Wireless Networks Unit 11

Unit 11 Wireless Modulation Techniques

Structure:
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Concept of Modulation
11.3 Wireless Modulation Techniques
Analog Modulation Techniques
Digital Modulation Techniques
11.4 Air Interface
Characteristics
11.5 Path Loss Models
11.6 Multiple Access Techniques
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
11.7 Summary
11.8 Terminal Questions
11.9 Answers

11.1 Introduction
In the previous we have discussed about waveform coding and different
types of waveform coding techniques. and also you learnt about vocoder
concept This unit will help you to learn about wireless modulation
techniques, wireless coding techniques, air interface during transmission,
path loss model and Multiple Access Techniques
Modulation is a process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission. Modulation converts information so that it
can be successfully sent through a medium like radio waves, wires etc. A
device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that
performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator. A
device that can do both operations is a modem (modulator–demodulator).
To make the concepts of modulation more effective we use different
techniques of modulation. In this unit we will discuss two types of techniques
of modulation analog modulation and digital modulation. You will also learn
about multiple access techniques.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 169

Wireless Networks Unit 11

During transmission the modulated signal comes across various interfaces

and hence there will be a loss in signal strength, in this unit you will learn
about these concepts.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the concepts of modulation
 identify the various techniques of modulation
 explain air interface
 describe path loss models
 explain various Multiple Access Techniques

11.2 Concept of Modulation

Modulation converts the message signal frequency to one that is suitable for
transmission. It is formally defined as the process by which some
characteristic of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with an information-
bearing signal. In this context, the information-bearing signal is referred to
as the modulating signal, and the output of the modulation process is
referred to as the modulated signal. Modulation is utilized to send an
information bearing signal over long distances. The device that performs the
modulation process in the transmitter is referred to as a modulator.

Modulator
Input Output
(Modulating) Modulator Modulated

Signal m(t) Signal s(t)

Sinusoidal Carrier

Figure 11.1: Block Diagram of Modulator

Figure 11.1 shows the block diagram of a modulator supplied with a

sinusoidal carrier. The modulating signal, acting as input, is denoted by m(t).
The modulated signal, acting as output is denoted by s(t).The input-output
relation of the modulator is governed by the manner in which the output s(t)
depends on the input m(t).
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 170
Wireless Networks Unit 11

We can identify the three benefits of modulation in wireless communication

system.
1. Modulation is used to move the shadowy content of a message signal so
that it lies inside the operating frequency band of the wireless
communication channel.
2. Modulation provides a mechanism for placing the information content of
a message signal into a form that may be less visible for noise or
interfaces.
3. It permits the use of multiple-access techniques.
Modulation process is said to be linear if the input-output relation of the
modulator satisfies the principle of superposition. According to superposition
principle, the modulation process should satisfy the following two conditions:
1. The output of the modulator that has been produced by a number of
inputs applied concurrently is equal to the sum of the outputs that result
when the inputs are applied one at a time.
2. If we want to scale the input of modulator by a certain factor, then the
output should also be scaled by exactly the same factor.
The modulation process will be nonlinear process if the superposition
principles are fully or partially dishonoured.so linearity and nonlinearity or
modulation process is very important in each term. Likewise modulation
techniques are also very important aspect that we are going to discuss in
section 11.3.
Self Assessment Questions
1. ____________ converts the message signal frequency to one that is
suitable for transmission.
2. Modulation process is said to be linear if the input-output relation of the
modulator satisfies the principle of ____________.
3. The modulation process will be _________ if the superposition
principles are fully or partially dishonoured.

11.3 Wireless Modulation Techniques

Now a day’s wireless company are working hard to lower the cost of
operating and systems. Re-evaluation of modulation schemes is one
successful approach to meeting these goals. In a wireless system, the
effectiveness of the modulation process defines the exactness of the data

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 171

Wireless Networks Unit 11

coming from the receiver. Therefore most of the efforts are giving to the
selection of an appropriate modulation technique during the design and
development of wireless data systems.
Basically there are two types of modulation techniques:
1. Analog modulation technique
2. Digital modulation technique
Different types of analog and digital modulation techniques are shown in fig
11.2.

Modulation
Techniques

Analog Digital
Modulation Modulation
Technique Technique

Amplitude Angle PSK

Modulation ASK PSK
Modulation

FM PM

Figure 11.2 Types of modulation technique

In analog and digital format, modulation technique can be used to convert

the data into electromagnetic waves so that data can be sent over a
wireless channel and operate by altering certain properties of a radio waves,
known as the carrier wave, which has the frequency of the wireless channel
used for communication.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 172

Wireless Networks Unit 11

Figure 11.3: Carrier Waves

11.3.1 Analog modulation technique

The analog modulation is the process to move an information-bearing
analog waveform onto a carrier for transmission. The purpose of analog
modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or low pass) signal, for
example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band pass channel,
for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.
We can further divide analog modulation in to two parts
1) Amplitude modulation (AM), in which the voltage applied to the carrier
is varied over time. The basic principle of amplitude modulation is to take
voice frequencies, and mix or modulate them with a radio frequency signal
so that they are converted to radio frequencies which will radiate or
propagate through free space. Mathematically AM is expressed by the
following equation
S(t) = (1 +m(t))cos(2πft)
Where s(t) is modulation signal
m(t) is analog information signal
f is the frequency of the carrier wave and c(t) = cos(2πft) is the carrier wave.
2) Angle modulation (AM) variation in the angle of a sine-wave carrier;
particular forms are phase modulation and frequency modulation. Also
known as sinusoidal angular modulation. We can divide angle modulation
into 2 parts. (i) Phase (ii) Frequency
(i) Phase modulation (PM) is a form of angle modulation is a type of
electronic modulation in which the phase of a carrier wave is varied in order
to transmit the information contained in the signal. It is a form of modulation
that represents information as variations in the instantaneous phase of a
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 173
Wireless Networks Unit 11

carrier wave. PM is not very widely used. This is because it tends to require
more complex receiving hardware and there can be ambiguity problems with
determining whether.
(ii) Frequency modulation (FM) is also a form of angle modulation in which
the frequency of the carrier waveform is varied in small but meaningful
amounts.
In FM the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in such a way that the
change in frequency at any instant is proportional to another signal that
varies with time. Its principal application is also in radio, where it offers
increased noise immunity and decreased distortion over the AM
transmissions at the expense of greatly increased bandwidth.
FM can be expressed mathematically as
S(t) = A (cos2πf + ∫1m(t)dt)
Where A is the amplitude of the carrier wave c (t), f is the frequency and x (t)
is the analog information signal.

11.3.2 Digital modulation technique

Digital modulation is the process to convert an information-bearing discrete-
time symbol sequence into a continuous-time waveform. The purpose of
digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog band pass
channel, for example over the public switched telephone network, or over a
limited radio frequency band.
In the case where the modulating signal may vary its amplitude only
between a finite number of values and the change may occur only at
discrete moments in time, the modulating signal is said to be a digital signal
and the modulation is referred to as digital.
Different types of Digital modulation techniques are: amplitude-shift keying
(ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), and phase-shift keying (PSK), since in
this case the discrete amplitudes of the digital signal can be said to shift the
parameter of the carrier signal between a finite number of values
1) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier is changed in response to information
and all else is kept fixed. bit 1 is transmitted by a carrier of one particular

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 174

Wireless Networks Unit 11

amplitude. When we want to transmit 0, we change the amplitude keeping

the frequency constant. On-Off keying (OOK) is a special form of ASK,
where one of the amplitudes is zero as shown below.In the modulated
signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus giving
OFF/ON keying operation. Here is a diagram showing the ideal model for a
transmission system using an ASK modulation.

Figure 11.4: Transmission system using ASK model

It can be divided into three blocks. The first one represents the transmitter,
the second one is a linear model of the effects of the channel, the third one
shows the structure of the receiver. The following notation is used:
 ht(t) is the carrier signal for the transmission
 hc(t) is the impulse response of the channel
 n(t) is the noise introduced by the channel
 hr(t) is the filter at the receiver
 L is the number of levels that are used for transmission
 Ts is the time between the generation of two symbols
In the figure 11.4 different symbols are represented with different voltages. If
the maximum allowed value for the voltage is A, then all the possible values
are in the range[-A ,A] and they are given by: the difference between one
voltage then the impulse generator creates impulses. These impulses are
sent to the filter ht(t) to be sent through the channel. In other words, for each
symbol a different carrier wave is sent with the relative amplitude.
Out of the transmitter, the signals (t) can be expressed in the form: In the
receiver, after the filtering through hr(t) the signal is: where we use the
notation:

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 175

Wireless Networks Unit 11

nr(t)= n(t)* hr(t)

g(t)= ht(t)* hc(t)* hr(t)
Where * indicates the convolution between two signals. After the A/D
conversion the signal z[k] can be expressed in the form: In this relationship,
the second term represents the symbol to be extracted. The others are
unwanted: the first one is the effect of noise, the second one is due to the
inter symbol interference. If the filters are chosen so that g(t) will satisfy the
Nyquist ISI (inter symbol interference) criterion, then there will be no inter
symbol interference and the value of the sum will be zero, so:
z[k] = nr[k] + v[k]g[0] the transmission will be affected only by noise.
2) Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
FSK is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The
simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a couple of
discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this
scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space
frequency.

Figure 11.5: Example of Binary FSK

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 176
Wireless Networks Unit 11

Minimum frequency – shift keing or minimum-shift keying (MSK) is a

particularly spectrally efficient form of coherent FSK. In MSK the difference
between the higher and lower frequency is identical to half the bit rate. This
is the smallest FSK modulation index that can be chosen such that the
waveforms for 0 and 1 are orthogonal. A variant of MSK called GMSK
(Gaussian Minimum Shift Key) is used in the GSM mobile phone standard.
Audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) is a modulation technique by which
digital data is represented by changes in the frequency (pitch) of an audio
tone, yielding an encoded signal suitable for transmission via radio or
telephone. Normally, the transmitted audio alternates between two tones:
one, the "mark", represents a binary one; the other, the "space", represents
a binary zero. AFSK has the advantage that encoded signals will pass
through AC-coupled links, including most equipment originally designed to
carry music or speech.
3) Phase-shift keying (PSK)
PSK is a digital modulation technique that sends data by changing, the
phase of a reference signal. PSK uses a finite number of phases; each
assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase encodes an
equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase.
BPSK (Binary phase-shift keying or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase
shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases (0 and 1) which are separated by
180° and so can also be termed 2-PSK.

Figure 11.6: Example of PSK

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 177

Wireless Networks Unit 11

This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest
level of noise or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect
decision. It is, however, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol and so is
unsuitable for high data-rate applications when bandwidth is limited.
Self Assessment Questions
4. The ________ is the process to move an information-bearing analog
waveform onto a carrier for transmission.
5. _________ is the process to convert an information-bearing discrete-
time symbol sequence into a continuous-time waveform.
6. ___________ is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital
information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a
carrier wave.
7. ______ is a digital modulation technique that sends data by changing,
the phase of a reference signal.
8. Amplitude modulation (AM), in which the voltage applied to the carrier is
varied over time. (True/False)

11.4 Air Interface

The air-interface is the central interface of every mobile system and typically
the only one to which a customer is exposed. The basis for any air interface
design is how the common transmission medium is shared between users.
The importance of this interface arises from the fact that it is the only
interface the mobile subscriber is exposed to, and the quality of this
interface is crucial for the success of the mobile network. The quality of this
interface depends upon the efficient usage of frequency spectrum that is
assigned to it. The available and suitable spectrum of frequencies for GSM
is limited. The available electromagnetic spectrum has been split in to a
number of bands by both national and international regulatory bodies. For
GSM 900MHz and 1800 MHz frequency band are internationally
recognized. These frequency bands are helpful in large economy of scale
and reducing the price of handsets and enabling GSM to flourish.
A fundamental requirement of GSM air interface is that the MS and network
must transit and receive by using same reference clock.
In PLMN, MS connects to the fixed part of the GSM system via wireless
channel so as to enable subscribers to access communications services. In

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 178

Wireless Networks Unit 11

order to understand the interconnection of MS and BTS, the signal

transmission via the wireless channel has to undergo a series of regulations
and a set of standards has to be established. This set of regulations for
signal transmission via the wireless channel is the so-called Air Interface,
also named Um interface.
Types of air interface channels
1. Frequency correction channel (FCCH): FCCH is used to correct the
MS frequency.
2. Synchronization channel (SCH): SCH which is used in the MS frame
synchronization and BTS identification.
3. Broadcasting channel (BCH): BCH is the one-point-to-many-points
unidirectional control channel from BTS to MS, which is used to
broadcast all kinds of information to MS.
4. Broadcasting Control Channel (BCCH): Which is used to broadcast
cell information.it is also used to indicate the configuration of the
common control channels(CCCH). CCCH is the one-point-to-many-
points bidirectional control channel, which is mainly used to carry
signalling information necessary for the access management function,
and it can also carry other kinds of signalling. CCCH is commonly used
by all MSs of the network.
5. Paging channel (PCH): Which is used by BTS to page MS.

11.5 Path Loss Models

Path loss models describe the signal attenuation between a transmit and a
receive antenna as a function of the propagation distance and other
parameters. Some models include many details of the topography profile to
estimate the signal reduction, whereas others just consider carrier frequency
and distance. Path loss is the reduction in power density of an
electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. It is a major
component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a
telecommunication system. It represents signal level attenuation caused by
free space propagation, reflection, diffraction and scattering.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 179

Wireless Networks Unit 11

Figure 11.7: Pass loss illustrations

There are basically 4 types of path loss models

1. Mega cell Path loss models
2. Macro cell Path loss models
3. Micro cell Path loss models
4. Pico cell Path loss models
1. Mega cell Path loss models: Mega cell path loss models are those
where the communication is over extremely large cells spanning hundreds
of kilometres. Mega cells are served mostly by mobile satellites. The path
loss is usually the same as that of free space.
2. Macro cell Path loss models: Macro cell path loss models span a few
kilometres to tens of kilometres, depending on the location. These are the
traditional “cells” corresponding to the coverage area of a base station
associated with traditional cellular telephony base stations. The frequency of
operation is mostly around 900 MHz, though the emergence of PCS has
resulted in frequencies around 1,800 to 1,900 MHz for such cells.
3. Micro cell Path loss models: Micro cells are cells that span hundreds of
meters to a kilometre and are usually supported by below rooftop level base
station antennas mounted on lampposts or utility poles. The shapes of the
microcells are also no longer circular because they are deployed in streets

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 180

Wireless Networks Unit 11

in urban areas where tall buildings create urban canyons. There is little or
no propagation of signals through buildings, and the shape of a microcell is
more liked a cross or a rectangle, depending on the placement of base
station antennas at the intersection of streets or in between intersection.
4. Pico cell Path loss models: In picocell path loss model base station
antenna located inside the building. Pico cells correspond to radio cells
covering a building or parts of buildings. The span of pico cells is anywhere
between 30m and 100m. Usually, Pico cells are employed for WLANs,
wireless PBX (Private branch exchange) systems, and PCSs operating in
indoor areas. In a pico-cell, the shorter transmission distance coupled with
lower transmit power, enhances both capacity as well as the Signal to
Interference Noise Ratio (SINR) achievable within the cell.
Self Assessment Questions
9. In _________ path loss model base station antenna is located inside
the building.
10. _______ In which Path loss model communication is over extremely
large cells spanning hundreds of kilometres.
11. Path loss models describe the signal attenuation between a transmit
and a receive antenna as a function of the propagation distance and
other parameters. (True/False)

11.6 Multiple Access Techniques

The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by
multiple users is called Multiple Access Technique
There are basically three types of multiple access techniques. Such as
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
TDMA, FDMA and CDMA are generally used in Cellular Communications
such as GSM (Global System for Mobile). For radio systems there are two
resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency, so that each pair of
communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each
pair of communicators is allocated the entire spectrum for part of the time
results in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 181
Wireless Networks Unit 11

Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum

all of the time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections.

Figure 11.8: Multiple Access Schemes

11.6.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

In frequency division multiple-access (FDMA) systems, each user is
assigned a different frequency channel on which to operate. FDMA is a
method of allocating bandwidth or frequency carrier to each user to
dynamically share the total available radio spectrum by multiple users.
FDMA is a basic technology in the analog Advanced Mobile Phone Service
(AMPS), the most widely-installed cellular phone system installed in North
America. FDMA is also used in the Total Access Communication System
(TACS) and NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony) .These are 1G (first-
generation) analogue cellular communication systems.
Features Of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
1. No Precise coordination in time domain is necessary in FDMA System.
2. It is well suited for narrow band analog systems.
3. Guard spacing between channels causes wastage of frequency
resource. Otherwise good modulation techniques are to be employed to
avoid such guard spacing.
4. The transmission is simultaneous and continuous and hence duplexers
are needed continuous transmission leads to shortening of battery life.
5. FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast
to TDMA and CDMA.
6. Due to the frequency filtering, FDMA is not sensitive to near-far problem
which is pronounced for CDMA.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 182

Wireless Networks Unit 11

11.6.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Each frequency channel is further divided into a set of timeslots; each
timeslot carries the data of a voice call. In time division multiple access
(TDMA), time is divided into defined periods, and different users use
different time slots. TDMA systems therefore transmit bursts of power with a
fixed pulse-repetition frequency known as the frame rate. GSM and TETRA
are actually hybrid systems in which both FDMA and TDMA are employed.
For example in TDMA, everyone in the room agrees to watch a clock on the
wall, and speak only during a particular time. Each person wishing to talk is
given a set period of time, and each person listening must know what that
time period will be.

Figure 11.9: TDMA frame structure

Features of TDMA:
1. There can be only one carrier in the medium at any time, if a simple
TDMA scheme is followed.
2. Transmission is in bursts and hence is well suited for digital
communication.
3. Since the transmission is in bursts, Battery life is extended.
4. Transmission rate is very high compared to analog FDMA systems.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 183
Wireless Networks Unit 11

5. Precise synchronization is necessary.

6. Guard time between slots is also necessary.
11.6.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a method of transmitting multiple
user digital information simultaneously over the same carrier frequency (the
same channel) and each user digital information is identified by a unique
code. Means user can use whole bandwidth for all time but has to use
different code. CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but
create a uniqueness to enable call identification. Codes should not relate to
other codes or time shifted version of itself.
Features of CDMA:
1. Signal hiding and non-interference with existing systems.
2. Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
3. Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.
4. Anti-jam and interference rejection
5. Information security
6. Accurate Ranging
7. Multiple User Access
8. Multipath tolerance

Figure 11.10: Comparisons between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 184

Wireless Networks Unit 11

As for explanation about comparison between these three multiple access

technologies there is an example of room with people talking in pairs. When
they would use FDMA the room (whole bandwidth) should be divided into
smaller rooms and each room would represent one frequency. Walls would
be the separation of these frequencies hence people in pairs would have a
chance to talk at the same time without disturbing other pairs. As for TDMA
each pair in the room would have some specific time to talk when other
people should remain in silence. CDMA would allow to talk for all pairs but
each of them would have to use different language (code).
Self Assessment Questions
12. ______ is a method of allocating bandwidth to each user to dynamically
share the total available radio spectrum by multiple users.
13. In __________ multiple access method user can use whole bandwidth
for all time but has to use different code.
14. In which multiple access method _________ time is divided into
defined periods, and different users use different time slots.
15. CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a
uniqueness to enable call identification. (True/False)

11.7 Summary
In this unit we have discussed about modulation that converts the message
signal frequency to one that is suitable for transmission. Basically there are
two types of modulation techniques analog modulation technique and digital
modulation technique. The classical analog modulation schemes are based
on the continuous change of sinusoidal signal carrier. There are 3 types of
analog modulation AM, PM and FM. AM refers to a method of carrying
information on a train of pulses, the information being encoded in the
amplitude of the pulses. PM is a type of electronic modulation in which the
phase of a carrier wave is varied in order to transmit the information
contained in the signal. FM is a method of analog modulation in which the
modulating wave is used to frequency modulates a pulse-generating circuit.
In frequency modulation we have discussed again 3 types of modulation.
ASK, FSK and PSK.ASK is a scheme according to the old telegraph key.
The transmission of the binary bit stream is done by switching the carrier
signal on/off according to 1/0 bits, FSK is the frequency modulation of a
carrier for simplex or half duplex operation and PSK is a digital modulation

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 185

Wireless Networks Unit 11

scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a

reference signal.
After that we have discussed about path loss model that is the reduction in
power density of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space.
Multiple access techniques are use full for various users so that they can
share the finite limited radio spectrum. We have explained 3 types of access
techniques FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.

11.8 Terminal Questions

1. Define analog modulation techniques in detail?
2. Explain Code division multiple accesses?
3. List out the difference between CDMA, TDMA and FDMA?
4. Explain the different channels of air interface?
5. Explain TDMA access method and its various features?
6. Define path loss model with suitable diagram?

11.9 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. Modulation
2. superposition
3. nonlinear process
4. analog modulation
5. Digital modulation
6. FSK
7. PSK
8. True
9. picocell
10. Mega cell
11. True
12. FDMA
13. CDMA
14. TDMA
15. True

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 186

Wireless Networks Unit 11

Terminal Questions
1. The analog modulation is the process to move an information-bearing
analog waveform onto a carrier for transmission. The purpose of
analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or low pass)
signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band
pass channel, for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV
network channel. We can further divide analog modulation in to two
parts. Refer section 11.3.1.
2. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a method of transmitting
multiple user digital information simultaneously over the same carrier
frequency (the same channel) and each user digital information is
identified by a unique code. Means user can use whole bandwidth for
all time but has to use different code. Refer section 11.6.3.
3. Figure 11.9 Comparison between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA. Refer
section 11.6.3.
4. In PLMN, MS connects to the fixed part of the GSM system via wireless
channel so as to enable subscribers to access communications
services. In order to understand the interconnection of MS and BTS,
the signal transmission via the wireless channel has to undergo a
series of regulations and a set of standards has to be established. This
set of regulations for signal transmission via the wireless channel is the
so-called Air Interface, also named Um interface. Refer section 11.4.
5. Each frequency channel is further divided into a set of timeslots; each
timeslot carries the data of a voice call. In time division multiple access
(TDMA), time is divided into defined periods, and different users use
different time slots. Refer section 11.6.2.
6. Path loss models describe the signal attenuation between a transmit
and a receive antenna as a function of the propagation distance and
other parameters. Some models include many details of the
topography profile to estimate the signal reduction, whereas others just
consider carrier frequency and distance. Refer section 11.5.

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 187

Wireless Networks Unit 11

References
Book References:
 Principles and Applications of GSM, 6th edition by Vijay K. Garg &
Joseph E. Wilkes, Pearson Education Inc., 2009.
 Wireless Communication, 2nd edition by D.P. Agrawal, Thomson
learning., 2007.
E-References:
 http://www.sss-mag.com/pdf/1mod_intro.pdf
 http://www.rfglobalnet.com/article.mvc/Modulation-Techniques-For-
Wireless-Data-Links-0001
 http://isoec.in/63/code-division-multiple-access.html
 http://www.umtsworld.com/technology/cdmabasics.htm
 http://www.comlab.hut.fi/opetus/333/2004_2005_slides/Path_loss_mode
ls.pdf

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 188