ELECTRONICS

Table of Contents
Energy Band Theory
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors Connections
n- type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor Building on….
The p-n Junction  Cells and Simple circuits
Semiconductor Diode – conductors, insulators
Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification and semi-conductors
Revision Exercise  Current Electricity (II) –
effect of temperature on
resistivity
Specific Objectives  Electromagnetic
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: Induction – transformer
a) state the differences between conductors and insulators outputs
b) define intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Arriving at……
c) explain doping in semi-conductors
d) explain the working of a p-n junction diode  Types and
e) sketch current-voltage characteristics for a diode characteristics of
f) explain the application of diodes in rectification. semiconductors
 The p-n junction diode-
characteristics and
(10 Lessons) applications

Looking forward to….

Content
1. Conductors, semi-conductors, insulators  Electrical and
2. Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors electronic
3. Doping engineering! 👨‍🎓
4. p-n junction diode
5. Applications of diodes: half wave rectification and full-wave rectification
2 Modern Physics

ELECTRONICS
The functioning of electronic components such as the diode and integrated circuits (IC),
is based on the behaviour of certain materials called semiconductors. Common
examples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium. The electrical conductivity of
conductors, semiconductors and insulators can be explained using the energy band
theory.

The Energy Band Theory

The atomic structure reveals that electrons revolve around the nucleus in energy
levels. According to the energy-band theory, when two or more atoms are brought
closer to each other, the energy levels split into smaller energy levels called bands.

The outermost energy level containing valence electrons splits more easily into many
bands than the inner levels. The most important bands in electronics are the valence
(VB) and conduction bands (CB), which contain valence and conduction electrons
respectively. The energy gap between the conduction and valence bands is called the
forbidden energy gap and can be used to distinguish between insulators, conductors
and semiconductors.

Insulators
Insulators are poor conductors of electricity due to the presence of a large energy gap
of approximately 3 eV between an empty
conduction band and completely filled
valence band.
Since the gap between the VB and CB is very
large in insulators, very high energy is
required for an electron to jump from the
filled VB to the conduction band. Hardly any
electron gains this energy thus the
conduction band remains empty, explaining why insulators do not conduct electricity.
 Temperature increase or addition of impurities to insulators has no effect on their
conductivity.

Conductors
In conductors, the valence and conduction bands
overlap.

Electrons move freely from the partly filled valence

band to the conduction band. Many electrons in the
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ELECTRONICSCQ

conduction band are thus available (free) for electric conduction. The flow of current in
conductors is by movements of electrons.

 A rise in temperature increases the vibrations of the atoms and this interferes with
the electron flow. Hence, the resistance of a conductor increases with
temperature.

Semiconductors
In a semi-conductor, the forbidden energy gap is small compared to that of
insulators. The conduction band has almost no electrons while the valence band is
almost completely filled.

 An increase in temperature increases the chance of an electron moving from the

valence band to conduction band. Conductivity is thus enhanced.
The electrical conductivities of semiconductor materials lie between those of good
conductors and insulators.
 When an electron in the valence band is liberated to cross over to the conduction band,
a hole (absence of an electron and regarded positive) is created in the valence
band. Another electron within the valence band jumps into the hole, thereby creating
another hole which is subsequently filled by yet another electron, and the process
continues. A hole is therefore seen to be moving in the valence band, generating hole
current (conventional current).
 The flow of electrons in the conduction band constitutes electron current. Total current
flow in semiconductors is therefore due to the flow of electrons and holes. The
electrical resistance of semiconductors thus reduces with increase in temperature.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is an extremely pure semiconductor, e.g., silicon (Si)
and germanium (Ge).
Their atoms have four electrons in the outermost shell,
which combine covalently with electrons from the
neighbouring atoms to form a crystal. Each atom is thus
surrounded by four other atoms.
At absolute zero temperature, the crystal is an insulator.
At room temperature, some electrons in the valence band
gain energy and jump into the conduction band, leaving
4 Modern Physics

behind an equal number of holes in the valence band. The material therefore becomes
a conductor.
At higher temperatures, more electron-hole pairs are created, increasing the
conductivity of the material.
 In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons equals the number of holes.
The electrons and holes are known as charge carriers.

Doping
Doping is the process of adding small quantities of impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor to enhance its conductivity.

Extrinsic semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor to which some impurities
have been added to enhance conductivity (doped)
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, namely, the n-type and p-type.

The n-type Semiconductor

The n-type semiconductor is formed by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with pentavalent atoms
like antimony, phosphorus or arsenic.
A phosphorus atom has five electrons, four of which
participate in forming covalent bonds with four
neighbouring atoms of the pure semiconductor.
The remaining electron is thus donated for
electrical conductivity.
The phosphorus atom is thus referred to as donor
atom or n-type impurity.
 The electrons become the majority charge carriers while holes are the minority
charge carriers.

NB: The n-type semiconductor is electrically neutral since the total number of
electrons is equal to the total number of protons in the material.

(ii) The p-type Semiconductor

The p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping
intrinsic semiconductors with trivalent atoms,
e.g., boron, gallium or indium.
Boron has three electrons available for bond formation
whereas silicon has four. When boron fits in the silicon
crystal lattice, it will have one electron less to complete
the bonding. The vacant place due to a missing electron
is called a hole.
Since a trivalent atom accepts to complete the bonding with one electron less, it is
referred to as acceptor atom.
 The silicon crystal becomes a p-type extrinsic semiconductor because the holes
(which have an effective positive charge) are the majority charge carriers.
The p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral since the impurity introduces equal
number of electrons and protons found in the nucleus.
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ELECTRONICSCQ

Fixed Ions, Majority and Minority Charge Carriers

In the p-type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers, but as a hole moves
away from the parent atom, the parent atom becomes a negative ion, which is fixed in
the crystal. The ion does not take part in conduction. Electrons (which are thermally
generated) exist as minority charge carriers.

In the n-type semiconductor, an electron moving away from a parent atom generates a
fixed positive ion. The holes are thermally generated while the electrons are a result of
doping.

The p-n Junction

The p-n junction is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped simultaneously
by trivalent and pentavalent atoms such that one half of it becomes a p-type and
the other half an n-type semi-conductor.

The free electrons and holes near the junction diffuse across the junction, such that the
electrons enter the p-zone as holes move into
the n-zone.

Re-combination of the mobile charge carriers

takes place on either side of the junction, thus
depleting mobile charge carriers within a
region of about 10–4 to 10–6 m.

A region of uncovered fixed ions is formed on either side of the junction.

The uncovered ions set up a potential difference (potential barrier) which in turn sets
up a field that stops further diffusion of mobile charges. This region occupied by the
uncovered fixed ions is called the depletion layer.
6 Modern Physics

Biasing the p-n Junction

A p-n junction is said to be biased when a potential difference is applied across it.

Forward Biasing
A p-n junction is forward biased when the p-type region is connected to the positive
and the n-type region to the negative terminal of an external cell or battery.

The applied voltage, VE, which is greater than the internal potential barrier V B, opposes
the latter by repelling holes from the p-type and electrons from the n-type, enabling the
fixed ions in the depletion layer to regain their holes and electrons. This reduces the
potential barrier VB and the thickness of the depletion layer considerably, thereby
reducing the forward resistance and more charges flow across the junction with ease.
Thus, a large forward current flows in the circuit.

Reverse Biasing
A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p-region is connected to the negative
terminal while the n-region is connected to the positive terminal of a cell or
battery.
The external voltage VE is in the same direction as the potential barrier.

The holes and electrons in their respective regions are attracted away from the junction
by the external voltage. This increases the concentration of the fixed positive and
negative ions and increases the thickness of the depletion layer. The potential barrier
increases, hence increasing the resistance of the p-n junction.
However, a small current due to the flow minority charge carriers (leakage current)
flows.
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ELECTRONICSCQ

Semiconductor Diode (p-n Junction Diode)

This is a one-way conduction device consisting of a p-n junction and having two
terminals, the anode and the cathode. The diode can be forward and reverse biased as
shown below.

Diode Characteristics
The circuit below is used to investigate diode characteristics for the reverse and
forward bias.

For each case, the values of current and voltage are recorded as the resistance is
varied for in order to obtain different values. Graphs of current against voltage are then
plotted for both the reverse bias and the forward bias.

Forward biased diode

A graph of current against voltage for a diode in

forward bias is a curve (non-linear) showing that
a diode is non-ohmic. The current increases
rapidly when the forward bias voltage is
increased.
As the voltage is increased from zero, a very
small current flows through the diode because
forward bias voltage is insufficient in opposing
the potential barrier. Leakage current due to flow
of minority charge carriers flows.
When the potential barrier is completely
overcome by the bias at the cut-in voltage (threshold or breakpoint voltage),
charges easily flow across the junction, giving rise to the sharp increase in forward
current.

Reverse biased diode

For the reverse bias, when the reverse bias
voltage is zero, a small current (leakage current)
flows. As reverse bias voltage is increased, there
8 Modern Physics

is no significant change in the current until a particular voltage (Zener or breakdown

voltage) when a current surge is noted.
When the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is high. The flow of leakage current
results from flow of minority charge carriers. At breakdown or Zener voltage, some
covalent bonds rapture, liberating electrons. This is called Zener breakdown.
As the electrons move because of the applied voltage, they collide with some atoms,
causing ionisation. This is called avalanche breakdown.
The two processes produce excess electrons which are responsible for the heavy
conduction.
When a diode is reverse biased to its breakdown voltage, it
gets damaged. A damaged diode conducts irrespective of
biasing.
Zener diodes, like the one shown alongside, are designed to
operate within the breakdown region.

The combined characteristic of a diode is shown below.

Worked Examples
Example 1
Find the current flowing through the resistors
and voltage drops in the figure alongside.
(Assume the diodes are ideal)

Solution
Since diode D1 is reverse biased, current does
not flow through the 3 Ω resistor. Hence, there
is no voltage drop across it. D2 is forward
biased, hence current flowing through the 2 Ω
and 8 Ω resistors, taken to be in series, is
given by;
V 10
I= =
R 10

∴ voltage across the 2 Ω resistor = 1 × R =1 ×

=1A

2 =2V

Voltage across 8 Ω resistor is given by 1 × 8 =

8V

Example 2
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ELECTRONICSCQ

Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification

A rectifier is a device used in transforming an alternating voltage into a direct or
unidirectional voltage. The process is called rectification. There are two types of
rectification, namely:
(i) half-wave rectification.
(ii) full-wave rectification.
A diode is used in rectification because it offers high resistance when reverse biased
and low resistance when forward biased.

Half-wave Rectification
Half-wave reflection can be achieved
by connecting a single diode in series
with the load cross which a
unidirectional voltage is required.
During the first half (positive) cycle,
the diode is forward biased, so it
conducts. Current flows through RL,
building a voltage across it which
decreases as the first half-cycle comes
to an end.
On the onset of the second half-cycle
(negative), the diode is reverse biased and so it does not conduct. The action repeats
itself so long as the input voltage is being supplied.
When a CRO is connected across the points A and B, a trace obtained on the screen is
as shown in figure (a) below.

When connected across points C and D, the trace is as shown in (b).

10 Modern Physics

The process is referred to as half-wave rectification because half of the input cycle is
phased out in the output.
The disadvantage of this rectification is that the output is not smooth and there is
much power loss as one of the half-cycles is eliminated.

Full-wave Rectification
Full-wave rectification can be achieved using:
(i) two diodes and center-tapped transformer.
(ii) four diodes (the bridge rectifier).

Using Two Diodes

A centre-tapped transformer must be used to split the transformer output. Two diodes
are connected in such a way that each conducts a current through the load resistor
during a particular half cycle.
There are two possible circuits for this arrangement as shown below.

During the first half-cycle D 1 is

forward biased while D2 is
reverse biased. Hence, the
path taken by the current is A
D1 BCA. During the next half-
cycle, D2 is forward biased
while D1 is reverse biased and
the path of the current is DD2
BCD.
During both half-cycles,
current flows through the
resistor in the same direction.

The contribution of each diode to make

up the effective output is illustrated in
the figure alongside.
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ELECTRONICSCQ

Bridge Rectifier
The bridge circuit consists of four diodes connected as shown below.

During the first half-cycle, point

A is positive with respect to C,
hence D1 and D3 are forward
biased while D2 and D4 are
reverse biased. The path of the
current is thus ABDCA.

During the second half-cycle,

point A becomes negative with
respect to C and diodes D2 and
D4 become forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse biased. The path of the
conventional current is then CBDAC.

NB: During both half-cycles, current flows through the load resistor R L in the same
directions.

Some advantages of the bridge rectifier

(i) a smaller transformer can be used, because there is no need for centre-tapping.
(ii) it is suitable for high voltage regulation.

In general, the full-wave rectifier gives a stronger and smoother output than the half-
wave rectifier.
If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened.

Review Exercises

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