Mechatronics Systems and

Applications
Course Code: ES-451
LECTURE#28-30
Basics of Programmable Logic Controllers

(CLO-3)
(PLO-3)
 Programmable Logic Controllers
• Modern control systems mostly include some form of
embedded computer or Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) for controlling the process in a programmed or in
automation way.
– Embedded computer is a microprocessor or
microcontroller based system used for a specific task
rather than general-purpose computing.
• A PLC is a type of computer or an embedded
controller that has been designed for the control of
industrial process control applications.
• PLCs differ from office computers in the types of tasks that
they perform and the hardware and software they
require to perform these tasks.
 Programmable Logic Controllers

• Most PLC components are in card form that can be interchanged quickly in
case of the event failure.
• A typical PLC application has about one hundred inputs and outputs, but the
scale of the applications varies widely.
 Life before PLC
• Prior to PLCs, most of control tasks were performed by
contactors, control relays and other electromechanical devices,
often referred to as hard-wired control.
• Circuit diagrams had to be designed, electrical components
specified and installed, and wiring lists created.
• Electricians would then wire the components necessary to
perform a specific task.
• If an error occurred , the wires had to be reconnected correctly.
• A change in function or system expansion required extensive
component changes and rewiring.
• PLC is the first type of “mechatronic” control system.
• While the specific applications vary widely, all PLCs monitor
inputs and other variable values, make decisions based on a
stored program, and control outputs to automate a process or
machine.
 PLC System (1)
• The basic elements of a PLC include input modules or points,
a Central Processing Unit (CPU), output modules or points, and
a programming device.
 PLC System
• PLC Inputs are in form of switches (i.e., push buttons) controlled by
machine operators or position sensors.
• Primary function of a PLC’s input circuitry is to convert the signals
provided by various switches and sensors into logic signals that can be
used by the CPU.
• The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other variables as
it executes a stored program.
– The CPU then sends signals to update the status of outputs.
– Timers can be programmed in PLC to run a specific process for a
defined time.
• Output modules convert control signals from the CPU into digital or
analog values that can be used to control various output devices.
– Outputs include lamps, solenoid valves, and motors,
– Input–output interfacing done within the controller.
• The programming device is used to enter or change the PLC’s program
or to monitor or change stored values.
 PLC Input Devices (1)
• Push buttons
– Normally open (NO)
– Normally closed (NC)
• Break before make
• Selector Switch
• Limit Switches
• Temperature Limit Switch (Thermostat)
• Pressure Limit Switch
• Level Limit Switch
 PLC Input Devices (2)
• Sensors
– Proximity Sensor
– Inductive Proximity Sensor
– Capacitive Proximity Sensor
– Reed Switching Sensor
– Photoelectric Sensors
– Ultrasonic Sensors
– Displacement/Position Sensors
– Linear and Rotary Potentiometers
– Linear Variable Differential Transformer
– Capacitive Displacement Sensors
 PLC Input Devices_ Push buttons (1)
• Push buttons are the ones that you see as START or
STOP buttons in a PLC control system.
• It operates by either MAKING contact (Make) or by
BREAKING contact (Break).
• Pushbuttons are divided into two categories:
– Normally open or Normally closed.
 PLC Input Devices_ Push buttons (2)
Normally open (NO)
• Normally open push buttons, when connected to the circuit, makes an
OPEN circuit.
– Current will NOT flow through the switch, as there is no electrical
continuity.
– Pushing the button will make its metal contacts touch with each other,
closing the connection between the two connected terminals and
hence allowing the current to pass.
Normally closed (NC)
• Normally closed push buttons, when connected to the circuit, SHORTS the
connected terminals.
• Current will flow through the switch.
– If you connect a normally closed push button to a circuit, the circuit will
turn on immediately because there is electrical continuity already.
– Pushing the button will make its metal contacts touch with each other,
closing the connection between the two connected terminals.
 PLC Input Devices_ Break before make
• These types of switches have BOTH the normally open and
the normally closed in one construction.
• One side of the switch is normally closed and one side is
normally open, so when a button is pressed, one contact will
be in the OFF position and one will be ON.
• Simply one BREAKS the contact while the other MAKES the
contact.
 PLC Input Devices_ Selector Switch
• Selector switches are still manually operated switches,
however instead of being normally open or closed, there are
more than two contacts to select from.
• Common example is in electric fans (dimmer), where you
can select a number that then dictates the speed of the fan’s
motor.
• This process selects a varying load for the motor in order to
control its speed.
 PLC Input Devices_ Limit Switches
• Limit switches, change state when a predetermined
limit is reached.
• These are useful in automation because you can set a
limit (using the limit switch) where a specific process
stops.
 PLC Input Devices_ Temperature Limit Switch
• Temperature limit switch (thermostat), is used to detect
temperature changes in the system.
• They can also be Normally Open and Normally Closed, depending
on what type is used.
• This means the actual Industrial application that it can be used in
– whether it be an overheating prevention, or even just
maintaining a certain temperature of materials.
– change state when a predetermined limit is reached.
• These are useful in automation because you can set a limit (using
the limit switch) where a specific process stops.
 PLC Input Devices_ Pressure Limit Switch
• Pressure switches are commonly used in containers where the
pressure of liquids or gases is crucial.
• They change their state whenever a liquid or gas in a tank
reaches a high enough pressure.
• They can either be Normally Open or Normally Closed switches.
• When the pressure inside a tank increases to a high amount, the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure
inside will make the fluid (liquid or gas) inside “try to escape”.
• Using pressure limit switches allow us to prevent that scenario.
 PLC Input Devices_ Level Limit Switch
• Level switches—more commonly called Level Sensors, are
used to control the height of a liquid inside a container,
usually a tank.
• They are commonly used in conjunction with inlet and
outlet valves in a liquid level control system, or in a heating
and mixing application.
 Sensors
• Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical
phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force, etc.)
measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument and
produces a proportional output signal (electrical, mechanical,
magnetic, etc.).
– A thermocouple converts temperature to an output
voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.
• Sensors may operate simple on/off switches to detect the
following:
– Objects (Proximity switch)
– Empty or full (level switch)
– Hot or cold (thermostat)
– Pressure high or low (pressure switch)
SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS SPEED TRANSDUCERS

• Thermocouple • Optical Types
• Magnetic Pickups
RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS
• Tachometers (Generator)
• RTD
• Thermistor FORCE SENSORS
• Mechanical types.
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS • Hydraulic types.
• Mechanical Type • Electrical strain gauge types.
• Bourdon Tube.
• Spring and Piston. POSITION SENSORS
• Bellows and capsules. • Resistive
• Diaphragm
• Optical
• Electrical Type
• Inductive
• Strain Gauge types.
• Piezo electric types.
• Inductive types.
• Capacitive types.
 Performance characteristics of Sensors
• A knowledge of the performance characteristics of
sensing instrument is essential for selecting the most
suitable sensor or instrument for specific measuring
jobs.
• Performance characteristics of an instrument are
mainly divided into two.
– Static characteristics
– Dynamic characteristics
 Static Characteristics(1)
• The set of criteria defined for the instrument which are
used to measure the quantities that are varying slowly
with time or constant is called static characteristics.
OR
• The static characteristics of an instrument are considered
for instruments which are used to measure an unvarying
process condition.
• Some criteria will be set to for the measurement of
quantities that are either constant or vary slowly is called
static characteristics
 Static Characteristics(2)
• All the static performance characteristics are
obtained by one form or another of a process called
calibration.
• It provides a opportunity to check the instrument
against a known standard and to find the errors and
accuracy.
• Calibration involves comparison of an instrument
with either primary standard or a secondary standard
or an instrument with known accuracy.
 Static Characteristics Parameters (3)
• Accuracy & Precision
• Sensitivity
• Linearity & Hysteresis
• Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Resolution,
• Drift,
• Span
• Threshold etc.
 Static Characteristics(4)
• Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of a
measurement compared to the expected (true) value.
– expressed in terms of errors
• Static error = measured value – true value
• Precision: A measure of the consistency or reproducibility
of measurements, i.e. successive readings does not differ.
– – (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output
for a given value of input).
– Accuracy can be improved by calibration but not
precision
• Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to
which an instrument will respond.
 Static Characteristics(5)
• Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output
(response) of the instrument to a change of input or
measured variable.
• Drift: Gradual shift in the measured value ,over an
extended period, when there is no change in input.
• Threshold: The minimum value of input for which the
device just starts to respond
• Range/Span: The minimum and maximum value of
quantity so that the device is capable of measuring.
 Static Characteristics(5)
• Repeatability: A measure of how well the output
returns to a given value when the same precise input is
applied several times.
• Linearity: Input output relationship of a device must be
linear (i.e, Y= mx +C).
• Hysteresis: It is the difference between the two curves.
 Dynamic Characteristics(1)
• The response of instruments or systems to dynamic
I/Ps are also functions of time.
• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes
in the measured variables
• Instead, they exhibit slowness or sluggishness due to
such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electric capacitance.
 Dynamic Characteristics(2)
• The dynamic characteristics of sensing instruments are
– Speed of response
– Fidelity
– Time delay or lag
– Dynamic error
 Dynamic Characteristics(3)
• Speed of Response: It is the ability of a system to
respond to a sudden changes in the input
signal/quantity
• Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (Indication of how much
faithfully system responds to the changes in input).
 Dynamic Characteristics (4)
• Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an
instrument to changes in the measured variable.
– Two types: Process lag (process) and Control lag
(Instrument)
• Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true values
of a quantity changing with time and the value indicated
by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.
• NOTE: The dynamic and transient behavior of the
instrument is as important as the static behavior.
 Dynamic Characteristics (5)
• Inputs used to study characteristics of a system are
– Impulse signal
– Step Signal
– Ramp signal
– Exponential signal (sinusoidal signal)
– Transient Response
• Response exhibited by the system suddenly after
an input change
– Steady State response
• Response exhibited by the system at infinite time
after an input change
 Sensors Types by Power Supply
• Mainly Transducers can be classified into two types based
on power supply requirement.
– Active Transducers
– Passive Transducers.
• Active transducers are those which does not requires
external power supply for their operation.
– For example: Photo Voltage Cell, Piezo Electric Crystal,
Generator etc.
• Passive Transducers are those transducers which
requires external power supply for their operation.
– For example: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive
Transducers.
 Sensors Types by Signals
• Analog Sensors
• Discrete Sensors
 Analog sensors
• Analog sensors are devices that output a continuous
voltage linear to the experienced change in the
environment.
• They are most extensively used in Temperature Sensing,
Distance Sensing, Luminance Sensing, Pressure Sensing,
and basically in PLC applications where an exact, certain
unit of measure is involved.
• In PLC automation, the typically used analog inputs vary
from 0-20mA, 4-20mA, 0-10V or 0-12V,
• Hence, the sensing may also become current
sensing or voltage sensing.
• However, even though the sensor is Analog, the PLC is still a
Digital Device, so an A/D converter is used.
 Discrete sensors
• Discrete sensors, outputs a HIGH or a LOW voltage
only.
• This is derived from the Binary number system
where the only possible digits are 0 and 1—which
can represent LOW and HIGH, respectively.
• HIGH signals, even though they are represented as
1 even in some PLCs, are not represented by 1 Volt.
• PLCs usually run on 24 Volts DC.
• What this means is that PLCs will read HIGH at the
input side only when the voltage is at 24 Volts DC.
 Proximity Sensor
• Proximity Sensors, in PLC automation, are usually used
in detecting the presence or absence of objects made
of varying materials.
• They do so WITHOUT making contact.
• Sometimes they are called “proximity switches”
because the output is binary, HIGH or LOW—just like a
switch.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
• The inductive proximity sensor consists of a ferrous
metallic core wound with a conductor.
• When the end of the metallic core is placed near
another ferrous metal object, the effective inductance
of the coil changes.
• This change is monitored by another circuit in the
sensor which then activates the switching component.
• In PLC automation, the inductive proximity sensor is
commonly seen in metal fabrication processes.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• The capacitive proximity sensor has ability to detect both
metallic and nonmetallic objects.
• Essentially, two plates of the capacitor are separated by some
distance.
• The distance between the two plates dictates its capacitance, or
its ability to store energy for a specific voltage drop.
• To exploit this characteristic, the capacitive proximity sensor has
only one of the plates, and the other plate parallel to it would be
the object being sensed.
• Because objects have different dielectric constants, the object is
detected by a CHANGE in capacitance.
• Lot of objects have dielectric properties, which makes them
eligible for detection in PLC automation using the capacitive
proximity sensor.
 Photoelectric Sensors
• Photoelectric sensors use a light emitting diode as an
emitter, and usually phototransistors or photodiodes at
the receiver side.
• Basically, when the light (usually infrared) from the
emitter’s LED hits the receiver, the sensor changes
state from LOW to HIGH.
• These sensors may be used in creative ways in PLC
automation because photoelectric sensors have
different modes of operation.
 Ultrasonic Sensors
• Ultrasonic Sensors uses sound waves and their
reflection in order to detect the presence of an object.
• The term “Ultrasonic” means that the frequency being
used is higher than what humans are capable of
hearing.
• Basically, ultrasonic sensors have high enough
frequency to even be decoded by humans.
• Audible sound frequencies only range from 20Hz to 20
kHz, and this range can only be reduced naturally due
to aging.
PLC Advantages (1)
PLC Advantages (2)
PLC Disadvantages
 PLC Programming (1)
• PLCs are the major components in industrial
automation and control systems.
• The controlling nature of PLC is ranging from simple-
push button switching to a single motor to several
complex control structures.
• PLC programming is an important task of designing and
implementing control application depending on
customers need.
• A PLC program consists of a set of instructions either in
textual or graphical form, which represents the logic to
be implemented for specific industrial realtime
applications.
 PLC Programming (2)
• A dedicated PLC programming software comes from a
PLC hardware of specific manufacturer that allows entry
and development of user application code, which can
be download to the PLC hardware.
• This software also ensures Human Machine Interface
(HMI) as a graphical representation of variables.
• Once this program is downloaded to the PLC and if the
PLC is placed in Run mode, then the PLC continuously
works according to the program.
 PLC Programming (3)
• A CPU of the PLC executes two different programs:
1. The Operating System
2. The User Program
 PLC Programming _ Operating System
• The operating system organizes all the
functions, operations and sequences of
the CPU that are not associated with a
control task.
• The OS tasks include
– Updating and outputting the process
image tables of input and outputs
– Executing the user program
– Detecting and calling the interrupts
– Managing the memory areas
– Establishing communication with
programmable devices
 PLC Programming_ User Program
• The user program is the combination of various functions
which are required to process an automated task.
• This must be created by the users and need to be
downloaded to the CPU of the PLC.
• Some of the tasks of the user program include:
– Initiating all the conditions for starting the specified task.
– Reading and evaluating all binary and analog input
signals.
– Specifying output signals to all binary and analog output
signals.
– Executing interrupts and handling errors.
 PLC Programming Languages
• PLC programming languages can be of two types:
• 1.Textual language
– Instructions List (IL)
– Structured Text (ST)
• 2. Graphical language
– Function Block Diagram (FBD)
– Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
– Ladder Diagrams (LD)
• Compared with text based languages, graphical languages are preferred
by many users to program a PLC due to their simple and convenient
programming features.
• All the necessary functions and functional blocks are available in the
standard library of each PLC software.
• These function blocks include timers, counters, strings, comparators,
numeric, arithmetic, bit-shift, calling functions, and so on.
 PLC Programming Languages_ Instruction List
• Instruction List is a low-level language that resembles the assembly language.
• Program consists of a series of instructions, listed as in an assembly program.
• common operations includes addition, division, multiplication and
subtraction.
• operations like jump to some label, as well as to call a function.
• Instruction List makes the program compact and offers a big processing speed.
• The downsides of this language are the structure and the syntax.
• It is difficult to debug a big list of instructions.
 PLC Programming Languages_ Structured Text
• Structured Text is a high-level language, represents a combination of
three programming languages: Basic, Pascal and C.
• This language gives the possibility to operate with inputs and
outputs, using different statements such as for, while, if and case.
• Easy to implement complex algorithms and work with mathematical
functions.
• Difficult to debug in comparison with a graphical language is the
disadvantage.
PLC Programming Languages_ Function Block Diagram
• The Function Block Diagram is a graphical programming language.
• Each function, even an elementary one, is described by a block
with inputs and outputs.
• The logic is performed by different connection lines between
inputs and outputs of the blocks.
PLC Programming Languages_ Sequential Function Chart
• Sequential Function Chart is a graphical
programming language that is defined
as Preparation of function charts for
control systems.
• This language is used when programming a
process that can be split into several steps.
• There are 3 main components of an SFC:
– Steps with defined actions;
– Transitions with defined logic
conditions;
– Links between steps and transitions.
 PLC Programming_ Ladder Logic
• The fig shows hardwired-ladder diagram
PLC is based on ladder logic
wherein the same lamp load is controlled by
or ladder programming,
two push button switches. In case if any one which is a graphical
of the switches gets closed, the lamp glows. language showing logic as a
• Two horizontal lines are called rungs which combination of series
are connected b/w two vertical lines called (and’s) and parallel (or’s)
rails. blocks.
• Each rung establishes the electrical
continuity b/w +VE (Hot_L) and –VE rails
(Neutral_N) so current flows from the input
to output devices.
• Input switches are types include normally
closed and normally opened.
• A contact with a slash through it represents
a normally closed contact
• Ladder logic output coils are shown by circle.
 PLC Ladder Logic Programming

A simple ladder logic program with equivalent Boolean equations

 PLC Ladder Logic Program
• Consider the Fig, where it is assumed that Hot rail at the left side has power,
and the right side rail is neutral .
• When the contacts are opened and closed in the right combinations they
allow power to flow through the output coils, thus actuating them.
• It is possible to write ladder logic rungs as Boolean equations, as shown on
the right-hand side of the fig.
• In the first rung if A and D are ON, the output X will be turned ON. This can
also be accomplished by turning B ON, turning C off, and turning D ON.
• In the second, the output Y will be ON if X is on and A is ON, or D is off.

A simple ladder logic program with equivalent Boolean equations

PLC Complex Ladder Logic Example

complex ladder logic example

 PLC Complex Ladder Logic Example
• The complex ladder logic program example uses timers
and memory values.
• first step of the program will allow the system to be:
– started with a normally open run push button input
or
– stopped with a normally closed push button stop .
• The output active is used to branch around the run to
close in the run state.
• PLC executes a ladder logic program many times per
second.
– Typical execution time range from 5 to 100 ms.
 PLC Complex Ladder Logic Example...
• When run input is active, output heater will turn on, 5s later
fan1 will turn on, followed by fan2 at 10 s.
• Next ladder logic turns on an output heater when system is
active.
• The third line will run a timer when active is on.
• When the input to the TON timer goes on, the timer T4:0 will
begin counting, and the timer element T4:0.ACC will begin to
increment until the delay value of 10s is reached
– at this point the timer done bit (T4:0/DN bit) will turn on
and stays on until the input to the timer is turned off.
• Next step will compare the accumulated time of the timer
and if it is greater than 5s, the output fan1 will be turned on.
• final step of the program will turn on fan2 after the timer has
delayed 10s.
 Structured Text- Complex Ladder Logic Example
Program Initialization Program logic
Complex Ladder Logic Example START_PROGRAM
• VAR_INPUT active := (run OR active) & stop ;
• run : BOOL ; heater := active ;
• stop : BOOL ; delay (EN := active, PRE := 10s) ;
• END_VAR IF ( delay.ACC >= 5s )
• VAR_OUTPUT THEN
• heater : BOOL ; fan1 := 1 ;
• fan1 : BOOL ; ELSE
• fan2 : BOOL ; fan1 := 0 ;
• END_VAR END_IF ;
• VAR LOGIC fan2 := delay.DN ;
• active : BOOL ; fan2 := 1 ;
• delay : TON ; ELSE
• END_VAR fan2 := 0 ;
END_PROGRAM
Structured text program equivalent to Complex Ladder Logic Example
 Structured Text- Complex Ladder Logic Example
• In structured text- The first line defines the program
name.
• This is followed by variable definitions.
• The variables run and stop are inputs to the controller
from sensors and switches.
• The variables heater, fan1 and fan2 are outputs to the
actuators in the system.
• The variables active and delay are internal
configuration states of the program.
 Structured Text- Complex Ladder Logic Example
• In the program, first two lines set the values of active
and heater.
• The instruction delay (…) calls the timer.
• The argument EN:=active sets the timer to run.
• PRE:=10 sets the timer delay to 10s.
• “if” statement set the value of fan1 using the
accumulated timer value delay, ACC.
• The value of fan2 is then set when the timer
accumulator has reached the delay time and set the
done bit delay, DN.
 PLC- Function Block Diagrams
• Function block diagrams are represented by Data flow model used for high-level
design.
• In ladder diagram, data flows from the inputs on the left to the outputs on the right.
• Complex Ladder Logic Example can be presented in its equivalent form as Function
Block Diagrams .
– The OR and AND functions are used to set the values of active and Heater .
– The TON timer uses the enable EN and delay PRE inputs to drive the
accumulator ACC and DN outputs.
– The DN output drives fan2 while the ACC value is compared to the value of 5 to
set the output fan1.
PLC- Data Flow Model
 Ladder Diagrams Design Configuration
• ladder diagram is way of representing electrical sequences of
operations and analyzing the status of different events.
• Ladder diagram represent the interconnection of field devices in a
way that the activation, or turning ON, of one device will turn ON
another device according to a predetermined sequence of events.

PL: Pilot Light

Fig(a): Simple electrical ladder diagram representation Fig (b): PLC implementation
 Example 1 : PLC- Design Configuration & Implementation
QUESTION STATEMENT:
In the hardwired circuit shown in Fig (a), pilot light (PL) will turn ON if the limit
switch LS1 closes and if either push button PB1 or limit switch LS2 closes.
In PLC circuit, the same series of events will cause the pilot light—connected to
an output module—to turn ON.
• Note: In PLC circuit of Fig (b), internal representation of contacts provides
the equivalent power logic as a hardwired circuit when the referenced input
field device closes or is pushed.
Sketch hardwired and PLC implementation diagrams for the circuit in Fig(a)
illustrating the configurations of inputs that will turn PL ON.
SOLUTION:
Draw the truth table of problem.
Fig (c) shows several possible configurations for the circuit in Fig (a).
The highlighted blue lines indicate that power is present at that connection
point, also the way a programming or monitoring device represents power in a
PLC circuit.
The last two configurations in Fig (c) are the only ones that will turn PL ON
PLC- Design Configuration & Implementation Example 1

Fig (c)
 Text References
TEXT BOOK:
Garry Dunning, “Introduction to Programmable
Logic Controller “, Publisher: Thomson_Delmaar
learning, latest edition.
REFRENCE BOOKS:
Kelvin T. Erickson, “Programmable Logic
Controllers: An Emphasis on Design and
Application”, Latest edition.
END OF LECTURE