MUK207

Mechanics of Materials
PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL
ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Geometric Properties of an Area -
RECALL
we can have a centre of gravity, a centre of
weight, a centre of mass and a centre of
volume, we can have a centre of area. The
centre of area is called the centroid.
It is also defined from the first moment of an
area (the term moment comes from the
moment of a force about a point).
We have already covered the moment of a
force about a point when we looked at Shear
Force Diagrams and Bending Moment
Diagrams.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Centroids of Composite
In Engineering structural members with regular
shapes can be squares, rectangles, circles,
triangles, square hollow sections, rectangular
hollow sections, circle hollow sections, ‘I’ shape
sections, Channel shape sections, ‘T’ sections
and angle shape sections.
Often an area can be divided into several parts,
each part having a regular geometric shape.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Symmetry Conditions
You can use advantage of symmetry shapes to
find the centroid.
The left figure is a channel section which has
horizontal symmetry. The I shape section in the
right figure has both horizontal and vertical
symmetry. The centroid lies on the symmetric
axis for both. So, in the channel section, we
have an x-axis which is also a symmetric axis.
The centroid lies on this x-axis.
For the I section, the second figure, the centroid
lies on the intersection of the x-axis and y-axis

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Procedure for Analysis:
1. Divide the composite area into simpler areas for
which there exist formulas for area and for the
coordinates of the centroid. (see the table inside
the front cover.)
2. Establish a convenient set of reference axes (x, y).
3. Calculate the coordinates of the composite
centroid, (x, y), using Eq. (A- 2).

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Example

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Moment of Inertia
There are some topics in mechanics of materials
that require evaluation of an integral of the second
moment of an area, this integral is referred to as
the moment of inertia.
Note that the moment of inertia about the
centroid x-axis is Ix, the moment of inertia about
the centroid y-axis is Iy. The Ix and Iy values will
be used in bending of beams (we will look at
this in the next lecture summary). Ix is the
integral of y squared times dA over the area. Iy
is the integral of x squared times dA over the
area.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Polar Moment of Inertia
Remember that the moment of inertia
about the centroid x-axis is Ix, the moment
of inertia about the centroid y-axis is Iy, and
the moment of inertia about the origin is J0.
These are always positive values

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

RADII OF GYRATION PARALLEL AXİS THEOREM

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Bending

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

What is Beam
Members that are slender and support loadings that
are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal axis
are called beams.
In general, beams are long, straight bars having a
constant cross-sectional area.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Reaction Forces
• Reaction forces mean forces from support
(constraints)
• Reaction forces aim to stop the movement of
structure (Keep the structure in equilibrium)
• Reaction forces meet the requirement of
“equilibrium equations”
• Reaction forces change when loads change

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

What does Equilibrium mean?
ΣMA=0; ΣMB=0; ΣMC=0......
• Equilibrium means that structural member is
subjected to a balanced force system (including
loads and reaction forces)
• A balanced force system means all forces taking
moment about any point will lead to
total moment =0.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Beam Sign Convention
The positive directions require the distributed load
to act downward on the beam;
the internal shear force to cause a clockwise
rotation of the beam segment on which it acts;
and the internal moment to cause compression in
the top fibre of the segment.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

In Case A: Once you cut the beam, you need to know if
the shear force is positive or negative. If the left beam
segment goes up and the right beam segment goes
down, then this type of shear force called positive shear
force.
In Case B: If the left beam segment goes down and the
right beam segment goes up, then this type of shear
force is called negative shear force.
In Case 1: if we have bending moment ‘M’ acting as
shown in the figure, then the top part of the beam
segment is in compression and the bottom part of the
beam segment is in tension. So this type of bending
moment is called positive bending moment.
In Case 2: if we have bending moment ‘M’ acting as
shown in the figure, then the top part of the beam
segment is in tension and the bottom part of the beam
segment is in compression. So this type of bending
moment is called negative bending moment.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Shear and Moment Diagram
Because of the applied loadings, beams develop an
internal shear force and bending moment that, in
general, vary from point to point along the axis of
the beam.
In order to properly design a beam it therefore
becomes necessary to determine the maximum shear
and moment in the beam.
Shear and moment functions can then be plotted and
represented by graphs called shear and moment
diagrams. The maximum values of V and M can
then be obtained from these graphs.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Procedure for Analysis
•Calculate reaction forces
•Draw free body diagram with cutting at the
calculating point. For cutting at continuous points,
there are three internal actions: normal
force(usually =0), shear force and bending moment.
•Calculate shear force and bending moment at
important points based on equilibrium equations

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Example: Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example: Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Graphical Method for Constructing Shear and Moment
Diagrams
Construct shear force and bending moment
diagrams based on the relations among distributed
load, shear, and moment.
The graphic method is based on the
relationship between shear force and external
loading and the relationship between bending
moment and shear force. We can draw the
shear force diagram and bending moment
diagram based on these two relationships.
The distributed load, which is approximately
constant over Δx, has been replaced by a resultant
force w(x) Δx that acts at 1/2(Δx ) from the right
side.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Applying the equations of equilibrium to the
segment, we have:

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

These two equations provide a convenient means for quickly obtaining the
shear and moment diagrams for a beam. Equation 6–1 states that at a point
the slope of the shear diagram equals the intensity of the distributed loading.
For example, consider the beam in Fig. 6–9 a .
The distributed loading is negative and increases from zero to wB .
Therefore, the shear diagram will be a curve that has a negative slope,
increasing from zero to - wB . Specific slopes wA = 0, - wC, - wBD, and - wB are
shown in Fig. 6–9 b .
In a similar manner, Eq. 6–2 states that at a point the slope of the moment
diagram is equal to the shear. Notice that the shear diagram in Fig. 6–9 b
starts at +VA, decreases to zero, and then becomes negative and decreases to
-VB . The moment diagram will then have an initial slope of +VA which
decreases to zero, then the slope becomes negative and decreases to -VB .
Specific slopes VA, VC, VD, 0, and -VB are shown in Fig. 6–9 c

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Equation 6–3 states that the change in shear
between C and D is equal to the area under the
distributed-loading curve between these two points,
Fig. 6–9 d . In this case the change is negative since
the distributed load acts downward.
Similarly, from Eq. 6–4 , the change in moment
between C and D, Fig. 6–9 f , is equal to the area
under the shear diagram within the region from C to
D. Here the change is positive

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Recall from Statics (Engineering
Mechanics)

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Procedure for Analysis
Support Reactions. Moment Diagram.
• Determine the support reactions and resolve the forces • Establish the M and x axes and plot the known
acting on the beam into components that are values of the moment at the ends of the beam.
perpendicular and parallel to the beam’s axis.
Shear Diagram. • Notice how the values of the shear diagram vary
along the beam, and realize that each of these
• Establish the V and x axes and plot the known values values indicates the way the moment diagram will
of the shear at the two ends of the beam. slope ( dM/dx = V ).
• Notice how the values of the distributed load vary • At the point where the shear is zero, dM/dx = 0,
along the beam, and realize that each of these values and therefore this would be a point of maximum
indicates the way the shear diagram will slope or minimum moment.
(dV/dx = w). Here w is positive when it acts upward.
• If a numerical value of the shear is to be determined at
a point, one can find this value either by using the
method of sections and the equation of force
equilibrium

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example: Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each of the beams

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Example: Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the cantilever beam

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example: The shaft in Figis supported by a thrust bearing at
A and a journal bearing at B . Draw the shear and moment diagrams

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
6.3. Bending Deformation of Straight
Member
Assumptions:
◦ The member have a cross-sectional area that is
symmetrical with respect to an axis,
◦ The bending moment is applied about an axis
perpendicular to this axis of symmetry.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Radius of Curvature
After deformation, the beam deforms into a
curved line. An important parameter here is
the curvature. We can draw two perpendicular
lines to the tangent lines of two points m1 and
m2 of the deformed shape, and at the
intersection of those perpendicular lines is O
dash, which will be the centre of curvature, as
shown in the figure. The length of this line is
denoted by rho

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

 From the geometry of the figure, we can see
that the radius ‘rho’ and the centre of the
curve is O dash. The distance between m1 and
m2 is ‘ds’ which is equal to rho times ‘d theta’

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
 Once you apply bending moment, the beam deforms
into a curve, as shown in the figure. We assumed the
plane cross sections remain plane before bending and
after bending. That means that the cross sections m-n
and p-q lines are straight before bending and after
bending. Here we consider the symmetry cross section,
with the axis y-y bent into a circular curve, as shown in
the figure, and we can say that this bending causes the
top part of the beam to be in tension and the bottom
part of the beam to be in compression, because we
applied negative bending moment. Real bending
moment should be negative M0. Because the top fibre
of the beam is in tension and the bottom fibre of the
beam is in compression, somewhere in between the
top fibre and the bottom fibre will not change. Assume
that there is no compression and no tension at the s-s
surface. That means that there is no normal strain in
this surface. We have tension in the top surface and
compression in the bottom surface and there is no
change at the s-s. S-s is called a neutral surface.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Consider the undeformed bar in Fig. 6–19 a , which has
a square cross section and is marked with longitudinal
and transverse grid lines.
When a bending moment is applied, it tends to distort
these lines into the pattern shown in Fig. 6–19 b .
Notice that the longitudinal lines become curved and
the vertical transverse lines remain straight and yet
undergo a rotation.
The bending moment causes the material within the
bottom portion of the bar to stretch and the material
within the top portion to compress .
Consequently, between these two regions there must
be a surface, called the neutral surface, in which
longitudinal fibers of the material will not undergo a
change in length

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

 The intersection of the neutral surface with
any cross section plane is called the neutral
axis. For example, we have an s-s neutral
surface, and we have this cross section in the
beam. The z-line is a neutral axis as shown in
the figure. In a neutral axis, we don’t have any
longitudinal deformation, we don’t have any
normal or normal stress

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

The following three assumptions are considered in this
analysis:
1. the longitudinal axis x , which lies within the neutral
surface, Fig. 6–20 a , does not experience any change in
length. Rather the moment will tend to deform the beam
so that this line becomes a curve that lies in the x – y
plane of symmetry, Fig. 6–20 b .
2. all cross sections of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during the
deformation.
3. any deformation of the cross section within its own
plane, as noticed in Fig. 6–19 b , will be neglected. In
particular, the z axis, lying in the plane of the cross
section and about which the cross section rotates, is
called the neutral axis.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
This equation shown that the longitudinal
strains in the beam are proportional to the
curvature and that they vary linearly with the
distance y from the neutral surface. When a
fibre is below the neutral surface, the distance
y is positive; if the curvature also is positive,
then x will be a negative strain, representing
a shortening.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Normal Stresses in Beams

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

The Position of Neutral Axis

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

In order to show how this distortion will strain the
material, we will isolate a small segment of the beam
located a distance x along the beam’s length and having
an undeformed thickness Δx.
This element, taken from the beam, is shown in profile
view in the undeformed and deformed. Notice that any
line segment Δx, located on the neutral surface, does
not change its length, whereas any line segment Δs,
located at the arbitrary distance y above the neutral
surface, will contract and become Δs’ after deformation.
Thus normal strain along Δs is determined from Eq. 2–2:

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
This important result (ε= -y/ρ) indicates that the
longitudinal normal strain of any element within the
beam depends on its location y on the cross-section
and the radius of curvature of the beam’s
longitudinal axis at the point.
In other words, for any specific cross section, the
longitudinal normal strain will vary linearly with y
from the neutral axis. A contraction (- ε) will occur in
fibers located above the neutral axis (+y), whereas
elongation (+ ε) will occur in fibers located below the
axis (-y).

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

 When a moment is applied to the beam, it will only
cause a normal stress in the longitudinal or x direction.
All the other components of normal and shear stress will
be zero.
It is this uniaxial state of stress that causes the material
to have the longitudinal normal strain component εx in
Eq. 6–8
Note that Poisson’s ratio are
εy = - γεx and εz = - γεx,
which deform the plane of the cross-sectional area,
although here we have neglected these deformations.
Such deformations will, however, cause the cross-
sectional dimensions to become smaller below the
neutral axis and larger above the neutral axis.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

if the beam has a square cross section, the
deformation on the cross-section will be given
on the picture

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

6.4. Flexure Formula
we assume that the material behaves in a
linear-elastic manner and therefore a linear
variation of normal strain, Fig. 6–24 a , must
then be the result of a linear variation in
normal stress, Fig. 6–24 b .
σ will vary from zero at the member’s neutral
axis to a maximum value, σmax, at a distance c
farthest from the neutral axis.
Because of the proportionality of triangles, Fig.
6–23 b , or by using Hooke’s law, σ = Eε, and
Eq. 6–8 , we can write

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
the resultant force produced by the stress
distribution over the cross-sectional area must
be equal to zero. Noting that the force

dF = σdA acts on the arbitrary element dA

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
The integral represents the moment of inertia
of the cross-sectional area about the neutral
axis. We will symbolize its value as I.
Hence, Eq. 6–11 can be solved for σmax:

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Procedure for Analysis
Internal Moment. Normal Stress.
• Section the member at the point where the bending • Specify the location y, measured perpendicular to the
or normal stress is to be determined, and obtain the neutral axis to the point where the normal stress is to
internal moment M at the section. The centroidal or be determined. Then apply the equation σ = -My/I, or
neutral axis for the cross section must be known, since if the maximum bending stress is to be calculated, use
M must be calculated about this axis. σmax = -My/I. When substituting the data, make sure
the units are consistent.
• If the absolute maximum bending stress is to be
determined, then draw the moment diagram in order
to determine the maximum moment in the member.
Section Property.
• Determine the moment of inertia of the cross-
sectional area about the neutral axis. Methods used for
its calculation are discussed in Appendix A , and a table
listing values of I for several common shapes is given
on the inside front cover.

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

Example: A beam has a rectangular cross section and is subjected
to the stress distribution. Determine the internal moment M at the section caused
by the stress distribution
(a) using the flexure formula,
(b) by finding the resultant of the stress distribution using basic principles

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
Example

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES
References
Prof. Xing’s Notes
Prof. Uddin’s notes
Mechanics of Materials by Hibbler

PROF. DR. LEVENT ÖNAL COURSE NOTES