Page 1 of

19
Unit-1 introduction to computer networks

Definition of a Computer Network

 Definition: A system of interconnected computing devices enabling resource and information sharing.

 Media: Connections can be wired or wireless.

Features of a Computer Network

1. Sharing: Enables file, software, hardware, and computing resource sharing.

2. Speed: Comparable to a centralized system for fast communication.

3. Scalability: Networks grow dynamically to accommodate future demands.

4. Integration: Ensures seamless operation across components.

5. Security: Allows restricted sharing via access rights.

6. Cost-effectiveness: Reduces deployment costs by leveraging shared resources.

Classification of Computer Networks

1. Geographical Span:

o From local connections (e.g., Bluetooth devices) to global networks (e.g., the Internet).

2. Inter-Connectivity:

o Types include mesh, bus, linear, star, and hybrid structures.

3. Administration:

o Private: Restricted to a specific domain.

o Public: Accessible by everyone.

4. Architecture:

o Client-Server: Centralized servers serving multiple clients.

o Peer-to-Peer: Equal devices exchanging data.

o Hybrid: Combines client-server and peer-to-peer models.

Applications of Computer Networks

1. Resource Sharing:

o Printers, storage devices, and computing power.

o Example: Load sharing to reduce execution time.

2. Information Sharing:

o Through emails, FTP, web browsers, or dynamic websites.

3. Communication:

o Includes messaging, IP telephony, and video conferencing.

4. Parallel Computing:
1/
19
 Page 2 of
19
o Distributed tasks across multiple systems.

5. Interactive Entertainment:

o Online gaming, video-on-demand, and live participation in events.

Uses of Computer Networks

1. Simultaneous Access:

o Multiple users can work on shared files (e.g., sales documents).

2. High Reliability:

o Data stored redundantly to ensure availability during failures.

3. Cost Reduction:

o Cheaper than mainframes while offering better cost-to-performance ratios.

4. Communication Medium:

o Facilitates collaboration among geographically distant users.

Benefits for Individuals

1. Remote Information Access:

o Online shopping, e-banking, and accessing diverse topics like health, science, and recreation.

2. Person-to-Person Communication:

o Includes emails, teleconferencing, and video conferencing.

3. Worldwide Newsgroups:

o Platforms to post and exchange information.

4. Interactive Entertainment:

o Multiplayer games, on-demand videos, and live TV interaction.

Computer Network Types

Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can
be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as
large as the internet itself, covering the whole geographical world,

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This
may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has
connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and
mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

2/
19
 Page 3 of
19

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up
to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative
system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an
organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in
LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.The resources
such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among
computers

3/
19
 Page 4 of
19

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains
local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates
on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own
local domain and controlled centrally.

LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed
LAN technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

Explore our latest online courses and learn new skills at your own pace. Enroll and
become a certified expert to boost your career.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable
TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to
expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect
all of its offices in a city.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/computer_network_types.htm 4/
19
 Page 5 of
19

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or
internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests,the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span
across provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are
Wide Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they
are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network
equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame
Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple
administration.

5/
19
 Page 6 of
19

Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is
the largest network in existence on this planet.The internet hugely connects
all WANs and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet
uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day,
Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address
spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of

information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video
streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.

Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect

various continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine
communication cable.

Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked
pages and is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a
user requests a page using some web browser located on some Web Server
anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page.
The communication delay is very low.

Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life.

Some of them are:

Web sites E-

mail

Instant Messaging

Blogging Social

Media Marketing

Networking

Resource Sharing

Audio and Video Streaming

Let us go through various LAN technologies in brief:

6/
19
 Page 7 of
19

Ethernet:
Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology.This technology was invented by Bob Metcalfe and
D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.

Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has high probability of data collision.
Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technology to detect
collisions. On the occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll back, wait for some random
amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.

Ethernet connector is,network interface card equipped with 48-bits MAC address. This helps other
Ethernet devices to identify and communicate with remote devices in Ethernet.

Traditional Ethernet uses 10BASE-T specifications.The number 10 depicts 10MBPS speed, BASE
stands for baseband, and T stands for Thick Ethernet. 10BASE-T Ethernet provides transmission
speed up to 10MBPS and uses coaxial cable or Cat-5 twisted pair cable with RJ-45 connector.
Ethernet follows star topology with segment length up to 100 meters. All devices are connected to a
hub/switch in a star fashion.

Fast-Ethernet:

To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware technologies, Ethernet extends itself as
Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP, Optical Fiber, and wirelessly too. It can provide speed up to 100
MBPS. This standard is named as 100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5 twisted pair cable. It uses
CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the Ethernet hosts and CSMA/CA (CA stands for
Collision Avoidance) technique for wireless Ethernet LAN.

Fast Ethernet on fiber is defined under 100BASE-FX standard which provides speed up to 100 MBPS
on fiber. Ethernet over fiber can be extended up to 100 meters in half-duplex mode and can reach
maximum of 2000 meters in full-duplex over multimode fibers.

Giga-Ethernet:

After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its high speed status only for 3 years till
Giga-Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet provides speed up to 1000 mbits/seconds. IEEE802.3ab
standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables. IEEE802.3ah defines Giga-
Ethernet over Fiber.

Virtual LAN

LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media in Ethernet create one single
Broadcast domain and one single Collision domain. Introduction of switches to Ethernet has removed
single collision domain issue and each device connected to switch works in its separate collision
domain. But even Switches cannot divide a network into separate Broadcast domains.

Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into multiple Broadcast domains. Host in
one VLAN cannot speak to a host in another. By default, all hosts are placed into the same VLAN.

7/
19
 Page 8 of
19

In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes. Hosts in one VLAN, even if
connected on the same Switch cannot see or speak to other hosts in different VLANs. VLAN is Layer-2
technology which works closely on Ethernet. To route packets between two different VLANs a Layer-3
device such as Router is required.

Computer Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

Point-to-Point

Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices. But
the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected
directly.

Bus Topology

8/
19
 Page 9 of
19

In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses
CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple
forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the
shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as
soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

Star Topology

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-
point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub
device can be any of the following:

 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge

 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other
hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub.Star topology is
not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.

9/
19
 Page 10 of
19

Ring Topology

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every connection in the ring is a point of
failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has hosts in point-
to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point
connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point
links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

10/
19
 Page 11 of
19

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network.
Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.

 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

How Does a Mesh Network Work?

A mesh network consists of interconnected nodes (devices) that collaboratively manage data
transmission and connectivity. Below is a breakdown:

1. Primary Node and WAN Connection:

o The primary node connects to the internet via a WAN network, typically through a
modem.

o Other nodes connect to the primary node and to each other, forming a mesh
structure.

2. Power Source for Nodes:

o Nodes should be connected to a reliable power source to ensure the network's

functionality continues even if one node fails.

3. Applications:

o Ideal for large homes or areas with poor Wi-Fi signals.

o Useful in public monitoring systems and other applications requiring reliable

communication.

o Removes "dead zones" by utilizing multiple nodes for seamless connectivity.

4. Scalability:

o Traditional routers are sufficient for smaller setups.

o For larger areas, mesh networks with multiple radios in nodes provide a cost-
effective solution.

Types of Mesh Networks

1. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) Mesh Network:

o Description: Nodes communicate wirelessly, eliminating the need for cables.

o Limitation: Radio range restrictions.

o Data Forwarding: Nodes relay data over long distances by passing it through other
nodes.

2. Wired Mesh Network:

o Description: Nodes are connected via cables (e.g., Ethernet).

11/
19
 Page 12 of
19

o Requirements: Ethernet ports and devices like outdoor routers.

o Use Case: Reliable and consistent connection without relying on wireless signals.

3. Full Mesh Topology Network:

o Description: Every node is directly connected to all other nodes.

o Advantage: Provides maximum redundancy and reliability.

o Use Case: Suitable for environments requiring robust data transmission.

4. Partial Mesh Network:

o Description: Not all nodes are directly connected; only critical nodes form direct
links.

o Advantage: Scalable and capable of handling large data transmissions.

o Use Case: Cost-effective solution for expanding networks.

5. Hybrid Mesh Network:

o Description: Combines wired and wireless mesh networks.

o Advantage: Flexible setup, leveraging the benefits of both wired and wireless
connections.

o Use Case: Versatile deployment in mixed environments.

6. Infrastructure Mesh Architecture Network:

o Description: Optimized for high-performance computing, focusing on low-latency

operations.

o Advantage: No centralized server required.

o Use Case: Ideal for high-performance tasks with minimal delays.

7. Client Mesh Architecture Network:

o Description: Nodes function as both data transmitters and receivers, passing packets
along the network.

o Use Case: Efficiently supports distributed data transmission.

Advantages of Mesh Network

 A single device failure won’t cause the network to collapse.

 Since each computer has a dedicated point-to-point link, there are no traffic issues.

 It is simple to identify a fault.

 This topology offers a great deal of redundancy and various routes to success at the target.

 It offers excellent security and privacy.

 Data transmission is more reliable since its procedures are not interrupted by failure.

12/
19
 Page 13 of
19

 Data transmissions won’t be hampered by the addition of new devices.

 Strong qualities in this topology allow it to win in any circumstance.

 There is no central authority in a mesh.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

 Less Cost Efficient: As compared to other networks the mesh network is less cost effective. It
costs more as the devices are interconnected in the networks.

 Overhead Installation: In the mesh network there are various nodes, and each node or
device is connected to the other node in the same network. So due to this, the paths or
shouts become more in the initial phase. The installation becomes complex and extremely
difficult for the administrator.

 Difficult Maintenance: Maintenance as compared to other networks is challenging in mesh

networks, as there are various nodes. And each node is connected to another node with
various parts. So due to this, the maintenance of each path becomes complex.

 Power Requirement: The needle power requirement is slightly higher in this mesh network
because all the nodes which are connected in the structure remain active all the time and
share the data .

Client Mesh Architecture Network

Definition:
In a client mesh architecture network, nodes act as both clients and data transmission points. Each
node communicates with other nodes directly, forming a decentralized structure that enables
seamless data sharing across the network.

Key Features:

1. Node-to-Node Communication:

o Nodes transmit data packets to each other, ensuring connectivity without requiring a
centralized server.

2. Decentralized Design:

o Unlike traditional client-server systems, there’s no single point of control. Each node
serves as both a client and a router.

3. Scalability:

o New nodes can be added easily, extending the network’s coverage.

4. Self-Healing:

o If one node fails, data is rerouted through other nodes, maintaining the network’s
functionality.

5. Distributed Data Handling:

13/
19
 Page 14 of
19

o Reduces latency as nodes can directly exchange data without routing it through a
central hub.

Applications:

 Public Wi-Fi Networks: Used in cities to ensure wide area coverage without relying on
centralized servers.

 Disaster Recovery: Maintains communication when centralized systems fail.

 IoT Devices: Enables direct communication between devices in smart homes and industries.

Advantages:

 High reliability due to distributed design.

 Cost-effective as no central server is required.

 Easy to expand and maintain.

Disadvantages:

 Limited by the processing power and range of individual nodes.

 May face latency issues in large-scale setups with many nodes.

Computer Network Models

Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip level
engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole networking
concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some particular task and is
independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these
layers. Layers share data between them and they depend on each other only to take input and send
output.

Layered Tasks

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small tasks.
Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the task
only. Every layer does only specific work.

In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be done by its
peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by layer at the lowest
level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the-top most layer, it is passed on to the layer
below it for further processing. The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes
on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower most layer, then the reverse path is taken.

14/
19
 Page 15 of
19

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute its
piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and tail.

OSI Model

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model is
established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:

 Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user.
This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.

 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host should
be presented in the native format of host.

15/
19
 Page 16 of
19

 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example, once
user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session for a while and
does not ask for authentication again in that time span.

 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.

 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing
hosts in a network.

 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line.
Link errors are detected at this layer.

 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output, pulse rate etc.

Internet Model

Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet Model which
contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication model but Internet Model is
what the internet uses for all its communication.The internet is independent of its underlying
network architecture so is its Model. This model has the following layers:

 Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the
network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major protocol at
this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data delivered between
hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.

 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host addressing
and recognition. This layer defines routing.

 Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data.Unlike its OSI
Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying network architecture and
hardware.

1. Expanded Summary of TCP/IP Configuration and Concepts

1. Key TCP/IP Configuration Requirements

To successfully configure TCP/IP on a Windows computer, ensure the following:

16/
19
 Page 17 of
19

o IP Address: A unique identifier for a device within a network.

o Subnet Mask: Separates the network and host portions of an IP address, essential
for subnetting.

o Default Gateway: Facilitates communication between the local subnet and other
remote networks.

2. IP Address Structure

An IP address is a 32-bit binary number typically expressed in dotted-decimal format (e.g.,

192.168.123.132). It includes:

o Network Address: Identifies the network to which the device belongs.

o Host Address: Uniquely identifies a device within the network.

Binary Representation:
The IP address 192.168.123.132 converts to binary as:
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100

3. Subnet Mask

The subnet mask determines the network and host portions of an IP address.

o Example: A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 translates to:

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 in binary.

 Network Address: First 24 bits (e.g., 192.168.123.0).

 Host Address: Remaining bits (e.g., 0.0.0.132).

Other Common Subnet Masks:

o 255.255.255.192 → Creates subnets with 62 usable host addresses each.

o 255.255.255.224 → Allows subnets with 30 usable host addresses.

4. Network Classes

IP addresses are categorized into classes, each suited for different network sizes:

o Class A:

 Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0.

 Range: 0-127 (e.g., 10.52.36.11).

 Supports up to 16,777,214 hosts per network.

o Class B:

 Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0.

 Range: 128-191 (e.g., 172.16.52.63).

 Supports up to 65,534 hosts per network.

o Class C:

17/
19
 Page 18 of
19

 Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0.

 Range: 192-223 (e.g., 192.168.123.132).

 Supports up to 254 hosts per network.

5. Subnetting

Subnetting helps optimize IP address utilization and enhances network organization by splitting large
networks into smaller segments.

Subnetting Example:

o Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192

o Outcome: Divides a Class C network (192.168.123.0) into four subnets:

 Subnet 1: 192.168.123.0 → 192.168.123.63

 Subnet 2: 192.168.123.64 → 192.168.123.127

 Subnet 3: 192.168.123.128 → 192.168.123.191

 Subnet 4: 192.168.123.192 → 192.168.123.255

Each subnet has 62 usable host addresses, excluding the network and broadcast addresses.

6. Default Gateway

The default gateway is a router that connects a local subnet to other networks, ensuring packet
delivery beyond the local network.

Routing Process:

o If the destination IP belongs to the same subnet, the packet is delivered directly.

o If the destination IP is on a different subnet, the packet is forwarded to the default

gateway.

7. Troubleshooting TCP/IP Configuration Errors

Common issues and solutions:

16. Incorrect Subnet Mask:

 Symptom: Devices fail to communicate with nearby subnets.

 Solution: Correct the subnet mask to match the intended network

configuration.

17. Incorrect IP Address:

 Symptom: Devices on different subnets fail to communicate locally.

 Solution: Ensure all devices on the same physical network share the same
subnet.

18. Incorrect Default Gateway:

 Symptom: Communication with remote networks fails.

18/
19
 Page 19 of
19

 Solution: Assign the correct router address as the default gateway.

8. Advanced Topics

o CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

Enables flexible subnetting by removing fixed class restrictions. Example: /24
denotes a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.

o NAT (Network Address Translation):

Allows multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address for
Internet access.

o IPv6 Transition:
IPv6 addresses provide a vastly larger address space compared to IPv4, solving the
issue of IP exhaustion.

Understanding and correctly configuring TCP/IP parameters ensures efficient network

communication and minimizes connectivity issues. Proper planning of IP addressing, subnetting, and
gateway assignments is key to maintaining a scalable and reliable network.

19/
19