Notes 6

Mechanical and Electrical

Vibrations

Here we briefly discuss some basic applications of the 2nd order linear ODEs with constant
coefficients in mechanical or electrical vibrations.

6.1 Basic Mechanical Vibrations

Recall first that the function u(t) = A cos ωt + B sin ωt can be rewritten in the form

u(t) = R cos(ωt − δ),

√ B 2π
where R = A2 + B 2 , tan δ = . The period of u(t) is T = , and the amplitude is
A ω
R. δ is called the phase, or phase angle.
The following types of graphs are often used to describe free and damped vibrations
respectively in mechanics. models.
√
3 3 3
u(t) = 2 cos 2t + 2 sin 2t u(t) = Re−kt cos(ωt − δ)
4 4
u = 3cos(2t-π/3) u = 3e-t/3cos(2t-π/3)
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 2 4 6 8 10

u(t) oscillates periodically. lim u(t) = 0, while u(t) oscillates indefinitely.

t→∞

Example 6.1.1 Undamped Free Vibrations

Let u(t) be the displacement of a mass attached to a spring from its equilibrium
position on a horizontal surface without fiction. By Newton’s 2nd Law and Hooke’s Law,
there is a positive spring constant k such that

29
 30

d2 u u(t) Hooke's Law

m = −ku
dt2 spring force = -ku

d2 u
m + ku = 0
dt2 equilibruim
position

It is well-known that the general solution of the differential equation is

u = A cos ω0 t + B sin ω0 t,
q
k 2π
where ω0 = m is called the natural frequency of the periodic motion with period ω0 .

Example 6.1.2 Damped Free Mechanical Vibrations

Let’s sink the spring-mass system into some kind of oil, and suppose that the dragging
force is proportional to the the velocity of the mass. Then the motion of the mass is
governed by the differential equation
spring force = -ku
mu′′ = dragging force + spring force
u(t)
oil
′′ ′
mu = −γu − ku

mu′′ + γu′ + ku = 0 dragging force

proportional
to velocity

Recall that the general solution of the equation is completely determined by the roots
of the characteristic equation mr 2 + γr + k = 0.

Example 6.1.3 Forced Vibrations

If an external force f (t) is also applied to the mass, then the equation of motion is a
second order nonhomogeneous linear ode with nonnegative constant coefficients.

mu′′ + γu′ + ku = f (t)

6.2 Damped Free Mechanical Vibrations

In a damped free vibration, motion of the mass depends on the roots of the characteristic
equation mr 2 + γr + k = 0; i.e.,
p s
−γ ± γ 2 − 4mk γ  4km 
r= = −1± 1− 2
2m 2m γ

Note that either both roots are negative real numbers, or non-real.
 31

Case Roots Solution/Vibration Motion

γ 2 − 4mk > 0 r1 , r2 < 0 u = Aer1 t + Ber2 t lim u(t) = 0
t→∞
overdamped No oscillation
γ
γ 2 − 4mk = 0 r = − 2m <0 u = Aert + Btert lim u(t) = 0
t→∞
critically damped No oscillation
γ
t
γ2 − 4km < 0 complex u = Re− 2m
cos(µt − δ) lim u(t) = 0
t→∞
damped oscillation

Example 6.2.1 (Critically damped vibration)

u′′ + u′ + 14 u = 0 =⇒ u = Ae−t/2 + Bte−t/2
The following picture shows the solution curves with various initial values:

2
u(0) = 0.5, u′ (0) = 1.75
⇒ u = (0.5 + 2t)e−t/2 1.5

u(0) = 0.5, u′ (0) = 0.75 1

⇒ u = (0.5 + t)e−t/2 0.5

u(0) = 0.5, u′ (0) = −1.75 0

⇒ u = (0.5 − 1.5t)e−t/2 -0.5

-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Example 6.2.2 (Damped vs Undamped Oscillation)

Damped Free Vibration

u′′ + 18 u′ + u = 0 3
Comparison of Damped and Undamped Free Vibrations
u(0) = 2, u′ (0) = 0  2
√
u= √32 e−t/16 cos 255
255 16 t −δ 1

Undamped Free Vibration 0

u′ + u = 0 -1

u(0) = 2, u′ (0) = 0 -2
u = 2 cos t
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50

6.3 Forced Vibrations with Damping

Suppose an external force f (t) is also applied to the mass. The equation of motion is
then given by
mu′′ + γu′ + ku = f (t).
 32

The general soltuion of such an equation is of the form

u= c1 u1 (t) + c2 u2 (t) + up (t)

| {z } | {z }
transient solution particular solution
→ 0 as t → ∞

Example 6.3.1 Suppose a periodic external force with amplitude F0 is given. Then

mu′′ + γu′ + ku = F0 cos ωt

The form of a particular solution is well-known by tbe method of undetermined coefficients

u = c1 u1 (t) + c2 u2 (t) + A
| cos ωt {z
+ B sin ωt}
=R cos(ωt−δ)

After a bit of work, one can find that

F0
R= p
m2 (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2
m(ω02 − ω 2 )
cos δ = p
m2 (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2
γω
sin δ = p
m2 (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2
q
k
where ω0 = m is the natural frequency.

With what frequency ω of the external force can the amplitude1 R of the forced
response reach its maximum? (Hint: Minimize m2 (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω 2 .)
A simple case: m = k = F0 = 1

u′′ + γu′ + u = cos ωt, u(0) = u′ (0) = 0

1
R= p
(1 − ω 2 )2 + γ 2 ω2
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

1
Roughly speaking, a small external force (or ‘input function’) might result in large response (or
‘output function’). This kind of phenomena is known as resonance.
 33

Graph of Rγ = Rγ (ω),
for γ = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.25, 0.5 respectively.

Roughly speaking, when γ is small, R(ω) may be quite large when ω is near the
natural frequency ω0 , even if the external force is small.

Example 6.3.2 Forced Vibration Without Damping

Suppose there is no damping term, and the equation of motion is given by

mu′′ + ku = F0 cos ωt
q
k
with natural frequency = ω0 = m .
Depending on whether ω is equal to ω0 or not, we have the following cases:

• Case I - Beats: ω 6= ω0
General solution:
F0
u = c1 cos ω0 t + c2 sin ω0 t + cos ωt
m(ω02 − ω2)

Solutions are periodic, with a periodic variation of amplitudes.

• Case II - Resonance: ω = ω0
General solution:
F0
u = c1 cos ω0 t + c2 sin ω0 t + t sin ω0 t
2mω0

Unbounded oscillations!

Example 6.3.3 (Beat)

3t
u′′ + u = cos , u(0) = u′ (0) = 0.
4
Solution: u = − 16 3t
7 (cos t − cos 4 ), periodic with a periodic variation of amplitudes.

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Example (Resonance)

u′′ + u = cos t, u(0) = u′ (0) = 0.

 34

Solution: u = 12 t sin t, unbounded.

25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
0 10 20 30 40 50

6.4 Electrical Vibrations

The same sort of discussion can be applied to LRC circuits, which is governed by the
differential equation
d2 Q dQ 1
L 2 +R + Q = E(t)
dt dt C
where L = inductance, R = resistance, C = capacitance, E(t) = impressed voltage, and
Q(t) is the total charge on the capacitor at time t.
dQ
Note that the current in the circuit is given by I = . The differential equation is
dt
then given by the Kirchhoff’s Law in circuit theory: the sum of the voltage drops across
the resister (given by IR), the capacitor ( giver byQ/C) and the inductor (given by L dI
dt )
is equal to the impressed voltage (given by E) of the circuit; i.e.,

dI 1
L + RI + Q = E(t)
dt C
Note that by differentiate the equation again, we have

LI ′′ + RI ′ + I/C = E ′ (t).

Resistance R C Capacitance

L
I inductance

E(t)