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Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java: Creating and Programming Advanced Algorithms with Java SE 17 LTS and Jakarta EE 10 1st Edition Stefania Loredana Nita download

The document is a comprehensive guide on cryptography and cryptanalysis using Java SE 17 LTS and Jakarta EE 10, authored by Stefania Loredana Nita and Marius Iulian Mihailescu. It covers various topics including classical cryptography, symmetric and asymmetric encryption, hash functions, and advanced encryption schemes. The book also provides practical implementations and algorithms, making it a valuable resource for developers and researchers in the field of cryptography.

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100% found this document useful (2 votes)
12 views

Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java: Creating and Programming Advanced Algorithms with Java SE 17 LTS and Jakarta EE 10 1st Edition Stefania Loredana Nita download

The document is a comprehensive guide on cryptography and cryptanalysis using Java SE 17 LTS and Jakarta EE 10, authored by Stefania Loredana Nita and Marius Iulian Mihailescu. It covers various topics including classical cryptography, symmetric and asymmetric encryption, hash functions, and advanced encryption schemes. The book also provides practical implementations and algorithms, making it a valuable resource for developers and researchers in the field of cryptography.

Uploaded by

fazleecvite
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Cryptography and
Cryptanalysis in Java
Creating and Programming Advanced
Algorithms with Java SE 17 LTS
and Jakarta EE 10

Stefania Loredana Nita


Marius Iulian Mihailescu
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java: Creating and Programming Advanced
Algorithms with Java SE 17 LTS and Jakarta EE 10
Stefania Loredana Nita Marius Iulian Mihailescu
Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8104-8 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8105-5


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8105-5

Copyright © 2022 by Stefania Loredana Nita and Marius Iulian Mihailescu


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Table of Contents
About the Authors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ix

About the Technical Reviewer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xi

Chapter 1: Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
Cryptography and Cryptanalysis��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Book Structure������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4
Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6

Chapter 2: J DK 17: New Features����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9


Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18

Chapter 3: R
 oadmap and Vision for Jakarta EE 10������������������������������������������������� 21
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28

Chapter 4: J ava Cryptography Architecture����������������������������������������������������������� 29


Architecture and Design Principles��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
JCA Classes and Algorithms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34
Algorithms and Engine Classes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Interfaces and Main Classes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Data Encryption��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Hash Functions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
Signatures����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 5: C
 lassical Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47
Caesar Cipher������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 48
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Vigenère Cipher��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
Hill Cipher����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
Implementation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Cryptanalysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68

Chapter 6: F ormal Techniques for Cryptography���������������������������������������������������� 71


Definitions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
Probabilities and Statistics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
Conditional Probability����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Random Variables������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 74
Entropy���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
A Little Algebra���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Elliptic Curves����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84

Chapter 7: P
 seudorandom Number Generators������������������������������������������������������ 87
Examples of PRNGs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Linear Congruential PRNGs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Blum-Blum-Shub PRNG��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
Linear Circuit PRNGs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90
Other PRNGs�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
PRNGs Security���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
Java.util.Random Class��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92

vi
Table of Contents

Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97

Chapter 8: H
 ash Functions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 101
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110

Chapter 9: S
 ymmetric Encryption Algorithms������������������������������������������������������ 113
Data Encryption Standard��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
The Generation of Keys������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
Encryption and Decryption Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 116
Operation Modes for DES���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117
Advanced Encryption Standard������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Encryption and Decryption Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 123
Operation Modes for AES����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130

Chapter 10: A
 symmetric Encryption Schemes����������������������������������������������������� 131
RSA������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
ElGamal������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Merkle-Hellman������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 143
The Knapsack Approach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 143
Algorithms��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 144
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145

Chapter 11: S
 ignature Schemes��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156

vii
Table of Contents

Chapter 12: Identification Schemes��������������������������������������������������������������������� 159


FFS Identification protocol�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170

Chapter 13: L attice-Based Cryptography and NTRU��������������������������������������������� 173


Practical Implementation of the NTRU Library�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192

Chapter 14: A
 dvanced Encryption Schemes��������������������������������������������������������� 195
Homomorphic Encryption��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
Searchable Encryption�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201

Chapter 15: C
 ryptography Tools��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
CryptTool����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
OpenSSL����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 215
Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 221
References�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223

viii
About the Authors
Stefania Loredana Nita, PhD, is a lecturer at “Ferdinand I” Military Technical Academy
of Bucharest and a software developer and researcher at the Institute for Computers. Her
PhD thesis was on advanced cryptographic schemes using searchable encryption and
homomorphic encryption. At the Military Technical Academy, she teaches the Formal
Languages and Translators and Database Application Development courses. She worked
for more than two years as an assistant lecturer at the University of Bucharest where
she taught courses on subjects such as advanced programming techniques, simulation
methods, and operating systems. Her research activity is in the cryptography field, with
a focus on searchable encryption and homomorphic encryption. She is also interested
in blockchain, quantum cryptography, machine learning, and artificial intelligence.
At the Institute for Computers, she is working on research and development projects
that involve cloud computing security, the Internet of Things, and big data. She has
authored or co-authored more than 28 papers at conferences and for journals and has
co-authored five books. Also, she holds an MSc in software engineering and two BSc
degrees in computer science and mathematics.

Marius Iulian Mihailescu, PhD, has worked in the academic and industry sector
for more than 15 years. Currently, he is an associate professor (senior lecturer) of
engineering and computer science at “Spiru Haret” University, Romania, and as a side
job he is a project manager at the Institute for Computers where he is managing different
projects using different technologies, such as DevOps, Scrum, Agile, C#, Microsoft
SQL Server, Syncfusion, ASP.NET, and VUE. At the university, he has taught several
key computer science courses about information security, functional programming,
Interne of Things, blockchain, software development methods (Microsoft Azure,
Entity Framework, NHibernate, LINQ-to-­SQL, UX with DevExpress controls, etc.), and
development web applications (HTML 5, CSS 3, Bootstrap, JavaScript, AJAX, NodeJS,
VUE, Laravel, mRabbit, ASP.NET, PHP). He has authored or co-authored more than

ix
About the Authors

30 articles in conference proceedings, 25 articles in journals, and six books. For three
years he worked as an IT officer at Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. where he dealt with IT
infrastructures, data security, and satellite communications systems. He received his
PhD in 2014, and his thesis was on applied cryptography over biometrics data. He holds
two MSc degrees in information security and software engineering, from “Ferdinand I”
Military Technical Academy and the University of Bucharest, Romania.

x
About the Technical Reviewer
Doug Holland is a software engineer and architect at Microsoft Corporation. He
holds a master’s degree in software engineering from the University of Oxford. Before
joining Microsoft, he was honored with the Microsoft MVP and Intel Black Belt
Developer awards.

xi
CHAPTER 1

Introduction
In the last decade, technology has rapidly evolved. Statistics show that 64.2 zettabytes of
data were generated in 2020 (1 zettabyte is equivalent to 1021 bytes or 1012 gigabytes), and
it is predicted that by 2025, the digital data generated will reach 181 zettabytes [1, 2].
Electronic communication has become an essential part of our lives, and due to its
rapid evolution, all manner of security issues have arisen. Because digital messages,
in all of their forms, are sent daily over public networks across the world, the need
for secure channels and security mechanisms has also increased. Digital devices and
communications should have digital signatures that make them easy to authenticate.
Modern cryptography provides solutions for all these requirements.
The era in which we are living is considered the “zettabytes era,” in which technology
allows humans and electronic devices to generate and send information instantly, at
any time and any place. Advanced technologies, such as the Internet of Things, fog
computing, edge computing, smart vehicles, drones, smart houses, and many other
complex software (desktop/web/mobile) solutions or architectures, are evolving so
quickly that it is difficult to keep up with security requirements. For example, at the time
of this book’s writing, there are 160,974 records of vulnerabilities registered on the CVE
platform [3]. However, lessons can be learned even from failures, so by analyzing such
vulnerabilities, security solutions can be improved.
One of the most important aspects considered when complex systems are
designed and implemented is knowledge. In antiquity, the Latins said Scientia
potentia est, meaning “Knowledge is power” [4]. In the 21s century, this is even more
true; information falling into the wrong hands can lead to huge business losses and
catastrophic outcomes. Cryptography and information security provide security

1
© Stefania Loredana Nita and Marius Iulian Mihailescu 2022
S. L. Nita and M. I. Mihailescu, Cryptography and Cryptanalysis in Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8105-5_1
Chapter 1 Introduction

mechanisms that can protect information shared between senders and recipients over
insecure channels, so that unauthorized users cannot access or alter the transmitted
information. Over time, there were encryption systems that were broken by attackers by
exploiting vulnerabilities of the systems.
The word cryptography comes from the Greek words kryptos and graphein, meaning
“hidden” and “writing,” respectively. As its name suggests, the purpose of cryptography
is to hide messages from unauthorized individuals and to keep their integrity. Although
the study of cryptography has been around only about 100 years, it was used in different
forms from ancient times. However, over time there have been various primary methods
of hiding secret messages, starting with hieroglyphs, continuing with Caesar's famous
cipher, followed by the Vigenère cipher, Hebern’s rotor machine, and the famous
Enigma machine. Nevertheless, hiding messages was not the only occupation close
to cryptography or, rather, information security. Another example is authentication or
identity verification; this was often done through seals.
Cryptography is considered an art, especially in its primary phases. The history of
cryptography began in ancient Egypt, alongside the art of writing, during a time when
humans started organizing in different social groups. This organization led to a natural
need of transmitting information only to certain individuals, with the same group, tribe,
etc. Early forms of cryptography were hieroglyphs, which started to be used about 4,000
ago by Egyptians—only they recognized the symbols and their meaning. An inscription
carved circa 1900 BC contains the first known evidence of cryptography (in some kind).
It is located in Egypt nobleman Khnumhotep II’s tomb, in the main chamber [5]. In this
inscription, some symbols have a different form than usual, and the scribe’s intent was
not necessary to hide a message; rather, he wanted the symbols to look nobler than usual
according to the social status of the deceased. Although the inscription does not hide
a message, it contains an altered/transformed form of the original symbols, being the
oldest proof of such an approach. Then, cryptography in the ancient world moved to a
substitution approach, in which every symbol of an alphabet was replaced by another
symbol based on a secret rule. This was happening around 500–600 BC. The next notable
cipher was Caesar’s cipher. Caesar was a Roman emperor who was communicating
with his army generals with encoded messages, using a substitution within the Roman
alphabet. Each letter was shifted a certain number of positions in the alphabet, usually
three. For example, the correspondent of A was D, of B was E, and so on. This is an
important historical cipher that is mentioned often in cryptography literature. The next
important achievement in cryptography was in the Middle Ages by Leon Battista Alberti,
who implemented polyalphabetic substitution. Two rotating copper disks were used that
2
Chapter 1 Introduction

had the alphabet inscribed on them. Different variations of polyalphabetic substitution


ciphers were used, but the most known such cipher is Vigenère. Then in the 19th
century, the encryption methods evolved and became more technical. The beginning
of modern cryptography starts mainly with the Enigma machine, although the rotors
were used a few years before Enigma’s invention. Considered unbreakable, the Enigma
machine was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War
I, but it was extensively used in World War II by the German army. Enigma is based on
more rotors that work electromechanically, and it scrambles the letters of the alphabet.
During World War II, cryptography alongside cryptanalysis evolved quickly and became
mathematized. Then modern cryptography continued with symmetric encryption (using
a private key for both encryption and decryption) and was followed by asymmetric
encryption (where a public key is used for encryption and a private key for decryption)
introduced by Diffie and Hellmann in 1976. Since then, different types of encryption
systems evolved from each type of cryptography (symmetric or asymmetric).
For a more detailed history or interesting facts about cryptography, you can consult
[6] and [7].
The book aims to present the main topics of cryptography, information security, and
cryptanalysis from a practical perspective, by providing examples of implementations
in Java. The book addresses a large audience, such as security experts, military experts
and researchers, ethical hackers, teachers in academia, researchers, software developers,
and software engineers, and it can represent a good starting point in developing secure
applications, together with [8], [9], [10].

Cryptography and Cryptanalysis


When working with information security and data protection, the concepts of
cryptology, cryptography, and cryptanalysis should be clear. These are defined here, as
presented in [8, 9]:

• Cryptology is defined as the science or art of secret writings; the main


goal is to protect and defend the secrecy and confidentiality of the
information with the help of cryptographic algorithms.

• Cryptography represents the defensive side of cryptology; the main


objective is to create and design cryptographic systems and their
rules. When we are dealing with cryptography, we can observe a

3
Chapter 1 Introduction

special kind of art, an art that is based on protecting the information


by transforming it into an unreadable format, called ciphertext.

• Cryptanalysis is the offensive side of cryptology; its main objective


is to study the cryptographic systems with the scope to provide
the necessary characteristics in such a way to fulfill the function
for which they have been designed. Cryptanalysis can analyze the
cryptographic systems of third parties through the cryptograms
realized with them, breaking them to obtain useful information
for their business purpose. Cryptanalysts, code breakers, or ethical
hackers are the people who in the field of cryptanalysis.

• Cryptographic primitive represents a well-established or low-level


cryptographic algorithm is used to build cryptographic protocols.
Examples of such routines include hash functions or encryption
functions.

Book Structure
This book contains 15 chapters, in which the main aspects of classical and modern
cryptography are presented. Generally, the chapters will cover the foundation of the
presented concept/mechanism/technique from a mathematical perspective and then a
practical implementation or use cases in Java. The following chapters are detailed here:

• Chapter 2, “JDK 17: New Features”: This chapter will cover the new
features of Java 17 and will show some practical examples.

• Chapter 3, “Roadmap and Vision for Jakarta EE10”: This chapter


will present the basic usage of Jakarta EE and explain how security
mechanisms can be integrated.

• Chapter 4, “Java Cryptography Architecture”: This chapter presents


the built-in functions of Java that can be used in cryptography. These
are encapsulated in Java’s cryptography application programming
interface (API) called Java Cryptography Architecture (JCA).

• Chapter 5, “Classical Cryptography”: This chapter will describe classic


enciphering techniques. These ciphers use basic mathematical
functions but represent a good starting point in understanding

4
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Greek
Romances of Heliodorus, Longus and Achilles
Tatius
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Greek Romances of Heliodorus, Longus and Achilles Tatius

Translator: Rowland Smith

Author: Achilles Tatius


of Emesa Heliodorus
Longus

Release date: August 21, 2017 [eBook #55406]


Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Clare Graham, Axel Kallesøe and Marc


D'Hooghe
at Free Literature (online soon in an extended version,also
linking to free sources for education worldwide ... MOOC's,
educational materials,...) Images generously made available
by the Internet Archive.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREEK


ROMANCES OF HELIODORUS, LONGUS AND ACHILLES TATIUS ***
SCRIPTORES EROTICI GRÆCI

THE GREEK ROMANCES


OF
HELIODORUS, LONGUS,
AND
ACHILLES TATIUS,
COMPRISING

THE ETHIOPICS; OR, ADVENTURES OF THEAGENES AND


CHARICLEA;

THE PASTORAL AMOURS OF DAPHNIS AND CHLOE;

AND

THE LOVES OF CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.

Translated from the Greek, with notes.

By the REV. ROWLAND SMITH, M.A.

FORMERLY OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD.

LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET COVENT GARDEN.

1901.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE
Summaries:
HELIODORUS.
LONGUS.
ACHILLES TATIUS.
THE ADVENTURES OF THEAGENES AND CHARICLEA.
BOOK II.
BOOK III.
BOOK IV.
BOOK V.
BOOK VI.
BOOK VII.
BOOK VIII.
BOOK IX.
BOOK X.
THE LOVES OF DAPHNIS AND CHLOE, A PASTORAL NOVEL.
BOOK II.
BOOK III.
BOOK IV.
THE LOVES OF CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
BOOK I.
BOOK II.
BOOK III.
BOOK IV.
BOOK V.
BOOK VI.
BOOK VII.
BOOK VIII.

PREFACE

By no reader of classical antiquity will any of its remains be regarded


as entirely devoid of worth. The "fine gold" will naturally stand first
in estimation, but the "silver and brass and iron," nay even the "iron
mingled with miry clay," will each possess its respective value.
Accordingly, while the foremost place will ever be assigned to its
Historians, Philosophers, Orators, and Poets, the time will not be
esteemed thrown away which makes him acquainted with those
authors who struck out a new vein of writing, and abandoning the
facts of history and the inventions of mythology, drew upon their
own imagination and sought for subjects in the manners and
pursuits of domestic life.
The publication of a revised translation of Heliodorus and Longus,
and of a new translation of Achilles Tatius, calls for some brief
prefatory observations upon the origin of fictitious narrative among
the Greeks; that department of literature which, above any other,
has been prolific in finding followers, more especially in modern
times; and which, according to the spirit in which it is handled, is
capable of producing some of the best or worst effects upon society.
Works of fiction may, as we know, administer a poisoned cup, but
they may also supply a wholesome and pleasing draught; they may
be the ministers of the grossest immorality and absurdity, but they
may likewise be the vehicles of sound sense and profitable
instruction.
"As real History," says Bacon, "gives us not the success of things
according to the deserts of vice and virtue Fiction connects it, and
presents us with the fates and fortunes of persons, rewarded or
punished according to merit."
"It is chiefly in the fictions of an age," says Dunlop, "that we can
discover the modes of living, dress, and manners of the period;" and
he goes on to say—"But even if the utility which is derived from
Fiction were less than it is, how much are we indebted to it for
pleasure and enjoyment! It sweetens solitude and charms sorrow—it
occupies the attention of the vacant, and unbends the mind of the
philosopher. Like the enchanter, Fiction shows us, as it were in a
mirror, the most agreeable objects; recalls from a distance the forms
which are dear to us, and soothes our own grief by awakening our
sympathy for others. By its means the recluse is placed in the midst
of society; and he who is harassed and agitated in the city is
transported to rural tranquillity and repose. The rude are refined by
an introduction, as it were, to the higher orders of mankind, and
even the dissipated and selfish are, in some degree, corrected by
those paintings of virtue and simple nature, which must ever be
employed by the novelist, if he wish to awaken emotion or delight."
Huet, Bishop of Avranches, was the first who wrote a regular and
systematic treatise on the origin of fictitious narrative—"De origine
Fabularum Romanensium."
He gives it as his opinion, that "not in Provence (Provincia
Romanorum), nor yet in Spain, are we to look for the fatherland of
those amusing compositions called Romances; but that it is among
the people of the East, the Arabs, the Egyptians, the Persians, and
the Syrians, that the germ and origin is to be found, of this species
of fictitious narrative, for which the peculiar genius and poetical
temperament of those nations particularly adapt them, and in which
they delight to a degree scarcely to be credited; for even their
ordinary discourse is interspersed with figurative expressions, and
their maxims of theology and philosophy, and above all of morals
and political science, are invariably couched under the guise of
allegory or parable." In confirmation of this opinion he remarks, that
"nearly all those who in early times distinguished themselves as
writers of what are now called Romances, were of Oriental birth or
extraction;"—and he instances "Clearchus, a pupil of Aristotle, who
was a native of Soli, in Cilicia,—Iamblicus, a Syrian—Heliodorus and
Lucian, natives, the one of Emessa, the other of Samosata—Achilles
Tatius, of Alexandria."
This statement of Huet's is admitted to hold good, generally, by the
author of a very interesting Article on the "Early Greek Romances,"
in No. CCCXXXIII. of Blackwood's Magazine; who however differs
from the learned Bishop in some particulars.
"While fully admitting," he says, "that it is to the vivid fancy and
picturesque imagination of the Orientals that we owe the origin of all
those popular legends, which have penetrated under various
changes of costume, into every corner of Europe, we still hold, that
the invention of the Romance of ordinary life, on which the interest
of the story depends upon occurrences in some measure within the
bounds of probability, and in which the heroes and heroines are
neither invested with superhuman qualities, nor extricated from their
difficulties by supernatural means, must be ascribed to a more
European state of society than that which produced those tales of
wonder, which are commonly considered as characteristic of the
climes of the East."
This difference of opinion he fortifies, by remarking that "the authors
enumerated by the Bishop of Avranches himself were all denizens of
Greek cities of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, and consequently, in all
probability, Greeks by descent; and though the scene of their works
is frequently laid in Asia, the costumes and characters introduced are
almost invariably on the Greek model."
He concludes this part of his subject by saying; "these writers,
therefore, may fairly be considered as constituting a distinct class
from those more strictly Oriental—not only in birth but in language
and ideas; and as being in fact the legitimate forerunners of modern
novelists."
The first to imbibe a love for fictitious narrative from the Eastern
people among whom they dwelt, were the Milesians, a colony of
Greeks, and from them this species of narrative derived the name of
"Sermo Milesius."[1] A specimen of the Milesian tale may be seen in
the Stories of Parthenius, which are chiefly of the amatory kind, and
not over remarkable for their moral tendency. From the Greek
inhabitants of Asia Minor, especially from the Milesians, it was
natural that a fondness for Fiction should extend itself into Greece,
and that pleasure should produce imitation. But it was not until the
conquests of Alexander, that a greater intercourse between Greece
and Asia became the means of conveying the stores of fiction from
the one continent to the other.
The Romance writers, who flourished previous to Heliodorus, are
known only from the summary of their compositions preserved to us
by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, in the ninth century. We
subjoin their names and the titles of their works:—
Antonius Diogenes wrote "The incredible things in Thule;" Iamblicus,
the "Babylonica," comprising the formidable number of sixteen
books; in addition to which there is the "Ass" of Lucian, founded
chiefly upon the "Metamorphoses of Lucius."
The palm of merit, in every respect, especially "in the arrangement
of his fable," has been universally assigned to Heliodorus, Bishop of
Tricca in Thessaly, who flourished A.D. 400; "whose writing," says
Huet, "the subsequent novelists of those ages constantly proposed
to themselves as a model for imitation; and as truly may they all be
said to have drunk of the waters of this fountain, as all the Poets did
of the Homeric spring."
The writers of Romance, posterior to Heliodorus, who alone are
worthy of note, are Achilles Tatius, who is allowed to come next to
him in merit; Longus, who has given the first example of the
"Pastoral Romance;" and Xenophon, of Ephesus.
Having alluded to the various writers of fictitious narrative, our
farther remarks may be confined to Heliodorus, Longus, and Achilles
Tatius. With the work of the author of the "Ethiopics" are connected
some curious circumstances, which shall be given in the words of an
Ecclesiastical Historian, quoted by the writer of the article in
Blackwood.
Nicephorus, B. xii. c. 34, says—"This Heliodorus, Bishop of Tricca,
had in his youth written certain love stories, called 'Ethiopics,' which
are highly popular, even at the present day, though they are now
better known by the title of 'Chariclea;' and it was by reason thereof
that he lost his see. For inasmuch as many of the youths were drawn
into peril of sin by the perusal of these amorous tales, it was
determined by the Provincial Synod, that either these books, which
kindled the fire of love, should themselves be consumed by fire, or
that the author should be deposed from his episcopal functions; and
this choice being propounded to him, he preferred resigning his
bishoprick to suppressing his writings.—Heliodorus," continues the
reviewer, "according to the same authority, was the first Thessalian
Bishop who had insisted on the married clergy putting away their
wives, which may probably have tended to make him unpopular; but
the story of his deposition, it should be observed, rests solely on the
statement of Nicephorus, and is discredited by Bayle and Huet, who
argue that the silence of Socrates, (Eccles. Hist. B. v. c. 22), in the
chapter where he expressly assigns the authority of the 'Ethiopics' to
the 'Bishop' Heliodorus, more than counterbalances the unsupported
assertion of Nicephorus;—'an author,' says Huet, 'of more credulity
than judgment.' If Heliodorus were, indeed, as has been generally
supposed, the same to whom several of the Epistles of St. Jerome
were addressed, this circumstance would supply an additional
argument against the probability of his having incurred the censures
of the Church; but whatever the testimony of Nicephorus may be
worth on this point, his mention of the work affords undeniable
proof of its long continued popularity, as his Ecclesiastical History
was written about A.D. 900, and Heliodorus lived under the reign of
the sons of Theodosius, fully 500 years earlier."
Of the popularity of his work in more recent times, the following
instances may be given. "Tasso," says Ghirardini, "became
acquainted with this Romance when it was introduced at the Court
of Charles the IXth of Prance, where it was read by the ladies and
gentlemen in the translation made by Amiot. The poet promised the
courtiers that they should soon see the work attired in the most
splendid vestments of Italian poetry, and kept his promise, by
transferring to the heroine Clorinda (in the tenth canto of the
'Gerusalemme') the circumstances attending the birth and early life
of the Ethiopian maiden Chariclea."
"The proposed sacrifice and subsequent discovery of the birth of
Chariclea have likewise," observes Dunlop, "been imitated in the
Pastor Fido of Guarini, and through it, in the Astrea of D'Urfé.
"Racine had at one time intended writing a drama on the subject of
this Romance, a plan which has been accomplished by Dorat, in his
Tragedy of Theagenes and Chariclea, acted at Paris in the year 1762.
It also suggested the plot of an old English tragi-comedy, by an
unknown author, entitled the 'Strange Discovery.'"
Hardy, the French poet, wrote eight tragedies in verse on the same
subject, without materially altering the ground-work of the
Romance; "an instance of literary prodigality"—remarks Dunlop truly
—"which is perhaps unexampled."
Nor have authors only availed themselves of the work of Heliodorus.
Artists likewise have sought from his pages subjects for their
canvass.
"Two of the most striking incidents have been finely delineated by
Raphael in separate paintings, in which he was assisted by Julio
Romano. In one he has seized the moment when Theagenes and
Chariclea meet in the temple of Delphi, and Chariclea presents
Theagenes with a torch to kindle the sacrifice. In the other he has
chosen for his subject, the capture of the Tyrian ship, in which
Calasiris was conducting Theagenes and Chariclea to the coast of
Sicily. The vessel is supposed to have already struck to the Pirates,
and Chariclea is exhibited, by the light of the moon, in a suppliant
posture, imploring Trachinus that she might not be separated from
her lover and Calasiris."
Heliodorus, as has already been remarked, is allowed to be far
superior to any of his predecessors in "the disposition of the fable;"
as also, "in the artful manner in which the tale is disclosed;" and
Tasso praises him for the skill which he displays in keeping the mind
of his reader in suspense, and in gradually clearing up what
appeared confused and perplexed. His style is, in many parts, highly
poetical, abounding in expressions and turns of thought borrowed
from the Greek poets, to which, indeed, it is quite impossible to do
justice when translating them into another language.
The chief defects in the composition of his work, are the digressions
—for instance, the adventures of Cnemon and the siege of Cyene;
together with certain critical and philosophical discussions, which,
while they take up considerable space distract the attention of the
reader, without adding to his interest.
He has also been blamed for making a third person—Calasiris—
recount the adventures of the hero and heroine; instead of letting
them tell their own story. As regards the two principal characters, it
must be allowed that the hero, like many heroes in modern novels,
is "insipid." Upon certain occasions, it is true that Theagenes "comes
out:" he does battle boldly with the pirate lieutenant; distances his
rival, in good style, in the running match; effectually cools the
courage of the Ethiopian bully; and gives proof of the skill of
reasoning man over the strength of the irrational brute in the scene
of the Taurocathapsia; but with these exceptions, he is remarkable
chiefly for his resistance to temptations, and for the constancy of his
affections—no slight merits, however, especially in a heathen, and
like other "quiet virtues," of greater intrinsic value than more
sparkling and showy qualities.
Of Chariclea, on the other hand, it has with justice been observed,[2]
that "her character makes ample amends for the defects in that of
her lover. The masculine firmness and presence of mind which she
evinces in situations of peril and difficulty, combined at all times with
feminine delicacy; and the warmth and confiding simplicity of her
love for Theagenes, attach to her a degree of interest which belongs
to none of the other personages."
"The course of true love never did run smooth," says the Poet; and
however defective may be the work of Heliodorus, in other respects,
none of its readers will deny that the author has exemplified the
words of the Bard in the perils, and escapes, separations, and
unexpected reunion of the hero and heroine of the "Ethiopics."
None there are, we trust but will rejoice, when at the conclusion,
they find—
"How Fate to Virtue paid her debt,
And for their troubles, bade them prove
A lengthened life of peace and love."
The forte of Heliodorus lies especially in descriptions; his work
abounds in these, and apart from the general story, the most
interesting portions are, the account of the haunts of the
Buccaneers; the procession at Delphi, with the respective retinues
and dresses of Theagenes and Chariclea; the wrestling match, and
the bull fight—all these are brought before the reader with
picturesque effect, and in forcible and vivid language; nor should we
omit what is very curious and valuable in an antiquarian point of
view, his minute description of the panoply worn by man and horse
composing the flower of the Persian army, which paints to the life,
the iron-clad heroes of the Crusades, so many centuries before they
appeared upon the scene.
With reference to the writers of Greek Romance, in general, there is
one particular point which deserves mention; the more prominent
manner in which they bring forward that sex, whose influence is so
powerful upon society, but whose seclusion in those early times
banished them from a participation in the every day affairs of life.
"The Greek Romances," says Dunlop, "may be considered as almost
the first productions, in which woman is in any degree represented
as assuming her proper station of the friend and companion of man.
Hitherto she had been considered almost in the light of a slave,
ready to bestow her affections on whatever master might happen to
obtain her; but in Heliodorus and his followers, we see her an
affectionate guide and adviser. We behold an union of hearts painted
as a main spring of our conduct in life—we are delighted with
pictures of fidelity, constancy, and chastity."
The same writer sums up his observations upon the Greek
Romances, by saying: "They are less valuable than they might have
been, from giving too much to adventure, and too little to manners
and character; but these have not been altogether neglected, and
several pleasing pictures are delineated of ancient customs and
feelings. In short, these early fictions are such as might have been
expected at the first effort, and must be considered as not merely
valuable in themselves, but as highly estimable in pointing out the
method of awaking the most pleasing sympathies of our nature, and
affecting most powerfully the fancy and heart." The popularity of
Heliodorus has found translators for his Romance in almost every
European language—France, Spain, Italy, Poland, Germany, and
Holland have contributed their versions.
Four Translations have appeared in English, by Thomas Underdowne,
Lond., 1587; W. Lisle, Lond., 1622; N. Tate and another hand, 1686;
lastly, the translation upon which the present one is based, 1791.
Among these, Lisle, who favoured the world with a Poetical version
of the Prose Romance, affords us an example of an adventurous and
ill fated wight.
"Carmina qui scripsit Musis et Apolline nullo."

"Apollo and the Nine; their heavy curse


On him did lay;—they bid him—go, write verse."
The Reviewer in Blackwood designates his production, as "one of the
most precious specimens of balderdash in existence; a perfect
literary curiosity in its way." Of the truth of which any one, who will
be at the trouble of turning over his pages, may satisfy himself.
The worthy man, at starting, prays earnestly for "A sip of liquor
Castaline," and having done this, he mounts and does his best to get
Pegasus into a canter; but it is all in vain—whip and spurs avail not;
the poor jade, spavined and galled, will not budge an inch; however,
nothing daunted, the rowels and scourge are most unmercifully
applied; the wretched brute gets into a kind of hobbling trot, which
enables the rider to say at the end of his journey—
"This have I wrought with day and nightly swinke
. . . . . .
That after-comers know, when I am dead,
I, some good thing in life endeavoured;—
. . . . . .
To keep my name undrown'd in Lethe pool;
In vain (may seem) is wealth or learning lent
To man that leaves thereof no monument."
The version upon which the present one is founded, is in many
places more of a paraphrase than a translation. Several passages are
entirely omitted, while of others the sense has been mistaken; it has
been the endeavour of the translator to remedy these defects, and
to give the meaning of his author as literally as is consistent with
avoiding stiffness and ruggedness of style.
With regard to Longus nothing is known of his birthplace, nor is it
certain at what period he flourished; he is generally supposed
however to have lived during the reign of Theodosius the Great, in
the fourth century. Photius and Suidas, who have preserved the
names of various Greek Romance writers, and have likewise given us
summaries of their works, make no mention of him.
An extract from the work of Mr. Dunlop, on the "History of Fiction,"
will form a suitable Introduction to this Pastoral Romance, the first of
its kind, and one which is considered to have had much influence
upon the style of subsequent writers of Romance, in ancient times,
as also among those of the moderns who have chosen for their
theme a Pastoral subject.
After reviewing the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, Mr. Dunlop goes on to
say:—
"We now proceed to the analysis of a romance different in its nature
from the works already mentioned; and of a species which may be
distinguished by the appellation of Pastoral Romance.
"It may be conjectured with much probability, that pastoral
composition sometimes expressed the devotion, and sometimes
formed the entertainment of the first generations of mankind. The
sacred writings sufficiently inform us that it existed among the
eastern nations during the earliest ages. Rural images are
everywhere scattered through the Old Testament; and the Song of
Solomon in particular beautifully delineates the charms of a country
life, while it paints the most amiable affections of the mind, and the
sweetest scenery of nature. A number of passages of Theocritus
bear a striking resemblance to descriptions in the inspired pastoral;
and many critics have believed that he had studied its beauties and
transferred them to his eclogues. Theocritus was imitated in his own
dialect by Moschus and Bion; and Virgil, taking advantage of a
different language copied, yet rivalled the Sicilian. The Bucolics of
the Roman bard seem to have been considered as precluding all
attempts of the same kind; for, if we except the feeble efforts of
Calpurnius and his contemporary Nemesianus, who lived in the third
century, no subsequent specimen of pastoral poetry was, as far as I
know, produced till the revival of literature.
"It was during this interval that Longus, a Greek sophist, who is said
to have lived soon after the age of Tatius, wrote his pastoral
romance of Daphnis and Chloe, which is the earliest, and by far the
finest example that has appeared of this species of composition.
Availing himself of the beauties of the pastoral poets who preceded
him, he has added to their simplicity of style, and charming pictures
of Nature, a story which possesses considerable interest. In some
respects a prose romance is better adapted than the eclogue or
drama to pastoral composition. The eclogue is confined within
narrow limits, and must terminate before interest can be excited. A
series of Bucolics, where two or more shepherds are introduced
contending for the reward of a crook or a kid, and at most
descanting for a short time on similar topics, resembles a collection
of the first scenes of a number of comedies, of which the
commencement can only be listened to as unfolding the subsequent
action. The drama is, no doubt, a better form of pastoral writing
than detached eclogues, but at the same time does not well accord
with rustic manners and descriptions.
"In dramatic composition, the representation of strong passions is
best calculated to produce interest or emotion, but the feelings of
rural existence should be painted as tranquil and calm. In choosing a
prose romance as the vehicle of pastoral writing, Longus has
adopted a form that may include all the beauties arising from the
description of rustic manners, or the scenery of nature, and which,
as far as the incidents of rural life admit, may interest by an
agreeable fable, and delight by a judicious alternation of narrative
and dialogue. Longus has also avoided many of the faults into which
his modern imitators have fallen, and which have brought this style
of composition into so much disrepute; his characters never express
the conceits of affected gallantry, nor involve themselves in abstract
reasoning; he has not loaded his romance with those long and
constantly recurring episodes, which fatigue the attention, and
render us indifferent to the principal story. Nor does he paint that
chimerical state of society, termed the golden age, in which the
characteristic traits of rural life are erased, but attempts to please by
a genuine imitation of Nature, and by descriptions of the manners,
the rustic occupations, or rural enjoyments of the inhabitants of the
country where the scene of the pastoral is laid.
"The pastoral is in general very beautifully written;—the style,
though it has been censured on account of the reiteration of the
same forms of expression, and as betraying the sophist in some
passages by a play on words, and affected antithesis, is considered
as the purest specimen of the Greek language produced in that late
period; the descriptions of rural scenery and rural occupations are
extremely pleasing, and if I may use the expression, there is a sort
of amenity and calm diffused over the whole romance. This, indeed,
may be considered as the chief excellence in a pastoral; since we are
not so much allured by the feeding of sheep as by the stillness of
the country. In all our active pursuits, the end proposed is
tranquillity, and even when we lose the hope of happiness, we are
attracted by that of repose; hence we are soothed and delighted
with its representation, and fancy we partake of the pleasure.
"There can be no doubt that the pastoral of Longus had a
considerable influence on the style and incidents of the subsequent
Greek romances, particularly those of Eustathius and Theodorus
Prodromus; but its effects on modern pastorals, particularly those
which appeared in Italy during the sixteenth century, is a subject of
more difficulty.—Huet is of opinion, that it was not only the model of
the Astrea of D'Urfé, and the Diana of Montemayor, but gave rise to
the Italian dramatic pastoral. This opinion is combated by Villoison,
on the grounds that the first edition of Longus was not published till
1598, and that Tasso died in the year 1595. It is true that the first
Greek edition of Longus was not published till 1598, but there was a
French translation by Amyot, which appeared in 1559, and one in
Latin verse by Gambara in 1569, either of which might have been
seen by Tasso. But although this argument, brought forward by
Villoison, be of little avail, he is probably right in the general notion
he has adopted that Daphnis and Chloe was not the origin of the
pastoral drama. The Sacrificio of Agostino Beccari, which was the
earliest specimen of this style of composition, and was acted at
Ferrara in 1554, was written previous to the appearance of any
edition or version of Longus. Nor is there any similarity in the story
or incidents of the Aminta to those in Daphnis and Chloe, which
should lead us to imagine that the Greek romance had been imitated
by Tasso.
"It bears, however, a stronger likeness to the more recent dramatic
pastorals of Italy. These are frequently founded on the exposure of
children who, after being brought up as shepherds by reputed
fathers, are discovered by their real parents by means of tokens
fastened to them when they were abandoned. There is also a
considerable resemblance between the story of Daphnis and Chloe
and that of the Gentle Shepherd: the plot was suggested to Ramsay
by one of his friends, who seems to have taken it from the Greek
pastoral. Marmontel, too, in his Annette and Lubin, has imitated the
simplicity and inexperience of the lovers of Longus. But of all
modern writers the author who has most closely followed this
romance is Gessner. In his Idylls there is the same poetical prose,
the same beautiful rural descriptions, and the same innocence and
simplicity in the rustic characters. In his pastoral of Daphnis, the
scene of which is laid in Greece, he has painted, like Longus, the
early and innocent attachment of a shepherdess and swain, and has
only embellished his picture by the incidents that arise from rural
occupations and the revolutions of the year."
To these observations we may add, that Longus is supposed by
some to have furnished to Bernardin de St. Pierre the groundwork
for his beautiful tale of Paul and Virginia. Many points of
resemblance may certainly be traced between the hero and heroine
of the respective works; the description of their innocence—their
simple and rustic mode of life, and their occupation and diversions.
Among the rest may be mentioned the descriptions of the sensations
of love when first arising in Virginia; and the pantomimic dance in
which she and Paul take part.
An anonymous and "select" translation of Longus, published at
Truro, in 1803, has been taken as the basis of the present version.
The passages (and there are many) omitted by the former translator
are here given, together with a considerable fragment, first
discovered by M. Paul Louis Courier, in 1810, in the Laurentian
Library at Florence. It has been the endeavour of the present
translator to make his version convey the sense of the original as
faithful as possible, except in some few passages ("egregio inspersos
corpore nævos") where it has been considered advisable to employ
the veil of a learned language.
In reading the work of Longus, we must bear in mind that he was
most probably a heathen, or at any rate, that he describes the
heathen state of morals.
The following passage from Dr. Nott's Preface to his translation of
Catullus will illustrate the principle upon which the present translator
has gone, in presenting in an English dress passages entirely omitted
in the anonymous version, before referred to:—
"When an ancient classic is translated and explained, the work may
be considered as forming a link in the chain of history.—History
should not be falsified, we ought therefore to translate him
somewhat fairly, and when he gives us the manners of his own day,
however disgusting to our sensations and repugnant to our natures
they may oftentimes prove, we must not, in translation, suppress or
even too much gloss them over, through a fastidious regard to
delicacy."[3]

Achilles Tatius was a native of Alexandria, commonly assigned to the


second or third century of the Christian æra, but considered by the
best critics to have flourished after Heliodorus, to whom he is looked
upon as next in point of literary merit, and whom he has more or
less imitated in various parts of his works, like him frequently
introducing into the thread of his narrative the Egyptian buccaneers.
According to Suidas, he became, towards the end of his life, a
Christian and a Bishop; a statement which is however considered
doubtful, as no mention is made by that lexicographer of his
Episcopal see, and Photius, who mentions him in three different
places, is silent upon the subject.
In point of style, Achilles Tatius is considered to excel Heliodorus and
the other writers of Greek Romance. Photius says of him,—"With
regard to diction and composition, Tatius seems to me to excel when
he employs figurative language: it is clear and natural; his sentences
are precise and limpid, and such as by their sweetness greatly
delight the ear."
Like Heliodorus, one of his principal excellences lies in descriptions;
and though these, as Mr. Dunlop observes, "are too luxuriant, they
are in general beautiful, the objects being at once well selected, and
so painted as to form in the mind of the reader a distinct and lively
image. As an example of his merit in this way, may be mentioned his
description of a garden, and of a tempest followed by a shipwreck;
also his accounts of the pictures of Europa, Andromeda, and
Prometheus, in which his descriptions and criticisms are executed
with very considerable taste and feeling." The same writer, however,
justly notes "the absurd and aukward manner in which the author, as
if to show his various acquirements, drags in without the slightest
necessity, some of those minute descriptions, viz., those of the
necklace, and of different zoological curiosities, in the Second Book,
together with the invention of purple-dying, and the accounts drawn
from natural history, which are interspersed in the Fourth Book."
In his discussions upon the passions of love, and its power over
human nature, however we may object to the warmth of his
description, we cannot but allow the ability with which the colours
are laid on.
"The rise and progress of the passion of Clitopho for Leucippe,"
observes Mr. Dunlop, "is extremely well executed,—of this there is
nothing in the romance of Heliodorus. Theagenes and Chariclea, are
at first sight violently and mutually enamoured; in Tatius we have
more of the restless agitation of love and the arts of courtship.
Indeed this is by much the best part of the Clitopho and Leucippe,
as the author discloses very considerable acquaintance with the
human heart. This knowledge also appears in the sentiments
scattered through the work, though it must be confessed, that in
many of his remarks he is apt to subtilize and refine too much."
In the hero of his work, Achilles Tatius is more unfortunate even
than Heliodorus.—"Clitopho," says a reviewer, "is a human body,
uninformed with a human soul, but delivered up to all the instincts
of nature and the senses. He neither commands respect by his
courage, nor affection by his constancy." As in the work of Heliodorus
so in that of Achilles Tatius, it is the heroine who excites our
sympathy and interest:—"Leucippe, patient, high-minded, resigned
and firm, endures adversity with grace; preserving throughout the
helplessness and temptations of captivity, irreproachable purity and
constancy unchangeable."
In concluding these remarks upon one of the three chief writers of
Greek Romance, one more observation of Mr. Dunlop will not be out
of place.—"Tatius," he says, "has been much blamed for the
immorality of his Romance, and it must be acknowledged that there
are particular passages which are extremely exceptionable; yet,
however odious some of these may be considered, the general moral
tendency of the story is good; a remark which may be extended to
all the Greek Romances. Tatius punishes his hero and heroine for
eloping from their father's house, and afterwards rewards them for
their long fidelity."

Several French translations of Achilles Tatius have appeared; an


Italian one by Coccio; also an English one published at Oxford in
1638, which the present writer, after many inquiries, has been
unable to procure a sight of.
R. S.

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