Open Systems & Information Dynamics

Vol. 21, No. 3 (2014) 1450003 (17 pages)

DOI:10.1142/S1230161214500036
⃝
c World Scientific Publishing Company

Many Unstable Particles

from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective
Kordian Andrzej Smoliński
Department of Theoretical Physics
Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Sciences
University of Lódź, ul. Pomorska 149/153, 90–236 Lódź, Poland
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

e-mail: [email protected]
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

(Received: July 17, 2013; Accepted: April 2, 2014; Published: July 30, 2014)

Abstract. We postulate a master equation, written in the language of creation and

annihilation operators, as a candidate for unambiguous quantum mechanical description
of unstable particles. We have found Kraus representation for the evolution driven by this
master equation and study its properties. Both Schrödinger and Heisenberg picture of
the system evolution are presented. We show that the resulting time evolution leads to
exponential decay law. Moreover, we analyse mixing of particle flavours and show that it
can lead to flavour oscillation phenomenon.

1. Introduction

One of the important difficulties in quantum mechanical description of unsta-

ble particles is irreversibility of time-evolution. The complete system consists
of decaying particle as well as of decay products. Only this complete system
undergoes unitary evolution, described by quantum field theory. However,
in many applications of quantum mechanics (e.g., in analysis of correlation
experiments) we would like to neglect the evolution of decay products and
consider the decaying particles only. This is usually achieved by introducing
a non-Hermitian Hamiltonian, as it was done in the classical works of Weis-
skopf and Wigner [1, 2]. The non-Hermitian Hamiltonian, however, leads
inevitably to the non-conservation of trace of the density operator of the sys-
tem. Although such description gives decreasing probability of detecting the
particle, it does not provide unambiguous way of calculating the probability
of finding the system consisting of a few such particles in a given state after
the measurement (see e.g. [3] for a discussion of other ambiguities caused by
various approaches to the description of such a system). Indeed, one needs
to use probability theory rather than quantum mechanics for this purpose.
Since the calculations of conditional probabilities are extremely important for
the analysis of correlation experiments, especially of those done for systems

1450003-1
 K. A. Smoliński

of neutral kaons [4 – 12] or B-mesons [13, 14, 15], it would be desirable to find
a quantum mechanical description of decaying particles preserving unit trace
and positivity [16 – 22] of the density operator for the system. Recent papers
(e.g. [23, 24]) show that there is still a great interest in the unambiguous
quantum-mechanical description of neutral kaon system.

This is the point where the theory of dynamical semigroups and open
quantum systems [25 – 27] can be helpful. Let us recall (cf. [28 – 30] that the
dynamical semigroup in the Schrödinger picture is a one-parameter family of
linear maps Λ∗t , acting on the space of trace class operators on Hilbert space
of the system, preserving for every t ≥ 0: (i) positivity, (ii) trace, (iii) strong
continuity and such that (iv) Λ∗t1 Λ∗t2 = Λ∗t1 +t2 for every t1 , t2 ≥ 0. These
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properties can be translated into Heisenberg picture as requirements for the

by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

map Λt acting on the space of bounded operators on the Hilbert space of

the system, which for every t ≥ 0: (i) preserves the positive cone, (ii) leaves
the identity operator invariant, (iii) is continuous on states in the trace-norm
sense, (iv) is normal and (v) Λt1 Λt2 = Λt1 +t2 for t1 , t2 ≥ 0.

The idea that the theory of open quantum system would be useful for the
description of unstable particles appeared quite early [31 – 33] (see also [34]
for a review). Recently, the open quantum system approach was also applied
to the systems of particles with flavour oscillations (like in the case of neutral
kaons) [35, 36], and it has been used successfully in the description of EPR
0
correlations and evolution of entanglement in K 0 K system [37, 38].

Here, we follow the approach presented in [35, 37, 38]. However, in these
works the considerations were restricted to systems of at most two particles,
and transition from one-particle to two-particle theory was done by means
of tensor product construction. In this paper we will show that it is possi-
ble to describe systems with arbitrary number of particles using the second
quantization formalism, which is the most natural language for system with
varying number of particles. Moreover, such approach would be an advantage
if we study the behaviour of the system from uniformly moving or accelerated
frame, due to the well-established transformation properties of annihilation
and creation operators.

The paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2, we postulate a master

equation in Schrödinger picture for a single kind of free particles, and then
find the solution of this equation in the form of the Kraus representation
of the evolution of the density operator of the system. The next section is
devoted to the Heisenberg picture of the evolution of the same system. In
Sect. 4, we analyse the system of particles of different types and the flavour
oscillation phenomenon.

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 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

2. Schrödinger Picture

In [35] it was shown that the time evolution of a free unstable scalar particle
can be described by a master equation in the Lindblad–Gorini–Kossakowski–
Sudarshan form [26, 27]:

dρ(t)
= −i[H, ρ(t)] + {K, ρ(t)} + Lρ(t)L† , (1)
dt
where
√ 1
H = m|1⟩⟨1| , L = Γ|0⟩⟨1| , K = − L† L . (2)
2
Here |1⟩ denotes the state of presence of a particle and |0⟩ denotes the state
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

of its absence; m is the mass of the particle and Γ is its decay width. Despite
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

the fact that the state |0⟩ is usually called vacuum, it is not the vacuum in
the sense of quantum field theory, but rather in the sense used in [39], i.e., it
is the absence of a particle. This equation leads to the probability density of
finding the particle evolving according to the Geiger–Nutall exponential law.
However, the most natural quantum-mechanical description of systems
with variable number of particles is the second quantization formalism. For
systems governed by (1) the transition to second quantization is straightfor-
ward, since the operators (2) can be interpreted as the vacuum–one-particle
sector of the second quantized operators
√
b = mb
H a† b
a ≡ mN b, b = Γb
L a, (3)

where b a† are bosonic annihilation and creation operators, respectively:

a and b

a† )n
(b
[b a† ] = 1 ,
a, b b
a|0⟩ = 0 , |n⟩ = √ |0⟩ ; (4)
n!
vectors |n⟩ form the so-called occupation number basis. With this substitu-
tion we have
Kb = − 1 ΓN b.
2
If we substitute (3) into (1), we arrive at the master equation in the form

d ∗
Λ ρ = L∗ (Λ∗t ρ) , (5a)
dt t
where
b , ρ] − Γ b
L∗ (ρ) = −im[N {N , ρ} + Γb a† .
aρb (5b)
2
In the above we can recognize the equation introduced and studied in [29, 31,
32, 34]. Similar equations lead to evolution given by quasi-free semigroups,

1450003-3
 K. A. Smoliński

see e.g. [34, 40 – 47] and are also studied in the context of quantum optics
[48 – 51].
If we write down explicitly annihilation
√ and creation√ operators in occupa-
tion number basis, namely b akl = k + 1δk+1,l , b †
akl = l + 1δk,l+1 , so Nbkl =
kδkl (k, l = 0, 1, . . .), then we can view (5) as the following infinite
∑ system of
equations for matrix elements of the density operator Λ∗t ρ ≡ kl ρkl (t)|k ⟩⟨l |:
dρkl (t) [ 1 ] √
= i(k − l)m − (k + l)Γ ρkl (t) + (k + 1)(l + 1)Γρk+1,l+1 (t) , (6)
dt 2
for k, l = 0, 1, . . . . Thus we get infinite, in principle, system of linear differ-
ential equations of first order.
Notice that the system (6) seems to be highly non-trivial — the solu-
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

tion for ρkl (t) depends on a solution for ρk+1,l+1 (t), what apparently leads
to infinite chain of dependencies. What makes the system (6) solvable is the
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

proper choice of initial conditions. Indeed, for every reasonable initial physi-
cal state, the number of particles must be finite, so all matrix elements of ρ(0)
corresponding to higher number of particles must vanish. Mathematically, it
means that there exist indices r and s, such that
ρkl (0) = 0 for k>r and l > s. (7)
One can easily check that the system (6) with initial condition (7) gives us
the well-posed Cauchy problem.
Now, instead of directly solving equation (5) for some interesting choices
of initial state we concentrate on finding and studying the Kraus representa-
tion [52] of the evolution of the system.
Although Kraus operators for the evolution of the density operator gov-
erned by the master equation (5) were found in [53], here we give its another
formulation, now written in terms of annihilation/creation operators. It can
be easily checked that these two choices of Kraus operators coincide up to
phase factors. Despite this, we give the formal proof that proposed Kraus
operators lead to the evolution of the system undergoing equation (5), since
we will employ the technique used in the proof later on.
PROPOSITION 1 If for k = 0, 1, . . .:
1 (√ )k
c
Ek (t) = √ e−iM t 1 − e−Γt b
a , (8)
k!
c = (m − i Γ)N
where M b , then
2
∞
∑
Λ∗t ρ = Ek (t)ρEk† (t) (9)
k=0

is the solution of the master equation (5), where ρ is the density operator
given at initial time t = 0.

1450003-4
 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

Proof. First, let us note that for any k

1
a = e(im+ 2 Γ)t b
Ek (t)b aEk (t) , (10)
which follows immediately from canonical commutation relations. Using (10)
we can show by straightforward calculation that
dE0 (t) cE0 (t) ,
= −iM (11a)
dt
√ 1
dEk (t) cEk (t) + kΓe(im+ 2 Γ)t
= −iM √ b
aEk−1 (t) (11b)
dt 2 1 − e−Γt
(for k = 1, 2, . . .).
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Next, one can easily check that the following recurrence relations hold for
k = 1, 2, . . . √
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

1 − e−Γt (im+ 1 Γ)t

Ek (t) = √ e 2 b
aEk−1 (t) . (12)
k
Combining (12) and (11b) we can write (11) in the form
dEk (t) ( k Γe−Γt )
c
= − iM + Ek (t) , k = 0, 1, . . . . (13)
dt 2 1 − e−Γt
Now, let us compute the time derivative of the density operator Λ∗t ρ given
by (9):
∞ (
d ∗ ∑ dEk (t) † dE † (t) )
Λt ρ = ρEk (t) + Ek (t)ρ k
dt dt dt
k=0
∞
c ∗ c† Γe−Γt ∑
∗
= −i[M (Λt ρ) − (Λt ρ)M ] + −Γt
kEk (t)ρEk† (t) . (14)
1−e
k=1

Taking into account (12) the last term in (14) can be written as
∞ ∞
Γe−Γt ∑ †
∑ †
kE k (t)ρE (t) = Γb
a Ek−1 (t)ρEk−1 a† = Γb
(t)b a(Λ∗t ρ)b
a† .
1 − e−Γt k
k=1 k=1
(15)
Thus, the density operator obeys the master equation (5).
To complete the proof, we have to show that at the time t = 0 the density
operator Λ∗t ρ given by (9) is ρ. This is trivial, because obviously E0 (0) = id
and Ek (0) = 0 for k = 1, 2, . . .. 

It is easy to see that after writing out annihilation operators in occupation

number basis, Kraus operators (8) differ only by phase factors from those
found in [54, 53]. These phase factors become important when we try to
study the flavour oscillation phenomenon (see Sect. 4).

1450003-5
 K. A. Smoliński

PROPOSITION 2 If Ek (t) are given by (8), then

∞
∑
Ek† (t)Ek (t) = id . (16)
k=0

Proof. We start with the observation that for any element of occupation
number basis |n⟩ and any non-negative integer k
 √

 n!
|n − k ⟩ , n ≥ k ,
b
ak |n⟩ = (n − k)! (17a)


0, n < k,
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and √
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

† k (n + k)!
a ) |n⟩ =
(b |n + k ⟩ . (17b)
n!
Since
1 b k
Ek† (t)Ek (t) =
(1 − e−Γt )k (b
a† )k e−ΓN t b
a ,
k!
then, from (17), for any element of the occupation number basis
( )
† n ( )k
Ek (t)Ek (t)|n⟩ = 1 − e−Γt e−(n−k)Γt |n⟩ , (18)
k

when n ≥ k, and Ek† (t)Ek (t)|n⟩ = 0, when n < k. Thus,

∞
∑ ∑
n
Ek† (t)Ek (t)|n⟩ = Ek† (t)Ek (t)|n⟩
k=0 k=0
n ( )
∑ n ( )k
= 1 − e−Γt e−(n−k)Γt |n⟩ = |n⟩ . (19)
k
k=0
∑ †
Since ∞ k=0 Ek (t)Ek (t) acts as identity on any element of the basis, it must
be the identity operator. 

PROPOSITION 3 Vacuum state |0⟩⟨0| is stable under the evolution given

by (8) and (9). Moreover, limt→∞ Λ∗t ρ = |0⟩⟨0| for any density operator ρ.
Proof. Indeed, E0 (t)|0⟩ = |0⟩ and Ek (t)|0⟩ = 0 for k = 1, 2, . . ., so the
density operator |0⟩⟨0| is stable during the time evolution.
For the proof of the second statement, one can find that
√( )
n −(im+ 1 Γ)(n−k)t (√ )k
Ek (t)|n⟩ = e 2 1 − e−Γt |n − k ⟩ , (20)
k

1450003-6
 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

when n ≥ k, and vanishes otherwise. Next, observe that for Γ > 0


( √ ) k  0, n > k,
− 12 Γ(n−k)t −Γt
lim e 1−e = 1, n = k, (21)
t→∞ 
∞, n < k,
so, {
0 , n ̸= k ,
lim Ek (t)|n⟩ = (22)
t→∞ |0⟩ , n = k ,
and, consequently,
{
0, n ̸= n′ ,
lim Ek (t)|n⟩⟨n′ |Ek† (t) = (23)
t→∞ δnk |0⟩⟨0| , n = n′ .
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Thus, for any density operator ρ, limt→∞ Λ∗t ρ = tr(ρ)|0⟩⟨0| = |0⟩⟨0|. 

by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

Explicit solutions of (1) with operators (3) can be deduced from the re-
lation
min{n,n′ }
√( )( )
∑ n n′ −im(n−n′ )t
∗ ′
Λt |n⟩⟨n | = e
k k
k=0
′ ( )k
× e− 2 Γ(n+n −2k)t 1 − e−Γt |n − k ⟩⟨n′ − k | .
1
(24)
If we impose the superselection rule which forbids the superpositions of states
with different number of particles, then the density operator for a system
consisting of at most n particles is of the form
∑
n ∑
n
Λ∗t ρ = pk (t)|k ⟩⟨k | , pk (t) = 1 .
k=0 k=0

Thus, it is enough to solve equation (1) for an initial state of the form ρ =
|n⟩⟨n| for n being some non-negative integer (arbitrary, but finite), because
any density operator for the initial state is a linear combination of such states.
If the system is initially in the n-particle pure state, ρ = |n⟩⟨n|, then the
solution of equation (1) is
∑n ( )
∗ n −(n−k)Γt ( )k
Λt ρ = e 1 − e−Γt |n − k ⟩⟨n − k | .
k
k=0

The average number of particles changes in time as

b ] = ne−Γt .
⟨N (t)⟩ = tr[(Λ∗t ρ)N
We have thus recovered the Geiger–Nutall exponential decay law. It is worth
noting that the probability that at time t one finds exactly k particles from
initial n ones, has a binomial distribution B(n, e−Γt ) with probability e−Γt
of finding a single particle, as it can be expected.

1450003-7
 K. A. Smoliński

3. Heisenberg Picture

In Heisenberg picture, master equation for the evolution of an observable Ω

is of the form
d
Λt Ω = L(Λt Ω) , (25a)
dt
where
1{ † }
L(Ω) = i[H, Ω] + [L , Ω]L + L† [Ω, L] . (25b)
2
Note that
1
{[L† , Ω]L + L† [Ω, L]} = {K, Ω} + L† ΩL ,
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

2
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

but the form used in (25b) is usually more convenient when performing cal-
culations in the Heisenberg picture involving creation and annihilation oper-
ators.
Having a family of Kraus operators (8), the evolution of observable Ω can
be written as the series
∞
∑
Λt Ω = Ek† (t)ΩEk (t) . (26)
k=0

This representation is especially useful if we can find the decomposition of

the observable into its matrix elements in occupation basis:
∑
Ω = ωn,n′ |n⟩⟨n′ | . (27)
n,n′

√( )( ′ )
∞
∑
′ n+k n + k im(n−n′ )t
Λt |n⟩⟨n | = e
n n′
k=0
′ ( )k
× e− 2 Γ(n+n )t 1 − e−Γt |n + k ⟩⟨n′ + k | .
1
(28)

b n ≡ |n⟩⟨n|, the last equation can

Using projectors onto n-particle states, Π
be rewritten in a more covenient form
∞ ( )
∑
bn 1 k ( )k
bk .
Λt Π = n 1 − e−Γt Π (29)
(e − 1)
Γt n
k=n

PROPOSITION 4 b 0 = id.
lim Λt Π
t→∞

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 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

Proof. From (29) it follows that

∞
∑ ( )k
b0 =
Λt Π 1 − e−Γt bk ,
Π
k=0
∞
∑
b0 =
so lim Λt Π b k ≡ id.
Π 
t→∞
k=0
Physically, Proposition 4 tells us that after substantially long (mathemati-
cally infinite) period of time, the probability of finding vacuum reaches one,
irrespectively of the state of the system. In other words, in infinite time all
the Fock spaces collapse to the vacuum subspace.
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The evolution of creation and annihilation operators can be easily found

with use of relation (10):
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

a = e−(im+ 2 Γ)t b
1
Λt b a, (30a)
† (im− 12 Γ)t †
Λt b
a = e b
a . (30b)

Moreover, it is easy to check that in this case Λt Nb = Λt b

a† Λt b
a (which, in
general, does not hold). Indeed, using (10) we have
∞
∑ (∑
∞ )
b =
Λt N Ek† (t)b
a† b
aEk (t) = Ek† (t)b
a† Ek (t) e−i(m+ 2 Γ)t b
1
a† Λ t b
a = Λt b a.
k=0 k=0
(31)
Consequently, the evolution of the particle number observable is
b = e−Γt N
Λt N b; (32)
b , too.
we can get this result by solving (25a) for N
It is easy to find the mean number of particles for a given state with help
of (32). Here, we consider two examples: the pure state of exactly n particles
and a coherent state with given mean number of particles n̄.

EXAMPLE 1 If the system is in the pure state of n particles, then the mean
number of particles is simply

⟨N (t)⟩ = ne−Γt . (33)

Thus we get the exponential decay law again. Time evolution of the proba-
bility of finding exactly k particles follows from (29) and reads
( )
n −kΓt ( )n−k
pn (k, t) = e 1 − e−Γt , (34)
k

i.e., it is given by the binomial distribution B(n, e−Γt ).

1450003-9
 K. A. Smoliński

EXAMPLE 2 Let us assume that the system is in a coherent state |α⟩,

a|α⟩ = α|α⟩ ,

α ∈ C, i.e.
∑∞
−|α|2 /2 αk
|α⟩ = e √ |k ⟩ , (35)
k=0
k!
then
⟨N (t)⟩ = n̄e−Γt , (36)
where n̄ ≡ |α|2 is the mean number of particles in the coherent state |α⟩.
Probability of finding exactly k particles evolves in time according to
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1 ( −Γt )k −n̄e−Γt
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pn̄ (k, t) = n̄e e , (37)

k!
which is the Poisson distribution P (n̄e−Γt ).
Let us note that, if we consider the state being a mixture of k-particle
states with probability that k-particle state occurs given by the Poisson dis-
tribution with mean number of particles n̄, i.e.,
∞ −n̄ k
∑ e n̄
ρ = |k ⟩⟨k | , (38)
k!
k=0

then the mean number of particles in this state and probability of finding
exactly k particles are given by the formulae (36) and (37), respectively
(despite the fact that in this case we must find traces of the product of
observables with the density operator).

4. Particles of Different Types

Let us consider a system of particles of r different types (or carrying a quan-

tum number with r possible values), each type with mass mj and width Γj
for j = 1, . . . , r. For such a system we have

aj , b
[b ak ]∓ = 0 , [b a†k ]∓ = δjk ,
aj , b (39)

for j, k = 1, . . . , r, where [ · , · ]∓ denotes the commutator/anti-commutator,

respectively, and anti-commutators apply only if both j th - and k th -particles
are fermions. The states spanning the occupation number representation are
generated from the vacuum state via the formula

a†1 )n1 (b
(b a† )n2 · · · (b
a†r )nr
|n1 , n2 , . . . , nr ⟩ = √ 2 |0⟩ , (40)
n1 !n2 ! · · · nr !

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 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

where we identify |0, 0, . . . , 0⟩ ≡ |0⟩.

The master equation for the system takes the following forms

d ∗ ∑ r
b Λ∗t ρ] + {K,
Λt ρ = −i[H, b Λ∗t ρ} + b j (Λ∗t ρ)L
L b† , (41a)
j
dt
j=1
r {
∑ }
d b Λt Ω] + b † , Λt Ω]L
bj + L
b † [Λt Ω, L
bj ] ,
Λt Ω = i[H, [L j j (41b)
dt
j=1

b is the
in the Schrödinger and Heisenberg picture, respectively, where H
Hamiltonian of the system and
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√ ∑
r
bj =
L Γj b
aj , b = −1
K b † Lj ,
L c = H
M b + iK
b. (42)
j
2
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

j=1

c, b
If [M aj ] = −(mj − 2i Γj )b
aj for j = 1, . . . , r, then we can easily construct the
Kraus operators solving (41)
(√ ) kj
− −Γj t b
c ∏ 1 e aj
Ek (t) = e−iM t √ , (43)
k1 ,...,kr
kj !
k1 +···+kr =k

where the product is taken over all possible partitions of k into exactly r
addends, such that k1 + k2 + · · · + kr = k, where
kj ∈ N 0 , j th -particles are bosons , (44a)
kj ∈ {0, 1} , j th -particle is a fermion , (44b)
for j = 1, . . . , r.
EXAMPLE 3 Let us consider the evolution of a system of two flavour parti-
cles (e.g., particles and their anti-particles). We denote the creation operators
for these particles by b a†1 and ba†2 . The basis for the system is built up from
the states of the form
a†1 )n1 (b
(b a†2 )n2
|n1 , n2 ⟩ = √ |0⟩ . (45)
n1 !n2 !

Let these states be the common eigenstates of two observables, N b =ba†1 b

a1 +
b†
a2 (number of particles) and Sb = b
a2 b †
a1 b
a1 − b†
a2 b
a2 (say strangeness or lepton
number), i.e.,
b |n1 , n2 ⟩ = (n1 + n2 )|n1 , n2 ⟩ ,
N
b 1 , n2 ⟩ = (n1 − n2 )|n1 , n2 ⟩ .
S|n

1450003-11
 K. A. Smoliński

If the states (45) are not eigenstates of the time evolution, the phenomenon
known as the flavour oscillation may occur.
To describe such a situation, let us assume that the Hamiltonian and
Lindblad operators for the system are of the form

Hb = m1 b
c†1 b c†2 b
c1 + m2 b c2 , (46a)
√
b
L1 = Γ1 bc1 , (46b)
√
b2 =
L Γ2 bc2 , (46c)

c†1 , b
where b c†2 are connected with b
a†1 , b
a†2 by unitary transformation:
( θ † θ †)
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

c†1 = eiχ ei(ϕ+ψ)/2 cos b

b a1 + e−i(ϕ−ψ)/2 sin b a , (47a)
2 2 2
( θ †)
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

θ †
c†2 = eiχ − ei(ϕ−ψ)/2 sin b
b a1 + e−i(ϕ+ψ)/2 cos b a . (47b)
2 2 2
( ) † ( ) †
Since Mc = m1 − i Γ1 b c1 b
c1 + m2 − 2i Γ2 b c2 b
c2 , we can easily find the
2
evolution of b
cj :
cj = e−(imj + 2 Γj )t b
1
Λt b cj , j = 1, 2 . (48)
Using (47) we get the evolution of b
aj :
1 −(im1 + 1 Γ1 )t [ ]
Λt b
a1 = e 2 b
a1 (1 + cos θ) + b a2 eiϕ sin θ
2
1 [ ]
+ e−(im2 + 2 Γ2 )t b
1
a1 (1 − cos θ) − ba2 eiϕ sin θ , (49a)
2
1 −(im1 + 1 Γ1 )t [ ]
Λt b
a2 = e 2 b
a2 (1 + cos θ) − b a1 e−iϕ sin θ
2
1 [ ]
+ e−(im2 + 2 Γ2 )t b a1 e−iϕ sin θ .
1
a2 (1 − cos θ) + b (49b)
2
The time evolution of the observables can be obtained either by solving (41b)
or directly from relations (49), using argumentation analogous to (31). For
example, for the number of particles we get
−Γ1 t + e−Γ2 t −Γ1 t − e−Γ2 t
b = e
Λt N b+e
N [Sb cos θ + Q
b + sin θ] , (50)
2 2

where Q b+ = ba†1 b a†2 b

a2 eiϕ + b a1 e−iϕ , so the mean value in the state |n1 , n2 ⟩ is
the following

e−Γ1 t + e−Γ2 t e−Γ1 t − e−Γ2 t

⟨N (t)⟩ = (n1 + n2 ) + (n1 − n2 ) cos θ (51)
2 2
and is depicted in Fig. 1.

1450003-12
 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

3.0

2.5

2.0
Z N Ht L^

1.5
`

1.0
Θ ‡0
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

0.5
Θ ‡Π
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
t

Fig. 1: (Colour online) Number of particles for system with two flavours for
mixing angles θ = 0, π4 , π2 , 3π
4 , π (from right to left) with n1 = 2 and n2 = 1,
and Γ1 < Γ2 (time unit is τ = 1/Γ).

Similarly, for the strangeness (or lepton number) we get

e−Γ1 t − e−Γ2 t b
Λt Sb = N cos θ + e−Γt sin(∆mt)Q b − sin θ
2
[ e−Γ1 t + e−Γ2 t ]
+ cos2 θ + e−Γt cos(∆mt) sin2 θ Sb
2
[ e−Γ1 t + e−Γ2 t ]
+ − e−Γt cos(∆mt) Q b + sin θ cos θ , (52)
2

b − = i(b
where Q a†1 b a†2 b
a2 eiϕ − b a1 e−iϕ ), Γ = 21 (Γ1 + Γ2 ) and ∆m = m2 − m1 . The
mean value of this observable in the state |n1 , n2 ⟩ is

e−Γ1 t − e−Γ2 t
⟨S(t)⟩ = (n1 + n2 ) cos θ (53)
2
[ e−Γ1 t + e−Γ2 t ]
+ cos2 θ + e−Γt cos(∆mt) sin2 θ (n1 − n2 )
2

and is shown in Fig. 2.

Let us pay our attention to the two extreme cases: θ = 0 (no flavour
mixing) and θ = π2 (maximal mixing). For θ = 0 we have b
ci = b
ai , so the time

1450003-13
 K. A. Smoliński

1.0

Θ ‡0
0.8

0.6 Θ ‡ А 4
Z SHt L^

0.4
`

0.2 Θ ‡ А 2

0.0
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

- 0.2 Θ ‡ 3А 4
by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

Θ ‡Π

0 1 2 3 4 5
t

Fig. 2: (Colour online) Strangeness of system with two flavours for different
values of mixing angle with n1 = 2 and n2 = 1, and Γ1 < Γ2 (time unit is
τ = 1/Γ).

evolution of the observables is

Λt Nb = 1 e−Γ1 t (Nb + S)
b + 1 −Γ2 t b b
e (N − S) , (54a)
2 2
1 −Γ1 t b b 1 −Γ2 t b b
Λt Sb = e (S + N ) + e (S − N ) . (54b)
2 2
Their mean values in the state |n1 , n2 ⟩ are
⟨N (t)⟩ = e−Γ1 t n1 + e−Γ2 t n2 , (55a)
⟨S(t)⟩ = e−Γ1 t n1 − e−Γ2 t n2 . (55b)
For θ = π2 , ϕ = 2π, ψ = π and χ = 3π
2 we have
1 †
c†1 =
b √ (b a†2 ) ,
a1 + b
2
1 †
c†2 =
b √ (b a†2 ) ,
a1 − b
2
and the time evolution of the observables is given by

b 1 ( −Γ1 t ) ( )
b + 1 e−Γ1 t − e−Γ2 t Qb+ ,
Λt N = e + e−Γ2 t N (56a)
2 2
Λt Sb = e−Γt cos(∆mt)Sb + e−Γt sin(∆mt)Q b− . (56b)

1450003-14
 Many Unstable Particles from an Open Quantum System’s Perspective

The mean values of these observables in the state |n1 , n2 ⟩ are

1 ( −Γ1 t )
⟨N (t)⟩ = e + e−Γ2 t (n1 + n2 ) , (57a)
2
⟨S(t)⟩ = e−Γt cos(∆mt)(n1 − n2 ) , (57b)

so we get oscillations of the quantum number S. It is worth noting, that for

the particles such as K or B mesons we can use this result only as a first
approximation, since for these particles the transformation which “diagonal-
izes” the master equation is non-unitary due to CP -violation. For the sake
of brevity, we do not discuss the violated CP -symmetry here but preliminary
calculations show the agreement with values for masses and life-times of neu-
Open Syst. Inf. Dyn. 2014.21. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

tral K or B mesons estimated on the basis of traditional Wigner–Weisskopf

by Dr. Kordian Smolinski on 09/09/14. For personal use only.

approach.

5. Conclusions

We have analysed a class of master equations built up from creation and an-
nihilation operators which generate dynamical semigroups that can describe
the exponential decay and flavour oscillations for a system of many particles.
We have shown, in this case, how this dynamical semigroup can be written
in the Schrödinger as well as Heisenberg picture. This allowed us to choose
the picture which seems to be more convenient for the description of the
system under consideration. Moreover, we have found the solution for a free
particle master equation in the form of Kraus representation in the language
of annihilation and creation operators. Although this Kraus representation
is given by an infinite series, in the Schrödinger picture it reduces to a fi-
nite sum, whenever the initial state has a finite number of particles. On the
other hand, in the Heisenberg picture the commutation relations between
observables and Kraus operators sometimes allow us to find the observable
evolution in a closed form without explicit summation of the series.
Notice that if we cut the presented approach to the one-zero particle
sector, we get the theory given in [35] (neglecting the decoherence).
In this paper we restrict our analysis only to states labelled by a discrete
index, and not by a continuous parameter (like e.g. momentum). Despite the
fact that introducing a continuous parameter causes creation and annihilation
operators to become operator-valued distributions, it seems to us that the
approach introduced here should also be applicable.
We left open the question whether it is possible to apply our approach to
describe the processes other than exponential decay, like e.g. decoherence or
different decay laws. The preliminary investigations suggest that there exists
a positive answer.

1450003-15
 K. A. Smoliński

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Edu-
cation under Contract No. NN202 103738.

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