10.

Strain Transformation
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Apply the stress
transformation methods
derived in Chapter 9 to
similarly transform strain
• Discuss various ways of
measuring strain
• Develop important
material-property
relationships; including generalized form of
Hooke’s law
• Discuss and use theories to predict the failure of a
material
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 1
 10. Strain Transformation
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Plane Strain
2. General Equations of Plane-Strain
Transformation
3. *Mohr’s Circle: Plane Strain
4. *Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
5. Strain Rosettes
6. Material-Property Relationships
7. *Theories of Failure

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 2

2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Cartesian strain components
• Using above definitions of normal and shear strain,
we show how they describe the deformation of the
body
• Divide body into small
elements with
undeformed dimensions
of Δx, Δy and Δz

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 3

2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN

Cartesian strain components

• Since element is very small, deformed shape of element is a
parallelepiped

• Approx. lengths of sides of parallelepiped are

(1 + x) Δx (1 + y)Δy (1 + z)Δz

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 4

 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• As explained in Chapter 2.2, general state of strain in a body is

represented by a combination of 3 components of normal strain (x, y,
z), and 3 components of shear strain (xy, xz, yz).
• Strain components at a pt determined by using strain gauges, which is
measured in specified directions.
• A plane-strained element is subjected to two components of normal
strain (x, y) and one component of shear strain, xy.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 5

 Strain transformation
Transformation of Plane Strain
• Plane strain - deformations of the material
take place in parallel planes and are the
same in each of those planes.

• Plane strain occurs in a plate subjected

along its edges to a uniformly distributed
load and restrained from expanding or
contracting laterally by smooth, rigid and
fixed supports
components of strain:
 x ,  y ,  xy , ( z =  zx =  zy = 0 )

• Example: Consider a long bar subjected

to uniformly distributed transverse loads.

•Note that plane stress does not always

cause plane strain.
 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• The deformations are shown graphically below.

• Note that the normal strains are produced by
changes in length of the element in the x and y
directions, while shear strain is produced by the
relative rotation of two adjacent sides of the
element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 7

 10. Strain Transformation
10.1 PLANE STRAIN

• Note that plane stress does not always cause plane

strain.
• In general, unless  = 0, the Poisson effect will
prevent the simultaneous occurrence of plane strain
and plane stress.
• Since shear stress and shear
strain not affected by Poisson’s
ratio, condition of xz = yz = 0
requires xz = yz = 0.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 8

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Sign Convention
• To use the same convention as
defined in Chapter 2.2.
• With reference to differential
element shown, normal strains
xz and yz are positive if they
cause elongation along the x
and y axes
• Shear strain xy is positive if the interior angle AOB
becomes smaller than 90.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 9

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
Sign Convention
• Similar to plane stress, when measuring the normal
and shear strains relative to the x’ and y’ axes, the
angle  will be positive provided it follows the
curling of the right-hand fingers, counterclockwise.
Normal and shear strains
• Before we develop the
strain-transformation eqn for
determining x;, we must determine
the elongation of a line segment dx’
that lies along the x’ axis and
subjected to strain components.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 10

• Applying the trigonometric relations used
for the transformation of stress,

x +  y x −  y  xy
 x = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2 2
x +  y x −  y  xy
 y = − cos 2 − sin 2
2 2 2
 xy x −  y  xy
=− sin 2 + cos 2
2 2 2
 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Components of line dx and dx’ are elongated and
we add all elongations together.
x' =  x dx cos +  y dy sin  +  xy dy cos
• From Eqn 2.2, the normal strain along the line dx’ is
x’ =x’/dx’. Using Eqn 10-1,
 x ' =  x cos  +  y sin  +  xy sin  cos
2 2
(10 - 2)

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 12

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• To get the transformation equation for x’y’, consider
amount of rotation of each of the line segments dx’
and dy’ when subjected to strain components.
Thus,
y' = − x dx sin  +  y dy cos −  xy dy sin 

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 13

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using Eqn 10-1 with  = y’/x’,
 = (−  x +  y )sin  cos −  xy sin 2  (10 - 3)
• As shown, dy’ rotates by an amount .

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 14

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using identities sin ( + 90) = cos ,
cos ( + 90) = − sin ,
 = (−  x +  y )sin ( + 90)cos( + 90) −  xy sin ( + 90)
2

= −(−  x +  y )cos sin  −  xy cos2 

• Thus we get
 x' y ' =  − 
(
= −2( x −  y )sin  cos +  xy cos2  − sin 2  ) (10 - 4)

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 15

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• Using trigonometric identities sin 2 = 2 sin cos,
cos2 = (1 + cos2 )/2 and sin2 + cos2 = 1, we
rewrite Eqns 10-2 and 10-4 as
x +  y x − y  xy
 x' = + cos 2 + sin 2 (10 - 5)
2 2 2

 x' y 'x −  y   xy
= −  sin 2 + cos 2 (10 - 6)
2  2  2

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 16

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

• If normal strain in the y direction is required, it can
be obtained from Eqn 10-5 by substituting ( + 90)
for . The result is
x +  y x − y  xy
 y' = − cos 2 − sin 2 (10 - 6)
2 2 2

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 17

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
• We can orientate an element at a pt such that the
element’s deformation is only represented by
normal strains, with no shear strains.
• The material must be isotropic, and the axes along
which the strains occur must coincide with the axes
that define the principal axes.
• Thus from Eqns 9-4 and 9-5,
 xy
tan 2 p = (10 - 8)
x − y

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 18

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
x +  y
  x −  y    xy 
2 2
1, 2 =   +   (10 - 9)
2  2   2 
Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get
x −  y 
tan 2 s = − 

(10 - 10)

 xy 

  x −  y    xy 
max 2 2
in - plane
=   +   (10 - 11)
2  2   2 
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 19
 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Maximum in-plane shear strain

• Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get
x +  y
 avg = (10 - 12)
2

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 20

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
IMPORTANT
• Due to Poisson effect, the state of plane strain is not
a state of plane stress, and vice versa.
• A pt on a body is subjected to plane stress when the
surface of the body is stress-free.
• Plane strain analysis may be used within the plane
of the stresses to analyze the results from the
gauges. Remember though, there is normal strain
that is perpendicular to the gauges.
• When the state of strain is represented by the
principal strains, no shear strain will act on the
element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 21

 10. Strain Transformation
10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

IMPORTANT
• The state of strain at the pt can also be represented
in terms of the maximum in-plane shear strain. In
this case, an average normal strain will also act on
the element.
• The element representing the maximum in-plane
shear strain and its associated average normal
strains is 45 from the element representing the
principal strains.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 22

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain x = 500(10-6), y = − 300(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown.
Determine the equivalent strains acting on an element
oriented at the pt, clockwise 30 from the original
position.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 23

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Since  is counterclockwise, then  = –30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,
x +  y x − y  xy
 x' = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2 2
=

500 + (− 300) −6
2  10 ( )

+

500 − (− 300) −6
2  10 ( )
cos ( 2( − 30 ))

( ) sin(2(− 30))

 200 10−6
+
 2 

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

( )
 x ' = 213 10−6
24
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Since  is counterclockwise, then  = –30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,
 x' y 'x −  y   xy
= −  sin 2 + cos 2
2  2  2
 500 − (− 300)
= −  sin (2(− 30))
 2 

+
( )
200 10−6
cos(2(− 30))
2
( )
 x ' y ' = 793 10−6

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 25

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• Strain in the y’ direction can be obtained from Eqn
10-7 with  = –30. However, we can also obtain y’
using Eqn 10-5 with  = 60 ( = –30 + 90),
replacing x’ with y’

 y' = 

500 + (− 300) −6
2 

( )
10


+

500 − (− 300) −6
2  10 ( )
cos ( 2(60 ))

( ) sin(2(60))
 200 10−6
+
 2 
( )
 y ' = −13.4 10−6
26
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)
• The results obtained tend to deform the element as
shown below.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 27

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = –350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the principal strains at
the pt and associated orientation of the element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 28

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-8, we have
 xy −6
80(10 )
tan 2 p = =
 x −  y (− 350 − 200)(10−6 )
Thus 2 p = −8.28 and − 8.28 + 180 = 172, so that
 p = − 4.14 and 85.9

Each of these angles is measured

positive counterclockwise, from the
x axis to the outward normals on
each face of the element.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 29
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
From Eqn 10-9,

x +  y   x −  y    xy 
2 2
1, 2 =    +  
2  2   2 
(− 350 + 200)(10 −6
)   − 350 − 200 2  80 2  −6
( )
=    +    10
2   2   2  

( )
= −75.0 10−6  277.9 10−6 ( )
1 = 203(10−6 )  2 = −353(10−6 )

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 30

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
We can determine which of these two strains deforms
the element in the x’ direction by applying Eqn 10-5
with  = –4.14. Thus
x +  y x − y  xy
 x' = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2 2
=
 2
( )
 10 + 
  2
( )
− 350 + 200  −6  − 350 − 200  −6
 10 cos(− 4.14)


+
( )
80 10−6
sin 2(− 4.14)
2
 x ' = −353 10−6 ( )
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 31
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)
Principal strains
Hence x’ = 2. When subjected to the principal strains,
the element is distorted as shown.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 32

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = –350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain at the pt and associated orientation of the
element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 33

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-10,
x −  y 
tan 2 s = − =− ( − 350 − 200 ) ( )
10 −6


 xy 
 80 10 −6
( )
Thus, 2 s = 81.72 and 81.72 + 180 = 261.72, so that
 s = 40.9 and 130.9
Note that this orientation is 45 from that shown in
Example 10.2 as expected.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 34

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
Applying Eqn 10-11,
  −  2
 2
 x y  xy 
max
in - plane
=   +  
2  2   2 
  − 350 − 200 2  80 2  −6
=  ( )
 +    10
  2   2  

 = 556 10−6
max ( )
in - plane
 max
The proper sign of in - plane can be obtained by applying
Eqn 10-6 with s = 40.9.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 35
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
 x' y '  x −  y  xy
= sin 2 + cos 2
2 2 2

=

− 350 − 200  −6
2 
( )
 10 sin 2(40.9)

+
( )
80 10−6
cos 2(40.9)
2
 x ' y ' = 556 10−6 ( )
Thus  max tends to distort the element so that the
in - plane
right angle between dx’ and dy’ is decreased (positive
sign convention).
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 36
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
There are associated average normal strains imposed
on the element determined from Eqn 10-12:

 avg =
2
=
2
( )
 x +  y − 350 + 200 −6
( )
10 = −75 10−6

These strains tend to

cause the element to contract.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 37

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

• Advantage of using Mohr’s circle for plane strain

transformation is we get to see graphically how the
normal and shear strain components at a pt vary
from one orientation of the element to the next.
• Eliminate parameter  in Eqns 10-5 and 10-6 and
2   xy 
rewrite as 2
( x −  avg ) +  2  = R 2 (10 - 13)
 
where
x +  y   x −  y    xy 
2 2
 avg = R =   +  
2  2   2 
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 38
 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
• Establish a coordinate system such that the
abscissa represents the normal strain , with
positive to the right, and the ordinate represents half
the value of the shear strain, /2, with positive
downward.
• Using positive sign convention for x, y, and xy,
determine the center of the circle C, which is located
on the  axis at a distance avg = (x + v)/2 from the
origin.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 39

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
• Plot the reference pt A having coordinates (x, xy/2).
This pt represents the case for which the x’ axis
coincides with the x axis. Hence  = 0.
• Connect pt A with center C
of the circle and from the
shaded triangle determine
the radius R of the circle.
• Sketch the circle.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 40

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Principal strains
• Principal strains 1 and 2 are
determined from the circle as
the coordinates of pts B and
D ( = 0).
• Determine the orientation of the
plane on which 1 acts by
calculating 2p1, using trigonometry.
This angle is measured
counterclockwise from the radial
reference lines CA to CB.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 41

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Principal strains
• Remember that the rotation of p1,
must be in this same direction,
from the element’s reference axis x to the x’ axis.
• When 1 and 2 are indicated as being positive as
shown earlier, the element shown here will elongate
in the x’ and y’ directions as shown by the dashed
outline.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 42

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Average normal strain and half the
maximum in-plane shear strain
are determined from the circle
as the coordinates of pts E and F.
• Orientation of the plane on which
 max and  act can be
in − plane avg
determined from the circle by
calculating 2s1 using trigonometry.
This angle is measured clockwise
from the radial reference lines
CA to CF.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 43
 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Maximum in-plane shear strain
• Remember that the rotation of
ps1, must be in this same
direction, from the element’s
reference axis x to the x’ axis.
Strains on arbitrary plane
• Normal and shear strain components x’ and x’y’ for
a plane specified at an angle , can be obtained
from the circle using trigonometry to determine the
coordinates of pt P.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 44

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.3 MOHR’S CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN
Procedure for Analysis
Strains on arbitrary plane
• To locate P, the known angle  of
the x’ axis is measured on the
circle as 2. This measurement is
made from the radial reference line CA to the radial
reference line CA to CP. Remember that
measurements for 2 on the circle must be in the
same direction as for the x’ axis.
• If value of y’ is required, it can be determined by
calculating the  coordinate of pt Q. The line CQ lies
180 away from CP and thus represents a rotation of
90 of the x’ axis.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 45
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = –150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the principal strains
and the orientation of the element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 46

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Construction of the circle
The  and /2 axes are
established as shown. Note
that the positive /2 axis must
be directed downward so that
counterclockwise rotations of
the element correspond to
counterclockwise rotation
around the circle, and vice
versa. Center of the circle is located on the axis at
 avg =
2
( )
250 + (− 150) −6
( )
10 = 50 10−6
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 47
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Construction of the circle
Since xy/2 = 60(10-6), the
reference pt A ( = 0) has
coordinates [250(10-6), 60(10-6)].
From shaded triangle, radius
of circle is CA:

R=  (250 − 50) + (60) (10 ) = 208.8(10 )

2 2 −6 −6

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 48

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Principal strains
The  coordinates of pts B and D
represent the principal strains.
They are
( ) ( )
1 = (50 + 208.8) 10−6 = 259 10−6
 2 = (50 − 208.8)(10−6 ) = −159(10−6 )

The direction of the positive principal strain 1 is

defined by the counterclockwise 2p1, measured from
the radial reference lines CA to CB.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 49

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)
Principal strains
We have tan 2 p1 = 60
(250 − 50)
 p1 = 8.35
Hence, the side dx’ of the
element is oriented
counterclockwise 8.35.
This also defines the direction of 1.
The deformation of the element is also shown.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 50

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = –150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strains and orientation of the element.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 51

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
Half the maximum in-plane shear strain and average
normal strain are represented by the coordinates of
pts E and F on the circle. From coordinates of pt E
( x' y ' )
( )
max
in - plane
= 208.8 10−6
2
( x' y ' ) = 418(10 )
max
−6
in - plane

 avg = 50(10−6 )

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 52

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane shear strain
To orientate the element, determine the clockwise
angle 2s1 from the circle,
2 s1 = 90 − 2(8.35)
 s1 = 36.6
Since shear strain defined from pt E
on the circle has a positive value and
average normal strain is also positive,
corresponding positive shear stress
and positive average normal stress
deform the element into dashed
shape as shown.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 53

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6
State of plane strain at a pt represented by an
element having the components x = –300(10-6),
y = –100(10-6), and xy = 100(10-6). Determine the
state of strain on an element oriented 20 clockwise
from this reported position.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 54

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Construction of circle
The  and /2 axes are
established as shown.
Center of circle is on
the  axis at

 avg = 
 2
( )
− 300 − 100  −6


10 = −200 ( )
10 −6

Coordinates of reference pt A is [300(10-6), 50(10-6)].

 ( )
Radius CA determined from shaded triangle,
( )
R = (300 − 200)2 + (50)2 10−6 = 111.8 10−6
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 55
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Strains on inclined elements
As we orient element 20 clockwise, first establish a
radial line CP, 2(20) = 40 clockwise, measured from
CA ( = 0). Coordinates of pt P (x’, x’y’/2) are
obtained from the geometry of the circle.
−1 50 
 = tan   = 26.57
 (300 − 200) 

Thus x ' = − ( 200 + 111.8 cos13.43 ) 10 −6
= ( )
−309 ( )
10 −6

= −(111.8 sin 13.43)(10 )

 x' y ' −6
2
 x ' y ' = −52.0(10−6 )
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 56
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)
Strains on inclined elements
Normal strain y’ can be determined from the 
coordinate of pt Q on the circle. Why?
 y ' = − 200 − 111.8 cos13.43 10 = −91.3 10 )
( )( −6
) ( −6

As a result of these strains, the

element deforms relative to the
x’, y’ axes as shown.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 57

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

• Assume three principal strains

(max, int, min) cause elongations
along the x’, y’ and z’ axes as shown.
• Use Mohr’s circle to determine
maximum in-plane shear strain for
the x’-y’, x’-z’ and y’-z’ planes.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 58

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

• From the circles drawn,

we see that the absolute
maximum shear strain is
determined from the circle
having the larges radius.
For this condition,

 abs =  max −  min (10 - 14)

max

and
 max +  min
 avg = (10 - 15)
2
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 59
 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
• When material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of the
same sign, the largest circle has
a radius of R = (x’z’)max/2.
 abs = ( x ' z ' ) =  max
max max

• This value represents the

absolute maximum shear
strain for the material. It is
larger than the maximum
in-plane shear strain.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 60
 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
• For material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of
opposite signs,

 abs = ( x ' y ' )

max max
=  max −  min

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 61

 10. Strain Transformation
*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN
IMPORTANT
• General 3-D state of strain at a pt can be
represented by an element oriented so that only
three principal strains act on it.
• From this orientation, the orientation of the element
representing the absolute maximum shear strain
can be obtained by rotating the element 45 about
the axis defining the direction of int.
• The absolute maximum shear strain will be larger
that the maximum in-plane shear strain whenever
the in-plane principal strains have the same sign,
the absolute maximum shear strain will act out of
the plane.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 62
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7
Plane of strain at a pt is represented by the strain
components x = 400(10-6), y = 200(10-6),
xy = 150(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain and the absolute maximum shear strain.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 63

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane strain
Using Mohr’s circle method, center of circle is on the
-axis at
 avg =
− 400 + 200 −6
2
( )
10 = −100 10−6 ( )
Since xy/2 = 75(10-6), reference pt has coordinates A
[–400(10-6), 75(10-6)]. Radius of circle is
R=  (400 − 100) + (75) (10 ) = 309(10 )
2 2 −6 −6

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 64

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Maximum in-plane strain
Computing in-plane principal strains,
we have
( ) ( )
 max = (− 100 + 309) 10−6 = 209 10−6
 min = (− 100 − 309)(10−6 ) = −409(10−6 )

From the circle, maximum in-plane shear strain is

 max
in - plane
( ) ( )
=  max −  min = 209 − (− 409) 10−6 = 618 10−6

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 65

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)
Absolute maximum shear strain
From the results, we have max = 209(10-6),
int = 409(10-6). The 3 Mohr’s circles plotted for
element orientations about each of the x’, y’ and z’
axes are shown. We see that the principal in-plane
strains have opposite signs, and maximum in-plane
shear strain is also the absolute
maximum shear strain

 abs
in - plane
( )
= 618 10−6

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 66

• Applying the trigonometric relations used
for the transformation of stress,

x +  y x −  y  xy
 x = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2 2
x +  y x −  y  xy
 y = − cos 2 − sin 2
2 2 2
 xy x −  y  xy
=− sin 2 + cos 2
2 2 2
 10. Strain Transformation
10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES
• We measure the normal strain in a tension-test
specimen using an electrical-resistance strain
gauge.
• For general loading on a body, the normal strains at
a pt are measured using a cluster of 3 electrical-
resistance strain gauges.
• Such strain gauges, arranged in a specific pattern
are called strain rosettes.
• Note that only the strains in the plane of the gauges
are measured by the strain rosette. That is ,the
normal strain on the surface is not measured.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 68

 10. Strain Transformation
10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES
• Apply strain transformation
Eqn 10-2 to each gauge:

 a =  x cos2  a +  y sin 2  a +  xy sin  a cos a

 b =  x cos2 b +  y sin 2 b +  xy sin b cosb
 c =  x cos2 c +  y sin 2 c +  xy sin c cosc (10 - 16)
• We determine the values of x, y xy by solving the three equations
simultaneously.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 69
 10. Strain Transformation
10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES
• For rosettes arranged in the 45
pattern, Eqn 10-16 becomes
 x = a
 y = c
 xy = 2 b − ( a +  c )
• For rosettes arranged in the 60 pattern,
Eqn 10-16 becomes
 x = a
1
 y = (2 b + 2 c −  a )
3
2
 xy = ( b −  c ) (10 - 17 )
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
3 70
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.8
State of strain at pt A on bracket is measured using
the strain rosette shown. Due to the loadings, the
readings from the gauges give a = 60(10-6),
b = 135(10-6), and c = 264(10-6). Determine the
in-plane principal strains at the pt and the directions
in which they act.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 71

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
Establish x axis as shown, measure the
angles counterclockwise from the +x axis
to center-lines of each gauge, we have
a = 0, b = 60, and c = 120
Substitute into Eqn 10-16,
( )
60 10−6 =  x cos2 0 +  y sin 2 0 +  xy sin 0 cos 0 =  x (1)
135(10−6 ) =  x cos2 60 +  y sin 2 60 +  xy sin 60 cos 60
= 0.25 x + 0.75 y + 0.433 xy (2)
( )
264 10−6 =  x cos 2 120 +  y sin 2 120 +  xy sin 120 cos120
= 0.25 x + 0.75 y − 0.433 xy (3)
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 72
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
Solving Eqns (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously, we get
 x = 60 10−6 ( ) ( )
 y = 246 10−6 ( )
 xy = −149 10−6
The in-plane principal strains can also be obtained
directly from Eqn 10-17. Reference pt on Mohr’s circle
is A [60(10-6), –74.5(10-6)] and center of circle, C is on
the  axis at avg = 153(10-6).
From shaded triangle, radius is
R=  (153 − 60) + (74.5) (10 )
2 2 −6

R = 119.2 10−6 ( )
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 73
 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)
The in-plane principal strains are thus
( ) ( ) ( )
1 = 153 10−6 + 119.2 10−6 = 272 10−6
 2 = 246(10−6 ) − 119.2(10−6 ) = 33.8(10−6 )
−1 74.5
2 p 2 = tan = 38.7
(153 − 60)
 p 2 = 19.3

Deformed element is shown dashed.

Due to Poisson effect, element also subjected to an
out-of-plane strain, in the z direction, although this
value does not influence the calculated results.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 74
 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hooke’s law

• Material at a pt subjected to a state of triaxial
stress, with associated strains.
• We use principle of superposition, Poisson’s ratio
(lat = long), and Hooke’s law ( = E  ) to relate
stresses to strains, in the uniaxial direction.
• With x applied, element elongates in the x
direction and strain is this direction is
x
' x =
E

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 75

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hooke’s law

• With y applied, element contracts with a strain ‘’x
in the x direction, y
 ' ' x = −
E
• Likewise, With z applied, a contraction is caused
z
in the z direction,  ' ' ' x = −
E

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 76

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hooke’s law

• By using the principle of superposition,

 
 x =  x −  ( y +  z )
1
E
1
 
 y =  y −  ( x +  z )
E
(10 - 18)

 
 z =  z −  ( x +  y )
1
E

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 77

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hooke’s law

• If we apply a shear stress xy to the element,
experimental observations show that it will deform
only due to shear strain xy. Similarly for xz and xy,
yz and yz. Thus, Hooke’s law for shear stress and
shear strain is written as
1 1 1
 xy =  xy  yz =  yz  xz =  xz (10 - 19)
G G G

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 78

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Relationship involving E, , and G

• We stated in chapter 3.7:
E
G= (10 - 20)
2(1 +  )
• Relate principal strain to shear stress,
 xy
 max = (1 +  ) (10 - 21)
E
• Note that since x = y = z = 0, then from Eqn
10-18, x = y = 0. Substitute into transformation
Eqn 10-19,  xy
1 =  max =
2
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 79
 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Relationship involving E, , and G

• By Hooke’s law, xy = xy/G. So max = xy/2G.
• Substitute into Eqn 10-21 and rearrange to obtain
Eqn 10-20.
Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
• Consider a volume element subjected to principal
stresses x, y, z.
• Sides of element are dx, dy and dz, and after stress
application, they become (1 + x)dx, (1 + y)dy,
(1 + z)dz, respectively.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 80

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

• Change in volume of element is
V = (1 +  x )(1 +  y )(1 +  z )dx dy dz − dx dy dz
• Change in volume per unit volume is the
“volumetric strain” or dilatation e.
V
e= = x +  y + z (10 - 22)
dV
• Using generalized Hooke’s law, we write the
dilatation in terms of applied stress.
1 − 2
e=
E
(x + y +z) (10 - 23)
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 81
 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

• When volume element of material is subjected to
uniform pressure p of a liquid, pressure is the same
in all directions.
• As shear resistance of a liquid is zero, we can
ignore shear stresses.
• Thus, an element of the body is subjected to
principal stresses x = y = z = –p. Substituting
into Eqn 10-23 and rearranging,
p E
= (10 - 24)
e 3(1 − 2 )
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 82
 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

• This ratio (p/e) is similar to the ratio of linear-elastic
stress to strain, thus terms on the RHS are called
the volume modulus of elasticity or the bulk
modulus. Having same units as stress with
symbol k, E
k= (10 - 25)
3(1 − 2 )
• For most metals,  ≈ ⅓ so k ≈ E.
• From Eqn 10-25, theoretical maximum value of
Poisson’s ratio is therefore  = 0.5.
• When plastic yielding occurs,  = 0.5 is used.
©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 83
 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS
IMPORTANT
• When homogeneous and isotropic material is
subjected to a state of triaxial stress, the strain in
one of the stress directions is influence by the
strains produced by all stresses. This is the result
of the Poisson effect, and results in the form of a
generalized Hooke’s law.
• A shear stress applied to homogenous and
isotropic material will only produce shear strain in
the same plane.
• Material constants, E, G and  are related
mathematically.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 84

 10. Strain Transformation
10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS
IMPORTANT
• Dilatation, or volumetric strain, is caused by only by
normal strain, not shear strain.
• The bulk modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
volume of material. This material property provides
an upper limit to Poisson’s ratio of  = 0.5, which
remains at this value while plastic yielding occurs.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 85

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.10
Copper bar is subjected to a uniform loading along its
edges as shown. If it has a length a = 300 mm, width
b = 50 mm, and thickness t = 20 mm before the load
is applied, determine its new length, width, and
thickness after application of the load.
Take Ecu = 120 GPa, cu = 0.34.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 91

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)
By inspection, bar is subjected to a state of plane
stress. From loading, we have
 x = 800 MPa  y = −500 MPa  xy = 0  z = 0
Associated strains are determined from generalized
Hooke’s law, Eqn 10-18;
x 
x = − ( v +  z )
E E
800 MPa 0.34
= − (− 500 MPa) = 0.00808
120(103) MPa 120(103)

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 92

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)
Associated strains are determined from generalized
Hooke’s law, Eqn 10-18;
y 
y = − ( x +  z )
E E
− 500 MPa 0.34
= − (800 MPa) = −0.00643
120(103) MPa 120(103)
z 
z =
E
−
E
(x + y)
0.34
=0− (800 MPa − 500 MPa) = −0.00850
120(103)

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 93

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)
The new bar length, width, and thickness are
a' = 300 mm + 0.00808(300 mm ) = 302.4 mm
b' = 50 mm + (− 0.00643)(50 mm ) = 49.68 mm
t ' = 20 mm + (− 0.000850)(20 mm ) = 19.98 mm

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 94

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.11
If rectangular block shown is subjected to a uniform
pressure of p = 20 kPa, determine the dilatation and
change in length of each side.
Take E = 600 kPa,  = 0.45.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 95

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)
Dilatation
The dilatation can be determined using Eqn 10-23
with x = y = z = –20 kPa. We have
1 − 2
e=
E
(x + y +z)
1 − 2(0.45)
= 3(− 20 kPa)
600 kPa
= −0.01 cm3 / cm3

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 96

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)
Change in length
Normal strain on each side can be determined from
Hooke’s law, Eqn 10-18;
 
 =  x −  (+  y +  z )
1
E
1
= − 20 kPa − (0.45)(− 20 kPa − 20 kPa)
600 kPa
= −0.00333 cm/cm

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 97

 10. Strain Transformation
EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)
Change in length
Thus, the change in length of each side is
 a = −0.00333(4 cm) = −0.0133 cm
 b = −0.00333(2 cm) = −0.00667 cm
 c = −0.00333(3 cm) = −0.0100 cm

The negative signs indicate that each dimension is

decreased.

©2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 98