability assessment is completed. In these cases, the automatic power restoration
cannot switch an unsupplied load to an alternative supply. An example is when a (sub-)transmission
network is analysed and the connected distribution networks are modelled as single lumped loads. In
this scenario, transfer switches that connect two distribution networks will not be visible. Therefore, the
possibility of transferring parts of the lumped load model to other feeders can be modelled by entering
a transfer percentage at each lumped load. This transfer percentage defines the portion of the lumped
load that can be transferred ’away’ from the analysed network, without specifying to which feeder/s the
portion is transferred.

The use of the load transfer percentage (parameter name: Transferable on the load element’s Reliability
tab) is only valid when load transfer is not expected to result in an overloading of the feeders which pick
up the transferred loads.

Load transfer is used in the overload alleviation prior to the calculation of power at risk (see the following
section for further information). The power at risk is considered to be zero if all overloads in the post-fault
condition can be alleviated by load transfers alone.

Load Shedding

There are three basic variations of shedding that can be used:

• Optimal load shedding.

• Priority optimal load shedding.

• Discrete optimal load shedding.

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Optimal load shedding presumes that all loads can be shed precisely (an infinite number of steps).
PowerFactory attempts to find a solution that alleviates the overload with the lowest amount of load
shed.

PowerFactory uses linear sensitivity indices to first select those loads with any contribution to over-
loading. A linear optimisation is then started to find the best shedding option. The resulting minimum
amount of shed load is called the ’Power Shed’, because it equals the minimum amount of load that
must be shed to alleviate overloads after the power restoration. The power shed is multiplied by the
duration of the system state to get the ’Energy Shed’. The total energy shed for all possible system
states is reported after the reliability assessment is complete, and is referred to as the ’System Energy
Shed’ (SES).

Loads are shed automatically based on their allocated priority, with PowerFactory attempting to shed
low priority loads, prior to high priority loads wherever possible. In the transmission reliability option,
loads can be partially or fully shed, whereas in the distribution option, loads can only be fully shed.

Example

Figure 46.1.1 shows a simple network containing four loads, several circuit breakers (CB) and discon-
necters (DS) and a back-feed switch (BF).

Figure 46.1.1: Short-Circuit on Ln4

Fault clearance

The area isolated by the fault clearance procedure is called the ’protected area’. Figure 46.1.2 shows
the example network after the fault clearance functions have opened the protection breaker ’CB1’. The
protected area is the area containing all switches, lines and loads between ’CB1’ and the back-feed
switch, ’BF’. Therefore, during the clearance of this fault, loads 1, 2, and 3 are interrupted.

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Figure 46.1.2: Protected Area

Fault Isolation

Figure 46.1.3 shows the example network with the separation switches, ’DS2’ and ’DS4’ open. The
separated area now only contains the faulted line, Ln4. There are now two restorable areas following
the fault separation; the area which contains load 1, and the area which contains loads 2 and 3.

Figure 46.1.3: Separated Area Highlighted

Power Restoration

After the fault separation phase is complete, the following switch actions are required to restore power
to the two separate ’restorable’ areas:
• Separation switch ’DS2’ is ’remote-controlled’ and has a switching time of 3 minutes.

• Power to load 1 is restored by (re)closing the protection breaker, ’CB1’ which is also remote
controlled.
• Load 1 is therefore restored in 3 minutes (=0.05 hours).
• Power to load 2 and 3 is restored by closing the back-feed switch, ’BF’.

• Because the back-feed switch has a actuation time of 30 minutes, loads 2 and 3 are restored in
0.5 hours.
The network is now in the post-fault condition as illustrated in Figure 46.1.4.

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Figure 46.1.4: Power Restoration by Back-Feed Switch BF1 and CB1

Overload Alleviation and Load Shedding

Figure 46.1.5 shows a line overload in the post-fault condition in the example network: line ’Ln1’ is
loaded to 113%.

Figure 46.1.5: Overloaded Post-Fault Condition

In this example, loads 1, 2, 3 and 4 all contribute to the line overload on LN1, and consequently load
would be shed based on load shedding options and priorities set by the user to alleviate the constraint.

46.2 Animated Tracing of Individual Cases

After the Reliability Analysis has completed, it is possible to view the fault clearance, fault separation,
power restoration and load shedding actions completed by the algorithm for each contingency. To do
this:

1. Click the Fault Trace button on the Optimal Power Restoration toolbar. A list of available
contingencies will appear in a new window.
2. Select the contingency to consider and click OK. The network will be initialised to the state before
the inception of the fault.

3. Click the Next Step button to advance to the next system state. This will usually show the
system state immediately after the protection has operated and cleared the fault.

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4. Click the Next Step button to advance through more steps, each click advances one time step.

5. To stop the fault trace, click the Stop Trace button.

46.3 Optimal RCS Placement

Following a Backbone Calculation (see Section 41.3), an Optimal Remote Control Switch (RCS) Place-
ment can be performed to optimise placement of remote control switches within a feeder/s. The calcula-
tion optimises placement of a fixed number or optimal number of switches per feeder or backbone, with
an objective function that minimises Energy Not Supplied (ENS), balances ENS, or minimises Expected
Interruption Costs (EIC). The Optimal RCS Placement command is a heuristic planning tool, and may
precede a detailed reliability analysis.

To conduct an Optimal RCS Placement, reliability data should be specified on the Reliability page of
line elements (outages of other elements are not considered). See Chapter 45: Reliability Assessment,
Section 45.3 for details.

If the cost of interrupted load is to be considered, a global Energy Tariff must be defined, see Chapter 18,
Section 18.5.2: Defining Energy Tariffs for details.

The Optimal RCS command can be selected under Optimal Power Restoration toolbar, as shown on
Figure 46.0.1 This section describes the Optimal RCS Placement objective function and command
dialogs, and provides an example calculation.

Note: The Optimal RCS calculation requires that feeder is supposed to be operated radially be selected
on the Feeder Basic Options page.

46.3.1 Basic Options Page

Calculate optimal RCS

Specify all Feeders or a user-defined set of Feeder/s for the Optimal RCS calculation. To show the
Backbones to be considered by the calculation, select Active Backbones.

Objective Function :

The objective function of the Optimal RCS Placement command can be set to either:

• Minimise ENS by installing a specified number of RCS per feeder / backbone to minimise the
Energy Not Supplied.
• Balance ENS by installing an optimal or fixed number of RCS per feeder / backbone to balance
the Energy Not Supplied. This option may be used in some circumstances to plan the network
in a way that considers connections with many (or large) customers and connections with few (or
small) customers equitably.
• Minimise EIC by installing an optimal or fixed number of RCS per feeder / backbone to minimise
the Expected Interruption Cost.
– If this option is selected, a global Energy Tariff must be defined (see Chapter 18, Sec-
tion 18.5.2: Defining Energy Tariffs).
Number of RCS:
• With an objective function to Minimise ENS, specify:
– Number of new RCS per feeder / backbone.
• With an objective function to Balance ENS or Minimise EIC, select to either Optimise number of
RCS or Fix number of new RCS.

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– Specify the Number or Maximum number of new RCS per feeder / backbone.
– If the objective function is set to Minimise EIC, enter the Yearly costs per RCS in $ per annum.

Recording of results
• Select calculate results only to perform a calculation without making an modifications to the
network.
• Select save results in variations to save the results to a Variation. Note that by default the variation
will be inactive after running the Optimal RCS Placement.

• Select to change existing network to change the existing network. Note that this changes object
data in the base network.

46.3.2 Output Page

Results
A reference (pointer) to the results object.

Report
(Optionally) select the format of results printed to the output window. The report provides details of
the recommended remote control switches and their costs, and depending on the selected objective
function, energy not supplied or interruption costs results.

46.3.3 Advanced Options Page

RCS placement

Select to either determine on selected backbones simultaneously or for selected backbones separately.

• On selected backbones simultaneously (default):

Positions for optimal RCS are existing switches in all the backbones of a feeder. This results in
one set of optimal switches for the whole feeder.
• For selected backbones separately:
Positions for optimal RCS are existing switches in one of the backbones of a feeder. This results
in a set of optimal switches for each backbone of the feeder individually.
Backbones for RCS placement

Select to either optimise RCS for all backbones, or only for backbones up to a specified order (in which
case, define the maximum order). Note that if more than one backbone has been created for a feeder,
the main backbone will have order “1”, the second “best” candidate has order “2”, and so on.

Detailed output of results:

Optionally select detailed output mode to output additional details by “Section”, such as ENS, FOR, and
EIC (depending on the optimisation option selected).

Switching Time:

Set the Time to actuate RCS and Time to actuate manual switches (applied for all switches). These
parameters are used by the calculation to determine ENS and EIC.

Load flow calculation

Pointer to load-flow command (note for balanced calculations only).

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46.3.4 Example Optimal RCS Calculation

Consider the simple example shown in Figure 46.3.1 where two feeders with three loads each are
separated via three open points. Line outage rates and load parameters have been defined. To illustrate
line Forced Outage Rates, from the main menu select View → Diagram Colouring (or select the Diagram
Colouring icon). Under 3. Other select Primary Equipment → Forced Outage Rate. In the example,
there is a requirement to install a single Remote Control Switch (RCS) on each feeder to minimise the
ENS.

Figure 46.3.1: Example Optimal RCS Model

To calculate the optimal location(s) for remote controlled switches, a Backbone Calculation for all feeders
based on network structure is first executed (see Section 41.3 for details of how to run the Backbone
Calculation).

Next, an Optimal RCS calculation is executed for all feeders, with an objective function to Minimise ENS,
limited to 1 RCS per backbone. Note that the calculation will run twice in this example (once for each
feeder), and so two RCS’s will be recommended.

The calculation simulates outages of each line, and calculates the ENS for placement of RCS’s at each
location. In order to mitigate the impact of outages (in particular, from the “problem line” Line(1)) the
calculation recommends installation of remote control switches at locations “Switch2” and “Switch5” to
minimise the ENS.

46.4 Optimal Manual Restoration

The Optimal Manual Restoration (OMR) command (ComOmr ) can be found under the Optimal Power
Restoration toolbar (click on the Change Toolbox icon ( ) of the main toolbar). The OMR command
dialog is shown by clicking on the Optimal Manual Restoration icon ( ). The OMR calculation de-
termines the optimal sequence for operating manual switches when searching for location of a fault

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in a distribution network. This tool is intended for distribution networks with a radial feeder topology
which may contain remote control switches (RCS). The Optimal Manual Restoration tool defines the
locations of manual switches which are to be opened/closed and the corresponding sequential order
that a service team should open/close these switches in order to restore power safely to the greatest
number of consumers in the shortest possible time. The sequential order is defined by OMR levels:
level 1 corresponds to the first step in the OMR process, level 2 corresponds to the second step and
finally level 3 to the last one.

In this section the term switch refers to a coupler element ElmCoup or a switch element StaSwitch. The
concept of feeder pockets is used in the calculation. A pocket represents an enclosed area of the radial
network delimited by a remote control switch, open manual switches or a calculated OMR terminal. The
OMR calculation determines one OMR terminal per level for each pocket. All manually closed switches
connected to the OMR terminal are considered to have the same OMR level equivalent to the level for
which the OMR terminal has been assigned. Up to three OMR levels can be calculated i.e. Level 1,
Level 2 and Level 3. Level 1 pockets are areas enclosed by remote control switches and open manual
switches. Level II pockets are areas enclosed by remote control switches, open manual switches and
OMR level I switches. Similarly, Level 3 pockets are areas enclosed by remote control switches, open
manual switches and OMR switches of level 1 and 2.

46.4.1 OMR Calculation Prerequisites

The following network configuration conditions are required by the Optimal Manual Restoration calcula-
tion:
• A balanced Load Flow calculation must be available.
• The network must contain at least one defined feeder element ElmFeeder.

• Only radial networks will be processed. The option “Feeder is supposed to be operated radially”
available in the feeder’s Basic Data page must be selected for the relevant feeders.
• It is recommended that a Backbone calculation is first performed (see Section 41.3).
• There must be at least one remote control switch in the network.

• It is recommended to build the network using terminals or secondary substation layouts (ElmTrfs-
tat).

46.4.2 Basic Options Page

Determine ’OMR’ for

In this field the user must specify either All Feeders or Selected Feeders. If Selected Feeders option is
chosen then a user-defined set (SetSelect) of feeders can be defined for the OMR calculation.

Max. Number of ’OMR’ Levels

The maximum number of OMR levels can be set in this field with values between 1 and 3. All OMR
levels higher than this setting will not be calculated.

Min. Power in Pocket

The minimum consumption (sum of all load elements within a pocket) below which a delimited area will
not be considered as a pocket for the purposes of the calculation. This value applies to all OMR levels.

Backbone Order (Max.)

If a number of network backbones exist (e.g. following a Backbone calculation), the Backbone Order
(Max.) option defines the number of backbones to be considered for calculation (ordered according
to parameter e:cBbOrder of the backbone element ElmBbone). The elements contained within a
backbones of an order higher than this value will be considered as part of a non-backbone branch.

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Show BackBones button

The button Show BackBones provides access to the calculation relevant backbones. The Backbone
Order (Max.) option must be higher than or equal to 1 in order to for at least one calculation relevant
backbone to be shown.

Show Output
The Show Output checkbox enables the display of a calculation report in the Output Window.

46.4.3 Advanced Options Page

Penalty Factor
Penalty factors for switches depend on branch type and the level for which the OMR is being calculated.
Two settings are available for introducing penalty factors: Branches end at Manual Switch (default value:
20%) and Non-Backbone Branches (Level 1) (default value: 25%). The default values are referred to
below to illustrate their practical usage. Penalty factors are used differently depending on the OMR level
being calculated:

• OMR level 1:
– Switches located in backbone branches which end only with an RCS - no penalty factor is
applied, weighting factor is 1.0.
– Switches located in backbone branches which end only with a manual switch - 20% penalty
factor is applied, weighting factor is 0.8.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end only with an RCS - 25% penalty factor
is applied, weighting factor is 0.75.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end only with an open manual switch -
20% and 25% penalty factors are applied resulting to a weighting factor of 0.6.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end with an open RCS and an open
manual switch - 25% penalty factor is applied, weighting factor is 0.75.
• OMR level 2 and 3:
– Switches located in backbone branches which end with an open RCS - No penalty is applied,
weighting factor is 1.0.
– Switches located in backbone branches which end with an open manual switch - 20% penalty
factor is applied, weighting factor is 0.8.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end with an open RCS - no penalty is
applied, weighting factor is 1.0.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end with an open RCS and an open
manual switch - no penalty is applied, weighting factor is 1.0.
– Switches located in non-backbone branches which end with an open manual switch - 20%
penalty factor is applied, weighting factor is 0.8.
The term “network branches” is used for applying penalty factors. Branches are network paths starting
from the feeder’s starting terminal and ending at a final downstream element (a radial topology is always
assumed). For this purpose, branches are categorised according to the following criteria:

• Branches that end with an open manual switch that cannot be activated (parameter
e:iResDir of the switch element is set to “Do not use for power restoration”): Inaccessible (geo-
graphical limitation, old technology etc...). These branches are not used in the OMR calculation.
• Branches that end with an open manual switch that can be activated. For these branches the
manual restoration from the same feeder applies.
• Branches that end with a load element (does not lead to an open switch). These branches are not
used in the OMR calculation.
• Branches that end with an open remote control switch that cannot be activated. These types of
branches are not considered to lead to an open manual switch.

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• Branches that end with an open remote control switch that can be activated. For these branches
the remote control restoration from same feeder applies.
• Branches that end (within selected backbones) with an open remote control switch that can be
activated. These branches are considered as a tie open point restoration from another feeder.

Load Flow
A link to the Load Flow calculation settings is available by clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right
of the Load Flow field. The balanced Load Flow calculation type is automatically chosen (Unbalanced
and DC Load Flow options are not supported).

46.4.4 Definition of the objective function

The aim of the OMR calculation is to minimise the following objective function:

∆𝑥 = |𝑃𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔
𝑥 𝑥
· 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔 𝑥
− 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 𝑥
· 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 | (46.1)

The members of the above objective function are defined based on the following equalities:
∑︁ 𝑢𝑝𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑅𝑒𝑔
𝑃𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑃𝑢𝑝 − 𝑃𝑢𝑝 − 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 (46.2)
∑︁ 𝑢𝑝𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑅𝑒𝑔
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝐹𝑢𝑝 − 𝐹𝑢𝑝 − 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 (46.3)
∑︁
𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 − 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 (46.4)
∑︁
𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 − 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 (46.5)
(46.6)

where:
• 𝑥 is the terminal of the calculated pocket,
𝑥
• 𝑃𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔 is the upstream active power at terminal 𝑥 with reference to the corresponding pocket,
𝑥
• 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 is the downstream active power at terminal 𝑥 with reference to the corresponding pocket,
𝑥
• 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑅𝑒𝑔 is the upstream forced outage rate (FOR) at terminal 𝑥 with reference to the corresponding
pocket,
𝑥
• 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑅𝑒𝑔 is the downstream forced outage rate (FOR) at terminal 𝑥 with reference to the corre-
sponding pocket,
𝑥
• 𝑃𝑢𝑝 is the upstream active power at terminal 𝑥 with reference to corresponding feeder,
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑅𝑒𝑔
• 𝑃𝑢𝑝 is the upstream active power at the corresponding pocket starting element with reference
to feeder,
𝑢𝑝𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
• 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream active power of neighbouring pocket’s (upstream with respect to
terminal 𝑥) starting element with reference to feeder,
𝑥
• 𝐹𝑢𝑝 is the upstream FOR at terminal 𝑥 with reference to corresponding feeder,
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑅𝑒𝑔
• 𝐹𝑢𝑝 is the upstream FOR at corresponding pocket’s starting element with reference to feeder,
𝑢𝑝𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
• 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream FOR of neighbour pocket’s (upstream with respect to terminal 𝑥)
starting element with reference to feeder,
𝑥
• 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream active power at terminal 𝑥 with reference to corresponding feeder,
𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
• 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream active power of neighbour pocket’s (downstream with respect to
terminal 𝑥) starting element with reference to feeder,
𝑥
• 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream FOR at terminal 𝑥 with reference to corresponding feeder and

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𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
• 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 is the downstream FOR of neighbour pockets (downstream with respect to terminal
𝑥) starting element with reference to feeder.
A manual switch is considered as being an OMR switch of a certain level if its associated terminal ∆𝑥
objective function is minimum compared with the objective functions of the other terminals within the
calculated pocket.

46.4.5 Example of an Optimal Manual Restoration Calculation

An example of the use of the Optimal Manual Restoration tool is shown here. Consider the MV
distribution network (20 kV) as displayed in Figure 46.4.1. Five feeders are defined, one main feeder
(Feeder A) supplies power in normal operation to the displayed network. Feeder A is radially operated
and containing a number of normally open switches. Several remotely controlled switches are also
defined and their associated substation is marked with a green circle.

Figure 46.4.1: Generic MV Distribution Network

A substation layout similar to the one shown in Figure 46.4.2 is used for all substations.

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Figure 46.4.2: Generic Substation Single Line Diagram

A backbone calculation (ComBbone) for Feeder A is performed on this network based on path load (see
Section 41.3 for details of how to run the Backbone Calculation), thus obtaining four backbones (from
main Feeder A to the other four).

Using the backbone information an OMR calculation may be performed with reference to main Feeder A.
The OMR calculation automatically updates the single line diagram with specific colours for the different
OMR levels for each switch and associated substation as in Figure 46.4.3.

Figure 46.4.3: OMR Calculation Results Shown in the Single Line Diagram using Different Colours

If the Show Output checkbox is enabled in the Basic Data page of the OMR command dialog then a
list of all the switches and their associated OMR level will be printed to the Output Window.

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Chapter 47

Generation Adequacy Analysis

47.1 Introduction

The ability of the power system to be able to supply system load under all possible load conditions is
known as System Adequacy. Specifically this relates to the ability of the generation to meet the system
demand while also considering typical system constraints such as:

• Generation unavailability due to fault or maintenance requirements;

• Variation in system load on an monthly, hourly and minute by minute basis;
• Variations in renewable output (notably wind generation output), which in turn affects the available
generation capacity.

The PowerFactory Generation Adequacy tool is designed specifically for testing of System Adequacy.
Using this tool, it is possible to determine the contribution of wind generation to overall system capacity
and to determine the probability of Loss of Load (LOLP) and the Expected Demand Not Supplied
(EDNS).

Note: The Generation Adequacy Assessment is completed using the Monte Carlo Method (probabilis-
tic)

47.2 Technical Background

The analytical assessment of Generation Adequacy requires that each generator in the system is
assigned a number of probabilistic states which determine the likelihood of a generator operating at
various output levels. Likewise, each of the system loads can be assigned a time based characteristic
that determines the actual system load level for any point of time. A simplified general illustration of the
Generation Adequacy assessment is shown in Figure 47.2.1.

In such a small example, it is possible to determine the generation adequacy analytically in a relatively
short time. However, as the number of generators, generator states, loads and load states increases,
the degrees of freedom for the analysis rapidly expands so that it becomes impossible to solve in a
reasonable amount of time. Such a problem is ideally suited to Monte Carlo simulation.

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Figure 47.2.1: Generation Adequacy Assessment Illustration

Monte Carlo Method

In the Monte Carlo method, a sampling simulation is performed. Using uniform random number se-
quences, a random system state is generated. This system state consists of random generating
operating states and of random time points. The generating operating states will have a corresponding
generation power output, whereas the time points will have a corresponding power demand. The value
of Demand Not Supplied (DNS) is then calculated for such state. This process is done for a specific
number of draws (iterations). At the end of the simulation, the values of the Loss of Load Probability
(LOLP), Loss of Load Expectancy (LOLE), Expected Demand Not Supplied (EDNS), and Loss of Energy
Expectancy (LOEE) indices are calculated as average values from all the iterations performed.

Pseudo Random Number Generator

A Monte Carlo simulation relies on the generation of random numbers of “high” quality. As all computers
run deterministic code to generate random numbers, a software random number generator is known as
a pseudo random number generator (PRNG). There are various PRNGs available, some of which do not
display appropriate statistical qualities for use in Monte Carlo simulations, where very long sequences
of independent random numbers are required. PowerFactory uses an implementation of the ’RANROT’
PRNG. This generator displays excellent statistical qualities suitable for Monte Carlo simulations and is
also relatively fast.

Example

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To illustrate the process of a Monte Carlo simulation, an example is now presented using Figure 47.2.1
as the example network.

For each iteration, the operating state for each generator is randomly selected by generating a uniform
random number. For each of these states, the corresponding power output of the generator is calcu-
lated. The total generation power of the system is calculated by summing all the generator outputs.

For the same iteration, a time point in the system is randomly selected. For this time point, the power
demand of each load is obtained. The total demand of the system is calculated by summing all the load
demands. It is then possible to obtain the ’Demand Not Supplied’ (DNS) value for this iteration, where
DNS is defined as shown in equation 47.1.

∑︁ ∑︁
𝐷𝑁 𝑆 = 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (47.1)

For example, in the first iteration, the generator states might be G1: 100%, G2: 100%, and G3:
75%. The corresponding outputs would be then G1: 100 MW, G2: 60 MW, and G3: 60 MW. The total
generation output is the sum of all the three generator outputs; 220 MW. Also, a random time point yields
Load A: 85 MW, Load B: 60 MW and Load C: 30 MW. The total system demand is the sum of all the load
demands; 175 MW. Since the generation is greater than the demand, all the demand is supplied and
the value of DNS is zero.

In a second iteration, the generator states might be G1: 0%, G2: 75%, and G3: 75%. The corresponding
outputs would be then G1: 0 MW, G2: 45 MW, and G3: 60 MW. The total generation output is now
105 MW. A second random time point yields say Load A: 60 MW, Load B: 50 MW, and Load C: 20 MW.
The total system demand is now 130 MW. In this case, the generation is smaller than the demand, so
there is demand that cannot be supplied. The demand not supplied is defined as the difference between
demand and generation - 25 MW in this iteration.

Continuing the analysis for a few subsequent iterations yields the results shown in table 47.2.1:

Draw G1 G2 G3 ΣG Load A Load B Load C ΣD DNS max(0, DNS

MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW ΣD - ΣG) >0
1 100 60 60 220 85 60 30 175 0 No
2 0 45 60 105 60 50 20 130 25 Yes
3 80 0 90 170 110 35 10 155 0 No
4 100 60 60 220 40 50 15 105 0 No
5 80 45 90 215 60 40 20 120 0 No
6 80 60 0 140 90 50 5 145 5 Yes
Total 30 2

Table 47.2.1: Example Monte Carlo Analysis

Iteration six yields a second case where demand is not supplied.

Once the analysis has continued in this way (usually for several tens of thousands of iterations) various
indices of system adequacy can be calculated. The indices Loss of Load Probability (LOLP) and
Expected Demand Not Supplied (EDNS) are the critical measures. They are calculated as follows:

𝑁𝐷𝑁 𝑆
𝐿𝑂𝐿𝑃 = · 100% (47.2)
𝑁

∑︀
𝐷𝑁 𝑆
𝐸𝐷𝑁 𝑆 = (47.3)
𝑁

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where 𝑁𝐷𝑁 𝑆 is the number of iterations where 𝐷𝑁 𝑆 > 0 and 𝑁 is the total number of iterations.

Therefore, for the above example the indices are calculated as follows:

2
𝐿𝑂𝐿𝑃 = · 100 = 33,33% (47.4)
6

30
𝐸𝐷𝑁 𝑆 = = 5𝑀 𝑊 (47.5)
6

47.3 Database Objects and Models

There are several database objects in PowerFactory specifically related to the Generation Adequacy
Analysis, such as:

• Stochastic Model for Generation object (StoGen);

• Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve); and
• Meteorological Station (ElmMeteostat).

This section provides information about each of these objects.

47.3.1 Stochastic Model for Generation

The Stochastic Model for Generation object (StoGen) is used for defining the availability states of a
generator, an example of which is shown in Figure 47.3.1. An unlimited number of states is possible
with each state divided into:

State : name of the state

Availability [% ]: percentage of the nominal power available

Probability [% ]: probability that this state is valid (the sum of all probabilities must always be 100 %)
Duration [h ]: time needed to solve the given failure

Frequency [1/a ]: number of incidents that cause the given state per year
Total Duration [h/a ]: total duration of the given state per year

While only the parameters Availability and Probability are used for the Generation Adequacy, all pa-
rameters are used for the Reliability Assessment, see Section 45.3.1.5.

This means that for each state, the total available generation capacity in % of maximum output must
be specified along with the probability that this availability occurs. Note that probability column is
automatically constrained, so that the sum of the probability of all states must equal 100 %.

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Figure 47.3.1: Stochastic Model for Generation dialog

The Stochastic model for generation object should reside within the project library, Equipment Type
Library.

Note that the generator maximum output is calculated as 𝑆𝑛𝑜𝑚 ·cos 𝜃 where 𝑆𝑛𝑜𝑚 is the nominal apparent
power and cos 𝜃 is the nominal power factor.

47.3.2 Power Curve Type

The Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve) object is used to specify the wind speed (in m/s) vs nominal
power output (p.u or MW) for wind turbine generators.

For wind-speed values between specified curve values, PowerFactory interpolates using the method
specified in the Approximation drop down menu. Interpolation options include:

• constant

• linear
• polynomial
• spline and
• hermite.

To change the Power unit, go to the configuration tab and choose either p.u or MW by selecting the
appropriate radio button.

47.3.3 Meteorological station

If a group of wind generators have a wind speed characteristic that is correlated, it can be represented
through the Meteo Station object (described in Section 15.6).

Note that when two wind generators are correlated as members of the same Meteo Station, they may
still have different average wind speeds defined within their Generation Adequacy page. During the
Monte Carlo Analysis, a random wind speed is drawn for each Meteo Station. This wind speed is then

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applied to every wind generator in that Meteo Station using the Weibull Stochastic Model. Thus, the
power is calculated according to the individual power curve of the generator.

When the generator is using time characteristics as a wind model, then the correlation is given by the
Monte Carlo drawn time, which is the same for all the generators of the system.

47.4 Assignment of Stochastic Model for Generation

For the Generation Adequacy Analysis, there is a distinction between Dispatchable (Conventional)
Generation and Non-dispatchable Generation. Dispatchable generation refers to generation that can
be controlled at a fixed output automatically, typically by varying the rate of fuel consumption. This
includes generation technologies such as gas thermal, coal thermal, nuclear thermal and hydro.

Non-dispatchable generation refers to generation that cannot be automatically controlled because the
output depends on some non controllable environmental condition such as solar radiation or the wind
speed. Wind turbine and solar photovoltaic generators are examples of such environmentally dependent
generation technologies.

47.4.1 Definition of a Stochastic Multi-State Model

For both Dispatchable and Non-dispatchable generation it is possible to assign a Stochastic Multi-State
model to define the availability of each unit. The availability is defined in a number of ’States’ each with
a certain probability as described in Section 47.3.1.

• Synchronous machine (ElmSym);

• Static generator (ElmGenstat) set as Fuel Cell, HVDC Terminal, Reactive Power Compensation,
Storage, or other Static Generator ;
• Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm); and
• Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc)

In all cases, the stochastic model object is assigned on the element’s Generation Adequacy page, under
Stochastic Multi-State Model.

Also, to consider the generation as dispatchable, the Wind Generation option in the Basic Data page of
the synchronous, asynchronous, and doubly fed machine should be disabled.

Definition of a Stochastic Model for Non-Dispatchable (Wind and Renewable) Generation

As for the dispatchable generation, the following 3-phase models are capable of utilising the stochastic
model for generation object, provided they are defined as generators and not as motors:

• Synchronous machine (ElmSym) set as Wind Generator ;

• Static generator (ElmGenstat) set as Wind Generator, Photovoltaic or Other Renewable

• Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm) set as Wind Generator ; and
• Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc) set as Wind Generator

Objects not considered in Generation Adequacy Analysis External Grids (ElmXnet), voltage
and current sources (ElmVac, ElmIac) are ignored in the Generation Adequacy analysis.

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47.4.2 Stochastic Wind Model

In addition to the stochastic multi-state model for generation described above, a stochastic wind model
may be defined on the element’s Generation Adequacy page (provided that the type of generation is a
wind generator). To enable this, navigate to the Generation Adequacy page and check the option Wind
Model.

When the Stochastic Wind Model is selected, the wind generation characteristic is described using the
Weibull Distribution. The mean wind speed, and shape factor (Beta) of the distribution can be adjusted
to achieve the desired wind characteristic for each wind generator.

In addition to describing the Weibull distribution using Mean Wind Speed and Beta, the following
alternate methods of data input can be used:

• Mean Wind Speed and Variance;

• Lambda and Variance;
• Lambda and Beta.

The input method can be changed by using the input selection arrow and choosing the desired method
from the input window that appears.

47.4.3 Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation

If detailed data of wind generation output over time or wind speed over time is available, then this can
be used instead of a Stochastic Model. The data can be read by PowerFactory as either a ChaVec
characteristic or from an external file using the ChaVecFile characteristic. In both cases the information
required is one year of data in hourly intervals - although non integer values can also be specified in the
referenced data.

If the option Time Series Characteristics of Wind Speed is selected, then the actual wind generator
power output for each iteration is calculated automatically from the Wind Power Curve. If the option,
Time Series Characteristic of Active Power Contribution is selected then no power curve is required.

Data for multiple years can also be used by referencing an additional characteristic for each year. The
Generation Adequacy algorithm then selects a random wind speed or power value from one of the input
data years - essentially there is more data for the random Monte Carlo iteration to select from.

A screen-shot showing a wind generator model with three years of data is shown in Figure 47.4.1.

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Figure 47.4.1: Wind Model using Wind Output Data

Other Renewable Generation

Static Generators (ElmGenstat) of category Photovoltaic or Other Renewable cannot have a Stochastic
wind model definition. However, they may still have a Stochastic Multi-State model. Their output is
added to the aggregated non-dispatchable generation as described later in this chapter.

Consideration of Parallel Machines

The Generation Adequacy analysis automatically considers parallel machines defined in the basic data
of the generator object using the variable (ngnum), as shown in Figure 47.4.2. Each of the parallel
machines is treated independently. For example, a random operational state is generated for each of
the parallel machines. Effectively this is the same as if n machines were modelled separately.

Figure 47.4.2: Synchronous machine element with the parameter ngnum (number of parallel machines
highlighted).

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47.4.4 Demand definition

Unless a time characteristic is assigned to either the Active Power (plini) or Scaling Factor (scale0) vari-
ables of the load element, then the load is treated as fixed demand. This means that the demand value
does not change during the entire analysis. Both General Loads (ElmLod) and LV Loads (ElmLodlv )
are considered for the analysis.

More information about assigning time based characteristics to object variables can be found in Chap-
ter 18: Parameter Characteristics, Load States, and Tariffs.

47.5 Generation Adequacy Analysis toolbar

Once the Generation Adequacy toolbar is selected, the available buttons are shown in Figure 47.5.1.

Figure 47.5.1: Generation Adequacy Analysis toolbar buttons

47.5.1 Generation Adequacy Initialisation command

Before a Generation Adequacy Analysis can be completed, the simulation must be initialised. The avail-
able options of the Initialise Generation Adequacy Analysis command (ComGenrelinc) are explained in
this section.

47.5.1.1 Basic Options page

Network

• System Losses: here a fixed percentage of losses can be entered. This value is subtracted from
the total generation at each iteration.
• Load Flow Command: this is a reference to the Load Flow Calculation command that will be used
to obtain the network topology for the analysis. It must be set to AC load-flow balanced, positive
sequence or DC load-flow. A converging load flow is a requirement for the generation adequacy
analysis.

Demand Consideration

• Fixed Demand Level: if this option is selected, all load time characteristics are ignored and the
total demand is calculated at the initial iteration and used for all subsequent iterations.

• Consider Time Characteristics: if this option is selected, any time characteristics assigned to loads
will be automatically considered in the calculation. Therefore, the total demand can vary at each

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iteration.

Consider Maintenance Plans

If this option is enabled then any maintenance plans (out of service or derating) in the project will be
automatically considered. Consequently, when an iteration draws a time that falls within a planned
outage or derating, the outage (or derating) is applied to the target element resulting in a reduction in
available generation capacity.

To define a maintenance plan, right-click the target object from the single line graphic or from the Data
Manager and select the option Define → Planned Outage For more information on Planned Outages
refer to Chapter 14: Project Library, Section 14.3.7 (Planned Outages).

Time Dependent Data

• Year of Study: the period considered for the Generation Adequacy Analysis is always one year.
However, it is possible for load characteristics to contain information for many years. Therefore,
the year considered by the calculation must be selected. Note that this variable does not influence
the wind speed or wind power data if the wind model for the generator references time series data
as described in Section 47.4.3 (Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation). If more than one
year’s data is available, this simply increases the pool of available data for the analysis.
• Months, Days: these checkboxes allow the user to select the time period that will be considered
for the analysis. For instance, if only January is selected then the iteration time will be constrained
to within this month.

Time Intervals

The user can specify up to three time intervals for the time window in which the analysis will be
completed. The time interval starts at the From hour (0 minutes, 0 seconds), and ends at the To
hour (0 minutes, 0 seconds) inclusive.

47.5.1.2 Output page

• MC Draws: if this option is checked, then PowerFactory will automatically create Monte-Carlo
Draw plots after the simulation finishes. See Section 47.6 for details of the plots that are automat-
ically created. Note this will generate a new set of plots for each run of the analysis. So, if you
wish for an existing set of plots to be updated, then leave this option unchecked.
• Distribution: here the user can select the storage location for the distribution probabilities for the
entire analysis. This information is always retained in the database.
• Report: if this option is checked, then the user can specify a location for the results of the
simulation to be permanently stored within the database. This is the result of each iteration. If
this option is unchecked, then the results are deleted after each simulation run.

47.5.1.3 Advanced Options page

In the Advanced Options page, the user can change the option for the generation of random numbers
from auto to renew. If the renew option is selected, then the simulation can use one of a number of
pre-defined random seeds (A-K). As the software ’pseudo-random’ number generator is deterministic,
this allows for the exact sequence of random numbers to be repeated.

47.5.2 Run Generation Adequacy command

The Run Generation Adequacy Analysis command (ComGenrel) appears in two styles depending on
the status of the calculation. If the calculation is being run for the first time, then it appears as shown in

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Figure 47.5.2. On the other hand, if some iterations are already complete, then the calculation can be
continued and the dialog appears as shown in Figure 47.5.3.

Figure 47.5.2: Run Generation Adequacy command dialog (new simulation)

Figure 47.5.3: Run Generation Adequacy command dialog (post simulation)

Pressing Execute will run the Generation Adequacy Analysis. The button can be used to interrupt
the analysis before the set number of iterations is complete, if desired. Later, the simulation can be
resumed from the stop point using the Run Generation Adequacy Analysis command.

Max Number of Iterations

This specifies the number of iterations to be completed by the Monte Carlo Analysis. The default setting
is 100000.

Additional Iterations

After one analysis is completed, the Generation Adequacy Analysis can be extended for a number of
Additional Iterations. Especially in very large systems, it may be useful to run the first simulation with a
smaller number of initial iterations, say 20000 and then run additional iterations as necessary using this
option.

Generation Adequacy

This reference provides a link to the generation adequacy initialisation command, so that the calculation
settings can be easily inspected.

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47.6 Generation Adequacy results

Result plots for the Generation Adequacy Analysis can be manually created using the toolbar plot icons.
The different types of plots are explained in the following sections.

47.6.1 Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots

This button ( ) draws a distribution plot which is essentially the data from ’Monte-Carlo Draws’ plots
sorted in descending order. The data then becomes a cumulative probability distribution. An example
is shown in Figure 47.6.1.

Figure 47.6.1: Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots

Obtaining the LOLP from the Distribution Plots

The LOLP index can be obtained by inspection directly from the Distribution Plots if the demand is
constant. The LOLP can be read directly from the intersection of the Total Generation curve and the
Total Demand curve as demonstrated in Figure 47.6.2.

When the demand is variable, then the LOLP index cannot be inferred from the above diagram. Fig-
ure 47.6.3 shows such a case. There is no intersection point even though the calculated LOLP index in
this case is 20 %. In such cases, the LOLP index must be inferred from the distribution plot of the Total
Reserve Generation. As shown in Figure 47.6.4, the intersection of this curve with the x-axis gives the
LOLP index.

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Figure 47.6.2: Inferring the LOLP index directly from the intersection of the Total Generation and Total
Demand

Figure 47.6.3: Variable Demand - distribution of Total Generation and Total Demand

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Figure 47.6.4: Total Reserve Generation

47.6.2 Monte-Carlo Draws (Iterations) Plots

These plots are automatically generated if the MC Draws option is enabled in the Output page of the
initialisation command, alternatively, the button ( ) can be used. This button draws by default four
figures as shown in Figure 47.6.5. Each of the data points on the plots represents a single Monte Carlo
simulation.

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Figure 47.6.5: Monte-Carlo Draws (Iterations) Plots

figure A displays the following:

• Total Available Capacity in MW;
• Available Dispatchable Generation in MW;

• Total Demand in MW;

figure B displays the following:
• Available Non-dispatchable capacity in MW;

figure C displays the following::

• Total Reserve Generation Capacity in MW;
figure D displays the following::
• Total Demand in MW;

• Residual Demand in MW;

47.6.3 Convergence Plots

This button ( ) creates the so-called convergence plots for the LOLP and EDNS. As the number of
iterations becomes large the LOLP index will converge towards its final value, likewise for the EDNS.
The convergence plots are a way of visualising this process. An example convergence plot is shown in
Figure 47.6.6.

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Figure 47.6.6: Example Convergence Plot

Note: By default, the convergence plot is zoomed to the plot extent and due to the number of iterations
it may be difficult to observe the upper and lower confidence limits. It is suggested that the ’Zoom
Y-axis’ and ’Zoom X-axis’ buttons are used to observe the confidence limits in greater detail.

On both plots, the upper and lower confidence intervals are also drawn. The sample variance is
calculated as follows:

𝑛
1 ∑︁
𝜎2 = · (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦¯)2 (47.6)
𝑛 − 1 𝑖=1

where 𝑛 is the number of samples,𝑦𝑖 is the sample and 𝑦¯ is the sample mean. The 90 % confidence
interval is calculated according to the following formula:

𝜎
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑦¯ ± √ · 𝑧 (47.7)
𝑛

where z is the standard inverse probability for the Student’s t distribution with a confidence interval of
90 %. Note z tends to 1.645 (inverse normal) as the number of iterations becomes large.

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47.6.4 Summary of variables calculated during the Generation Adequacy Anal-

ysis

Name Internal Name Description

Available The sum of dispatchable capacity at
Dispatchable c:AvailDCap each iteration after the consideration of
Capacity the availability states
The sum of non-dispatchable capacity
Available Non- at each iteration after the consideration
Dispatchable c:AvailNDCap of the availability states and also the
Capacity stochastic/time models for wind gener-
ation
Total Available
c:AvailTotcap c:AvailNDCap + c:AvailDCap
Capacity
Total Demand considering any time
Total Demand c:DemTot
based characteristics
Demand min(C:DemTot, c:AvailTotcap * (1 -
c:DemS
Supplied Losses% / 100)
Demand Not
c:DNS c:DemTot - DemS
Supplied
Total reserve c:AvailTotCap - c:DemTot * (1 +
c:ResvTotGen
Generation Losses% / 100)
Reserve
c:AvailDCap - c:DemTot * (1 +
Dispatchable c:ResDGen
Losses% / 100)
generation
Used Non-
min(C:AvailNDCap, DemTot * (1 +
Dispatchable c:NDGen
Losses% / 100))
Generation
Used Dispatch- min(C:AvailDCap, DemTot * (1 +
c:DGen
able Generation Losses% / 100) - c:NDGen)
Total Used gen-
c:TotGen c:Dgen + c:NDGen
eration
Residual c:DemTot * (1+ Losses% / 100) -
c:ResidDem
Demand c:NDGen

Table 47.6.1: Generation Adequacy Calculated Variables

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Chapter 48

Sensitivities / Distribution Factors

PowerFactory ’s Sensitivities / Distribution Factors calculation (ComVstab) offers a range of sensitivity

analyses based on the linearisation of the system around the operational point resulting from a load
flow calculation. Formerly referred to as Load Flow Sensitivities, in version 2020 of PowerFactory, the
functionality was extended and renamed Sensitivities / Distribution Factors.

The ComVstab command dialog can be accessed by:

• using the Change Toolbox icon ( ) to select Additional Functions and then clicking on the
Sensitivities / Distribution Factors icon ( ); or
• right-clicking on a busbar/terminal or transformer and selecting Calculate → Sensitivities / Distri-
bution factors. . . . In this case the command will be automatically set to calculate the sensitivity
to power injections / tap changes on the selected busbar or terminal.

48.1 Overview of Sensitivity / Distribution Factors Calculations

There is a range of sensitivity calculations available to the user, including single sensitivity calculations
(for example to power injections at a single busbar or multiple busbars concurrently) and multiple
sensitivities (for example to power injections at many busbars in turn). In addition to the base load
flow sensitivities, there are also options to consider contingencies, which lends another dimension to
the results.

If a single sensitivity calculation is being executed, the results can be viewed directly in a Network
Model Manager. For multiple sensitivities only the results of the last-executed calculation are shown
the Network Model Manager; reporting scripts can be used to access the complete set of results in the
result file.

48.1.1 Terminology

The Load Flow Sensitivities calculation is referred to as “Sensitivity / Distribution Factors” because within
the field of electricity transmission in particular such sensitivity calculations are referred to as distribution
factors.

Reference will be made to some of these; the acronyms used are explained in general terms here:

• PTDF (Power Transfer Distribution Factor): The change in power flow on a circuit for a given
power injection at one or more nodes.

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• LODF (Line Outage Distribution Factor): The change in power flow on a circuit as a result of
the (fault) outage of another circuit.
• OTDF (Outage Transfer Distribution Factor): The change in power flow on a circuit for a given
pre-fault power injection at one or more nodes, under fault outage conditions. This quantity is
obtained by running a PTDF calculation for each contingency case.
• TCDF (Tap Change Distribution Factor): The change in power flow on a circuit as a result of
tapping on a transformer.
• PSDF (Phase Shift Distribution Factor): The change in power flow on a circuit as a result of
tapping a phase-shift transformer. In essence, PSDF=TCDF.

Note: Users of the Transmission Network Tools module (Section 40.4) may already be familiar with the
PTDF functionality provided there. Although the underlying calculation is the same, the approach
is somewhat different and the choice between the two will depend on the individual requirements
of the user. The PTDF calculation in the Transmission Network Tools module offers some flexibility
in terms of customising the generator and load changes, and allows the reporting of sensitivities
across flowgates, but is restricted to region-to-region factors; the PTDF calculation here has the
benefit of offering sequential busbar injections, as well as incorporating contingency analysis.

48.1.2 Result Quantities

Depending on the calculations executed, the following results will be available:

• On branch elements for a power-injection sensitivity: dP/dP, dP/dQ, dQ/dP and dQ/dQ.
Also dPloss/dP, dPloss/dQ, dQloss/dP and dQloss/dQ.
• On branch elements for a transformer-tap sensitivity: dP/dtap and dQ/dtap.
Also dPloss/dtap and dQloss/dtap.
• At terminals for a power-injection sensitivity: dv/dP, dv/dQ, dphi/dP and dphi/dQ.
• At terminals for a transformer-tap sensitivity: dv/dtap, and dphi/dtap.

48.2 Sensitivities / Distribution Factors Options

48.2.1 Basic Options

48.2.1.1 Calculation method

Here the load flow calculation method is selected and the Load Flow dialog can be accessed.

Note: If an unbalanced AC load flow is used, only busbar sensitivities can be calculated and the
reporting options are similarly limited.

48.2.1.2 Consider contingencies

As well as executing the requested sensitivity analyses on the base load flow, it is possible to provide a
set of contingencies so that the requested sensitivities are calculated for these too. Note that an option
“Use linearised AC calculation” is provided. See Section 27.4 for more information about this option; it
can speed up the calculation but the results may not be so accurate.

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48.2.1.3 Sensitivities / Distribution factors

Several options are available; it is possible to select more than one to be run during the sensitivity
analysis calculation, but they are separate calculations.

Busbar

This busbar injection option corresponds to a PTDF calculation. The user can select a single terminal
or a set of terminals for analysis. Unless only one terminal is selected, the user should also decide
whether the power injections should be concurrent or sequential. This option is found on the Advanced
Options page: see Section 48.2.3. On the other hand, the user can select regions such as Zones, Areas
and Grids etc. In this case the option “Calculate regional sensitivities” can be selected in the Advanced
Options page: refer to Section 48.2.3.

Along with busbars, several elements such as ElmGenstat, ElmLod, ElmPvsys, ElmSym and ElmVac,
are shown for the selection. For convenience the user can select the busbars by directly choosing the
corresponding generators and loads.

If the Consider contingencies option is selected, the PTDF calculations for the contingency cases
correspond to an OTDF calculation.

Phase Shift/Tap Change

This option corresponds to a PSDF calculation. The user can select a single transformer or tap con-
troller, or a set of transformer / tap controllers for analysis. Unless only one transformer / tap controller
is selected, the user should also decide whether the tapping should be concurrent or sequential. This
option is found on the Advanced Options page: see Section 48.2.3.

Sensitivity to HVDC

This option corresponds to a PTDF calculation. The user can select a HVDC element, or a set of HVDC
elements (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono, ElmRec and ElmRecmono) for analysis. If only this option is selected,
the options in the Advanced Options page (see Section 48.2.3) will be greyed out. In case of multiple
HVDC elements, the calculation is always sequential.

Line Outage Distribution Factors

This option corresponds to a LODF calculation. To enable this option, the Consider contingencies option
is selected and a set of contingencies must be made available.

48.2.2 Results

48.2.2.1 General Tab

Elements for results

Here the user has the choice to take the default option of calculating results for the whole system or
applying a user-defined element filter.

The User-defined filter option allows the user to set up or modify filters in order to specify for which
elements results should be made available. Using the filter to restrict results to elements of interest can
significantly reduce calculation times. The filter applies whether a result file is used or not.

Calculate sensitivities for reducible elements

Reducible elements are those such as switches, which have no resistance and can therefore effectively
be eliminated during calculations. Unless the user requires results for these elements, it is better to
leave this option unselected because it will improve the speed of the calculation.

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Result File

In this panel, there is a link to the “results object” (*.ElmRes), which is held inside the Study Case. Note
that if contingency analysis has been included, there will be individual results files for each contingency
case. A button Sub-Results in the results object gives access to these.

Below the link to the results object, there are two further buttons relating to variable selection (the
default set of variables recorded in the result file depends on the calculation method selected on the
Basic Options page):

• The Variable Selection button allows the user to specify variable selections for the recording of
results. If no variables are selected for recording, the full set of default variables will automatically
be selected.
• The Add default variables button allows the user to include all default variables to the selection
used for the recording of results.

Note: When executing sensitivity analysis on a large network it is not recommended that the full set of
default variables is used. Instead, it is better to define specific variable definitions to restrict the
recording to what is required. This will help speed up the calculation.

Consider recording thresholds for branches

Two main thresholds can be set. One is a minimum reporting level for the relative quantities dP/dP,
dP/dQ, dQ/dP or dQ/dQ. The other is a minimum reporting level for “Changes per tap”, i.e. dP/dtap or
dQ/dtap.

In addition, a third threshold called Min. LODF will be available, if the Line Outage Distribution Factors
are being calculated.

Consider recording thresholds for terminals

Two thresholds can be set. One is for voltage changes, namely dv/dP, dv/dQ or dv/dtap. The other is
for changes in voltage angle, namely dphi/dP, dphi/dQ or dphi/dtap.

48.2.2.2 Advanced Tab

Calculate all sensitivity variables

This option, which is provided for consistency with earlier versions of PowerFactory, is only available
when calculations are for single elements (and without contingency analysis). It will be then selected by
default and means that all sensitivity values will be available to show in the flexible data page regardless
of the selection of variables to be recorded in the result file.

48.2.3 Advanced Options

The user will not see all the options described below at any one time: the options presented are
dependent on the options selected on the Basic Options page.

48.2.3.1 Busbar Tab

Diagonal elements only

This is a rather specific option which is only visible when just Busbar is selected on the Basic Options
page. Its purpose is to provide compatibility with the earlier Load Flow Sensitivity option “Diagonal

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Elements Only”. For most purposes it can be ignored.

Power change

This setting relates to Busbar sensitivity calculations. If Each bus in turn is selected, a separate
sensitivity calculation for each specified terminal will be carried out. If All buses simultaneously is
selected, the calculation assumes a power injection at all the specified terminals at the same time.

Calculate regional sensitivities

By checking the box of this option it is possible to determine the sensitivities of regions (Zones, Areas
and Grids). This option is only available if All buses simultaneously is selected and also a region type
element has been chosen as busbar input on the Basic Options page. An injection of 1 MW will be
distributed over the buses in each region. The calculation of the regional sensitivities can be executed
also considering contingencies.

Boundary sensitivities between adjacent regions automatically calculated

The sensitivities of the boundary between regions will be determined. The boundary will be automati-
cally internally created for the purpose of calculations. However, the boundary will not be stored in the
database. The results can be obtained in the busbar sensitivity (PTDF/OTDF) report.

Use fictitious border network

This option is by default not selected and for most networks it is not needed. It is provided for use in
networks where adjacent regions, normally representing adjacent countries, are not connected directly
but via a so-called “fictitious border grid”. The graphical representation of the fictitious border network
is shown in figure 48.2.1. The fictitious border network has to be selected in the grid model. If there is
no such network, then the box of this option can be left unchecked.

Figure 48.2.1: Network regions without and with fictitious border network

Injection based on generation shift key (GSK) In this case all generators will be taken into consider-
ation for GSK. The GSK of generation units is given in percentage value, which can be entered on the
Advanced tab of the Load Flow page of generation units: ElmSym, ElmStat, ElmPvsys, ElmXnet and
ElmAsm.

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48.2.3.2 Phase Shift / Tap Change

User-defined 3-/4-winding transformer control side This option becomes visible once one or more
three- or four-winding transformers have been selected for sensitivity analysis. It allows the user to
override the “side for tapping” setting on the individual elements with a global setting.

Tap change

This setting relates to transformer sensitivity calculations, i.e. the Phase Shift/Tap Change option. If
Each transformer in turn is selected, a separate sensitivity calculation for each specified transformer or
tap changer will be carried out. If All transformers simultaneously is selected, the calculation assumes
that all tap at same time.

Calculation method for transformer tap sensitivities

There are two options for calculating transformer tap sensitivities:

Linearisation of transformer tap changes uses linearised load flow equations around the operating
point to derive sensitivities to transformer tap positions.
Discrete transformer tap assessment actually solves the load flow twice, once at the current operat-
ing point and once when the tap position is changed by one tap up or down; the user specifies the
direction. Then, the flows and voltages of the two load flow solutions are compared to deduce the
sensitivity.
This method provides a more accurate assessment in cases when a strong dependence of the
impedance on the current tap position is present, which, e.g., may result from a user-defined
measurement report for the transformer.
For a DC calculation, the algorithm additionally checks whether the degree of dependence be-
tween the impedance and the current tap position is significant. If this is not the case the (faster)
linearisation algorithm is used.

48.2.4 Output

On this page the user can configure the amount of information written to the Output Window, with “Short
output” being the default.

• Off - Only the start and completion messages are seen.

• Short output - Information and warning messages from the sensitivities command will be seen,
but no load flow details. If contingency analysis is included, the “short” contingency reporting will
be output.

• Detailed output - This option displays more detailed information, including load flow and contin-
gency analysis reporting as specified in the respective command dialogs.

48.2.5 Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis

On this page, the user can select the option for Modal/Eigenvalue Analysis, in order to execute an
eigenvalue calculation on the sensitivity matrix. The number of eigenvalues to be calculated is defined
in the Number of Eigenvalues field. The eigenvalues are always calculated in order of their largest
magnitude, so selecting n eigenvalues will display the n eigenvalues in descending order according to
magnitude (note that the calculation time increases with n).

In the Display Results for Mode field, the user can specify the number of a specific eigenvalue, for which
the stability behaviour (i.e. the eigenvectors and participation factors) is to be analysed. The algorithm
then additionally calculates the (𝜕𝑃/𝜕𝑄) , (𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑄) (branch sensitivities) and the (𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑄), (𝜕𝜙/𝜕𝑄)
(bus sensitivities) which correspond to the mode specified.

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48.3 Reporting

The results of the Sensitivities / Distribution Factors calculation can be reported using the icon.
Below, the reporting command options are described, and section 48.3.4 gives some information about
the expected output.

48.3.1 General

On the General tab, the Result File can be selected. This is only necessary if more than one result file
has been retained in the study case.

The Use filter setting allows the user to filter the elements to be shown in the report. If not selected,
results for all relevant elements will be reported.

The remaining options on this page allow the user to select the individual reports to be generated. For
standard quantities such as PTDF or PSDF, specific reports are provided. For other sensitivity values,
the information will be found in the Busbar or Transformer reports.

These are the reports which are available:

• Busbar sensitivities
– PTDF/OTDF (dP/dP)
– dP/dP, dQ/dP, dv/dP, dphi/dP, dPloss/dP, dQloss/dP
– dP/dQ, dQ/dQ, dv/dQ, dphi/dQ, dPloss/dQ, dQloss/dQ
• Transformer sensitivities
– PSDF/TCDF (dP/dtap)
– dP/dtap, dQ/dtap, dphi/dtap, dv/dtap, dPloss/dtap, dQloss/dtap

• Sensitivities to HVDC(s)
• LODF values

The results of the variables dLoading/dP (c:dLoadingdP) and dLoading/dtap (c:dLoadingdtap) can be
seen by accessing the Flexible Data Page for lines and transformers.

48.3.2 Thresholds

This tab allows the user to set the thresholds for the branch and terminals sensitivities to be included in
the reports.

48.3.3 Used Format

This tab gives read access to the reporting formats, held in the System folder of the database.

48.3.4 Report output

A number of options are available within the reports themselves to customise what is shown, for example
for which end (bus1 or bus2) of the lines the results should be shown.

The column titled with Branch, Substation or Site shows the parent object of the injection busbar (or
phase-shift transformer).

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If contingency analysis has been included in the calculation, it is possible to step through the results of
the base case and each contingency case within the reports.

On the right-hand side of each report, filters are available to allow the user to filter by element class or
specific elements so as to more easily view the results of interest.

48.4 Troubleshooting

If results are not obtained when running the calculation, or the results are not as expected, here is a
short list of things to check:

• Consider the recording limits. Are they set appropriately?

• There are limits for filtering results within the reports. However, the user should bear in mind that
only recorded results can be reported.
• If the result variables being recorded have been customised, some information may be lost;
consider resetting them to the default set of variables.
• If the results are not as expected, check the options selected on the Advanced Options page, for
example power change on each busbar in turn versus a simultaneous power change.

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Chapter 49

Network Reduction

49.1 Introduction

This chapter explains how to use the PowerFactory Network Reduction tool. A typical application of
Network Reduction is when a network that is part of or adjacent to a much larger network must be
analysed, but cannot be studied independently of the larger network. In such cases, one option is
to model both networks in detail for calculation purposes. However, there might be situations when
it is not desirable to do studies with the complete model. For example, when the calculation times
would increase significantly or when the data of the neighbouring network is confidential and cannot be
published.

In these cases, it is common practice to provide a simplified representation of the neighbouring network
that contains only the interface nodes (connection points). These can then be connected by equivalent
impedances and voltage sources, so that the short circuit and load-flow response within the kept (non
reduced) system is the same as when the detailed model is used.

PowerFactory offers two methods for producing an equivalent representation of the reduced part of the
network and calculating its parameters, valid for both load flow and short-circuit calculations, including
asymmetrical faults such as single-phase faults. The first method is based on a Ward Equivalent repre-
sentation and the second method is based on an REI (Radial-Equivalent-Independent) representation,
which enables generators and/or loads to be retained and makes it possible to create power injections
according to fuel type.

The above methods result in networks suitable for the “static” load flow and short circuit calculations,
but if (balanced) RMS simulations are to be carried out after reduction, a Dynamic equivalent option can
be selected. This uses the REI reduction method based on the aggregation of coherent synchronous
generation.

The chapter is separated into five parts. Firstly, the technical background of the PowerFactory Network
Reduction algorithms are explained. Section 49.3 then discusses the steps needed to run a Network
Reduction and Section 49.4 explains in detail each of the options of the PowerFactory Network Reduc-
tion tool. The penultimate part, Section 49.5, presents a simple example and the final section provides
some tips and tricks to consider when working with the Network Reduction tool.

49.2 Technical Background

Some additional technical background on the Network Reduction tool is provided in the following sec-
tions.

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49.2.1 Network Reduction for Load Flow

Network reduction for load flow is an algorithm based on sensitivity matrices. The basic idea is that the
sensitivities of the equivalent grid, measured at the connection points in the kept grid, must be equal to
the sensitivities of the grid that has been reduced. This means that for a given (virtual) set of ∆P and
∆Q injections in the branches, from the kept grid to the grid to be reduced, the resulting ∆u and ∆𝜙
(voltage magnitude and voltage phase angle variations) in the boundary nodes must be the same for
the equivalent grid as those that would have been obtained for the original grid (within a user defined
tolerance).

49.2.2 Network Reduction for Short-Circuit

Network reduction for short-circuit is an algorithm based on nodal impedance / nodal admittance
matrices. The basic idea is that the impedance matrix of the equivalent grid, measured at the connection
points in the kept grid, must be equal to the impedance matrix of the grid to be reduced (for the rows
and columns that correspond to the boundary nodes). This means that for a given (virtual) additional
∆I injection (variation of current phasor) in the boundary branches, from the kept grid to the grid to be
reduced, the resulting ∆u (variations of voltage phasor) in the boundary nodes must be the same for
the equivalent grid, as those that would have been obtained for the original grid (within a user defined
tolerance).

This must be valid for positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence cases, if these are to
be considered in the calculation (unbalanced short-circuit equivalent).

49.2.3 Network Reduction using REI Method

The REI Equivalent is a methodology for network reduction which allows the flexibility to retain non-
linear elements within the reduced area, or represent them with REI equivalent elements. It is possible
to aggregate these reduced non-linear elements, with the option of grouping together generators of the
same production (fuel) type. The advantages of the REI method are:

• Generators/loads of deleted nodes can be identified.

• Losses are kept at their initial value by using a Zero Power Balance Network.
• Electrical distances between boundary nodes and generation in the deleted network can be kept.

• The reduced networks can potentially be used with other static calculation modules besides load
flow, such as contingency analysis and Optimum Power Flow.
• The ability to create equivalent injections per production type assists with system operators’
obligations under European Network Codes.

49.2.4 Network Reduction using Regional Equivalents

The network reduction based on regional equivalents offers a non-deterministic approach where the
load and generation of a region is concentrated to one node. This node is then connected to other nodes
from reduced regions and to the retained network with artificial branch elements. The branches have
all the same standard value for the impedance in the beginning. The final impedance value for each
created connection is then determined by an optimisation with the parameter identification tool. The
target to minimise the deviations of interchange flows compared to the original case. The advantages
of this method are:

• More general solution that is less sensitive to a dispatch changes

• Fewer equivalent elements compared to other reduction methods

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 49.3. HOW TO CARRY OUT A NETWORK REDUCTION

• User definable target function for the optimisation.

49.2.5 Network Reduction for Dynamic Equivalent

The dynamic network reduction is based on the aggregation of coherent clusters of synchronous
generators. In order to find the coherent clusters the network is excited, either by noise injection or
user defined simulation events, and the machines are grouped based on their response. Then, the
coherent machines are aggregated to an equivalent machine and obtained in the further reduction.
The rest of the to be reduced network is assumed to be passive and therefore reduced with a static REI
reduction. In the next step generic or user selectable controllers are added to the aggregated equivalent
machines and an optional parameter identification is carried out to adjust the controller parameters to
match the dynamic response of the reduced network to the pre-reduction behaviour.

Since this method is based on synchronous generation, dynamic equivalents can only be obtained if
the system to be reduced contains synchronous generation. If there are no synchronous generators in
the to-be-reduced system, a simplified static REI reduction is executed, where all network element are
aggregated to static loads. In general the equivalent network structure obtained by the dynamic network
reduction is only valid for balanced RMS-simulations and not for unbalanced RMS or EMT simulations.

49.3 How to Carry Out a Network Reduction

This section explains the process for running a Network Reduction. There are several steps that you
must complete to successfully reduce a network:

1. Create a boundary or boundaries to define the interior and exterior regions.

2. Create a backup of the project intended for reduction (optional).

3. Activate the Additional Functions toolbar and configure the Network Reduction Tool options.
4. Run the Network Reduction Tool.

It is necessary to define a boundary or boundaries before proceeding further with the Network Reduc-
tion.

This process is described in detail in Chapter 15 Grouping Objects, Section 15.3 (Boundaries). How-
ever, to summarise, the boundary divides the network into two regions, the area to be reduced which is
referred to as the interior region and the area to be kept which is referred to as the exterior region.

The following section describes the process of backing up the project, running the Network Reduction
tool using the default options and describes the expected output of a successful network reduction.
For more information about the options available within the Network Reduction tool, see Section 49.4:
Network Reduction Command.

49.3.1 How to Backup the Project (optional)

By default, the Network Reduction tool keeps all the original network data and the modifications needed
to reduce the network are stored within a new expansion stage that is part of a new variation. It will
only destroy the original data if the associated option within the command is configured for this (see
Section 49.4.6: Outputs).

However, if you want extra security to guarantee against data loss, in case for instance you accidently
select the option to modify the original network, then you should make a backup copy of the project
before completing the Network Reduction. There are three possible ways to do this:

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 49.3. HOW TO CARRY OUT A NETWORK REDUCTION

• make a copy of the whole project and paste/store it with a name different to that of the original
project; or
• export the project as a *.pfd file (for information about exporting data refer to Section 8.1.4:
Exporting and Importing of Projects); or
• activate the project and create a Version of the project. For information about Versions refer to
Section 21.2 (Project Versions).

49.3.2 How to run the Network Reduction tool

This sub-section describes the procedure you must follow to run the Network Reduction using the default
options. Proceed as follows:

1. Activate the base Study Case for the project you wish to reduce.
2. Define a boundary or boundaries that split the grid into the part to be reduced (interior region),
and the part to be kept (exterior region). See Section 15.3 (Boundaries) for the procedure.

3. Open the boundary object(s) and use the Check Split button in the ElmBoundary dialog to check
that the boundary correctly splits the network into two regions. See Section 15.3 (Boundaries) for
more information about boundaries.
4. Select the Change Toolbox button from the main toolbar.

5. Press the Network Reduction icon from the Additional Functions bar. This opens the dialog for
Network Reduction Command (ComRed).

6. Select the boundary/boundaries you previously defined using the button .

7. Optional: If you wish to modify the settings of the command, do so in this dialog. The settings
and options are explained in Section 49.4 (Network Reduction Command). However, the default
options are recommended, unless you have a specific reason for changing them.

8. Press the Execute button to start the reduction procedure.

49.3.3 Expected Output of the Network Reduction

This sub-section describes the expected output of the network reduction tool after successfully execut-
ing it. The output varies depending on whether the reduced project was created in V13.2 or earlier and
contains system stages, or if it was created in V14.0 or higher. Both output scenarios are explained
in the following sections. Also, the additional objects that the Network Reduction tool creates are
explained.

Changes to the network model for projects created in V14.0 or higher

The default behaviour of the Network Reduction command is to create a Variation containing a single
Expansion Stage called ’Reduction Stage’. For more information see Chapter 17: Network Variations
and Expansion Stages. The Variation will be named automatically according to the reduction options
selected in the Basic Options page of the Network Reduction command. For example, for the default
options using the Ward Equivalent method, the Variation will be called Equ-LF [EW] - Shc[sym] @
Boundary, whereas if the REI method is used, the Variation will be called Equ-LF [REI] @ Boundary.
Figure 49.3.1 shows an example of a network data model after a successful Network Reduction.

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 49.3. HOW TO CARRY OUT A NETWORK REDUCTION

Figure 49.3.1: Variation and Reduction Stage after a successful Network Reduction using the default
options.

The Network Reduction tool also creates a new Study Case with a name that matches the new Variation
name. To return to your original network, all you need to do is activate the original study case that you
used to initiate the Network Reduction.

Note: The Variation and Study Case created by the Network Reduction tool are automatically activated
when the tool is run. To return to your original model you need to reactivate the ’base’ Study Case.

New objects added by the Network Reduction command

Depending on the network configuration and the options chosen within the Network Reduction com-
mand, during the Network Reduction process some new objects might be created.

In the case of the Ward Equivalent, there are two possible new object types:

• AC Voltage Source (ElmVac) ; and

• Common Impedance (ElmZpu)

In the case of the REI method, depending upon the options selected, there may also be created one or
more of these objects:
• Equivalent Node (ElmTerm)
• REI Load (ElmLod)
• REI Generator (ElmSym, ElmGenstat)
• REI SVS (ElmSvs)
For the Regional Equivalent the following elements are added:
• Nodes (ElmTerm)
• Loads (ElmLod)
• Generators (ElmSym, ElmGenstat)
• Transformers (ElmTr2)
• Common impedances (ElmZpu)

In addition to the elements in the REI reduction, the following elements can be added in a dynamic
network reduction:

• Composite Models (ElmComp)

• DSL Models (ElmDsl)
• Measurements (StaVmea)

If the Ward Equivalent method is used, there will by default be one voltage source created for every
boundary node and one common impedance between every pair of boundary nodes (unless the calcu-
lated mutual impedance is greater than the user-defined threshold described in Section 49.4.7). These

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objects are stored in the database but are not automatically drawn on the single line graphic. To insert
graphical representations of the new elements substituting the reduced network, the Diagram Layout
Tool may be used (see section 11.6). For the REI method, the number of impedance objects will be
greater because of the additional equivalent nodes, but the user-defined threshold still applies.

49.4 Network Reduction Command

In this section, the Network Reduction command options are explained.

49.4.1 Basic Options

49.4.1.1 Reduction type and method

The first option on the Basic Options page is the choice of the Reduction Type, between dynamic
equivalent and the static equivalent. The available Methods of the “Static equivalent” are the “Ward
equivalent”, the “REI equivalent” and the “Regional equivalent”. Dependent on this selection the options
on the following pages are offered accordingly.

49.4.1.2 Boundary

This option specifies which part of the grid should be reduced. The user may select a single boundary
or more than one; if more than one is selected, references to the selected boundaries are stored as a
set in the study case. Boundaries used for network reduction must separate the original grid into two
parts, the part that shall be reduced (external system) and the part that shall be kept (internal system)
and therefore must be splitting boundaries.

The option “To be reduced” defines which side of the boundary or boundaries shall be reduced. Thus the
interior region of the boundary doesn’t necessary equal the internal system for the network reduction.

If more than one boundary is used, there is a further requirement that they must not overlap, i.e. there
must be no elements that are contained within more than one of the boundaries.

For more information about boundaries, refer to Section 15.3 (Boundaries).

The ability to select multiple boundaries is particularly beneficial when using the REI method and,
for example, reducing many low-voltage grids. Depending upon the aggregation options, there is
the possibility, with just one boundary, of ending up with a very large generator or load which could
result in convergence difficulties. When multiple boundaries are used, the aggregation is done for each
boundary, giving a more robust result.

49.4.1.3 Regions

The selection of regions is offered instead of Boundary if the regional equivalent is selected. Grids,
zones, areas and boundaries are supported for this reduction, but different element classes cannot be
mixed for one reduction. Overlapping boundaries are not allowed.

49.4.1.4 Load Flow

The load flow command is linked in the network reduction command. The load flow settings influence
the outcome of the reduction and can be adapted by opening the load flow command via the offered
pointer.

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49.4.2 Ward Equivalent

Load flow method The Ward reduction can be executed based on a AC balanced or a DC load flow.

Calculate load flow equivalent

If this option is enabled, as it is by default, the load flow equivalent models will be created by the
reduction tool. The AC balanced load flow method and the DC load flow method are supported for the
Ward Equivalent reduction and the method can be selected directly in the network reduction dialog.
When the option “Calculate load flow equivalent” is enabled, the study case Load Flow command can
be accessed and there are further options to define the type of equivalent models to be created.

Equivalent Model for Power Injection

The load flow equivalent is composed of mutual impedances between boundary nodes and power
injections (and shunt impedances) at boundary nodes. The power injection can be represented by
different models. For the load flow equivalent there are three options (models) available:

• Load Equivalent: a load demand.

• Ward Equivalent: an AC voltage source which is configured as a Ward Equivalent.
• Extended Ward Equivalent: an AC voltage source which is configured as an Extended Ward
Equivalent.

Calculate short-circuit equivalent

If this option is enabled, the short-circuit equivalent model will be created by the Network Reduction
tool. Currently, only the complete short-circuit calculation method is supported.

Asymmetrical Representation

This option is used to specify whether an unbalanced short-circuit equivalent will be created. If this
option is disabled, only a balanced short-circuit equivalent will be created, valid for the calculation of
3-phase short-circuits. If this option is enabled, an unbalanced short-circuit equivalent is created, valid
for the calculation of single-phase and other unsymmetrical short-circuits. This means the network rep-
resentation must include zero sequence and negative sequence parameters, otherwise the unbalanced
calculation cannot be done.

49.4.3 REI Equivalent

49.4.3.1 General

For a REI reduction, there are further options to specify which elements should be reduced:

Reduction of non-linear elements

Using a set of drop-down menus, the user can select which elements are to be reduced and which are
to be retained during the reduction process. In detail:
• Synchronous generators
– Retain all: All synchronous generators will be retained.
– Retain all voltage controlled: all PV generators will be retained; PQ generators will be
reduced.
– Reduce all (default): all synchronous generators will be reduced and replaced by REI equiv-
alent elements.
• Static generators
– Retain all: All static generators will be retained.

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– Retain all voltage controlled: all PV generators will be retained; PQ generators will be
reduced.
– Reduce all (default): all static generators will be reduced and replaced by REI equivalent
elements.
• Loads
– Retain all: All loads will be retained.
– Reduce all (default): all loads will be reduced and replaced by REI equivalent elements.
• Static Var Systems
– Retain all: All static Var systems will be retained.
– Retain all voltage controlled: all voltage controlled SVS will be retained; others will be
reduced.
– Reduce all (default): all SVS will be reduced and replaced by REI equivalent elements.

• Additional Elements: The user can specify an element or a set of elements to be retained, such
as important interchange lines between two countries.
Calculate short-circuit equivalent

If this option is enabled, the short-circuit equivalent model will be created by the Network Reduction
tool. Currently, only the complete short-circuit calculation method is supported.

Asymmetrical Representation

This option is used to specify whether an unbalanced short-circuit equivalent will be created. If this
option is disabled, only a balanced short-circuit equivalent will be created, valid for the calculation of
3-phase short-circuits. If this option is enabled, an unbalanced short-circuit equivalent is created, valid
for the calculation of single-phase and other unsymmetrical short-circuits. This means the network rep-
resentation must include zero sequence and negative sequence parameters, otherwise the unbalanced
calculation cannot be done.

49.4.3.2 Aggregation

Aggregation of nonlinear elements

All reduced elements can be simply aggregated together, or the generators and loads can be ag-
gregated separately, although if short-circuit equivalents are to be calculated as well as load flow
equivalents then it is necessary to keep the generators and loads separate.

Further sub-options are available:

All elements together

• Subgroup generators...
– According to local controller
Group loads and generators separately

• Subgroup generators...
– According to local controller
And/Or
– According to model type and plant category
– According to model type and plant category and subcategory

• Subgroup loads...
– According to load classification

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Single equivalent bus per substation: This option is only designed for reductions in low voltage
distribution networks and should not be used when reducing large network parts. If the option is used
a single equivalent bus is created for each substation (ElmSubstat not ElmTrfstat) instead of individual
busses for every group of aggregated REI elements. This helps to avoid loop flows due to very low
impedances.

49.4.3.3 Advanced

Minimisation of equivalent branches (REI reduction) This setting is only available in the REI reduc-
tion method and minimises the number of common impedances (ElmZpu) created in the reduction.

In each separated area of the “to be reduced system”, the equivalent network elements created in a
REI reduction are interconnected by common impedances to all boundary nodes. Also every pair of
boundary nodes of each separated area will be connected by a common impedance. For large systems
with many boundary nodes this leads to a high number of equivalent branches created during a network
reduction.

The setting “Minimisation of equivalent branches” on the “Advanced Options” page separates the “to
be reduced system” into smaller subsystems by retaining some nodes. These subsystems will then be
reduced separately. This leads to a significant decrease in the number of equivalent branches, but the
number of equivalent loads and generators will increase.

The minimisation algorithm is configured with different sets of parameters and the user has 4 different
selection possibilities

• Off: The minimisation is disabled. Output of the PowerFactory 2018 and older versions.
• Fast minimisation: A time optimised minimisation with large step sizes and a limited number of
separated areas.
• Standard minimisation: Recommended settings for the minimisation.

• Optimal minimisation: Time intensive minimisation with small step sizes.

49.4.4 Regional Equivalent

49.4.4.1 Aggregation

The elements in the reduced regions are aggregated to one artificial node. The Aggregation of
nonlinear elements-settings are identical to the ones in the REI-Reduction (49.4.3.2) and the user
can select if generators and loads are supposed to be groups separately and to be further distinguished

49.4.4.2 Impedance Identification

Equivalent impedances with a common Initial value are created between the nodes from the reduced
regions and the retained network parts. The impedance identification is using the Parameter Identifi-
cation in order to adapt the impedances to minimise the Interchange mismatches. The target function
can be customised in the Locations and weighting factors table. The default is the consideration of
the interchange of each reduced region with a weighting factor of 1, It is possible to add new locations
(regions and all boundaries) and adapt the weighting factors, thus , but it is recommended to add the
retained regions and additional boundaries of importance with a higher weight factor. The Upper bound
of equivalent impedance is adding limits to the optimisation. The Optimisation method used by the
parameter identification can be selected and certain Settings of the parameter identification can be
modified.

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49.4.4.3 Advanced

If needed, the fictitious border network can be selected for the reduction.

Phase shift transformers may be required. The default Phase shifter type can be adapted. The
corresponding nominal voltage and the needed phase shift is set automatically.

49.4.5 Dynamic Equivalent

49.4.5.1 Coherency page

The settings on this page influence the clustering of elements into coherent groups of synchronous
generators which will be aggregated in the reduction.

Disturbance In order to group the generators a balanced RMS simulation is carried out and the network
needs to be excited with a disturbance in order to get a response that can later be used for grouping.

The first option are Noise injections at the boundary nodes. Temporary current sources are created
to inject a random noise. This would reflect a wide range of disturbances with different excitation
frequencies and therefore a more general grouping.

The network can also be exited for specific Existing simulation events. This would then result in a better
tuned grouping for this exact excitation.

Identification method

The coherency between generators and their response can the evaluated in different ways. This has
an influence on how many groups are determined. In general more groups/equivalents lead to a higher
precision but less reduction.

Based on correlation coefficients: The response of a monitored signal can be used to obtain a cor-
relation factor between two generators via a cross correlation. A correlation factor of 1 means that
the machines are coherent and a factor of 0 means no correlation between the signals. A correlation
threshold of 0.8 is usually a good value for the correlation in a dynamic network reduction. The grouping
algorithm is starting with the largest machine which is not already in a group and adding all coherent
generators (which are not in a group) to this new group, with respect to the correlation factor. This
process is repeated until all generators are assigned to a group.

Hierarchical / Agglomerative clustering: Grouping the generators up to a specified threshold of the

Maximum distance / average distance. The distance between two signals is calculated via the ward
linkage and the average distance is the average distance of all generator pairs. The maximum distance
is the maximum distance between any two generators in the same group.

The Monitored signal for the coherency identification can be selected from typical machine signals.

The According to local controller setting has the same influence as in the static REI reduction and
is differentiating the machines depending on their local load flow controller. This may be important for
load flow convergence.

Selective grouping According to model type and plant category is an option.

With the setting Stop after coherency identification the dynamic reduction can be stopped after this
step and the output will only be the displayed coherent groups in the output window.

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49.4.5.2 Controllers page

Create controllers for equivalent generators The dynamic network reduction will create an equivalent
machine for each coherent group of generators. Controller models for these machines can be added.

Template: There are several simplified power plant model templates available which can be selected
(In the Configuration folder). With the Copy and Select option in the drop-down menu a template will
be copied to the network reduction command and can be modified there. Also user defined templates
can be copied to the network reduction command to be available in the dynamic reduction. A template
contains a Plant Model (ElmComp) with a Synchronous machine and the needed DSL models, and the
parameters to be optimised (IntIdentctrl) in the parameter optimisation for these machines.

Parameter identification The Parameter identification is optional and only available if controllers are
added to the equivalent machines.

One of the available Optimisation methods from the parameter identification can be selected directly
in the network reduction command. The default method for the parameter identification is the Particle
Swarm Optimisation.

The Simulation events are taken from the study case.

Settings is a pointer to the parameter identification command. The allowed iteration number can be
specified here. Depending on the settings the parameter identification can be very time consuming.

The Parameters to be tuned are taken from the controller templates and can be viewed and modified
here.

49.4.5.3 Advanced page

The Minimisation of equivalent branches is supported in the dynamic network reduction (see 49.4.3.3)

49.4.6 Outputs

The section describes the options available on the Outputs page of the Network Reduction command.
These options define how the Network Reduction command modifies the network model.

Note: In Scripting there is an additional output possibility. It allows the user to reduce the system only
in memory. Therefore the changes are only available during the runtime of the script. This is
increasing the performance since the changes are not written to the database.

49.4.6.1 Calculation of Parameters Only

The equivalent parameters are calculated and reported to the output window. If this option is selected
then the Network Reduction command does not modify the network model.

49.4.6.2 Create a new Variation for Reduced Network (Default)

The equivalent parameters are calculated and a Variation will be automatically created to store the
reduced network model. If the project already includes System Stage(s) (from PowerFactory version
13.2 or earlier versions) then System Stage(s) will be created instead of a Variation.

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49.4.6.3 Reduce Network without Creating a New Variation

The Network Reduction command will directly modify the main network model if this options is selected.
Therefore, this option will destroy data by deleting the ’interior’ region of the selected boundary, and
replacing it with its reduced model, so this option should be used with care. To avoid losing the original
grid data, backup the project as described in Section 49.3.1 (How to Backup the Project (optional)).

49.4.6.4 Clean up empty substations

If this option is selected the empty substations from the reduced systems will be removed by the network
reduction. Also the network elements will be created in the grid and not in the former substations by the
network reduction.

49.4.6.5 Show detailed output

Select this option in order to see detailed information about the objects that have been created as part
of the network reduction.

49.4.7 Advanced Options

This section describes the Advanced Options for the Network Reduction command.

49.4.7.1 Mutual Impedance (Ignore above)

As part of the Network Reduction process equivalent branches (represented using Common Impedance
elements) will be created between the boundary nodes, to maintain the power-flow relationship between
them. If such branches have a calculated impedance larger than this parameter they will be ignored
(not added to the network model).

By default, the number of these branches created will be N*(N-1)/2, where N is the number of boundary
nodes. A boundary node is defined for each boundary cubicle. Therefore, the number of created
branches can be very high. Normally many of these equivalent branches have a very large impedance
value, so their associated power flows are negligible and the branch can be ignored.

The default value for this parameter is 1000 p.u (based on 100 MVA).

49.4.7.2 Calculate Equivalent Parameters at All Frequencies (only for static equivalents)

This option enables the calculation of frequency-related parameters. By default, the short-circuit equiv-
alent parameters are calculated at all frequencies relevant to short-circuit analysis (equivalent frequen-
cies for calculating the d.c. component of the short-circuit current):

• 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑛
• 𝑓 /𝑓𝑛 = 0.4
• 𝑓 /𝑓𝑛 = 0.27
• 𝑓 /𝑓𝑛 = 0.15

• 𝑓 /𝑓𝑛 = 0.092
• 𝑓 /𝑓𝑛 = 0.055

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 49.5. NETWORK REDUCTION EXAMPLE

𝑓𝑛 is the nominal frequency of the grid (usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

If only transient and sub-transient short-circuit currents are important in the reduced network, the
calculation of frequency-related parameters can be skipped by unchecking this option.

49.4.8 Verification

49.4.8.1 Check Equivalent Results

If the option Check load flow results after reduction is enabled, the load flow results at the boundary
nodes after the network reduction will be checked against the original network results. A warning
message will be given if the results do not match (within the user defined Threshold for check ).

The results of the comparison between the original network and the reduced network are printed to the
output window.

The Check simulation results after reduction option is only available for the dynamic network reduction.

It the simulation results are checked, the Generate curve comparison plot for selected signals func-
tionality is creating a new plot page with plots for the before and after reduction behaviour of selected
signals.

On the Advanced page the Signals to be checked can be specified, either by a user defined variable
selection (IntMon) or a auto selection of the first set of variables (IntMon) from the result file of the
elements from the retained system.

49.4.8.2 Check Deviation of Operating Point

If the option Save original operating point to results file on the Advanced page is enabled, the base
operating point for the Network Reduction will be automatically saved to two results files. These two
created files are:

• LdfResultforNR.ElmRes: voltage magnitudes and angles of all boundary nodes; and

• ShcResultforNR.ElmRes: short-circuit level at all boundary nodes, including 𝐼𝑘′′ (Ikss), 𝐼𝑘′ (Iks), 𝑖𝑝
(ip), 𝑖𝑏 (ib), 𝐼𝑏 (Ib), 𝑋𝑏 /𝑅𝑏 (𝑋𝑡𝑜𝑅𝑏 ), and 𝑋/𝑅 (XtoR).

49.5 Network Reduction Example

This section presents a Network Reduction example using a small transmission network feeding a
distribution system from “Bus 5” and “Bus 6” as shown in Figure 49.5.1. The distribution system is
represented by “Load A” and “Load B” and the corresponding two transformers. As a user you would
like to study the distribution system in detail but are not concerned with the detailed power flow within
the transmission system. Therefore, the Network Reduction tool can be used to create a equivalent
model for the transmission system.

The interior region (the area that shall be reduced) is shown shaded in grey, whereas the non-shaded
area is the exterior region that shall be kept. The procedure for completing the Network Reduction
according to these parameters is as follows (you can repeat this example yourself using the Nine-bus
System within the PowerFactory Examples):

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 49.5. NETWORK REDUCTION EXAMPLE

Figure 49.5.1: Example System with Original Network

1. Select the lines “Line 5-7” and “Line 6-9”.

2. Right-click on the selected lines and choose the option Define → Boundary . . . . The boundary
dialog will appears.
3. Click on the Mark Interior Region button and verify that the region marked corresponds with the
region showed grayout in Figure 49.5.1.
4. Open the Network Reduction command dialog and select newly created boundary using the select
button ( ).
5. Press Execute. The Network Reduction tool will reduce the system.
6. Now you can draw the new common impedance and equivalent ward voltage source elements
using the Diagram Layout Tool. The result of the Network Reduction is shown in Figure 49.5.2.

A load flow calculation or a short-circuit calculation in the reduced network gives the same results for
the distribution network as for the original (non-reduced) network.

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 49.6. TIPS FOR USING THE NETWORK REDUCTION TOOL

Figure 49.5.2: Example System with Reduced Network

49.6 Tips for using the Network Reduction Tool

This section presents some tips for using the Network Reduction tool and some solutions to common
problems encountered by users.

49.6.1 Network Reduction doesn’t Reduce Isolated Areas

By default, the boundary definition search stops when encountering an open breaker. This means that
isolated areas can sometimes be excluded from the interior region and therefore are not reduced by the
Network Reduction tool. The solution to this problem is to disable the boundary flag Topological search:
Stop at open breakers. This option is enabled by default in all boundary definitions. It is recommended
to disable it before attempting a Network Reduction.

A related problem occurs with the project setting (Edit → Project→ Project Settings→ Advanced Cal-
culation Parameters) Automatic Out of Service Detection. It is recommended that this option is disabled
before attempting a Network Reduction. However, it is disabled by default, so if you have not made
changes to the default project settings you should not need to make any changes to this setting.

49.6.2 The Reference Machine is not Reduced

The Network Reduction tool will not reduce a reference machine defined within the interior region. It
also leaves all network components that are topologically one bus removed from the reference machine
(and of non-zero impedance). For example, if the reference machine is a typical synchronous machine

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 49.6. TIPS FOR USING THE NETWORK REDUCTION TOOL

connected to the HV system through a step up transformer, then the reduction tool will leave the
synchronous machine, the LV bus, the step up transformer and the HV bus within the reduced network.

It is recommended that the reference machine is found within the exterior region before attempting a
Network Reduction. The reference machine can be identified by checking the output window after a
load-flow calculation.

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Chapter 50

State Estimation

50.1 Introduction

The State Estimation (SE) function of PowerFactory provides consistent load flow results for an entire
power system, based on real time measurements, manually entered data and the network model.
Before any further analysis, such as contingency analysis, security checks etc. can be carried out, the
present state of a power system must be estimated from available measurements. The measurement
types that are processed by the PowerFactory State Estimation are:
• Active Power Branch Flow
• Reactive Power Branch Flow
• Branch Current (Magnitude)
• Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude)
• Breaker Status
• Transformer Tap Position

Unfortunately, these measurements are usually noisy and some data might even be totally wrong. On
the other hand, there are usually more data available than absolutely necessary and it is possible to
profit by redundant measurements for improving the accuracy of the estimated network state.

The states that can be estimated by the State Estimation on the base of the given measurements vary
for different elements in the network:
• Loads
– Active Power, and/or
– Reactive Power, or
– Scaling Factor, as an alternative
• Synchronous Machines
– Active Power, and/or
– Reactive Power
• Asynchronous Machines
– Active Power
• Static var System
– Reactive Power
• 2- and 3-winding transformers
– Tap Positions (for all but one taps).

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 50.2. OBJECTIVE FUNCTION

50.2 Objective Function

The objective of a State Estimation is to assess the generator and load injections, and the tap positions
in a way that the resulting load flow result matches as close as possible with the measured branch
flows and bus bar voltages. Mathematically, this can be expressed with a weighted square sum of all
deviations between calculated (calVal) and measured (meaVal) branch flows and bus bar voltages:

𝑛 (︂ )︂2
∑︁ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑉 𝑎𝑙𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑉 𝑎𝑙𝑖
𝑓 (⃗𝑥) = 𝜎𝑖−1 · (50.1)
𝑖=1
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

where:
𝜎𝑖 = (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦𝑖 /100)

The state vector ⃗𝑥 contains all voltage magnitudes, voltage angles and also all variables to be estimated,
such as active and reactive power injections at all bus bars.

Because more accurate measurements should have a higher influence to the final results than less
accurate measurements, every measurement error is weighted with a weighting factor wi to the standard
deviation of the corresponding measurement device (+transmission channels, etc.).

In this setting, the goal of a State Estimation is to minimise the above given function f under the side
constraints that all load flow equations are fulfilled.

50.3 Components of the PowerFactory State Estimation

The State Estimation function in PowerFactory consists of several independent components, namely:
1. Preprocessing
2. Plausibility Check

3. Observability Analysis
4. State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimisation)
Figure 50.3.1 illustrates the algorithmic interaction of the different components. The first Preprocessing
phase adjusts all breaker and tap positions according to their measured signals.

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 50.3. COMPONENTS OF THE POWERFACTORY STATE ESTIMATION

Figure 50.3.1: Variation of the PowerFactory State Estimation algorithm

The Plausibility Check is sought to detect and separate out, in a second phase, all measurements with
some apparent error. PowerFactory provides various test criteria for that phase of the algorithm.

In a third phase, the network is checked for its Observability. Roughly speaking, a region of the network
is called observable, if the measurements in the system provide enough (non-redundant) information to
estimate the state of that part of the network.

Finally, the State Estimation itself evaluates the state of the entire power system by solving the above
mentioned non-linear optimisation problem. PowerFactory provides various ways for copying with non-
observable areas of the network.

In order to improve the quality of the result, observability analysis and state estimation can be run in
a loop. In this mode, at the end of each state estimation, the measurement devices undergo a so-
called “Bad Data Detection”: the error of every measurement device can be estimated by evaluating
the difference between calculated and measured quantity. Extremely distorted measurements (i.e.
the estimated error is much larger than the standard deviation of the measurement device) are not
considered in the subsequent iterations. The process is repeated until no bad measurements are
detected any more.

In the following, the distinct components of the PowerFactory State Estimation are explained in detail.

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 50.3. COMPONENTS OF THE POWERFACTORY STATE ESTIMATION

50.3.1 Plausibility Check

In order to avoid any heavy distortion of the estimated network-state due to completely wrong mea-
surements, the following Plausibility Checks can be made before the actual State Estimation is started.
Every measurement that fails in any of the listed Plausibility Checks will not be considered.
• Check for consistent active power flow directions at each side of the branch elements.
• Check for extremely large branch losses, which exceed their nominal values.

• Check for negative losses on passive branch elements.

• Check for large branch flows on open ended branch elements.
• Check whether the measured branch loadings exceed the nominal loading value of the branch
elements.

• Node sum checks for both, active and reactive power.

Each test is based on a stochastic analysis which takes into account the measurement’s individual
accuracy. The strictness of the above mentioned checking criteria can be continuously adjusted in the
advanced settings.

The result of the Plausibility Check is reported, for each measurement, on a detailed error status page
(see Section 50.6).

50.3.2 Observability Analysis

A necessary requirement for an observable system is that the number of available measurements is
equal or larger than the number of estimated variables. This verification can easily be made at the
beginning of every state estimation.

But it can also happen that only parts of the network are observable and some other parts of the system
are not observable even if the total number of measurements is sufficient. Hence, it is not only important
that there are enough measurements, but also that they are well distributed in the network.

Therefore, additional verifications are made checking for every load or generator injection whether it
is observable or not. The entire network is said to be observable if all load or generator injections
can be estimated based on the given measurements. PowerFactory does not only solve the decision
problem whether the given system is observable or not: If a network is not observable, it is still useful
to determine the islands in the network that are observable.

The Observability Analysis in PowerFactory is not purely based on topological arguments; it heavily
takes into account the electrical quantities of the network. Mathematically speaking, the Observability
Check is based on an intricate sensitivity analysis, involving fast matrix-rank-calculations, of the whole
system.

The result of the Observability Analysis can be viewed using the Data Manager. Besides, PowerFac-
tory offers a very flexible colour representation both for observable and unobservable areas, and for
redundant and non-redundant measurements (see Section 50.6.4).

Observability of individual states

The Observability Analysis identifies not only, for each state (i.e., load or generator injections) whether
it is observable or not. It also subdivides all unobservable states into so-called “equivalence-classes”.
Each equivalence-class has the property that it is observable as a group, even though its members (i.e.,
the single states) cannot be observed. Each group then can be handled individually for the subsequent
state estimation.

Redundancy of measurements

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Typically, an observable network is overdetermined in the sense that redundant measurements exist,
which for the observability of the system do not provide any further information. During the Observability
Analysis, PowerFactory determines redundant and non-redundant measurements. Moreover, it subdi-
vides all redundant measurements according to their information content for the system’s observability
status. In this sense, PowerFactory is even able to calculate a redundancy level which then indicates
how much reserve the network measurements provide. This helps the system analyst to precisely
identify weakly measured areas in the network.

50.3.3 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimisation)

The non-linear optimisation is the core part of the State Estimation. As already mentioned in the
introduction, the objective is to minimise the weighted square sum of all deviations between calculated
and measured branch flows and bus bar voltages whilst fulfilling all load flow equations.

PowerFactory uses an extremely fast converging iterative approach to solve the problem based on
Lagrange-Newton methods. If the Observability Analysis in the previous step indicates that the entire
power system is observable, convergence (in general) is guaranteed.

In order to come up with a solution for a non-observable system, various strategies can be followed:
One option is to reset all non-observable states, such that some manually entered values or historic
data is used for these states. An alternative option is to use so-called pseudo-measurements for non-
observable states. A pseudo-measurement basically is a measurement with a very poor accuracy.
These pseudo-measurements force the algorithm to converge. At the same time, the resulting estimated
states will be of correct proportions within each equivalence-class.

In the remaining sections of this guide of use, the instructions related to Data Entry, Options and
Constraints, and Visualisation of Results are presented.

50.4 State Estimation Data Input

The main procedures to introduce and manipulate the State Estimation data are indicated in this section.
For applying the PowerFactory State Estimation, the following data are required additional to standard
load flow data:

• Measurements
– Active Power Branch Flow
– Reactive Power Branch Flow
– Branch Current (Magnitude)
– Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude)
– Breaker Status
– Transformer Tap Position
• Estimated States
– Loads: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q), or the Scaling Factor, as an alternative.
– Synchronous Machines: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q)
– Asynchronous Machines: Active Power (P)
– Static var Systems: Reactive Power (Q)
– Transformers: Tap Positions
For the measurements listed above, PowerFactory uses the abbreviated names P-measurement, Q-
measurement, I-measurement, V-measurement, Breaker-measurement, and Tap position-measurement.
Similarly, as a convention, the four different types of estimated states are shortly called P-state, Q-state,
Scaling factor-state, and Tap position-state.

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50.4.1 Measurements

All measurements are defined by placing a so-called “External Measurement Device” inside a cubicle.
For this purpose, select the device in the single-line graphic and choose from the context menu (right
mouse button) “New Devices” and then “External Measurements. . . ” (see Figure 50.4.1). Then, the
new object dialog pops up with a predefined list of external measurements. Please select the desired
measurement device among this list.

Figure 50.4.1: External Measurements that are located in a cubicle

The following measurement devices are currently supported

• (External) P-Measurement (StaExtpmea)

• (External) Q-Measurement (StaExtqmea)

• (External) I-Measurement, current magnitude (StaExtimea)
• (External) V-Measurement, voltage magnitude (StaExtvmea)

• (External) Breaker Signalisation Breaker Status (StaExtbrkmea)

• (External) Tap-Position Measurement Tap Position (StaExttapmea)
Any number of mutually distinct measurement devices can be defined in the cubicle.

Branch Flow Measurements

Any branch flow measurement (StaExpmea, StaExtqmea) is defined by the following values (see fig-
ures 50.4.2 and 50.4.3):
• Measured value (e:Pmea or e:Qmea, respectively)

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• Multiplicator (e:Multip)
• Orientation (e:i_gen)

• Accuracy class and rating (e:Snom and e:accuracy)

• Input status (to be found on the second page of the edit object, see Figure 50.4.3):
E.g., tele-measured, manually entered, read/write protected,. . . (e:iStatus). It is important to
note that the State Estimation takes into account only measurements, for which the “read”-Status
is explicitly set and for which the “Neglected by SE”-Status is unset.

Figure 50.4.2: Dialog for an external P-measurement

The accuracy class and the rating are used for weighting the measurement element. In case of
redundant measurements, a more accurate measurement will be higher weighted than a less accurate
measurement.

Using the flag “orientation”, it is possible to define the meaning of the active or reactive power sign.
Load orientation means that a positively measured P or Q flows into the element, generator orientation
defines a positive flow as flowing out of an element. With the “multiplicator”, a measured quantity can
be re-rated. E.g., if a measurement instrument indicates 150kW (instead of 0.15MW), the “multiplicator”
can be set to 0.001 and the measured value is set to 150 resulting in a correct value.

It is important to note, that External P- and Q-measurements have the additional feature to possibly
serve as a so-called (externally created) pseudo-measurement. This feature is activated by checking the
corresponding box (e:pseudo). Pseudo-measurements are special measurements which are ignored
during the regular calculation. They are activated in a selective manner only if the observability check
found unobservable states in the network (see Section 50.5.1: Basic Setup Options for details).

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Figure 50.4.3: Status page of the dialog for an external P-measurement

Current Measurements

The External I-measurement (StaExtimea) plays a special role and slightly differs from the External
P- and Q-measurements (see Figure 50.4.4): Besides specifying the measured current magnitude
(e:Imea), the user is asked to enter an assumed (or measured) value for the power factor cos𝜑
(e:cosphi and e:pf_recapr).

Figure 50.4.4: Dialog for an external I-measurement

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Internally, the measured current magnitude is then additionally transformed into two further measure-
ments, namely an active and a reactive current. This is due to the fact that current magnitude does not
provide information on the direction of the flow, which on the other hand is essential to avoid ambiguous
solutions in the optimisation.

In this sense, an external I-measurement may play the role of up to three measurements:

1. as a current magnitude measurement.

2. as a measurement for active current.
3. as a measurement for reactive current.
The decision which of these measurements shall participate in the State Estimation is left to the
user by checking the boxes (e:iUseMagn,e:iUseAct, and/or e:iUseReact). In any case, the
corresponding ratings for the used measurement types need to be specified. This is done (accord-
ingly to the flow measurements) by entering the pairs of fields (e:SnomMagn,e:accuracyMagn),
(e:SnomAct,e:accuracyAct), and (e:SnomReact,e:accuracyReact), respectively).

Voltage Measurements

Voltage measurements (StaExvmea) need to be placed in cubicles as well. The measurement point
then is the adjacent terminal.

A voltage measurement basically has the same properties as a flow measurement, except, for the
rating, only a single value for the accuracy needs to be specified. The corresponding internal reference
is the nominal voltage of the terminal which serves as measurement point.

Breaker and Tap Position Measurements

Both breaker and tap position measurements are assumed to measure the corresponding discrete
breaker status and tap position signal accurately. Hence, no ratings needs to be specified.

Tap position measurements have a conversion table as extra feature. The conversion table allows
any discrete translation mapping between external tap positions (Ext. Tap) and tap positions used by
PowerFactory (PF Tap).

50.4.2 Editing the Element Data

In addition to the measurement values, the user has to specify which quantities shall be considered as
“states to be estimated” by the SE. Possible states to be optimised whilst minimising the sum of the
error squares over all measurements are all active and/or reactive power injections at generators and
loads and all tap positions.

Loads

For each load (ElmLod), the user can specify whether its active and/or reactive power shall be estimated
by the State Estimation. Alternatively, the State Estimation is able to estimate the scaling factor (for a
given P and Q injection). The specification which parameter shall be estimated, is done by checking
corresponding boxes on the State Estimation page of the load. When these options are disabled, the
load is treated as in the conventional load flow calculation during the execution of the SE.

Synchronous Machines

Similarly, for synchronous machines (ElmSym), the active and reactive power can be selected as a
control variable for being estimated by the State Estimation. Again, the user will find corresponding
check boxes on the State Estimation page of the element.

If the corresponding check box(es) are disabled, the synchronous machine behaves as in the conven-
tional load flow calculation.

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Asynchronous Machines

For asynchronous machines (ElmAsm), the active power may serve as a state to be estimated. Once
again, the corresponding box has to be checked on the State Estimation page.

If the corresponding check box is disabled, the asynchronous machine behaves as in the conventional
load flow calculation.

Static var Systems

For static var systems (ElmSvs), the reactive power may serve as a state to be estimated. Again, the
corresponding box has to be checked on the State Estimation page.

If the corresponding check box is disabled, the static var system behaves as in the conventional load
flow calculation.

Transformers

In the 2-winding transformer elements (ElmTr2), the tap position can be specified as a state to be
estimated by the State Estimation. Tap positions will be estimated in a continuous way (without paying
attention to the given tap limits).

For 3-winding transformers, any two of the three possible tap positions (HV-, MV-, and LV-side) can be
selected for estimation.

The corresponding check boxes are found on the State Estimation page of the transformers. If the check
box is disabled the State Estimation will treat the tap position of the transformers as in the conventional
load flow calculation.

50.5 Running SE

The following steps should be performed to execute the State Estimation:

• Start from a case where the conventional power flow converges successfully.

• Select Additional Functions from the Change Toolbox button ( )

• Execute the SE by clicking the icon .

• Select the desired options for the State Estimation run (see below).
• Select Execute.

50.5.1 Basic Setup Options

Recall that the State Estimation in PowerFactory consists of three different parts (Plausibility Check,
Observability Analysis, State Estimation (non-linear optimisation)) and an additional precedent Prepro-
cessing step. This variation is reflected in the Basic Options dialog.

50.5.1.1 Preprocessing

The algorithm distinguishes between breaker- and tap position-measurements on the one hand, and P-
,Q-,I-, and V-measurements on the other hand. Breaker- and tap position-measurements are handled
in the preprocessing step, whereas the latter types are processed in the subsequent parts or the State
Estimation.

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Adapt breaker measurements

If this check box is marked, all measured breakers statuses will be set to the corresponding measured
signal values.

Adapt tap position measurements

If this check box is marked, all measured tap positions will be set to the corresponding measured values.

50.5.1.2 Plausibility Check

The algorithm offers various kinds of plausibility checks to validate measurements. Each measurement
undergoes the checks selected by the user. If a measurement fails any of the required tests, it will be
marked as erroneous and will be neglected in all subsequent steps. A complete error report can be
obtained via the error status page of each measurements (see Section 50.6).

The following checks can be enabled by marking the corresponding check boxes.

Consistent active power flow direction at each branch

Checks for each passive branch, whether all connected P-measurements comply with a consistent
power flow direction. More precisely, if some flow out of a passive element is measured while, at the
same time, no flow into the element is measured, then all P-measurements connected to this element
fail this test. For this check, a P-measurement is said to measure a “non-zero” flow if the measurement
value is beyond a value of 𝜎 ∙ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, where 𝜎 and 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 are the accuracy and the rating, respectively,
of the measurement.

Branch losses exceed nominal values

Checks for each passive branch, whether the measured active power loss exceeds the nominal loss of
the branch by a factor of 1 + 𝜀. This check only applies to passive branches which have P-measurements
𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎1 , . . . ,𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑟 in each of its r connection
∑︀𝑟 devices. The threshold 𝜀, by which the nominal loss
shall not be exceeded, is given by: 𝜀 = 𝑖=1 𝜎𝑖 · 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖 , where 𝜎𝑖 and 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖 are the accuracy and the
rating, respectively, of measurement 𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑖 .

Negative losses on passive branches

Checks for each passive branch, whether the measured active power loss is negative, i.e., if a passive
branch is measured to generate active power. This check only applies to passive branches which have
P-measurements 𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎1 , . .. , 𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑟 in each of its r connection∑︀𝑟devices. The measured power loss of
the branch is said to be negative if it is below the threshold (− 𝑖=1 𝜎𝑖 · 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖 ).

Large branch flows on open ended branches

Checks for each connection of the element, whether the connection is an open end (i.e., switch is open,
or it is connected to only open detailed switches). If the connection is open and there exists a (P-, Q-,
or I-) measurement which measures a “non-zero” flow, then the corresponding measurement fails the
test. Again, a measurement is said to measure a “non-zero” flow if the measurement value is beyond a
value of 𝜎 · 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.

Branch loadings exceed nominal values

Checks for each connection of the element, if the measured complex power (which is computed by the
corresponding P- and/or Q-measurements) exceeds the rated complex power value by a factor of 1 + s.
Here, s is the accuracy of the P- and/or Q-measurement(s).

Node sum checks for active and reactive power

This check applies to P- and/or Q-measurements. Checks, for each node of the network, if the node
sum of the measured values in the adjacent branches is zero. If this is not the case, i.e., if the P- and/or
Q-sum exceeds a certain threshold value, all adjacent P- and/or Q-measurements fail the test. Again,
“not being zero” means that the sum of the measured
∑︀𝑟 values of the adjacent P-measurements 𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎1 ,
... , 𝑃 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑟 has magnitude below the threshold 𝑖=1 𝜎𝑖 · 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (similarly for Q-measurements).

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50.5.1.3 Observability Analysis

The Observability Analysis is an optional component of the State Estimation. If activated, it checks
whether the specified network is observable, i.e., whether the remaining valid P-, Q-, V-, and I-measurements
(which successfully passed the plausibility checks) suffice to estimate the selected P-, Q-, Scaling
Factor-, and Tap position-states. In addition, the Observability Analysis detects redundant measure-
ments. Redundancy, in general, yields more accurate results for the following state estimation.

Moreover, if the Observability Analysis detects non-observable states, upon user selection, it tries to fix
this unobservability by introducing further pseudo-measurements.

Check for observability regions

If the corresponding check box is marked by the user, the execution of the State Estimation will run the
Observability Analysis (prior to the state Estimation optimisation).

Treatment of unobservable areas

In case of unobservable states, the user has different options to cope with the situation:

• Stop if unobservable regions exist: The algorithm terminates with the detection of unobservable
states. The Observability Analysis groups all non-observable states into different “equivalence
classes”. Each equivalence class consists of states that carry the same observability information
through the given measurements. In other words, the given measurements can only distinguish
between different equivalence classes, but not between various states of a single equivalence
class. The results can be viewed by the user (see Section 50.6 Results).
• Use P-, Q-values as specified by model:: If this option is selected, the algorithm internally drops
the “to be estimated” flag of each non-observable state and uses the element specifications of the
load flow settings instead. For example, if a P-state of a load is unobservable, the algorithm will
use the P-value as entered on the load flow page. Hence, the network is made observable by
reducing the number of control variables.
• Use predefined pseudo-measurements: Using this option, the algorithm “repairs” the unob-
servability of the network by increasing the degrees of freedom. For that purpose, at the location
of each non-observable state, the algorithm tries to activate a pseudo-measurement of the same
kind. Hence, if a P- (Q-)state is non-observable in some element, the algorithm searches for a P-
(Q-)pseudo-measurement in the cubicle of the element carrying the non-observable state. In case
of a non-observable scaling-factor both, a P- and a Q-pseudo-measurement are required. The
introduced pseudo-measurements remain active as long as needed to circumvent unobservable
areas.

• Use internally created pseudo-measurements: This option is similar to the previous one,
except the algorithm automatically creates and activates a sufficient number of internal pseudo-
measurements to guarantee observability. More precisely, internal pseudo-measurements are
created at the locations of all elements that have non-observable P-(Q-, scaling factor-)state. For
each such element, the pseudo-measurement value for P (Q, P and Q) is taken from the element’s
load flow specification. All internally created pseudo-measurements use a common setting for
their rating and accuracy, which can be specified on the advanced setup options page for the
observability check.

• Use predefined and internally created meas: This mode can be considered as a mixture of
the latter two options. Here, in case of a non-observable state, the algorithm tries to activate a
predefined pseudo-measurement of the same kind. If no corresponding pseudo-measurement
has been defined, then the algorithm automatically creates an internal pseudo-measurement.

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50.5.1.4 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimisation)

The non-linear optimisation is the central component of the State Estimation. The underlying numerical
algorithm to minimise the measurements’ overall error is the iterative Lagrange-Newton method.

Run state estimation algorithm

Check this box to enable the non-linear optimisation. Note that after convergence of the method, upon
user settings on the advanced state estimation option page PowerFactory performs a bad data check
which eliminates the worst P-,Q-,V-, and I-measurements among all bad data. Observability Analysis
and State Estimation are run in a loop until no further bad measurements exist (recall the algorithm
variation as shown in Figure 50.3.1).

50.5.2 Advanced Setup Options for the Plausibility Check

Each Plausibility Check allows for an individual strictness setting. Note that all checks rely on the
same principle: namely, the given measurement values are checked against some threshold. Recall,
for example, that the∑︀“node sum check for P” tests whether the active power sum at a node is below
𝑟
a threshold of 𝜀 = 𝑖=1 𝜎𝑖 · 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔. The user has the possibility to influence the strictness of this
threshold. Therefore, the settings provide to enter so-called “exceeding factors” 𝑓 𝑎𝑐 > 0 such that the
new threshold is 𝑓 𝑎𝑐 · 𝜖 instead of 𝜖. E.g., in the case of the node sum check for P, the user may define
the corresponding factor fac_ndSumP.

The higher the exceeding factor, the less strict the plausibility test will be. Similar exceeding factors can
be specified for any of the given tests.

50.5.3 Advanced Setup Options for the Observability Check

Rastering of sensitivity matrix

Internally, the Observability Check is based on a thorough sensitivity analysis of the network. For that
purpose, the algorithm computes a sensitivity matrix that takes into account all measurements, on the
one hand, and all estimated states on the other hand. This sensitivity matrix is discretised by rastering
the continuous values.

The user can specify the precision of this process by defining the number of intervals into which the
values of the sensitivity matrix shall be rastered (SensMatNoOfInt), the threshold below which a
continuous value is considered to be a 0 (SensMatThresh) in the discrete case, and the mode of
rastering (iopt_raster). It is highly recommended to use the predefined values here.

Settings for internally created pseudo-measurements

If, on the basic option page, the mode for the treatment of unobservable regions is set to “use only
internally created pseudo-measurements” or to “use predefined and internally created pseudo - mea-
surements”, the user may specify a default power rating (SnomPseudo) and a default accuracy class
(accuracy Pseudo). These default values are used for all automatically created internal pseudo-
measurements.

50.5.4 Advanced Setup Options for Bad Data Detection

Recall that the State Estimation loops Observability Analysis and State Estimation as long as no further
bad measurement is found (see Figure 50.3.1). The following settings allow the user to control the
number of iterations performed by the loop.

Maximum number of measurements to eliminate

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The variable iBadMeasLimit specifies an upper limit on the number of bad measurements that will be
eliminated in the course of the State Estimation.

Tolerance factors for bad measurement elimination

A measurement is declared to be bad, if the deviation of measured against calculated value exceeds
the measurement’s accuracy, i.e., if

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑉 𝑎𝑙 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑉 𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦

≥ (50.2)
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 100

where calVal and meaVal are the calculated value and the measured value, respectively. The user
may modify this definition by adjusting tolerance factors for bad measurements. More precisely, a mea-
surement is declared to be bad, if the left-hand side in equation (50.2) exceeds 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝐸𝑟𝑟 · 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦/100.
Here facErr > 0 is a factor which can be specified by the user for each group of measurements
individually. Use the factors facErrP, facErrQ, facErrV, facErrIMagn, facErrIAct, and
facErrIReact for P-, Q-, V-measurements, and the three types of the I-measurements (magnitude
measure, active current measure, reactive current measure).

50.5.5 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control

Initialisation

The non-linear optimisation requires an initialisation step to generate an initial starting configuration.

Initialisation of non-linear optimisation

The user may specify whether the initialisation shall be performed by a load flow calculation or by some
flat start. If it is known in advance that the final solution of the optimisation part is close to a valid load
flow solution, initialising by a load flow calculation pays off in a faster convergence.

Load Flow

Specifies the settings of the load flow command which is taken for initialisation in case no flat start is
used.

Stopping criteria for the non-linear optimisation

The non-linear optimisation is implemented using an iterative Newton-Lagrange method. Recall that
the goal of the optimisation is to minimise the objective function f (i.e., the square sum of the weighted
measurements’ deviations) under the constraint that all load flow equations are fulfilled. Mathematically
speaking, the aim is to find

min 𝑓 (⃗𝑥) (50.3)

under the constraint that

𝑔(⃗𝑥) = 0 (50.4)

where 𝑔 is the set of load flow equations that need to be fulfilled. By the Lagrange-Newton method, we
thus try to minimise the resulting Lagrange function

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𝐿(⃗𝑥, ⃗𝜆) = 𝑓 (⃗𝑥) + ⃗𝜆𝑇 · ⃗𝑔 (⃗𝑥) (50.5)

with the Lagrange multipliers ⃗𝜆.

The following parameters can be used to adapt the stopping criteria for this iterative process. The
algorithm stops successfully if the following three issues are fulfilled:
1. The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached.
2. All load flow constraint equations 𝑔(⃗𝑥) = 0 are fulfilled to a predefined degree of exactness, which
means:
(a) all nodal equations are fulfilled.
(b) all model equations are fulfilled.

3. The Lagrange function 𝐿(⃗𝑥, ⃗𝜆) itself converges. This can be achieved if
(a) either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or
(b) the gradient of the objective function converges to zero.
The following parameters serve to adjust these stopping criteria. The user unfamiliar with the underlying
optimisation algorithm is urged to use the default settings here.

Iteration Control of non-linear optimisation

The user is asked to enter the maximum number of iterations.

Convergence of Load Flow Constraint Equations

The user should enter a maximal error for nodal equations (where the deviation is measured in kVA),
and, in addition, a maximally tolerable error for the model equations (in %).

The errors can be entered separately for the high, medium and low voltage level. The thresholds of
these levels can be defined in the project settings.

Convergence of Objective Function

The user is asked choose among the following two convergence criteria for the Lagrangian function:
Either the function itself is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gradient of the Lagrangian
is expected to converge.

In the first case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum change in value of the objective
function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls below this value, the Lagrangian
is assumed to be converged.

In the latter case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum value for the gradient of the
Lagrangian. If the gradient falls below this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be converged.

It is strongly recommended due to mathematical preciseness to use the criterion on the gradient. The
other option might only be of advantage if the underlying Jacobian matrix behaves numerically instable
which then typically results in a “toggling” of the convergence process in the last iterations.

Output

Two different levels of output during the iterative process can be selected.

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50.6 Results

The presentation of the State Estimation results is integrated into the user interface. The solution of
the non-linear optimisation in the State Estimation is available via the complete set of variables of the
conventional Load Flow calculations. It can be seen in the single line diagram of the grid or through the
browser.

50.6.1 Output Window Report

The PowerFactory State Estimation reports the main steps of the algorithm in the output window.

For the Plausibility Checks, this implies the information on how many models failed the corresponding
checks. For the Observability Analysis, the report contains the information on how many states were
determined to be observable, and in addition how many measurements were considered to be relevant
for observing these states.

Non-linear optimisation reports, in each iteration step, the following figures:

• The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Error Nodes).
• The current error of the constraint model equations (Error ModelEqu).

• The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (Gradient LagrFunc).
• The current value of the Lagrangian function (LagrFunc)
• The current value of the objective function f to be minimised (ObjFunc).

50.6.2 External Measurements

Deviations

Each branch flow measurement (StaExtpmea, StaExtqmea) and each voltage measurement (StaExtvmea)
offers parameters to view its individual deviation between measured value and computed value by the
State Estimation. The corresponding variables are:

• e:Xmea: measured value as entered in StaEx* mea

• e:cMeaVal: measured value (including multiplier)
• e:Xcal: calculated value

• e:Xdif: deviation in % (based on given rating as reference value)

• e:Xdif_mea: deviation in % (based on the measured value as reference value)
• e:Xdif_abs: absolute deviation in the measurement’s unit
Here X is a placeholder for P, Q, or U in the case of a P-, Q-, or V-measurement.

Recall that a StaExtimea plays a special role, since a current measurement may serve as up to three
measurements (for magnitude, for active current, and/or for reactive current). Hence, a current mea-
surement has the above listed variables (with X being replaced by I) for each of the three measurement
types. In order to distinguish between the three types, for a StaExtimea, the variables carry the suffixes
Magn (for magnitude measurement), Act (for active current measurement), and React (for reactive
current measurement).

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Figure 50.6.1: For description page for external measurements (StaExtvmea, StaExtqmea,
StaExtvmea).

Error Status

All measurements (StaExt*meas) which possibly participate in the Plausibility Checks, the Observability
Analysis, or the State Estimation provide a detailed error description page (see figures 50.6.1) with the
following information:
• General Errors:
– Is unneeded pseudo-measurement (e:errUnneededPseudo)
– Its input status disallows calculation, i.e., input status does not allow “Read” or is already
marked as “Wrong Measurement” (e:errStatus)
– Measurement is out of service (e:errOutOfService)
• Plausibility Check Errors:
– Fails test: Consistent active power flow direction at each side of branch (e:errConsDir)
– Fails test: Large branch losses
(e:errExcNomLoss)
– Fails test: Negative losses on passive branches
(e:errNegLoss)
– Fails test: Large branch flows on open ended branches
(e:errFlwIfOpn)
– Fails test: Branch loadings exceed nominal values
(e:errExcNomLoading)
– Fails test: Node sum check for P (e:errNdSumP)
– Fails test: Node sum check for Q (e:errNdSumQ)

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 50.6. RESULTS

• Observability Analysis Errors:

– Measurement is considered to be redundant for observability of the network, i.e., observ-
ability is already guaranteed even without this measurement. Nevertheless redundant mea-
surements are used in the non-linear optimisation since, in general, they help to improve the
result (e:errRedundant).
– For redundant measurements, also the redundancy level is indicated on this page
(e:RedundanceLevel). The higher the redundancy level, the more measurements with a
similar information content for the observability analysis exist.
• State Estimation Errors:
– Measurement is detected to be bad, has been removed and was not considered in last non-
linear optimisation loop (e:errBadData)
This detailed error description is encoded in the single parameter e:error that can be found on the
top of the error status page. Again, we have the convention that, for a StaExtimea, the variables
e:errRedundant, e:RedundanceLevel and e:errBadData carry the suffixes Magn (for magnitude
measurement), Act (for active current measurement), and React (for reactive current measurement).

50.6.3 Estimated States

Which states participated as control variables?

Recall that - depending on the selected “treatment of unobservable regions” - not all states that were
selected for estimation (see Section 50.4.2: Editing the Element Data) will necessarily be estimated by
the algorithm: In case of non-observability, it may happen that some control variables need to be reset.

To access the information which states were actually used as control variables, PowerFactory provides
a flag for each possible state. These flags are called c:iPSetp, c:iQSetp, c:iScaleSetp, c:iTapSetp for
P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, and Tap-states, respectively. They can be accessed through the Flexible Data
Page as State Estimation calculation parameters for the following elements: ElmLod, ElmAsm, ElmSym,
ElmSvs, ElmTr2, and ElmTr3.

Observability of individual state

The Observability Analysis identifies, for each state, whether it is observable or not. Moreover, if
the network is unobservable, it subdivides all unobservable states into “equivalence-classes”. Each
equivalence-class has the property that it is observable as a whole group, even though its members
(i.e., the single states) cannot be observed. The equivalence classes are enumerated in ascending
order 1, 2, 3, . . . .

For this purpose, the Observability Analysis uses the flags c:iPobsFlg, c:iQobsFlg, c:iScaleobsFlg,
c:iTapobsFlg for P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, and Tap-states, respectively. These parameters exist as State
Estimation calculation parameters for all elements which carry possible states (ElmLod, ElmAsm, Elm-
Sym, ElmSvs, ElmTr2, ElmTr3). The semantics is as follows:

• a value of -2 means that the correspond state is not estimated at all.

• a value of -1 means that the correspond state is unsupplied.
• a value of 0 means that the corresponding state is observable.
• a value of i > 0 means that the correspond state belongs to equivalence-class i.

50.6.4 Colour Representation

In addition, PowerFactory provides a special colouring mode “State Estimation” for the single line
diagram which takes into account the individual measurement error statuses and the states to be

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estimated (see Figure 50.6.2). The colouring can be accessed by clicking the icon on the task
bar.

The colour representation paints the location of measurements (of a specific type) and the location of
states (of a specific type) simultaneously.

Figure 50.6.2: Colouring of measurement error statuses and estimated states.

Estimated States

The user selects to colour states of a specific type (P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, or Tap position-states). Dis-
tinct colours for observable, unobservable, non-estimated states, and states with unclear observability
status can be chosen.

External Measurement Locations

The user selects to colour measurements of a specific type (P-, Q-, V-, or I-measurements). Distinct
colours for valid, redundant and invalid measurements can be chosen. A measurement is said to be
valid if its error code (e:error) equals 0.

Besides, measurements with a specific error code can be highlighted separately using an extra colour.
To select such a specific error code press the Error Code button and choose from the detailed error
description list any “AND”-combination of possible errors.

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Chapter 51

Motor Starting

51.1 Introduction

The chapter presents PowerFactory tools for performing motor starting simulations using the Motor
Starting command (ComMot). A Motor Starting analysis typically includes an assessment of the follow-
ing:
• Voltage sag.
• Ability of motor to be started against the load torque.
• Time required to reach nominal speed.
• Supply grid loading.
• Starting methodology (Direct Online, Star-Delta, Variable Rotor Resistance, Reactor, Auto Trans-
former).
The Motor Starting command makes use of the PowerFactory stability module by providing a pre-
configured shortcut for easy-to-use motor starting analysis. Pre-selected and pre-configured plots are
automatically created and scaled with full flexibility for user-configuration. In PowerFactory, there are
two “Simulation Types” that may be used to perform a motor starting simulation:
1. Dynamic Simulation, which will execute a time-domain motor starting simulation.
2. Static Simulation, which will execute a load flow calculation when the motors are disconnected
from the system. Then, it will execute a short-circuit calculation, using the complete method,
simultaneously with the occurrence of the motors being connected to the network. Finally, a load
flow calculation will be executed after the motors have been connected to the system.

51.2 How to define a motor

To define the starting method of a motor, a Type must first be selected. This sub-section describes how
to define a motor and (optionally) define a motor driven machine (mdm).

51.2.1 How to define a motor Type and starting methodology

A comprehensive library of low-voltage, medium-voltage, and high-voltage motor types are available
in the DIgSILENT Library. Typical motors supported are: single- and double-cage asynchronous
machines and squirrel motors.

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To define a motor Type and starting methodology for a dynamic simulation:

1. On the asynchronous machine Basic Data page, press select ( ) and then choose an existing
or define a new asynchronous machine Type. Press OK twice.
2. From the Data Manager or single line graphic, double-click the asynchronous machine to open
the element dialog.
3. Depending on whether a dynamic or static motor starting simulation is to be executed:
• For a dynamic starting simulation, navigate to the RMS-Simulation page, Advanced tab.
• For a static starting simulation, navigate to the Complete Short-Circuit page.

4. Check Use Motor Starting Method.

5. Use radio buttons to select a starting method (see below).
Directly Online
For the direct online starting method, select Directly Online.

Star-Delta
For star-delta starting:

1. Select Star-Delta.
2. For a dynamic motor starting simulation, on the RMS-Simulation page, Advanced tab:
• Select Triggered by. . . either Time or Speed.
• Enter a simulation time for the motor to switch from the star winding to the delta winding
Switch to ’D’ after, or a speed for the motor to switch from the star winding to the delta
winding Switch to ’D’ at Speed >=.
Variable Rotor Resistance
For variable rotor resistance starting:
1. Select Variable Rotor Resistance.
2. For a static motor starting simulation, on the Complete Short-Circuit page:
• Enter the Additional Rotor Resistance.
3. For a dynamic motor starting simulation, on the RMS-Simulation page, Advanced tab:
• Select Triggered by. . . either Time or Speed.
• In the Variable Rotor Resistance table, enter additional rotor resistance, and the time (or
speed) at which the rotor resistance should be added.
• For additional entries, right-click and Append or Insert rows as required. Note that a minimum
of two-points must be entered.
Reactor
For reactor starting:
1. Select Reactor.

2. For a static motor starting simulation, on the Complete Short-Circuit page:

• Enter the Rated Apparent Power and Reactance.

3. For a dynamic motor starting simulation, on the RMS-Simulation page, Advanced tab:
• Select Triggered by. . . either Time or Speed.
• Enter the Rated Apparent Power, Reactance.
• Enter the time at which the reactor should be removed Bypass after, or speed at which the
reactor should be removed Bypass at Speed >=.
Auto Transformer
For auto transformer starting:

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

1. Select Auto Transformer.

2. For a static motor starting simulation, on the Complete Short-Circuit page:
• Enter the Rated Apparent Power, Reactance, and Tap.
3. For a dynamic motor starting simulation, on the RMS-Simulation page, Advanced tab:
• Select Triggered by. . . either Time or Speed.
• Enter the Rated Apparent Power, Reactance, and Tap.
• Enter the time at which the star contactor should be released Release Star Contactor after
and the time at which the auto-transformer should be bypassed Bypass after, or the speed
at which the star contactor should be released Release Star Contactor at Speed >= and the
speed at which the auto-transformer should be bypassed Bypass at Speed >=.

51.2.2 How to define a motor driven machine

Selection of a motor driven machine model provides enhanced flexibility to define the torque-speed
characteristic of the motor. A motor driven machine can be user-defined, or selected from a range
of Compressors, Fans, and Pumps available in the DIgSILENT Library. Refer to the asynchronous
machine Technical Reference Asynchronous Machine and motor driven machine Technical Reference
for further details Motor Driven Machine.

To define a motor driven machine, in a Data Manager or on the Single Line Graphic, right-click on the
asynchronous machine and:
• For a new motor driven machine:
1. Select Define. . . → New Motor Driven (mdm) machine.
2. Select a motor driven machine element (Type 1, Type 3, or Type 5).
3. Enter the torque-speed characteristic.
• For a motor driven machine from the library:
1. Select Define. . . → Motor Driven (mdm) machine from library.
2. Select an existing motor driven machine from the project library, or global library Database
→ Library → Motor Driven Machine.

Note: Motor driven machines may also be defined for Synchronous motors by selecting the “Composite
Type Sym frame” (or creating a user-defined frame). Refer to the mdm Technical Reference for
further details: Motor Driven Machine.

51.3 How to run a Motor Starting simulation

To run a motor starting simulation:

1. Select the motor or group of motors for the motor starting simulation.
2. Right-click a selected motor and select Calculate → Motor Starting.
3. Enter the command options (see following subsections for a description of the command options).

51.3.1 Basic Options Page

51.3.1.1 Motor(s)

The motors selected for the Motor Starting command.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

51.3.1.2 Simulation Type

Select either:

• Dynamic Simulation to initiate a dynamic motor starting simulation.

• Static Simulation to initiate a static motor starting simulation.

Note: Load Flow, Initial Conditions, Run Simulation, Simulation Events, Short-Circuit and Results
Definitions objects in the active study case will be overwritten by the Motor Starting command.

51.3.1.3 Simulation Method

Either:

• If User defined simulation settings is not checked:

1. Select to run either a Balanced or Unbalanced Motor Starting simulation.
2. Enter the Simulation Time in seconds.
• If User defined simulation settings is checked:
1. Define the variables to be monitored.
2. Modify Load Flow Calculation command (ComLdf ) settings as required.
3. Modify Initial Conditions command (ComInc) settings as required. Note that motor start-
ing events are automatically created, and that previously defined events are not deleted.
Similarly, user-defined variable sets are merged with the Motor Starting command default
variables.
4. Modify Simulation command (ComSim) settings as required.

51.3.1.4 Monitoring

Click Select ( ) and select the Additional Terminals to be monitored for the Motor Starting simulation.

51.3.1.5 Check Thermal Limits of Cables and Transformers

Optionally select to Check Thermal Limits of Cables and Transformers. When this option is selected,
the feeding cables and transformers of every motor will automatically be gathered, and its thermal limit
will be checked.

The calculation of the thermal limits is performed depending on the type of simulation selected.

• Dynamic Simulation

Given the rated thermal overcurrent limit of the cable at 1 second (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟1𝑠 ), the thermal overcurrent
limit of the line at the starting time of the motor (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠 ) is calculated according to equation 51.1:

√︃
2
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟1𝑠
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠 = (51.1)
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡

Where:
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 = is the time calculated during the Motor Starting simulation.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

The calculated thermal energy (𝐼2𝑡 ) during the motor starting is defined as:

∫︁ 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑇∑︁
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡

𝐼2𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡 ≈ 𝐼 2 ∆𝑡 (51.2)
0 0

Where:
∆𝑡 = is the integration step size of the simulation.

The calculated thermal current (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 ) is then calculated as follows:

√︂
𝐼2𝑡
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = (51.3)
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡

Finally, the thermal loading is calculated as the relation between rated thermal current and calcu-
lated thermal current at starting time:

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑇 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (51.4)
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠

• Static Simulation

Given the rated thermal overcurrent limit of the cable at 1 second (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟1𝑠 ), the thermal overcurrent
limit of the line at the starting time of the motor (𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠 ) is calculated according to equation 51.5 :

√︃
2
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟1𝑠
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠 = (51.5)
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡

The starting time is the variable 𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 specified in the “Protection” page of the Asynchronous and
the Synchronous Machine dialogs.
The calculated thermal current is the positive-sequence current calculated at the motor starting

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 (51.6)

Finally, the thermal loading is calculated as the relation between rated thermal current and calcu-
lated thermal current at starting time:

𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑇 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (51.7)
𝐼𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑇 𝑠

51.3.2 Output Page

51.3.2.1 Dynamic Simulation

Report
Check Report to report results to the output window. By default, report results include voltage before
starting, minimum voltage during starting, voltage after starting, starting current and power factor,
successful start, and starting time. The user can optionally modify report Settings.

Starting Tolerance for Simplified Models

Define the Max. Speed Tolerance, the maximum deviation from nominal speed at which the motor is
considered to be successfully started. This applies only to simplified (i.e. synchronous) motors.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

51.3.2.2 Static Simulation

Report
Optionally modify report Settings and Results. Figure 51.3.1 shows an example of a Static Simulation
Report with the option “Check Thermal Limits of Cables and Transformers” selected.

Figure 51.3.1: Report Example

Starting Tolerance for Simplified Models

Define the Max. Voltage Drop at which the motor is considered to be successfully started. This applies
only to simplified models.

Simplified models are:

• All synchronous motors.
• Asynchronous motors with type Asynchronous Machine Type (TypAsmo), and without the Type
option Consider Transient Parameter (i_trans) checked.

• Asynchronous motors with any Type other than Asynchronous Machine Type (TypAsmo).
Detailed models are: Asynchronous motors with type Asynchronous Machine Type (TypAsmo), and
which have the option Consider Transient Parameter checked on the VDE/IEC Short-Circuit page or
Complete Short-Circuit page of the Type dialog. This provides a more precise result for the motor
starting time.

Display results for

Select to display results on the Single Line Graphic:

• After motor starting.

• During motor starting.
• Before motor starting.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

51.3.3 Motor Starting simulation results

51.3.3.1 Dynamic simulation results

Following a motor starting simulation, PowerFactory will automatically create a plot (VI) for each motor
showing the active power (m:Psum:bus1), reactive power (m:Qsum:bus1), current (m:I1:bus1), speed
(s:speed), mechanical and electrical torques (c:xmt and c:xmem) and voltage of the motor terminal
(m:u1). A second plot is created showing the voltage of monitored Terminals. Flexible data results
variables available following a dynamic Motor Starting simulation are found on the motor data Motor
Starting Calculation page.

The Motor Starting calculation variables are as follows:

• Terminal Pre-start Voltage, Magnitude (c:uprestart).
• Motor Start Voltage, Magnitude (c:ustart).
• Motor Post-start Voltage, Magnitude (c:upoststart).

• Starting current, Magnitude in kA (c:Istart).

• Starting current, Magnitude in p.u. (c:istart).
• Starting Power Factor (c:cosphistart).

• Successfully Started (c:started).

• Approx. Starting Time (c:Tstart).
The criterion of a successful start is as follows:
• Synchronous motors: Successful start if 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 >= 𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 −𝑇 𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, where
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 is the value of variable “s:speed”, and 𝑇 𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 is the value specified in the input
field Max. Speed Tolerance (tolspeed).
• Asynchronous motors: Successful start if 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 >= 𝑁 𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 −𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝, where 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
is the value of variable “s:speed”, and 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝 is the value of variable “t:aslkp” of the asynchronous
motor.

51.3.3.2 Static simulation results

Following a motor starting simulation, new calculation variables are available for asynchronous (El-
mAsm) and synchronous (ElmSym) motors. For the Static Simulation, these variables are found on the
Motor Starting Calculation page. Results variables are described in the preceding sub-section.

The criterion of a successful start is as follows:

• Simplified models: Successful start if Voltage During Starting >= Voltage Before Starting *(1
- Voltage Tolerance), where Voltage Before Starting is the voltage value at the terminal before
the motor is connected to the system, Voltage During Starting is the transient positive-sequence
voltage value at the terminal during the motor start, and Voltage Tolerance is the value specified
in the input field Max. Voltage Drop (tolvolt).
• Detailed models: The electrical and mechanical torque are calculated for the minimum voltage
value during the motor start up. A detailed model is considered to be successfully started up if the
mechanical torque is always smaller than the electrical torque from zero speed up the peak of the
electrical torque.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

51.3.4 Motor Starting Example

Consider the following dynamic motor starting example for a single 6.6kV asynchronous motor shown
in Figure 51.3.2.

Figure 51.3.2: Motor Starting example Single Line Graphic

The Variable Rotor Resistance starting method has been selected, with three values of time-dependent
resistance, as shown in Figure 51.3.3.

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

Figure 51.3.3: Motor starting methodology options

A dynamic, balanced Motor Starting simulation is executed and run to 10 seconds, with “Source Bus”
selected as an Additional Terminal to be monitored, as shown in Figure 51.3.4.

Figure 51.3.4: Motor starting Basic Options

Following execution of the command, PowerFactory automatically produces plots showing motor quan-
tities of interest (as described in Section 51.3.3.1) and monitored voltage results as shown in Fig-

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 51.3. HOW TO RUN A MOTOR STARTING SIMULATION

ure 51.3.5 and Figure 51.3.6.

Figure 51.3.5: Motor starting example motor results

Figure 51.3.6: Motor starting example voltage results

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 Part V

Appendix
Appendix A

Hotkeys Reference

A.1 Calculation Hotkeys

Combination Description
F10 Perform Load Flow calculation
F11 Perform Short-Circuit calculation
Ctrl + F10 Edit Load Flow calculation options
Ctrl + F11 Edit Short-Circuit calculation options
F12 Reset Calculation

Table A.1.1: Calculation Hotkeys

A.2 Graphic Windows Hotkeys

Note: Some of the hotkeys below are only available when Freeze Mode is off.

Combination Where/When Description

Single Line Graphic,
Ctrl + - Zoom out
Block Diagrams, Vi’s
Single Line Graphic,
Ctrl + + Zoom in
Block Diagrams, Vi’s
Single Line Graphic,
Ctrl + Scrolling Zoom in/out
Block Diagrams, Vi’s
Ctrl + Double- Open detailed graphic of
Busbar system
click substation
Press Mouse
Single Line Graphic, Panning, Moving the visi-
Scroll Wheel +
Block Diagrams, Vi’s ble part of the graphic
Moving
Only textboxes inside the
Alt + Area selec-
rubber band are marked,
tion
no parent objects
Textbox and Parent-
Alt + Left-click Textbox
Object are marked
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 A.2. GRAPHIC WINDOWS HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Ctrl + A All elements are marked
Single Objects from a
Ctrl + Alt + Mov-
Marked Object Busbar system can be
ing
moved
The stub length of blocks
Ctrl + Alt + Mov-
Block in block diagrams remains
ing
when shifting
Line-Routes will move to
Ctrl + Alt + Mov-
Marked Terminal the terminal, instead of
ing
terminal to the line
Symbol of the connected
Ctrl + Alt + Mov-
Marked Node branch element will not be
ing
centred
Ctrl + C Marked Element Copy Element
Single Line Graphic,
Ctrl + V Paste Element
Block Diagram
Will open the Define
Single Line Graphic,
Ctrl + L Layer dialog to create a
Block Diagrams
new layer
Multiselect elements,
Ctrl +Left-click Element all clicked elements are
marked
Inserting Loads/Gen-
Ctrl + Left-click Rotate element 90∘
erators
Inserting Busbars/Ter-
Ctrl + Left-click Rotate element 180∘
minals
Mark Element in the
Ctrl + M Element dialog
graphic
Ctrl + P Open Print Dialog
Ctrl + X Marked Element Cut
Esc Connecting Mode Interrupt the mode
Interrupt and change to
Esc Inserting Symbol
graphic cursor
Mark only the symbol of
S + Left-click Element
the element
Move only the symbol of
S + Moving Marked Element
the element
Element can only be
Shift + Moving Marked Element moved in the direction of
axes
After rotation, textbox can
Shift + Moving Marked Textbox be aligned in the direction
of axes
Change connection side
Tab Inserting Symbol
of symbol

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 A.3. DATA MANAGER HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Place symbol, press
mouse button and move
cursor in the direction
Left-click Inserting Symbol of rotation to rotate the
symbol in this direction
(depending on Ortho-
Type)
Table A.2.1: Graphic Window Hotkeys

A.3 Data Manager Hotkeys

Combination Where/When Description

Alt + F4 Close Data Manager
Open the edit dialog of
Alt + Return Right; Link
the element
Backspace Jump one directory up
Pag (arrow: up) Right Scroll a page up
Pag (arrow:
Right Scroll a page down
down)
Call the edit dialog of the
next object from the list
Ctrl + (arrow: up) Edit dialog open
and closes the current di-
alog
Call the edit dialog of the
Ctrl + (arrow: previous object from the
Edit dialog open
down) list and closes the current
dialog
Ctrl + A Right Mark all
Ctrl + B Detail-Mode Change to next tab
Marked object,
Ctrl + C Copy marked object
marked symbol
Copy the value of the
Ctrl + C Marked cell
marked cell
Change between normal
Ctrl + D
and detail mode
Ctrl + F Call the Filter dialog
Ctrl + G Right Go to line
Call the dialog Select El-
ement, in order to insert
Ctrl + I Right a new object. The object
class depends on the cur-
rent position
Ctrl + Left-click Select the object
Mark element in
Ctrl + M
diagram(s)

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 A.3. DATA MANAGER HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Change between the dis-
play of out of service and
Ctrl + O
no relevant objects for cal-
culation
Right; station, Busbar
Ctrl + Q or element with a con- Open the station graphic
nection
Right, element with Call the dialog Select Sta-
Ctrl + Q more than one con- tion, which lists all the
nection connected stations
Ctrl + R Project Activate the project
Ctrl + R Study case Activate study case
Add the grid to the study
Ctrl + R Grid
case
Insert the variant to the
current study case, if the
Ctrl + R Variant
corresponding grid is not
in the study case
Ctrl + Tab Detail-Modus Change to next tab
Insert the content of the
Ctrl + V
clipboard
Change the focus be-
Ctrl + W
tween right and left side
Marked object,
Ctrl + X Cut object
marked symbol
Jump to the last column of
End Right
the current row
Del Right, symbol Delete marked object
Delete the content of the
Del Right, cell
cell
Right; after change in
Esc Undo the change
the line
F2 Right; cell Change to edit mode
Activate/Deactivate
F4
Drag&Drop-Mode
F5 Update
F8 Right, Graphic Open the graphic
Jump to the first column of
Pos1 Right
the current row
Call the edit dialog of the
Return Right
marked object
Right; after change in
Return Confirm changes
the line
Select all the objects be-
Shift + Left-click tween the last marked ob-
ject and the clicked row
Table A.3.1: Data Manager Hotkeys

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 A.5. OUTPUT WINDOW HOTKEYS

A.4 Dialog Hotkeys

Combination Where/When Description

Ctrl + A Input field Mark the content
F1 Online help
Table A.4.1: Dialog Hotkeys

A.5 Output Window Hotkeys

Combination Where/When Description

Pag (arrow: up) Page up
Pag (arrow:
Page down
down)
Mark the content of the
Ctrl + A
output window
Ctrl + Pag (arrow:
Like Ctrl + Pos1
up)
Ctrl + Pag (arrow:
Like Ctrl + End
down)
Copy the market report to
Ctrl + C
the clipboard
Ctrl + E Open a new empty editor
Set the cursor in the last
Ctrl + End
position of the last row
Open the Search and Re-
Ctrl + F
place dialog
Ctrl + O Call the Open dialog
Ctrl + Arrow (up) Page up
Ctrl + Arrow
Page down
(down)
Set the cursor in the first
Ctrl + Pos1
position of first row
Set the cursor in the last
Ctrl + Shift + End position and marks the re-
port in between
Set the cursor in the first
Ctrl + Shift +
position and marks the re-
home
port in between
Set the cursor in the last
End
position of the row
Jump to next same word
F3 Cursor in a Word of the current searched
string
Jump to previous same
Shift + F3 Cursor in a Word word of the current
searched string

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 A.6. EDITOR HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Jump to next same word;
New searched string be-
Ctrl + F3 Cursor in a Word comes the word on which
the cursor is currently po-
sitioned
Set the cursor one line
Arrow (up)
above
Set the cursor one posi-
Arrow (right)
tion after
Set the cursor one line
Arrow (down)
below
Set the cursor one posi-
Arrow (left)
tion before
Set the cursor to the first
home
position of the row
Set the cursor one page
Shift + Pag (ar-
up and select the in be-
row: up)
tween content
Set the cursor one page
Shift + Pag (ar-
down and select the in be-
row: down)
tween content
Table A.5.1: Output Window Hotkeys

A.6 Editor Hotkeys

Combination Where/When Description

Ctrl + O Open file
Ctrl + S Save
Ctrl + P Print
Ctrl + Z Undo
Ctrl + C Copy
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + X Cut
Ctrl + A Select all
Ctrl + R Comment selected lines
Uncomment selected
Ctrl + T
lines
Set bookmark / Remove
Ctrl + F2
bookmark
Del Delete
F2 Go to next bookmark
Shift + F2 Go to previous bookmark
Jump to next same word
F3 Cursor in a word of the current searched
string

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 A.6. EDITOR HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Jump to previous same
Shift + F3 Cursor in a Word word of the current
searched string
Jump to next same word;
New searched string be-
Ctrl + F3 Cursor in a Word comes the word on which
the cursor is currently po-
sitioned
Ctrl + F Open ’Find’ dialog
Ctrl + G Open ’Go to’ dialog
Open ’Find and Replace’
Ctrl + H
dialog
Show / Hide tabs and
Ctrl + Alt + T
blanks
Open user settings dialog
Alt + Return
on Editor page
Delete character in front
Backspace
of cursor
Switch between insert
Insert
and replace mode
Arrow (right) One char right
Shift + Arrow Extend selection to next
(right) char right
Ctrl + Arrow Set cursor to beginning of
(right) next word
Ctrl + Shift + Ar- Extend selection to begin-
row (right) ning of next word
Arrow (left) One char left
Extend selection to next
Shift + Arrow (left)
char left
Set cursor to beginning of
Ctrl + Arrow (left)
previous word
Ctrl + Shift + Ar- Extend selection to begin-
row (left) ning of previous word
Arrow (down) One line down
Shift + Arrow Extend selection one line
(down) down
Arrow (up) One line up
Extend selection one line
Shift + Arrow (up)
up
Set cursor to first pos. in
home
line
Set cursor to beginning of
Ctrl + home
text
Extend selection to begin-
Shift + home
ning of line
Ctrl + Shift + Extend selection to start
home of text

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 A.6. EDITOR HOTKEYS

Combination Where/When Description

Set cursor to last pos. in
end
line
Ctrl + end Set cursor to end of text
Extend selection to end of
Shift + end
line
Extend selection to end of
Ctrl + Shift + end
text
Pag (arrow: Set cursor one page
down) down
Shift + Pag (ar- Extend selection to one
row: down) page down
Pag (arrow: up) Set cursor one page up
Shift + Pag (ar- Extend selection to one
row: up) page up
Open manual and search
F1 for word in which cursor is
placed
Cursor at a (matched) Set cursor to matching
Ctrl + M
bracket bracket
Cursor at a (matched) Extend selection to
Ctrl + Shift + M
bracket matching bracket
Alt + Arrow (up) Move selected line(s) up
Alt + Arrow Move selected line(s)
(down) down
Request Auto-completion
In DPL/QD-
Ctrl + Space for the word at the cursor
SL/Python/DSL scripts
position
Ctrl +
Zoom in (increase zoom
Mousewheel
level)
(up)
Ctrl +
Zoom out (decrease
Mousewheel
zoom level)
(down)
Ctrl + 0 Reset zoom level
Table A.6.1: Editor Hotkeys

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Appendix B

Standard Models in PowerFactory

B.1 AVR Models

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_AC7B IEEE 421.5 2005 AC7B exci- This model is an improved version of an ac
tation system alternator with either stationary or rotating
rectifiers, in which the controls have been
replaced. If a PSS control is supplied,
the Type PSS2B or PSS3B models are
appropriate.
avr_AC8B IEEE 421.5 2005 AC8B exci- This model consists of PID control, with
tation system a thorough selection of the proportional,
integral, and derivative gains to guarantee
the best performance for each particular
generator excitation system.
avr_AC8BnoPIDlimits IEEE 421.5 2005 AC8B exci- This model is similar to avr_AC8B differing
tation system only in that it includes a PID control with-
out saturation.
avr_BBSEX1 Brown-Boveri static excita- Brown-Boveri model including stabilisation
tion system feedback.
avr_BUDGET Czech proportional/integral Manufacturer-specific model with PI con-
excitation system trol.
avr_CELIN ELIN excitation system and Manufacturer-specific model which in-
PSS cludes a power system stabiliser model.
avr_CELIN no pss ELIN excitation system with- Manufacturer-specific model which does
out PSS not include a power system stabiliser
model.
avr_DC3A IEEE 421.5 2005 DC3A exci- Model used to represent old dc commu-
tation system tator exciters with non-continuously acting
regulators.
avr_EMAC1T AEP Rockport excitation sys- Modified IEEE type AC1 excitation system
tem which includes a second lead-lag block
but excludes access to the excitation sys-
tem stabiliser block output.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_ESAC1A 1992 IEEE type AC1A excita- These models are applicable for simu-
tion system lating the performance of Westinghouse
brushless excitation systems. They model
a field-controlled, alternator-rectifier exci-
tation system consisting of an alterna-
tor main exciter with non-controlled recti-
fiers. The exciter does not employ self-
excitation and the voltage regulator power
is taken from a source not affected by ex-
ternal transients. The diode characteristic
in the exciter output imposes a lower limit
of zero on the exciter output voltage.
avr_ESAC2A 1992 IEEE type AC2A excita- Models a high initial response field-
tion system controlled, alternator-rectifier excitation
system in which the alternator main ex-
citer is used with a non-controlled recti-
fier. The model includes two additional
exciter field current feedback loops simu-
lating exciter time constant compensation
and exciter field current limiting elements,
respectively. These models are applicable
for simulating the performance of West-
inghouse high initial response brushless
excitation systems.
avr_ESAC3A 1992 IEEE type AC3A excita- Models a field-controlled, alternator-
tion system rectifier excitation system, which includes
an alternator main exciter with non-
controlled rectifiers. The model includes
self-excitation and derives the voltage
regulator power from the exciter output
voltage.
avr_ESAC4A 1992 IEEE type AC4A excita- Represents an alternator-supplied recti-
tion system fier excitation system with high initial re-
sponse. The independent voltage regula-
tor used by this system is not modelled,
but transient loading effects on the exciter
alternator are included.
avr_ESAC5A 1992 IEEE type AC5A excita- This is a reduced model of a brushless
tion system excitation system where the regulator is
supplied by a permanent magnet gener-
ator. This model is intended to represent
simplified systems with rotating rectifiers.
avr_ESAC6A 1992 IEEE type AC6A excita- The model is used to represent field-
tion system controlled, alternator-rectifier excitation
systems using electronic voltage regula-
tors with system-supplied. The regulator
maximum output depends on the terminal
voltage; the model includes an exciter field
current limiter. It is particularly suitable
for representation of stationary diode sys-
tems.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_ESAC8B Basler DECS model Represents the Basler digital excitation
control system voltage regulator as ap-
plied to a brushless exciter. The automatic
voltage regulator consists of a PID con-
troller implemented in a microprocessor.
Because it uses a high processor rate, the
design is implemented as if the controller
were continuous even though it is digital.
avr_ESDC1A 1992 IEEE type DC1A exci- This model is widely used to represent
tation system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
avr_ESDC2A 1992 IEEE type DC2A exci- These models are used to represent sys-
tation system tems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
The voltage regulator’s source of supply
is the generator or auxiliary bus voltage.
As a result, the regulator output limits are
proportional to u.
avr_ESST1A 1992 IEEE type ST1A excita- Models an excitation system where the
tion system supply of power to the controlled-bridge
rectifier is provided by the generator ter-
minals through a transformer to lower the
voltage to an appropriate level.
avr_ESST2A 1992 IEEE type ST2A excita- These models of a potential source-
tion system controlled, rectifier-exciter excitation sys-
tem are intended to represent systems in
which excitation power is supplied through
a transformer from the generator termi-
nals (or the unit’s auxiliary bus) and is
regulated by a controlled rectifier. The
maximum exciter voltage available from
such systems is directly related to the
generator terminal voltage.
avr_ESST3A 1992 IEEE type ST3A excita- Some static systems utilise internal quan-
tion system tities within the generator to form the
source of excitation power. This model
represents these kinds of compound
source-controlled, rectifier-excitation sys-
tems which employ controlled rectifiers in
the exciter output circuit.
avr_ESST4B IEEE type ST4B potential This model is a variation of the ST3A
or compounded source- model, including a PI regulator block re-
controlled rectifier-exciter placing the lag-lead regulator property.
Includes potential- and compound source
rectifier excitation systems, and PI regula-
tors with non-windup limits.
avr_ESURRY Modified IEEE type AC1A ex- This is a modified version of the IEEE Type
citation system AC1A model including a second lead-lag
block. High value gate and low value gate
are neglected.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_EX2000 EX2000 excitation system Example of IEEE type AC7B alternator-
rectifier excitation system applied to ac/dc
rotating exciters.
avr_EXAC1 1981 IEEE type AC1 excita- These models are applicable for simu-
tion system lating the performance of Westinghouse
brushless excitation systems. They model
a field-controlled, alternator-rectifier exci-
tation system consisting of an alterna-
tor main exciter with non-controlled recti-
fiers. The exciter does not employ self-
excitation and the voltage regulator power
is taken from a source not affected by ex-
ternal transients. The diode characteristic
in the exciter output imposes a lower limit
of zero on the exciter output voltage.
avr_EXAC1A Modified type AC1 excitation These models are applicable for
system simulating the performance of
Westinghouse brushless excitation
systems. These model a field-controlled,
alternator-rectifier excitation system
consisting of an alternator main exciter
with non-controlled rectifiers. Self-
excitation is not applied and the voltage
regulator power source is not affected by
external transients.
avr_EXAC2 1981 IEEE type AC2 excita- These model a high initial response
tion system field-controlled, alternator-rectifier excita-
tion system in which the alternator main
exciter is used with a non-controlled rec-
tifier. The model includes two additional
exciter field current feedback loops simu-
lating exciter time-constant compensation
and exciter field current limiting elements,
respectively. These models are applicable
for simulating the performance of West-
inghouse high initial response brushless
excitation systems.
avr_EXAC3 1981 IEEE type AC3 excita- These model a field-controlled, alternator-
tion system rectifier excitation system, which includes
an alternator main exciter with non-
controlled rectifiers. The exciter employs
self-excitation and the voltage regulator
power is derived from the exciter output
voltage. Therefore, this system has an
additional non-linearity, simulated by the
use of a multiplier whose inputs are the
voltage regulator command signal and the
exciter output voltage.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_EXAC4 1981 IEEE type AC4 excita- These model an alternator-supplied, rec-
tion system tifier excitation system. This high initial
response excitation system utilises a full
thyristor bridge in the exciter output circuit,
and the voltage regulator operates directly
on these elements. The exciter alternator
uses an independent voltage regulator to
control its output voltage to a constant
value. These effects are not modelled,
but transient loading effects on the exciter
alternator are included. Exciter loading
effects can be accounted for by using
the exciter load current and commutating
reactance to modify excitation limits.
avr_EXBAS Basler static voltage regula- The model is used to represent Basler
tor feeding dc or ac rotating static voltage regulators whose output pro-
exciter vides the entire field current of a shaft-
mounted dc or ac exciter. The model
should be used mainly for separately ex-
cited exciters where the regulator is the
sole source of dc excitation to the exci-
tation field, which may be either shaft-
mounted dc or ac. The regulator power
supply of this model is an auxiliary bus fed
independently from the generator or is a
shaft-driven permanent magnet generator,
which yields an essentially constant ac
voltage.
avr_EXDC2 1981 IEEE type DC2 excita- This model is widely used to represent
tion system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
The voltage regulator’s source of supply is
the generator or auxiliary bus voltage.
avr_EXELI Static PI transformer fed ex- This model is used to represent an all-
citation system static PI, transformer-fed excitation sys-
tem. The model combines a stabiliser and
an exciter unit. A PI voltage controller
establishes a desired field current setpoint
for a proportional current controller. The
integrator of the PI controller has a follow-
up input to match its signal to the present
field current.
avr_EXELI no pss Static PI transformer fed ex- The models simplifies the PSS function
citation system included in EXELI and takes the PSS sig-
nal coming directly from the power system
stabiliser.
avr_EXNEBB Bus- or solid-fed SCR bridge In this model the excitation power is sup-
excitation type NEBB plied through a transformer from the gen-
erator terminals or the station auxiliary
bus, and is regulated by a controlled recti-
fier.
avr_EXNI Bus- or solid-fed SCR bridge Modified version of the EXNEBB model,
static exciter type NI including a negative current logic for the
bus or solid fed selection.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_EXPIC1 Proportional/Integral excita- This is recommended to model excitation
tion system systems whose voltage regulator control
element is a proportional plus integral
type. Careful choice of constants can
allow this model to be used to model a
variety of manufacturers implementation
of a PI type exciter.
avr_EXPIC1 v1 Proportional/Integral excita- Newer version of EXPIC1 recommended
tion system for modelling excitation systems whose
voltage regulator control element is a pro-
portional plus integral type. Careful choice
of constants can allow this model to be
used to model a variety of manufacturers
implementation of a PI type exciter.
avr_EXST1 1981 IEEE type ST1 excita- These models of a potential source-
tion system controlled rectifier-exciter excitation sys-
tem are intended to represent systems in
which excitation power is supplied through
a transformer from the generator termi-
nals (or the unit’s auxiliary bus) and is
regulated by a controlled rectifier. The
maximum exciter voltage available from
such systems is directly related to the
generator terminal voltage.
avr_EXST2 1981 IEEE type ST2 excita- These models of a potential source-
tion system controlled rectifier-exciter excitation sys-
tem are intended to represent systems in
which excitation power is supplied through
a transformer from the generator terminals
(or the unit’s auxiliary bus) and is regu-
lated by a controlled rectifier. The max-
imum exciter voltage available from such
systems is directly related to the generator
terminal voltage. The regulator output
is added to the compounded transformer
output.
avr_EXST2A Modified 1981 IEEE ST2 ex- These models of a potential source-
citation system controlled, rectifier-exciter excitation sys-
tem are intended to represent systems in
which excitation power is supplied through
a transformer from the generator termi-
nals (or the unit’s auxiliary bus) and is
regulated by a controlled rectifier. The
maximum exciter voltage available from
such systems is directly related to the
generator terminal voltage. The regulator
output is multiplied with the compounded
transformer output.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_EXST3 1981 IEEE type ST3 excita- Some static systems utilise internal
tion system quantities within the generator to form
the source of excitation power. Such
compound source-controlled rectifier-
excitation systems employing controlled
rectifiers in the exciter output circuit
are represented by this model. The
excitation system stabiliser for these
systems is provided by a series lag-lead
element, represented by time constants.
An inner loop field-voltage regulator is
characterised by two gains and a time
constants.
avr_IEEET1 1968 IEEE type 1 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
avr_IEEET1S Modified IEEE type 1 excita- This modified version of the T1 excita-
tion system tion system includes a voltage-dependent
maximum output limit instead of a fixed
limit.
avr_IEEET2 1968 IEEE type 2 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
avr_IEEET3 1968 IEEE type 3 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
The key parameter of this model is the
current compounding gain which speci-
fies the relative strength of the voltage
and current inputs to the excitation power
source.
avr_IEEET4 1968 IEEE type 4 excitation This model represents older excitation
system systems where the exciter is a dc machine
and the voltage regulator is one of a wide
variety of electromechanical devices.
avr_IEEET5 Modified 1981 IEEE type 4 This model represents older excitation
excitation system systems where the exciter is a dc machine
and the voltage regulator is one of a wide
variety of electromechanical devices. It
has no deadband in its slow reset path.
avr_IEEEX1 1979 IEEE type 1 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system and 1981 IEEE type systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
DC1 systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
avr_IEEEX2 1979 IEEE type 2 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
IEEEX2 takes the source used for the
excitation system stabilising feedback as
proportional to the control element output.

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 B.1. AVR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_IEEEX3 1979 IEEE type 3 excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
The key parameter of this model is the cur-
rent compounding gain, Ki, which spec-
ifies the relative strength of the voltage
and current inputs to the excitation power
source.
avr_IEEEX4 1979 IEEE type 4 excitation This model represents older excitation
system, 1981 IEEE type DC3 systems where the exciter is a dc machine
and 1992 IEEE type DC3A and the voltage regulator is one of a wide
variety of electromechanical devices.
avr_IEET1A Modified 1968 IEEE type 1 This model is widely used to represent
excitation system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
avr_IEET1B Modified 1968 IEEE type 1 Models of exciters developed for
excitation system Consolidated Edison Company units;
Ravenswood 1, 2, and 3; Poletti; and
Arthur Kill.
avr_IEET1S IEEE type 1S excitation sys- A simplified model of T1 which does not
tem include under- and over-excitation voltage
signals and saturation.
avr_IEET5A Modified 1968 IEEE type 4 This model represents older excitation
excitation system systems where the exciter is a dc machine
and the voltage regulator is one of a wide
variety of electromechanical devices.
avr_IEEX2A 1979 IEEE type 2A excitation This model is widely used to represent
system systems with shunt dc exciters as well as
systems with alternator exciters and un-
controlled shaft-mounted rectifier bridges.
IEEX2 takes the source used for the exci-
tation system stabilising feedback as pro-
portional to the exciter field current.
avr_IVOEX IVO excitation system Manufacturer-specific model.
avr_OEX12T Ontario Hydro IEEE type This adaptation of the ST1 excitation sys-
ST1 excitation system tem is used to increase the voltage at
the terminals for generators accelerating
following a fault. The maximum voltage is
limited by a special fast-acting, bang-bang
and continuous voltage limiter system.
avr_OEX3T Ontario Hydro IEEE type This is an adaptation of the ST1 excitation
ST1 excitation system system including a semi-continuous and
acting terminal voltage limiter.
avr_REXSY1 General-purpose rotating ex- Model to be used for general application in
citation system a brushless excitation system.
avr_REXSYS General-purpose rotating ex- Model to be used for general application in
citation system a brushless excitation system.

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 B.2. TURBINE-GOVERNOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

avr_SCRX Bus or solid fed SCR bridge This model can represent a rectifier bridge
excitation system system fed either from an independent
source, such as an externally supplied
plant auxiliary bus, or from a transformer
connected directly at the generator termi-
nals. SCRX distinguishes between excita-
tion rectifier systems having bidirectional
current capability and those that can carry
current only in the positive direction.
avr_SEXS Simplified excitation system This model represents no specific type
of excitation system, but rather the gen-
eral characteristics of a wide variety of
properly-tuned excitation systems. It is
particularly useful in cases where an ex-
citation system must be represented and
its detailed design is not known.
avr_ST5B IEEE 421.5 2005 ST5B exci- This excitation system is a modification
tation system of the Type ST1A model, with alternative
over-excitation and under-excitation inputs
and supplementary limits.
avr_ST6B IEEE 421.5 2005 ST6B exci- This model includes a PI voltage regulator
tation system with an inner loop field voltage regulator
and pre-control which together with the
delay in the feedback improve the dynamic
response.
avr_ST7B IEEE 421.5 2005 ST7B exci- The model represents a static potential-
tation system source excitation system which includes
a PI voltage regulator. By the addition of
a series phase lead-lag filter a derivative
function is introduced, which is typically
used with brushless excitation systems.
avr_URHIDT Excitation system High dam excitation system.
avr_URST5T Excitation system IEEE proposed type ST5B excitation sys-
tem.
Table B.1.1: DIgSILENT library standard AVR models [29]

B.2 Turbine-Governor Models

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_BBGOV1 Brown-Boveri governor Brown-Boveri governor model based on a
PI controller and includes both speed and
power feedback.
gov_BBGOV1 v1 Brown-Boveri governor Modified version of the BBGOV1 model in
which integral and proportional gain in the
PI controller are equal to Kp/Tn, and 1,
respectively.
gov_BBGOV1B Brown-Boveri governor Modified version of the BBGOV1 model in
which the controller consists of a propor-
tional gain plus a first-order delay function.

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 B.2. TURBINE-GOVERNOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_CRCMGV Cross compound turbine- Represents turbines consisting of two
governor shafts, each connected to a generator and
driven by one or more turbine sections,
although operated as a single unit.
gov_CRCMGVwd Cross compound turbine- Modified version of the CRCMGV in which
governor CRCMGV with the mechanical damping is modelled.
mechanical damping
gov_DEGOV Woodward diesel governor This is a model of an isochronous gov-
ernor for a diesel engine. This model is
based on a Woodward governor consist-
ing of an electric speed sensor, a hydro-
mechanical actuator, and the diesel en-
gine. The output of the actuator is a valve
position of the fuel supply. The use of
this model should be restricted to diesel
generators operating isolated from other
synchronous sources.
gov_DEGOV1 Woodward diesel governor This is a model of a governor for a diesel
engine where droop control is used with
either throttle or electric power feedback.
This model is based on a Woodward gov-
ernor consisting of an electric speed sen-
sor, a hydro-mechanical actuator, and the
diesel engine. The output of the actuator
is a valve position of the fuel supply. The
use of this model should be restricted to
diesel generators operating isolated from
other synchronous sources.
gov_GAST Gas turbine-governor Represents the principal dynamic charac-
teristics of industrial gas turbines driving
generators connected to electric power
systems. The model consists of a forward
path with governor time constant and a
combustion chamber time constant, to-
gether with a load-limiting feedback path.
The load limit is sensitive to turbine ex-
haust temperature, and the time constant
to represent the exhaust gas measuring
system is considered.
gov_GAST2A Gas turbine-governor This model has a more detailed repre-
sentation of gas turbine dynamics than
GAST. As with GAST, it is intended for
operation near rated speed. The speed
governor can be configured for droop or
isochronous modes of operation. The
temperature controller assumes control of
turbine power when exhaust gas tempera-
ture exceeds its rated value.
gov_GASTWD Gas turbine-governor This model has the same level of detail in
its representation of gas turbine dynamics
as does the GAST2A. The governor sys-
tem for this model is based on a Wood-
ward governor consisting of an electric
speed sensor with proportional, integral,
and derivative control.

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 B.2. TURBINE-GOVERNOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_GGOV1 General Electric turbine- General purpose turbine-governor model.
governor
gov_HYGOV Hydro turbine-governor Represents a straightforward hydro-
electric plant governor, with a simple
hydraulic representation of the penstock
with unrestricted head race and tail race,
and no surge tank.
gov_HYGOV2 Hydro turbine-governor This non-standard hydro turbine-governor
includes the same basic permanent and
temporary droop elements as HYGOV, but
includes a slightly different representation
of the lags within the governor hydraulic
servo system and of the speed signal
filtering. The penstock turbine model is
very simplified and is valid only for small
deviations of gate position from their initial
conditions.
gov_HYGOVM Hydro turbine-governor The lumped parameters hydraulic system
lumped parameter model model is designed to allow detailed rep-
resentation of the surge tank system, in-
cluding penstock dynamics, surge tank
chamber dynamics and tunnel dynamics.
gov_HYGOVMmodif Hydro turbine-governor This is a modified version of the hy-
lumped parameter model dro turbine-governor lumped parameter
model. The model has the same char-
acteristics as HYGOVM, however the im-
plementation is different and each of the
different elements is specifically identified.
gov_IEEEG1 1981 IEEE type 1 turbine- This is a generic model applicable to
governor all common steam turbine configurations.
Using the correct settings and neglecting
time constants, the model can be used
to represent a wide number of turbine
configurations.
gov_IEEEG2 1981 IEEE type 2 speed- IEEEG2 is an alternative representation of
governing model hydro turbine speed governing systems.
gov_IEEEG3 1981 IEEE type 3 speed- IEEEG3 is an alternative representation of
governing model hydro turbine speed governing systems.
gov_IEESGO 1973 IEEE standard turbine- The general-purpose turbine-governor
governor model is included for its compatibility with
other widely-used stability programs. With
careful selection of the time constants
and gains, this model yields either a good
representation of a reheat steam turbine
or an approximate representation of a
hydro plant of simple configuration.
gov_IVOGO IVO turbine-governor Manufacturer-specific model.

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 B.2. TURBINE-GOVERNOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_PIDGOV Hydro turbine-governor This hydro turbine governor model
represents hydro power plants with
straightforward penstock configurations
and three-term electro-hydraulic
governors (i.e. Woodard electronic).
The model uses a simplified turbine-
governor and penstock model that does
not account for the variation of the water
inertia effect with the gate opening.
gov_TGOV1 Steam turbine-governor This is a simple model representing gover-
nor action and the reheater time constant
effect for a steam turbine. The ratio,
T2/T3, equals the fraction of turbine power
that is developed by the high-pressure
turbine.
gov_TGOV2 Steam turbine-governor with This is a fast valving model of a steam
fast valving turbine which represents governor action,
a reheat time constant, and the effects of
fast valve closing to reduce mechanical
power.
gov_TGOV3 Modified IEEE type 1 turbine- Modified IEEE type 1 turbine-governor
governor with fast valving model with fast valving. This model recog-
nises the non-linearity between flow and
valve position.
gov_TGOV4 Modified IEEE type 1 speed- This is a model of a steam turbine and
governor with PLU and EVA boiler that represents governor action, ex-
plicit valve action for both control and
intercept valves, main, reheat and low-
pressure steam effects, and boiler effects.
Also incorporated into the model are a
power load unbalance (PLU) relay and an
early valve actuation (EVA) relay, which,
when triggered will cause fast valving of
the control or intercept valves.
gov_TGOV5 IEEE type 1 speed-governor Modified IEEE type 1 turbine-governor
modified to include boiler model with boiler control.
controls
gov_TGOV5ntd IEEE type 1 speed-governor This is a modified version of the TGOV5
modified to include boiler model; the difference being the delay on
controls the boiler control output which is not con-
sidered in this representation.
gov_TURCZT Czech hydro or steam This is a general purpose hydro and ther-
turbine-governor mal turbine-governor model. A hydro tur-
bine or steam turbine dynamic model can
be selected by setting a flag to 1 for a
steam turbine and to 0 for a hydro turbine.
Penstock dynamic is not included in the
model.
gov_TWDM1T Tail water depression hydro The hydro turbine-governor model has
governor model 1 the same basic permanent and transient
droop elements as the HYGOV model, but
additionally includes a representation of a
tail water depression protection system.

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 B.2. TURBINE-GOVERNOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_TWDM1Tdgl Tail water depression hydro In this model a different implementation
governor model 1 in the gate control loop of the TWDM1T
model is considered.
gov_TWDM2T Hydro turbine-governor The hydro turbine-governor model has
the same basic turbine/penstock elements
as the HYGOV model but additionally in-
cludes a representation for a tail water
depression protection system and uses a
governor PID controller.
gov_URGS3T WSCC gas turbine Specific gas turbine model.
gov_WEHGOV Woodward electronic hydro This model represents a Woodward Elec-
governor tronic hydro-governor with proportional,
integral, and derivative control. The tur-
bine is represented by a non-linear model
for the penstock dynamics in a similar
fashion to HYGOV, but the model includes
look-up tables to allow the user to repre-
sent non-linearities in the flow versus gate
position and mechanical power versus
flow during steady-state operation. The
model allows for the use of three feedback
signals for droop: Electrical power, Gate
position, and PID output.
gov_WESGOV Westinghouse digital gover- Represents a model of a Woodward Elec-
nor for gas turbine tronic hydro-governor with proportional,
integral, and derivative control. The tur-
bine is represented by a nonlinear model
for the penstock dynamics in a similar
fashion toas HYGOV, but the model in-
cludes look-up tables to allow the user to
represent non-linearities in the flow ver-
sus gate position and mechanical power
versus flow during steady-state operation.
The model allows for the use of three feed-
back signals for droop: Electrical power,
Gate position, and PID output.
gov_WPIDHY Woodward PID hydro gover- This model represents a Woodward PID
nor hydro governor with proportional, integral
and derivative control. This electric gov-
ernor has advantages over the hydraulic
governor with temporary droop which can
provide a faster response.
gov_WPIDHYnwu Woodward PID hydro gover- This is a modified version of the WPIDHY
nor model in which a different implementation
for the gate output limits is introduced.
gov_WSHYDD WSCC double-derivate hy- This model includes two deadbands, and
dro governor also a non-linear gate/power relationship
and a linearised turbine/penstock model.
gov_WSHYGP WSCC GP hydro governor This is a hydro turbine-governor model
plus turbine with a PID controller. The penstock
dynamics are similar to those of the
WSHYDD hydro turbine-governor model.

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 B.3. PSS MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

gov_WSIEG1 WECC modified 1981 IEEE This modified version of the generic model
type 1 turbine-governor IEEE type 1, includes speed and servo
deadband, and a more detailed valve
characteristic representation.
Table B.2.1: DIgSILENT library standard turbine-governor models

B.3 PSS Models

Model Name Full Name Description

pss_BEPSST Transient excitation boosting Manufacturer-specific model.
stabiliser
pss_IEE2ST Dual-input signal power sys- The model implements the general be-
tem stabiliser haviour of a supplementary stabiliser. It
allows two input signals to be summed
to generate a signal which is then to be
processed by the phase-lead blocks.
pss_IEEEST 1981 IEEE power system The basic function of this model is to make
stabiliser the phase of the supplementary signal
lead that of the input signal. This function
is handled by the two lead-lag blocks and
is specified by the time constants.
pss_IVOST IVO stabiliser Manufacturer-specific model.
pss_OSTB2T Ontario Hydro delta-omega Manufacturer-specific model based on
power system stabiliser shaft speed signal.
pss_OSTB5T Ontario Hydro delta-omega Manufacturer-specific model.
power system stabiliser
pss_PSS1A IEEE type PSS1A - P-Input The model represents a generalised form
power system stabiliser of a PSS with a reduced number of inputs.
pss_PSS1A_old IEEE type PSS1A - P-Input Older version of model IEEE type PSS1A.
power system stabiliser
pss_PSS2A 1992 IEEE type PSS2A dual- This model can represent a variety of
input signal stabiliser stabilisers with inputs of power, speed, or
frequency. For each of the two inputs, two
washouts can be represented along with
a transducer time constant. The indices
N and M allow a “ramp-tracking” or sim-
pler filter characteristic to be represented.
Phase compensation is provided by the
two lead-lag or lag-lead blocks.
pss_PSS2B IEEE type PSS2B - dual- Is a slight variation of the PSS2A model.
input stabiliser Two additional parameters, lag time con-
stant Ts11 and lead time constant Ts10,
are included in an additional block to
model stabilisers which incorporate a third
lead-lag function.

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 B.3. PSS MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

pss_PSS3B IEEE type PSS3B - dual- This model uses two input selectors to
input stabiliser choose the input signals which will be
used to derive an equivalent mechanical
power signal. The maximum and mini-
mum output from the controller may be
adapted with the limit parameters VST-
max and VSTmin.
pss_PSS4B IEEE type PSS4B - P-W in- Three dedicated loops for the low-,
put power system stabiliser intermediate- and high-frequency oscilla-
tions modes, are used in this delta-omega
PSS to represent a multiple frequency
band structure.
pss_PSSIEEE2B IEEE type PSS2B - dual- This model is a variation of the PSS2B
input stabiliser model. A second proportional block is
considered, adding an additional washout
coupling factor.
pss_PTIST1 PTI microprocessor-based Models the microprocessor-based power
stabiliser system stabiliser as built by PTI. It models
the inputs as derived from potential and
current transformers. The algorithms con-
vert these sampled values into a stabilis-
ing signal.
pss_PTIST3 PTI microprocessor-based This model is an extension of the PTIST1
stabiliser model for the PTI microprocessor-based
stabiliser.
pss_ST2CUT Dual-input signal power sys- The model is identical to IEE2ST except
tem stabiliser for the way in which blocking the output is
achieved. It assumes the stabiliser is ei-
ther directly wired to the exciter setpoint or
that an operator adjusts the input voltage
setpoint signal to the stabiliser.
pss_STAB1 Speed sensitive stabiliser This model is a subset of IEEEST re-
sponding to the shaft speed of its desig-
nated generator as its only input.
pss_STAB2A ASEA power sensitive sta- This model is a special representation of
biliser specific types of supplementary stabilising
units. It produces a supplementary sig-
nal by introducing phase-lead into a sig-
nal proportional to electrical power output
measured at the generator terminals.
pss_STAB3 Power sensitive stabiliser Produces a supplementary signal by in-
troducing phase-lead into a signal propor-
tional to electrical power output measured
at the generator terminals.
pss_STAB4 Power sensitive stabiliser This model is a special representation of
specific types of supplementary stabilising
units. It produces a supplementary sig-
nal by introducing phase-lead into a sig-
nal proportional to electrical power output
measured at the generator terminals.
pss_STABNI Power sensitive stabiliser This model is a simpler representation of
type NI (NVE) specific types of supplementary stabilising
units.

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 B.4. EXCITATION LIMITER MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

ssc_STBSVC WSCC supplementary signal This model provides a supplementary sig-
for static var system nal for the WSCC static var compensation
model CSVGN5. It receives one or two
signals as input; for the first signal the
user may choose electrical power, bus
frequency, or accelerating power. An
optional second signal is derived from a
remote bus voltage, vars from the SVC
into the system and the SVC current into
the system.
Table B.3.1: DIgSILENT library standard PSS models [29]

B.4 Excitation Limiter Models

Model Name Full Name Description

uel_MNLEX1 Minimum excitation limiter Minimum excitation limiters are provided
in excitation systems to increase excita-
tion voltage during high voltage to main-
tain steady-state stability.
uel_MNLEX2 Minimum excitation limiter Minimum excitation limiters are provided
in excitation systems to increase excita-
tion voltage during high voltage to main-
tain steady-state stability.
uel_MNLEX3 Minimum excitation limiter Minimum excitation limiters are provided
in excitation systems to increase excita-
tion voltage during high voltage to main-
tain steady-state stability.
uel_UEL1 Circular characteristic UEL This under excitation model prevents loss
of excitation using a circular characteristic
limit in terms of machine reactive vs. real
output power. The phasor inputs of I and V
are synchronous machine terminal output
current and voltage with both magnitude
and phase angle of these ac quantities
sensed.
uel_UEL2 Piecewise linear UEL In this model, the UEL limit has either
a straight line or multi-segment charac-
teristic represented in terms of machine
reactive vs. real power output.
oel_MAXEX1 Maximum excitation limiter This model acts through the regulator
to correct an over-excitation problem, to
protect the generator field of an ac ma-
chine with automatic excitation control
from overheating. Over-excitation can be
caused either by failure of a component
of the voltage regulator or an abnormal
system condition.

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 B.5. STATIC COMPENSATOR MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

oel_MAXEX2 Maximum excitation limiter This model allows limiting of either field
voltage or field current. Its function is
similar to MAXEX1, with the difference
being the more accurate representation of
the physics of actual maximum excitation
limiters.
Table B.4.1: DIgSILENT library standard excitation models [29]

B.5 Static Compensator Models

Model Name Full Name Description

svc_CHESVC SVC control model.
svc_CHESVC RB SVC control model.
svc_CSTATT Static compensator/con- STATCOM control model.
denser (STATCOM)
svc_CSTNCT Static compensator (STAT- This static compensator model requires
COM) the base power as an input parameter.
svc_CSTNCT noSTB Static compensator (STAT- In contrast to CSTNCT, this model rep-
COM) resentation of a static compensator does
not need the base to be defined as it is
automatically defined.
svc_CSVGN1 SCR controlled static var This model represents an SCR-controlled
source shunt reactor and a parallel connected
capacitor, if present.
svc_CSVGN3 SCR controlled static var The model is intended to control an SVC
source with TCR and fixed capacitors (no TSC)
but it can be made to control a regular
SVC with switchable capacitors. For this
model, if the voltage magnitude deviates
from nominal by “Override Voltage” per
unit, the reactor will be gated either all the
way on or off.
svc_CSVGN4 SCR controlled static var This models an SCR-controlled shunt re-
source actor and a parallel connected capacitor,
if present. This model allows the static var
source to try to regulate the voltage on a
remote bus.
svc_CSVGN5 WSCC controlled static var The features of this model include a fast
source override and remote bus voltage control.
The fast override is activated when the
voltage error exceeds a threshold value
during major disturbances, such as faults
near the SVC or switching.
svc_CSVGN6 WSCC controlled static var The features of this model include a fast
source override and remote bus voltage control.
The fast override is activated when the
voltage error exceeds a threshold value
during major disturbances, such as faults
near the SVC or switching. The controller
includes non-windup limits.

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 B.6. FRAMES FOR DYNAMIC MODELS

Model Name Full Name Description

drp_COMP Voltage regulator compen- This model compensates generator ter-
sating model minal voltage in general accordance with
𝑢𝑐 = 𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 − 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛. A positive value
of Xe causes the compensated voltage to
correspond to that at a point outside the
generator.
drp_IEEEVC IEEE standard voltage com- This model compensates the terminal volt-
pensating model age according to 𝑢𝑐 = 𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑍𝑐𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛.
The current, igen, is positive when leaving
the generator. Accordingly, positive values
of Rc and Xc in Zc (𝑅𝑐 + 𝑗𝑋𝑐) cause the
compensated voltage to appear to be the
voltage at a point inside the generator.
Table B.5.1: DIgSILENT library standard static compensator models

B.6 Frames for Dynamic Models

Frame Name Description

Cross Compound Frame HP Frame to be used for the HP turbine-generator set
including droop.
Cross Compound Frame HP no droop Frame to be used for the HP turbine-generator set
without droop.
Cross Compound Frame HP/LP Frame to be used for the HP and LP turbine-
generators set including droop.
Cross Compound Frame HP/LP 2 Frame to be used for the HP and LP turbine-
generators set including droop.
Cross Compound Frame HP/LP no droop Frame to be used for the HP and LP turbine-
generators set without droop.
Cross Compound Frame HP/LP no droop 2 Frame to be used for the HP and LP turbine-
generators set without droop.
Cross Compound Frame LP Frame to be used for the LP turbine-generator set
including droop.
Cross Compound Frame LP no droop Frame to be used for the LP turbine-generator set
without droop.
CrossCompound Frame General “Master” frame combining the Cross Compound
Frame HP and Cross Compound Frame LP.
SVS Frame Standard IEEE frame using a voltage droop.
SVS Frame_no droop Standard IEEE frame without droop.
SYM Frame Standard IEEE frame using a voltage droop as well
as under- and over-excitation limiter slots.
SYM Frame 1 Standard IEEE frame using a voltage droop as well
as under- and over-excitation limiter slots.
SYM Frame 12 Standard IEEE frame using a voltage droop as well
as under- and over-excitation limiter slots.
SYM Frame 2 Standard IEEE frame using a voltage droop as well
as under- and over-excitation limiter slots.
SYM Frame_no droop Simplified frame without droop (only VCO, PSS and
PCU slots) plus frequency measurement.

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 B.7. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS

Frame Name Description

SYM Frame_no droop 2 Simplified frame without droop (only VCO, PSS and
PCU slots) plus frequency measurement.
Table B.6.1: DIgSILENT library standard composite model frames

All available frames in the standard library work with any standard control model from the library. The
droop block/function refers to “voltage droop”, not to “frequency droop” which can be adjusted separately
in the governor model.

B.7 Typical Arrangements

In case no specific information about the controllers is available, the following typical configurations for
the most common applications may be used.

Steam Plant Model In the standard library there are several models representing steam units turbine/-
governors, all TGOVs, IEEEG1, IEEESGO, and others.
The SYM Frame_no droop can be used to model thermal power plants (no combined cycle). For
combined cycle there is no standard frame, so it has to be created from information relating to
each specific unit. If no detailed information is available, the standard thermal model IEEG1 may
be used for the governor, enabling as many stages (HP, MP and/or LP) as required; for a more
generic and simplified model, TGOV1 can be also used. The AVR for this kind of application
strongly depends on the excitation system of the machine, predominantly AC or static systems,
except for old installations, where DC systems may be still in operation.
Hydro Turbine Model The most commonly-used hydro models are the HYGOV, IEEEG3, HYG3, GP-
WSCC, and HYGOV4 models, all of which are used to represent the principal dynamic effects of
the energy source and prime mover. Static excitation systems are commonly used for modern
hydro units such as ESST1A. Any of the standard SYM Frame or SYM frame_no droop can be
used.

Internal Combustion Model A diesel or gas with synchronous generator is no different to any other
type of synchronous generator unit, only their total inertia is usually lower, and they are usually
salient pole machines. For the AVR, the ESAC8B, AC8B or EXAC1 and EXAC1A types from the
library may be used. The only diesel governor available in the standard library is the DEGOV1.

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Appendix C

ENTSO-E Dynamic Models in

PowerFactory

C.1 Excitation Models

Model Name Description

Exc_AC2A Modified IEEE AC2A alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with different field current limit.
Exc_AC3A Modified IEEE AC3A alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with different field current limit.
Exc_AC4A Modified IEEE AC4A alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with different minimum controller output.
Exc_AC5A Modified IEEE AC5A alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with different minimum controller output.
Exc_AC6A Modified IEEE AC6A alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with speed input.
Exc_AC8B Modified IEEE AC8B alternator-supplied rectifier excitation sys-
tem with speed input and input limiter.
Exc_ANS Italian excitation system. It represents static field voltage or
excitation current feedback excitation system.
Exc_AVR1 Italian excitation system corresponding to IEEE (1968) Type 1
Model. It represents exciter dynamo and electromechanical
regulator.
Exc_AVR2 Italian excitation system corresponding to IEEE (1968) Type 2
Model. It represents alternator and rotating diodes and elec-
tromechanical voltage regulators.
Exc_AVR3 Italian excitation system. It represents exciter dynamo and
electric regulator.
Exc_AVR4 Italian excitation system. It represents static exciter and electric
voltage regulator.
Exc_AVR5 Manual excitation control with field circuit resistance. This model
can be used as a very simple representation of manual voltage
control.
Exc_AVR7 IVO excitation system.

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 C.1. EXCITATION MODELS

Model Name Description

Exc_BBC Transformer fed static excitation system (static with ABB regula-
tor). This model represents a static excitation system in which a
gated thyristor bridge fed by a transformer at the main generator
terminals feeds the main generator directly.
Exc_CZ Czech proportion/integral exciter.
Exc_DC1A Modified IEEE DC1A direct current commutator exciter with
speed input and without under-excitation limiters inputs.
Exc_DC2A Modified IEEE DC2A direct current commutator exciters with
added speed multiplier, added lead-lag, and voltage-dependent
limits.
Exc_DC3A1 Modified old IEEE Type 3 excitation system.
Exc_ELIN1 Static PI transformer fed excitation system. This model repre-
sents an all-static excitation system.
Exc_ELIN2 Detailed excitation system model. This model represents an all-
static excitation system.
Exc_HU Hungarian excitation system model, with built-in voltage trans-
ducer.
Exc_IEEE_AC1A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 field-controlled alternator-
rectifier excitation systems designated Type AC1A.
Exc_IEEE_AC2A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 high initial response
field-controlled alternator-rectifier excitation system Type AC2A
model. Similar to that of Type AC1A except for the inclusion
of exciter time constant compensation and exciter field current
limiting elements.
Exc_IEEE_AC3A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 field-controlled alternator-
rectifier excitation systems designated Type AC3A model. This
model is applicable to excitation systems employing static voltage
regulators.
Exc_IEEE_AC4A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type AC4A alternator-
supplied controlled-rectifier excitation system which is quite dif-
ferent from the other type ac systems.
Exc_IEEE_AC5A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 simplified model for brush-
less excitation systems Type AC5A model.
Exc_IEEE_AC6A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 field-controlled alternator-
rectifier excitation systems Type AC6A model.
Exc_IEEE_AC7B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 excitation systems Type
AC7B model which consist of an ac alternator with either sta-
tionary or rotating rectifiers to produce the dc field requirements.
Exc_IEEE_AC8B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type AC8B model. A PID
voltage regulator with either a brushless exciter or dc exciter. The
representation of the brushless exciter is similar to the model
Type AC2A. This model can be used to represent static voltage
regulators applied to brushless excitation systems.
Exc_IEEE_DC1A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 field-controlled dc commu-
tator exciters with continuously acting voltage regulators Type
DC1A model.
Exc_IEEE_DC2A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 field-controlled dc commu-
tator exciters with continuously acting voltage regulators Type
DC2A model. It differs from the Type DC1A model only in the
voltage regulator output limits, which are now proportional to
terminal voltage.

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 C.1. EXCITATION MODELS

Model Name Description

Exc_IEEE_DC3A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type DC3A model. This
model represents older systems, in particular those dc commu-
tator exciters with non-continuously acting regulators that were
commonly used before the development of the continuously
acting varieties.
Exc_IEEE_DC4B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type DC4B model. These
excitation systems utilise a field-controlled dc commutator exciter
with a continuously acting voltage regulator having supplies
obtained from the generator or auxiliary bus.
Exc_IEEE_ST1A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST1A model. This
model represents systems in which excitation power is supplied
through a transformer from the generator terminals (or the units
auxiliary bus) and is regulated by a controlled rectifier. The
maximum exciter voltage available from such systems is directly
related to the generator terminal voltage.
Exc_IEEE_ST2A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST2A model.
Exc_IEEE_ST3A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST3A model.
Exc_IEEE_ST4B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST4B model. This
model is a variation of the Type ST3A model, with a proportional
plus integral (PI) regulator block replacing the lag-lead regulator
characteristic that is in the ST3A model.
Exc_IEEE_ST5B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST5B model. This
excitation system is a variation of the Type ST1A model, with
alternative over-excitation and under-excitation inputs and addi-
tional limits.
Exc_IEEE_ST6B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST6B model.
Exc_IEEE_ST7B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type ST7B model. This
model is representative of static potential-source excitation sys-
tems.
Exc_OEX3T Modified IEEE Type ST1 excitation system with semi-continuous
and acting terminal voltage limiter.
Exc_PIC Proportional/integral regulator excitation system model. This
model can be used to represent excitation systems with a
proportional-integral (PI) voltage regulator controller.
Exc_SCRX Simple excitation system model representing generic charac-
teristics of many excitation systems; intended for use where
negative field current may be a problem.
Exc_SEXS General purpose rotating excitation system model. This model
can be used to represent a wide range of excitation systems
whose DC power source is an AC or DC generator.
Exc_ST1A Modification of an old IEEE ST1A static excitation system without
over-excitation limiter and under-excitation limiter.
Exc_ST2A Modified IEEE ST2A static excitation system with additional lead-
lag block.
Exc_ST3A Modified IEEE ST3A static excitation system with added speed
multiplier.
Exc_ST4B Modified IEEE ST4B static excitation system with maximum inner
loop feedback gain.
Exc_ST6B Modified IEEE ST6B static excitation system with PID controller
and optional inner feedbacks loop.

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Model Name Description

Exc_ST7B Modified IEEE ST7B static excitation system without stator cur-
rent limiter and current compensator inputs.
Exc_REXS General purpose rotating excitation system model. This model
can be used to represent a wide range of excitation systems
whose DC power source is an AC or DC generator.
Exc_SK Slovakian excitation system model. UEL and secondary voltage
control are included in this model. When this model is used, there
cannot be a separate under-excitation limiter or VAr controller
model.
Table C.1.1: ENTSO-E standard excitation models

C.2 Governor Models

Model Name Description

Gov_CT1 General model for any prime mover with a PID governor, used
primarily for combustion turbine and combined cycle units.
Note: The implementation model uses minstepsize function,
since as specified by ENTSO-E working group the model is
dependent on the step size.
Gov_CT2 General governor model with frequency-dependent fuel flow limit.
This model is a modification of the Gov_CT1 model in order to
represent the frequency-dependent fuel flow limit of a specific
gas turbine manufacturer.
Note: The implementation model uses minstepsize function,
since as specified by ENTSO-E working group the model is
dependent on the step size.
Gov_GAST Single shaft gas turbine.
Gov_GAST1 Modified single shaft gas turbine.
Gov_GAST2 Gas turbine model.
Gov_GAST3 Generic turbogas with acceleration and temperature controller.
Gov_GAST4 Generic turbogas.
Gov_GASTWD Woodward gas turbine governor model.
Gov_Hydro1 Basic hydro turbine governor model.
Gov_Hydro2 IEEE hydro turbine governor model represents plants with
straightforward penstock configurations and hydraulic-dashpot
governors.
Gov_Hydro3 Modified IEEE hydro governor-turbine model. This model differs
from that defined in the IEEE modelling guideline paper in that
the limits on gate position and velocity do not permit wind up of
the upstream signals.
Gov_Hydro4 Hydro turbine and governor. Represents plants with straight-
forward penstock configurations and hydraulic governors of tradi-
tional dashpot type. This model can be used to represent simple,
Francis, Pelton or Kaplan turbines.
Gov_HydroDD Double derivative hydro governor and turbine.
Gov_HydroFrancis Detailed hydro unit - Francis model. This model can be used to
represent three types of governors.

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 C.3. POWER SYSTEM STABILISER MODELS

Model Name Description

Gov_HydroIEEE_0 IEEE simplified hydro governor-turbine model. Used for
mechanical-hydraulic and electro-hydraulic turbine governors,
with or without steam feedback.
Gov_HydroIEEE_2 IEEE hydro turbine governor model represents plants with
straightforward penstock configurations and hydraulic-dashpot
governors.
Gov_HydroPelton Detailed hydro unit - Pelton model. This model can be used
to represent the dynamic related to water tunnel and surge
chamber.
Gov_HydroPID PID governor and turbine.
Gov_HydroPID2 Hydro turbine and governor. Represents plants with straight-
forward penstock configurations and three term electro-hydraulic
governors.
Gov_HydroR Fourth order lead-lag governor and hydro turbine.
Gov_Steam0 A simplified steam turbine governor model.
Gov_Steam1 Steam turbine governor model, based on the Gov_SteamIEEE_1
model (with optional deadband and nonlinear valve gain added).
Gov_Steam2 Simplified governor model.
Gov_SteamEU Simplified model of boiler and steam turbine with PID governor.
Gov_SteamFV2 Steam turbine governor with reheat time constants and modelling
of the effects of fast valve closing to reduce mechanical power.
Gov_SteamIEEE_1 IEEE steam turbine governor model.
Gov_SteamSGO Simplified steam turbine governor model.
Gov_Hydro_WEH Woodward electric hydro governor model.
Table C.2.1: ENTSO-E standard governor models

C.3 Power System Stabiliser Models

Model Name Description

Pss_ELIN2 Power system stabiliser typically associated with Exc_ELIN2.
Pss_IEEE_1A Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type PSS1A power system
stabiliser model. PSS1A is the generalised form of a PSS with a
single input.
Pss_IEEE_2B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type PSS2B power system
stabiliser model. This stabiliser model is designed to represent a
variety of dual-input stabilisers, which normally use combinations
of power and speed or frequency to derive the stabilising signal.
Pss_IEEE_3B Represents the IEEE Std 421.5-2005 Type PSS3B power system
stabiliser model. The PSS model PSS3B has dual inputs of
electrical power and rotor angular frequency deviation. The
signals are used to derive an equivalent mechanical power
signal.
Pss_PSS1 Italian PSS.
Pss_PSS1A Single input power system stabiliser. It is a modified version in
order to allow representation of various vendors implementations
on PSS Type 1A.

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 C.5. OVER-EXCITATION LIMITER MODELS

Model Name Description

Pss_PSS2B Modified IEEE PSS2B model. Extra lead/lag (or rate) block
added at end.
Pss_PSS2ST PTI microprocessor-based stabiliser Type 1.
Pss_PSS5 Italian PSS - detailed PSS.
Pss_PSSSB4 Power sensitive stabiliser model.
Pss_PSSSH Model for Siemens “H infinity” power system stabiliser with
generator electrical power input.
Pss_PSSSK Slovakian power stabiliser type.
Table C.3.1: ENTSO-E standard PSS models

C.4 Voltage Compensator Models

Model Name Description

Vcmp_IEEE_1 Represents the terminal voltage transducer and the load com-
pensator as defined in the IEEE Std 421.5-2005. This model is
common to all excitation system models described in the IEEE
Standard.
Vcmp_IEEE_2 Represents the terminal voltage transducer and the load com-
pensator as defined in the IEEE Std 421.5-2005. This model is
designed to cover reactive droop, transformer-drop or line-drop
and cross-current compensation.
Table C.4.1: ENTSO-E standard voltage compensator models

C.5 Over-Excitation Limiter Models

Model Name Description

Oel_OEL2 Different from LimIEEEOEL, this model has a fixed pickup thresh-
old and reduces the excitation set-point by mean of non-windup
integral regulator.
Oel_X1 Field voltage over-excitation limiter.
Oel_X2 Field Voltage or Current over-excitation limiter designed to protect
the generator field of an AC machine with automatic excitation
control from overheating due to prolonged over-excitation.
Table C.5.1: ENTSO-E standard over-excitation limiter models

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 C.7. FRAMES FOR ENTSO-E DYNAMIC MODELS

C.6 Under-Excitation Limiter Models

Model Name Description

Uel_IEEE1 Represents the Type UEL1 model which has a circular limit
boundary when plotted in terms of machine reactive power vs.
real power output.
Uel_IEEE2 The class represents the Type UEL2 which has either a straight-
line or multi-segment characteristic when plotted in terms of
machine reactive power output vs. real power output.
Uel_X1 Represents the Allis-Chalmers minimum excitation limiter.
Table C.6.1: ENTSO-E standard under-excitation limiter models

C.7 Frames for ENTSO-E Dynamic Models

Frame Name Description

Standard Synchronous Machine Standard interconnection synchronous machine.
Table C.7.1: ENTSO-E composite model frames

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Appendix D

The DIgSILENT Output Language

When more than just the variable name, value and unit has to be displayed, if the use colours is
preferred, or other special formats, the DIgSILENT Output Language can be used.

By selecting the Format Editor input mode, the editor is activated (see Figure D.0.1).

Figure D.0.1: The Form text editor

Almost all textual output that is produced in PowerFactory, is defined by a report form. The use of report
forms range from the simple and small result forms that specify the contents of the single line result
boxes to large and complex forms that are used to print out complete system reports.

In all cases, the text in the editor field of a IntForm object specifies the report that is to be generated. For
result boxes, that text is normally created automatically in the IntForm dialog by selecting “Predefined
Variables”, or any other set of variables, and some extra’s such as the number of decimals and if an unit

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 D.1. FORMAT STRING, VARIABLE NAMES AND TEXT LINES

or name should be shown. These options will automatically create a report form. That automatic form
is normally used as it is, but it may be altered manually. This is shown in Figure D.0.1, where report
format is changed such that the variable name of the loading factor is deleted and replaced by the fixed
text ’ld’, because the variable name “loading” is felt too long compared with the names of the other two
variables (“P” and “Q”). The shown format will produce result boxes like

P 12.34 MW
Q 4.84 Mvar
ld 103.56 %

Defining single line result boxes only asks for a basic understanding of the DIgSILENT output language.
For more complex reports, many different variables from all kinds of objects have to be printed as
listings or tables. Such a report would require macro handling, container loops, selection of parameters,
headers, footers, titles, colours, etc. The DIgSILENT output language offers all this, and more.

The basic syntax, which is primary used for defining result boxes is given in the following overview.

Format string, Variable names and text Lines

Placeholders
Variables, Units and Names
Colour
Advanced Syntax Elements
Line Types and Page Breaks
Predefined Text Macros
Object Iterations, Loops, Filters and Includes

D.1 Format string, Variable names and text Lines

A standard line consists of three parts (see Figure D.1.1):

1. A format string, containing placeholders, macros and/or user defined text.

2. An ’end of line’ character like ’$N’, ’$E’ or ’$F’
3. Variable names, separated by commas, which are used to fill in the placeholders.

Figure D.1.1: Basic parts of the report format

The format string is normally much longer.

D.2 Placeholders

A placeholder for strings like variable names or whole numbers is a single ’#’-sign. For real numbers,
the placeholder consists of
• a single ’#’ for the integer part
• a point or comma
• one or more ’#’-signs for the fractional part

The number of ’#’-signs after the decimal point/comma defines the number of decimals. The ’#’-sign
itself can be included in user-defined text by typing ’\#’.

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 D.3. VARIABLES, UNITS AND NAMES

D.3 Variables, Units and Names

The variable name can be used to display the name of the variable, its value or its unit. The possible
formats are (’xxx’ = name of variable):

xxxreturns the value

%xxxreturns the long variable name, as used in the edit dialogs
&xxxreturns the short variable name, as used in the database browser
[xxxreturns the unit
xxxthe object dependent name of the variable (default name)
"%width.precision,xxx"
uses special formatting.

The special formatting %width.precision is explained by the following examples:

• "%.60,TITLE:sub1z" outputs TITLE:sub1z 60 column width, left aligned.

• "@:"%1.0,s:nt" inserts s:nt as an integer at the placeholder’s position

• ""%1.3,s:nt" writes s:nt with 3 digits precision at the placeholder’s position

The centring code | may be used in front of the formatting code for centring at the placeholder, for
example "|%.60,TITLE:sub1z".

The insertion code is used to switch to insert mode, for example,

|#|$N,:loc_name
will output
|aElmSym|.

The cformat string may be used to alternatively reserve place for a value or text. A cformat of ’%10.3’
will reserve 10 characters for a number with 3 decimals. The first number can be omitted for text: ’%.6’
will reserve 6 characters for the text field. The cformat syntax allows for centring text by adding the
’|’-sign to the ’%’-sign:

’|%.10’ will reserve 10 characters and will centre the text.

Free, language dependent text can be defined by use of the format

{E|a text;G|ein Text}. This will produce ’a text’ when the user has selected the English language (see
the user settings dialog), and ’ein Text’ when the language has been chosen to be German.

Special commands for access of Elements

OBJECT(cls)

Gets Element of class cls. Used to access a variable name or unit without actually accessing
such an object. Used in header lines.

argument
cls (obligatory): The name of the class
example:
[OBJECT(ElmTerm):m:Skss

writes the unit of the busbar variable Skss

EDGE

Gets an arbitrary object with at least one connection, i.e. a Load, a Line, etc. Used to access a
variable name or unit without actually accessing such an object.

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 D.3. VARIABLES, UNITS AND NAMES

example:
%EDGE:m:U1:bus1

writes description of the variable U1

CUBIC(idx)

Returns the cubicle (StaCubic) at bus index idx of branch

argument
idx: index of branch, the currently set bus index is used when idx<0

example:
CUBIC(0):e:loc_name

returns name of cubicle at busindex 0

TITLE

Gets the title that is set in the output command (ComSh or ComDocu)

example:
TITLE:e:annex

writes annex of title

VARIANT

Gets the active variant in which the current object is stored

example:
VARIANT:e:loc_name

writes the name of the variant

NET

Gets the grid in which the current object is stored

example:
NET:e:loc_name

writes the name of the grid

CMD

Returns the last calculation command, i.e. a Short-Circuit (ComShc), Load-flow (ComLdf ),...

example:
CMD:pabs

writes the short-circuit position on the line after calculation of a short-circuit.

CASE

Returns the currently active calculation case

example:
CASE:e:loc_name

writes the name of the active calculation case

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 D.4. COLOUR

DEF

Returns the default object. The default object depends on the currently processed output.

example:
DEF:e:loc_name

writes the name of the default object

STALNE

Returns the station if the current object is a busbar. Returns a line if the current object is a
terminal between line routes. Otherwise, nothing is returned, and the entry will be ignored.

example:
STALNE:e:locname

writes the name of the line or station.

RES

Returns the currently active results object (ElmRes) used by simulation, harmonics or other
calculation modules

example:
RES:e:desc

writes the first line of the description of the results object

D.4 Colour

A line can be set to another colour by adding a ’_LCOL(c)’ command directly after the ’$N,’ marker. This
will colour the whole line according to the colour number c.

𝑎 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑖 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝑏 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑗 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑢𝑥
𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑔 𝑐𝑦𝑎𝑛 𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒
ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑝 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒

Table D.4.1: Colour Codes

A single item can be coloured by using the ’_COLOR(Variable name; color code)’.

D.5 Advanced Syntax Elements

The advanced syntax is mainly used for writing forms for larger and more complex reports. An example
is a short-circuit result form, which lists all the short-circuit parameters for all busbars and for each
busbar for all connected elements.

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 D.6. LINE TYPES AND PAGE BREAKS

D.6 Line Types and Page Breaks

The character ’$’ ends a format line. A line without this ending will be interpreted as a normal ’$N’ line
type. The following line type are available:

’$N’ Normal line

’$H’ Header on the top of each page
’$F’ Footer on the bottom of each page
’$T’ Title line, only appears on top of the first page
’$C’ Comment line (not used for output)
’$R’ Marker that make that the line will only be used when the specified results are valid

The line type ’$H’, ’$F’ and ’$T’ will be treated as normal (’$N’) line types when used inside a loop
command. Line type codes may be made language dependent by adding a ’E’, for English lines or a ’G’
for German lines, i.e. ’$HG’ specifies a German header line.

A report format must at least contain one normal ($N) line.

The following commands are used for page and line controls. They can only be used directly behind the
line type codes ’$N’, ’$F’ or ’$H’.

_PAGEBREAK Forces a page break after the current line

_AVAILBREAK Enables page breaking after the current line (default)
_NOBREAK Disables page breaking directly after the current line

_LCOL(c) Disables page breaking directly after the current line

_OBJ(ClsNam) The current line will only be used for objects from the class “ClsNam”.
_BUS(inum) The current line will only be used for objects which connect to exactly inum nodes

_FIRST The current line will only be used when the loop index is 0 (first passage)
_NFIRST The current line will only be used when the loop index is not 0 (all but the first passages)
_IF(boolean expression) The current line will only be written when the expression is true. Example:
_IF(m:u:bus1>0.95)

_IFNOT(boolean expression) The current line will only be written when the expression is false. Ex-
ample: \IF(m:u:bus1<0.95)

Example:
| #.## # #.## # #.## |$R,_NOBREAK, ..

D.7 Predefined Text Macros

The following macros will produce specific names or other texts.

_DATE(c) present date: c=’e’ give the English format, c=’g’ the German one.

_TIME present time

_VERSION version number of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software.
_BUILD build number of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software.
_VERBUILD combines _VERSION and _BUILD

_ORDER order title, if a title has been defined previously

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 D.8. OBJECT ITERATIONS, LOOPS, FILTERS AND INCLUDES

_CLASS class name of the object

_LINE current line number in page

_ALLLINE current line number in report

_PAGE current page number
_LOCALBUS name of the local busbar
_CALC(c) name of last performed calculation. c=1 returns a long description.

_SHORT short object name

_FSHORT short name of parent object
_CLS class name without the ’Elm’, ’Sta’, ’Typ’, etc. part.

_ANNEX the annex number

_NGB neighbourhood depth
_TEXT(E | text;G | Text) language dependent text (E=English, G=German)

D.8 Object Iterations, Loops, Filters and Includes

To create a report that creates a table with the voltages for all busbars, command are needed to filter the
busbar objects and to create a loop that outputs a line of text for each busbar. A loop or filter command
consists of the following parts:

• the keyword "$LOOP" or "$CLOOP"

• the filter or loop name

• the format text
• the keyword "$END"

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Appendix E

Element Symbol Definition

E.1 Introduction

The symbols used in the graphic windows of PowerFactory are defined by the so called ’Symbol’ objects
(IntSym). DIgSILENT provides a complete set of symbols to represent any of the defined network
components; additionally the users have the possibility to define their own symbols and use them in the
graphical windows of their projects.

In the proceeding sections the variables used to define symbol objects are presented.

E.2 General Symbol Definition

The general definitions of the symbols are given in the General page of the object’s dialog.

Symbol Description
The description of a symbol is shown in the list of symbols when Show Layer. . . is used and a
symbol has to be selected on the page Configuration.

Object Type
Class name of the element which shall be represented.
Type of Representation
Branch or node object

ID
The icon ID of the icons from the graphic toolbar. If this value is set the symbol will be used when
a new element is inserted. In case of ’0’ the symbol will not be used as default.
Width/Height
The width and height is defines the range of the fang. The marking of an element in the graphic
makes this range visible.
Visible
Visibility of the symbol
Mirror
Defines if the symbol can be mirror (right mouse button entry)
Allow Moving
Allows moving in graphic

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 E.3. GEOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION

Show Connection Attributes

Shows the square (resulting state of composite switches) at the end of connection lines
Insertion Reference
Defines the insertion point of an element (e.g. rectangular terminal = 4 → top left).The following
matrix describes the relation between the insertion points and the insertion numbers:
432
501
678

Additional Attributes
Only used for elements whose representation shall be able to alter via specific changes of the
element parameters (e.g. shunts, couplers)
Connection Points
Defines the position on the symbol where the connection lines start. The number of connection
points is defined by the number of lines unequal (-9999,-9999). The points should be located on
the grid, i.e. they should be a multiple of 4.375 (mm)
Contents
Containing objects of type SetVitxt defining the layout of the text boxes. The names must be
unique. Labels beginning with “Label. . . ” and result boxes beginning with “Res. . . ”. The name of
symbol must also be part of the name of the SetVitxt.

E.3 Geometrical Description

The geometrical description of the symbol is given in the Geometry page of the dialog. The geometry
can be specified by means of geometrical primitives in the ’Geometrical Components and Attributes’
field.

Circle (C,iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts,rMx,rMy,rPx,rPy)
Defines a Circle by the centre (rMx, rMy) and a point on the edge (rPx,rPy). Parameter nPts must
be 2.

Arc (A,iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts,rMx,rMy,rPx1,rPy1,rPx2,rPy2)
Defines an arc by the centre (rMx,rMy) and 2 points (rPx1,rPy1) (rPx2,rPy2) on the edge, drawn
clockwise. nPts must be set to 3.
Polyline (L, iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,iRot,nPts,rPx,rPy)
Defines an open polygonal line with nPts points. rPx andrPy are the coordinates of peg points.
iRot can be defined as:
n → rotated along with the rotation angle of the symbol
y → only rotated downwards and to the right (used in symbols)
Polygon (G, iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts {,rPx,rPy})
Defines a closed polygonal line with nPts points. rPx and rPy are coordinates of peg points

Text (T, iColor,iRsz,iFont,iAlign,rHeight,iOri,iRot,sString,rPx,rPy)

Defines a text with the following attributes:

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 E.3. GEOMETRICAL DESCRIPTION

iFont font number ( > 0)

iAlign insertion point (0 = left top, 2 = center)
rHeight height ( > 0 )
iOri orientation ( 0 = horizontal , 1 = vertical )
iRot rotate text with object ( 0 = no, 1 = yes, 2 =
vert./horiz.,3 = only to the bottom and right, – used
in symbols only –)
sString text (max. 80 characters)
rPx,rPy coordinates of insertion point
iRsz resize_Mode (0=not possible, 1=shift only, 2=keep
ratio,3=any (RS_NONE,RS_SHIFTONLY,RS_-
KEEPXY, RS_FREE)

All geometrical elements have the following attributes in common:

iStyle (Line style)

1 = normal line
2 = dotted
3 = dashed
4 = dotted and dashed
rWidth (Line widht in mm ( > 0))

iFill (Fill style)

0 = not filled
1 = filled 100%
2 = horiz. stripes
3 = vertical stripes
4 = horizontal and vertical stripes
5 = diagonal from left bottom to right top
6 = diagonal from right bottom to left top
7 = diagonal grid of stripes
8 = filled 25%
9 = filled 50%10 = filled 75%
iColor (Colour)
-1 = colour of object
0 = white
1 = black
2 = bright red
3 = bright blue
4 = bright green
5 = yellow
6 = cyan
7 = magenta
8 = dark grey
9 = grey
10 = red
11 = dark rot
12 = dark green
13 = green
14 = dark blue
15 = blue
16 = white
17 = bright grey
Resize mode
0 = not resizable
1 = shift only

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 E.4. INCLUDING GRAPHIC FILES AS SYMBOLS

2 = keep ratio
3 = resizable in any direction
iSB
No. of area (1..32, can only be used if set in source code, e.g. vector groups
iLay
No. of graphic layer
iSN
Connection number (0..4)
iIP
Object is used for calculation of intersections (=1 only for node objects)
xOff, yOff
Offset used when object is inserted (optional)

E.4 Including Graphic Files as Symbols

Graphic files in WMF and bitmap format can be selected as “Symbol File”. The definitions of the
geometrical primitives are not used if a “Symbol File” is defined.The picture will be adapted to the
size of symbol in the single line diagram. After selection of a WMF file in the top entry field for the
Symbol File (not rotated) a button Create all other files appears which allows to create automatically
WMF files in the same folder with a rotation of 90, 180 and 270 degrees. Additionally pictures for open
devices with the same angles can be entered in the bottom lines.

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Appendix F

Standard Functions DPL and DSL

These functions are present in both DPL and DSL, click on the link to go to the corresponding chapter.

• Models for Dynamic Simulations (DSL)

• Scripting (DPL)

Function Description Example

sin(x) sine sin(1.2)=0.93203
cos(x) cosine cos(1.2)=0.36236
tan(x) tangent tan(1.2)=2.57215
asin(x) arcsine asin(0.93203)=1.2
acos(x) arccosine acos(0.36236)=1.2
atan(x) arctangent atan(2.57215)=1.2
atan2(x,y) arctangent atan2(-2.57215,-1)=-1.9416
sinh(x) hyperbolic sine sinh(1.5708)=2.3013
cosh(x) hyperbolic cosine cosh(1.5708)=2.5092
tanh(x) hyperbolic tangent tanh(0.7616)=1.0000
exp(x) exponential value exp(1.0)=2.718281
ln(x) natural logarithm ln(2.718281)=1.0
log(x) log10 log(100)=2
sqrt(x) square root sqrt(9.5)=3.0822
sqr(x) power of 2 sqr(3.0822)=9.5
pow (x,y) power of y pow(2.5, 3.4)=22.5422
abs(x) absolute value abs(-2.34)=2.34
min(x,y) smaller value min(6.4, 1.5)=1.5
max(x,y) larger value max(6.4, 1.5)=6.4
modulo(x,y) remainder of x/y modulo(15.6,3.4)=2
trunc(x) integral part trunc(-4.58823)=-4.0000
frac(x) fractional part frac(-4.58823)=-0.58823
round(x) closest integer round(1.65)=2.000
ceil(x) smallest larger integer ceil(1.15)=2.000
floor(x) largest smaller integer floor(1.78)=1.000

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 1248

 Function Description Example
time() current simulation time time()=0.1234
pi() 3.141592... pi()=3.141592...
twopi() 6.283185... twopi()=6.283185...
e() 2,718281... e()=2,718281...

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 1249

Bibliography

[1] IEEE std. c37.010 IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis, 1979.
[2] IEEE std. c37.5 IEEE Guide for calculation of Fault Currents for Application of AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Total Current Basis, 1979.

[3] IEEE std. 242. IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and
Comercial Power Systems. Buff Book, 1986.
[4] IEEE std. c37.13 IEEE Standard for Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures, 1990.
[5] IEEE std. 946. IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of DC Auxiliary Power Systems for
Generating Stations, 1992.

[6] IEEE std. 141. IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Power
Plants. Red Book, 1993.
[7] IEC 1000-3-6 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 3: Limits - Section 6: Assessment of
emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power systems - Basic EMC publication, 1996.

[8] IEC 61660-1 Short-circuit currents in d.c. auxiliary installations in power plants and substations -
part 1: Calculation of short-circuit currents, 1997.
[9] IEC 61363-1 Electrical installations of ships and mobile and fixed offshore units - Part 1:
Procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c., 1998.

[10] IEC 60076-5 Power transformers - Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit, 200.
[11] IEC 1000-4-15 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 4: Testing and measurement tech-
niques - Section 15: Flickemeter - Functional and desing specifications, 2003.
[12] D-A-CH-CZ Technical Rules for the Assessment of Network Disturbances, 2007.

[13] BDEW Technical Guideline for Generating Plants Connected to the Medium Voltage Network,
2008.
[14] IEC 61400-21 Wind turbines - Part 21: Measurement and assessment of power quality character-
istics of grid connected wind turbines, 2008.
[15] VDE Power generation systems connected to the low-voltage distribution network, 2011.

[16] D-A-CH-CZ Technical Rules for the Assessment of Network Disturbances - Extension Document,
2012.
[17] BDEW Technical Guideline for Generating Plants Connected to the Medium Voltage Network - 4th
Supplement, 2013.

[18] IEC 60909 Short-circuit currents in three-phase A.C. systems, 2016.

[19] VDE-AR-N 4105 G connected to the low-voltage distribution network - Technical requirements for
the connection to and parallel operation with low-voltage distribution networks, 2018.

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 1250

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[20] VDE-AR-N 4110 Technical requirements for the connection and operation of customer installations
to the medium voltage network (tar medium voltage), 2018.
[21] H. Cramér. Mathematical Methods of Statistics (PMS-9), volume 9. Princeton university press,
2016.
[22] DGUV. Thermische Gefährdung durch Störlichtbögen Hilfe bei der Auswahl der persönlichen
Schutzausrüstung. september 2020.
[23] General Electric. GE Industrial Power Systems Data Book. General Electric, 1956.

[24] IEEE. IEEE 1584-2002. Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations.
[25] IEEE. IEEE 1584-2018. Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations.
[26] J. E. Kolassa. Series approximation methods in statistics, volume 88. Springer Science & Business
Media, 2006.

[27] R. L.Heinhold. Kabel und Leitungen für Starkstrom. Pirelli Kabel und Systeme GmbH & Co, 2005.
[28] NFPA. NFPA 70E. Standard for Electrical Safety. Requirements for Employee Workplaces. 2012
Edition.
[29] IEEE Power Engineering Society. Recommended practice for excitation system models for power
system stability studies (421.5 - 2005), 2005.

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 1251

Glossary

Appliance A specific physical, installed, power system component: a specific generator, transformer,
busbar, etc. Example: a piece of NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable, 12.4 metres long. .

Base Case A Base Case is considered to be the basic power system design, from which one or more
alternative designs may be created and analysed. When working with system stages, the Base
Case is considered to be the highest level in a tree of hierarchical system stage designs. .
Block Definition A block definition is a mathematical model which may be used in other block defini-
tions or in a composite model. Examples are all default controllers (i.e. VCO’s, PSS’s, MDM’s),
and all additional user-defined DSL models. A block definition is called “primitive” when it is
directly written in DSL, or “complex” when it is build from other block definitions, by drawing a
block diagram. .
Block Diagram A block diagram is a graphical representation of a DSL model, i.e. a voltage controller,
a motor driven machine model or a water turbine model. Block diagrams combine DSL primitive
elements and block definitions created by drawing other block diagram. The block models thus
created may (again) be used in other block diagrams or to create a Composite Frame. See also:
DSL primitive, Composite Frame .
Branch Element An element connected to two or more nodes, examples being lines, switches and
transformers. See also nodes, edge elements. .

Branch Element (ElmBranch) Not to be confused with the generic term branch element, the Elm-
Branch object is a composite two-port element which can contain a number of lines, terminals etc.
.
Busbars Busbars are particular representations of nodes. Busbars are housed in a Station folder and
several busbars may be part of a station. .

Class A class is a template for an element, type or other kind of objects like controller block diagrams,
object filters, calculation settings, etc. Examples:
• The ’TypLne’ class is the type model for all lines and cables
• The ’ElmLne’ class is an element model for a specific line or cable
• The ’ComLdf’ class is a load-flow command
• The ’EvtSwitch’ class is an event for a switch to open or close during simulation
.
Composite Model A composite model is a specific combination of mathematical models.These models
may be power system elements such as synchronous generators, or block definitions, such as
voltage controllers, primary mover models or power system stabilisers.
Composite models may be used to create new objects, such as protection devices, to ’dress-up’
power system elements such as synchronous machines with controllers, prime movers models,
etc., or for the identification of model parameters on the basis of measurements.
See also: Frame, Slot .

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 Glossary

Cubicle A cubicle is the connection point between a edge element and a node (represented by a
busbar or terminal). It may be visualised as a bay in a switch yard or a panel in a switchgear
board. Elements such as CT’s, protection equipment, breakers and so forth, are housed in the
cubicle, as one would expect to find in reality. .

DAQ Abbreviation for “Data Acquisition”. .

Device A certain kind of physical power system components: certain synchronous machines, two-
winding transformers, busbars, or other kinds of equipment. Example: a NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm
cable. .
DGS Abbreviation for “DIgSILENT Interface for Geographical Information Systems”. .

DOLE Abbreviation for “DIgSILENT Object Language for Data Exchange”. DOLE was used in previous
PowerFactory versions, but replaced by DGS meanwhile. Now, use DGS instead, please.
The DOLE import uses a header line with the parameter name. This header must have the
following structure:
• The first header must be the class name of the listed objects.
• The following headers must state a correct parameter name.
.
DPL Abbreviation for “DIgSILENT Programming Language”. For further information, refer to Section 23.1
(The DIgSILENT Programming Language - DPL). .
Drag & Drop “Drag & Drop” is a method for moving an object by left clicking it and subsequently moving
the mouse while holding the mouse button down (“dragging”). Releasing the mouse button when
the new location is reached is called “dropping”. This will move the object to the new location. .
DSL Abbreviation for “DIgSILENT Simulation Language”. For further information, refer to Section 30.4
(The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL)). .

DSL Primitive A DSL primitive is the same as a primitive block definition. A DSL primitive is written
directly in DSL without the use of a block diagram.
Examples are PID controllers, time lags, simple signal filters, integrators, limiters, etc. DSL
primitives are normally used to build more complex block definitions.
See also: Block Definition, Block Diagram .

Edge Elements An element connected to a node or to more than one node. Includes single-port
elements such as loads, and multi-port elements such as transformers. See also nodes, branch
elements. .

Element A mathematical model for specific appliances. Most element models only hold the appliance-
specific data while the more general type-specific data comes from a type-reference. Example: a
model of a piece of NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable, 12.4 metres long, named “FC 1023.ElmLne”. .
Expansion Stage An Expansion Stage is part of a network Variation, which includes all changes that
apply to the network at a specific activation time.
See also: Variation .

Frame A frame is a special block diagram which defines a new stand-alone model, mostly without in-
or outputs. A frame is principally a circuit in which one or more slots are connected to each other.
A frame is used to create composite models by filling the slots with appropriate objects. The frame
thus acts as template for a specific kind of composite models.
See also: Block Diagram, Composite Model, Slot .

Graphic Board Window The graphics board window is a multi document window which contains one
or more graphical pages. These pages may be single line diagrams, plots, block diagrams etc.
The graphics board shows page tabs when more than one page is present. These tabs may be
used to change the visible page or to change the page order by drag&drop on the page tab.
See also: Plot, Block Diagram, Page Tab, Drag&Drop .

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 Glossary

Grid A Grid is a collection of power system elements which are all stored in one so-called “Grid Folder”
in the database. Normally, a grid forms a logical part of a power system design, like a the MV
distribution system in a province, or the HV transport system in a state. .

Node The mathematical or generic description for what are commonly known as busbars in the elec-
trical world. In PowerFactory nodes may be represented by “Busbars” or “Terminals” of various
kinds. These are treated in the same manner in mathematical terms but treated slightly differently
in the database. As far as possible the user should use terminals as Busbars can be somewhat
inflexible. See also Busbars, Edge Elements, Branch Elements. .

Object An object is a specific item stored in the database. Examples are specific type or element
models which have been edited to model specific devices or appliances. Examples: the element
“FC 1023.ElmLne”, the type “NKBA_4x35.TypLne”, the load-flow command “3Phase.ComLdf” .
Operation Scenario An Operation Scenario defines a certain operation point of the system under
analysis, such as different generation dispatch, low or high load, etc. Operation Scenarios are
stored inside the Operation Scenarios folder. .

Page Tab Page tabs are small indexes at the edge (mostly on the top or bottom) of a multi-page window.
The tabs show the titles of the pages. Left-clicking the page tab opens the corresponding page.
Page tabs are used in object dialogs, which often have different pages for different calculation
functions, and in the Graphics Board Window, when more than one graphical page is present. .
Plot A plot is a graphical representation of calculation results. It may be a line or bar graph, a gauge, a
vector diagram, etc. A plot gets its values from a results object.
See also: Results Object. .
Project All power system definitions and calculations are stored and activated in a project. The project
folder therefore is a basic folder in the user’s database tree. All grids that make out the power
system design, with all design variants, study cases, commands, results, etc. are stored together
in a single project folder. .

Results Object A results object keeps one or more lists of parameters which are to be monitored during
a calculation. Results objects are used for building calculation result reports and for defining a
virtual instrument.
See also: Plot .

Slot A slot is a place-holder for a block definition in a composite frame. A composite model is created
from a composite frame by filling one or more slots with an appropriate object.
See also: Block Definition, Frame, Composite Model .
Study Case A study case is a folder which stores a list of references or shortcuts to grid or system
stage folders. These folders are (de)activated when the calculation case folder is (de)activated.
Elements in the grid folders that are referenced by the study case form the ’calculation target’
for all calculation functions. Elements in all other, non-active, grid folders are not considered for
calculation.
Besides the list of active folders, the calculation case also stores all calculations commands,
results, events, and other objects which are, or have been, used to analyse the active power
system.
See also: Grid, System Stage .
System Stage System Stages were used in previous PowerFactory versions and have been replaced
by Variations including Expansion Stages with PowerFactory Version 14.
A System Stage is an alternative design or variation for a particular grid. A system stage is
stored in a system stage folder, which keeps track of all differences from the design in the higher
hierarchical level. The highest level is formed by the base grid folder. It is possible to have system
stages of system stages.
See also: Grid, Base Case, Variation, Expansion Stage .

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 Glossary

Type A mathematical model for devices: general models for two-winding transformers, two-winding
transformers, busbars, etc. A type model only contains the non-specific data valid for whole
groups of power system elements. Example: a NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable type, named
“NKBA_4x35.TypLne”
See also: System Stage, Grid .

Variation A Variation defines an expansion plan composed of one or more expansion stages which
are chronologically activated. Variations, like all other network data, are stored inside the Network
Data folder.
See also: Expansion Stage .

DIgSILENT PowerFactory 2021, User Manual 1255

 ABOUT DIGSILENT
DIgSILENT was founded in 1985 and is a fully
­independent and privately owned company located in
Gomaringen close to Stuttgart, Germany. DIgSILENT Our Power System Monitoring PFM300 p­ roduct
continued expansion by establishing offices in Australia, line features grid and plant super­vision, fault ­
South Africa, Italy, Chile, Spain, France, the USA and recording, and power quality and grid charac-
Oman, thereby facilitating improved service following the teristics analysis. The Grid Code ­Compliance
world-wide increase in usage of its software products ­Monitoring PFM300-GCC system also offers
and services. DIgSILENT has established a strong partner compliance auditing of power plants with
network in many countries such as Mexico, Malaysia, respect to grid code requirements. This monitor-
UK, Switzerland, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, China and India. ing and non-compliance detection provides the
DIgSILENT services and software installations are used in complete transparency and assurance required
more than 150 countries. by both plant operators and utilities.

The DIN EN ISO/IEC 17025 accredited DIgSILENT

Test Laboratory for NAR Conformity carries out
DIgSILENT produces the leading integrated measurements in accordance with FGW TR3 on
power system analysis software PowerFactory, the operational type 1 generation plant (directly
which covers the full range of functionality from coupled synchronous machines). These measure­
standard features to highly sophisticated and ments are carried out in accordance with the
advanced applications including wind power, “individual verification procedure” as required
distributed generation, real-time simulation by the German grid connection guidelines VDE-
and performance monitoring for system test- AR-N 4110/20/30. DIgSILENT has many years of
ing and supervision. For various applications, international expertise in the field of generation
­PowerFactory has become the power industry’s and consumption/load systems testing. The
de-facto standard tool, due to PowerFactory in-house developed and produced measuring
models and algorithms providing unrivalled systems enable the testing laboratory to offer
accuracy and p­ erformance. customised measuring solutions for a wide range
of power plants and applications.

StationWare is a central asset management

system for primary and secondary equipment. DIgSILENT GmbH is staffed with experts of
In addition to handling locations and devices in ­various disciplines relevant for performing
a user-definable hierarchy, the system allows ­consulting services, research activities, user
­manufacturer-independent protection settings training, educational programs and software
to be stored and managed in line with customer-­ development. Highly specialised expertise is
specific workflows. It facilitates the management available in many fields of electrical engine­er-
of a wide variety of business processes within a ing applicable to liberalised power markets and
company and centralises the storage of docu- to the latest developments in power ­generation
ments. StationWare can be integrated seamlessly technologies such as wind power and distribut-
into an existing IT environment and the inter- ed generation. DIgSILENT has provided expert
face with PowerFactory enables the transfer of consulting services to several prominent PV and
­calculation-relevant data for p­ rotection studies. wind grid integration studies.
SERVING MORE THAN 150 COUNTRIES

DIgSILENT customers
DIgSILENT offices
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For more information, visit

www.digsilent.de
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