MODULE I-DC Machines and

Transformers(EET202)
➢Course purpose:
• The purpose of the course is to provide the
fundamentals of DC generators, DC motors
and transformers and giving emphasis to
applications in engineering field

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 Text/Reference Books
1) Principles of Electrical Machines by
V.K.Mehta & Rohit Mehta
2) Electrical Technology,Volume II,AC and DC
Machines by B.L.Theraja
3) Theory and Performance of Electrical
Machines by J.B.Gupta
4) Electrical Machines by Deshpande
5) Electrical Machinery by Bimbra P S
6) Electric Machines by Nagrath & Kothari
7) Electric Machinery by Fitzgerald

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 Examinations
1)Internal Evaluation-50marks
• Two internal tests each of 12.5 marks -
2*12.5-25marks
• Tutorials/Assignments/Mini Projects-15marks
• Attendance-10 marks
2)End semester examination(3 hrs)-100marks
Minimum 40 marks needed to pass the exam
• Total-150marks
• Total credit for the course - 4

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 QUESTION PAPER PATTERN (End
semester exam)
• Part A contain 10 questions with 2 questions
from each module having 3 marks for each
question. Students should answer all questions.
10 x3 =30 marks
• Part B contain five sections and each section shall
have two questions from each module of which
student should answer any one.Each question
can have maximum 2 sub divisions and carry 14
marks. 5 x14=70 marks
• Total 100 marks
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• Module I-DC Machines-General
things
• Module II-DC generators
• Module III-DC motors
• Module IV- Single phase
transformers
• Module V-Autotransformers and
Three phase transformers
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 Module I
• Constructional details of dc machines
• Armature winding-single layer winding,double
layer winding
• Lap and wave winding
• Equalizer rings and Dummy coils
• MMF of a winding
• EMF developed
• Electromagnetic torque
• Numerical problems

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 Module II
• DC generator-Principle of operation and working
• EMF equation
• Excitation, Classification of dc generators
• Armature reaction, Demagnetizing and cross
magnetizing ampere turns
• Compensating windings,Interpoles
• Commutation
• Open Circuit Characteristics(OCC),Voltage buildup
and load characteristics
• Parallel operation
• Power flow diagram
• Numerical problems
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 Module III
• DC motor-Principle of operation and working
• Back emf and its significance
• Generation of torque and torque equation
• Performance characteristics
• Numerical problems
• Starting of dc motors,starters,3 point and 4 point
starters(principle only)
• Speed control of dc motors a)field control b)armature
control
• Braking of dc motors
• Power flow diagram,losses and efficiency
• Testing of dc motors-Swinburne’s test,Hopkinson’s test
and retardation test
• DC motor applications
• Numerical problems
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 Module IV
• Single phase transformers-constructional details
• Principle and operation, Transformation ratio
• EMF equation
• Ideal transformer,magnetising current,phasor
diagram, dot convention
• Operation on no load and load
• Equivalent circuit,percentage and per unit
impedance
• Voltage regulation
• Transformer losses and efficiency,condition for
maximum efficiency,kVA rating
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• Testing of transformers-open circuit test,short
circuit test,polarity test
• Sumpner’s test-separation of losses
• All day efficiency
• Parallel operation of single phase transformers
• Numerical problems

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 Module V
• Autotransformer,saving of copper,rating of
autotransformers
• Three phase transformer-construction
• Difference between distribution transformer and
power transformer
• Different connections of 3-phase transformers-Y-
Y, Δ-Δ, Y-Δ, Δ-Y, V-V
• Vector groupings-Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11
• Parallel operation of 3-phase transformers
• Three winding transformer, Stabilization by
tertiary winding
• Tap changing transformers-no load tap
changing,on load tap changing
• Dry type transformers
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 DC Machines-DC Generator and DC
Motor
• DC Generator is a machine which Converts mechanical
energy into dc electrical energy. Main parts are
(i)Armature(rotating part) (ii) Field system(stationary
part)
Principle:When the armature rotates in a stationary
magnetic field,it cuts the magnetic flux and an emf is
induced in the armature.This is called dynamically
induced emf and the magnitude is given by e=BlVsinɵ
where B is the magnetic flux density,l is the length of
conductor,V is the velocity of conductor and ɵ is the
angle of conductor w.r.t.horizontal.

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• The direction of the induced emf is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
• Hold out your right hand with fore finger,
middle finger and thumb in three mutually
perpendicular directions. If the fore finger
indicates the direction of magnetic field,
thumb indicates the direction of motion of
conductor then middle finger indicates the
direction of induced emf or current

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• DC Motor is a machine which converts dc
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Main
parts are (i)Armature(rotating part) (ii) Field
system(stationary part)
• Principle: Whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field a
mechanical force and hence torque will be
acted upon the conductor and the conductor
rotates.The magnitude of this force is given by
F=Bilsinɵ where B is the magnetic flux density,i
is the current through the conductor,l is the
length of the conductor and ɵ is the angle of
the conductor w.r.t. horizontal .
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• The direction of force or rotation is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule
• Hold out your left hand with fore finger, middle
finger and thumb in three mutually perpendicular
directions. If the fore finger indicates the
direction of magnetic field, middle finger
indicates the direction of current then thumb
indicates the direction of force or motion of the
conductor
• A same dc machine can work as both generator
and motor.ie;construction is same
• If the i/p is mechanical it is a dc generator and if
the i/p is electrical it is a dc motor

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MODULE I-Construction of DC
Machines

Core

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 Various Parts of a DC Machine
1) Yoke or Magnetic frame
2) Field System (It consists of Pole core and
Field winding)
3) Armature (It consists of armature core and
armature winding)
4) Commutator
5) Brushes and bearings
6) Shaft
7) Airgap

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 1)Yoke
• It provides mechanical support for the poles
and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine
• It carries the magnetic flux produced by the
poles
• In small generators where cheapness rather
than weight is the main consideration yokes
are made of cast iron. But for large machines
usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed

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 2)Field System
• Field system is the stationary part of a DC
machine and it consists of Pole core,pole shoes
and field winding
• The field magnets consists of pole cores and pole
shoes. The field windings are placed in pole core
• The pole core itself may be a solid piece made
out of either cast iron or cast steel but the pole
shoe is laminated and is fixed to the pole face by
means of screws
• Field windings are made of copper wire and are
placed on pole core
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• When current is passed through field windings
they electromagnetise the poles which
produces the necessary flux that is cut by
revolving armature conductors
• The pole shoes serve two purposes
▪ They spread out the flux in the airgap and also
being of larger cross section reduces the
reluctance of the magnetic path
▪ They support the field winding

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 3)Armature
• Armature is a rotating part and it consists of
armature core and armature winding
• Armature core houses the armature
conductors in various slots
• It is cylindrical or drum shaped and is built up
of usually circular steel laminations
approximately 0.5mm thick.It is keyed to the
shaft
• The purpose of using laminations is to reduce
the eddy current losses
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• Armature conductors or windings are made of
copper and are placed in armature core in
slots and are insulated from each other
• This revolving armature conductors cuts the
magnetic flux and hence emf is induced in
armature conductors.
• There are two types of armature windings
1)Wave winding 2)Lap winding

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 4)Commutator
• Commutator rectifies ie;converts the AC current
induced in the armature conductors into DC
current in the external load circuit;ie commutator
acts as a mechanical rectifier
• The function of the commutator is to facilitate
collection of current from the armature
conductors
• Commutator is built up of copper segments of
high conductivity
• These commutator segments are insulated from
each other by thin layers of mica
• Each commutator segment is connected to the
armature conductor by means of copper strip
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 5)Brushes and Bearings
• The function of brushes is to collect current
from commutator and are usually made of
carbon or graphite
• These brushes are housed in brush holders
• Ball bearings or roller bearings are used in
order to reduce wear and tear.

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 6)Shaft
• The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power
from or to the machine
• The rotating parts like armature
core,commutator etc.are keyed to the shaft
• The shaft is made of mild steel with a
maximum breaking strength

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 7)Airgap
• The airgap is a small gap between
armature(rotating part) and field
system(stationary part) which facilitates the
proper functioning of the machine.
• The magnetic flux pass through this air gap

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Armature winding-Single layer winding
and Double layer winding
• Armature winding can be either single layer
winding or double layer winding
• In a single layer winding one conductor or one
coil side is placed in each armature slot
• Such a winding is not much used

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Fig. Double layer winding
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• In a double layer windings there are two coil
sides or conductors per slot as shown in fig.
• Most of dc armature windings are of double
layer windings
• One coil side of a coil lies at the top of a slot
and the other coil side lies at the bottom of
some other slot
• In two layer winding, it is desirable to
number the coil sides rather than the slots

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• The coil sides at the top of slots are given odd
numbers and those at the bottom are given
even numbers as shown in fig.(a)
• The coil sides are numbered in order round
the armature
• DC armature winding must be of closed circuit
type in order to provide for the commutation
of the coils

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DC Armature windings-Wave winding and Lap winding
• The armature windings of dc machines are of
cylindrical or drum type
• In this arrangement the armature conductors are
usually in the form of coils and are placed in slots
around the complete surface of cylindrical
armature core
• The coils are connected in series through the
commutator segments in such a way that their
emfs add to each other
• There are two types of dc armature windings
1)Wave winding
2)Lap winding

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 1)Wave winding

+ve brush

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• In this arrangement the armature coils are
connected in series through commutator
segments in such a way that the armature
winding is divided into two parallel paths
irrespective of the number of poles of the
machine ie;A=2
• If there are Z armature conductors,then Z/2
conductors will be in series in each parallel
path as shown in fig.
• Each parallel path will carry a current Ia/2
where Ia is the total armature current
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➢In a wave winding
1) There are two parallel paths irrespective of
the number of poles of the machine ie;A=2
2) Each parallel path has Z/2 conductors in
series
3) Emf generated=emf/parallel path
4) Total armature current Ia=2*current/parallel
path
5) Wave winding is used for high voltage low
current machines

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 2)Lap winding

+ve brush
-ve brush

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• In this arrangement the armature coils are
connected in series through commutator
segments in such a way that the armature
winding is divided into as many parallel paths
as the number of poles of the machine ie;A=P
• If there are Z conductors and P poles then
there will be P parallel paths,each path
contains Z/P conductors in series as shown in
fig.
• Each parallel path will carry a current of Ia/P
• In the fig.it is assumed that number of poles
P=4 so that there are four parallel paths
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➢In a Lap winding
1) There are as many parallel paths as the
number of poles of the machine ie;A=P
2) Each parallel path has Z/P conductors
3) Emf generated=emf/parallel path
4) Total armature current Ia=P*current/parallel
path
5) Lap winding is used for low voltage high
current machines

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 Equalizer rings
• Equalizer rings are used with lap winding
• The armature circuit in lap winding of a
multipolar machine has as many parallel paths
as the number of poles
• Because of wear in the bearings, and for other
reasons, the air gaps in a generator become
unequal and, therefore, the flux in some poles
becomes greater than in others
• With unequal voltages in these parallel paths,
circulating current will flow even if no current
is supplied to an external load
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• If these currents are large, some of the
brushes will be required to carry a greater
current at full load than they were designed to
carry and this will cause sparking
• To relieve the brushes from these circulating
currents, points on the armature that are at
the same potential are connected together by
means of copper bars called equalizer rings
• The equalizers provide a low resistance path
for the circulating current

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• As a result, the circulating current due to the
slight differences in the voltages of the various
parallel paths passes through the equalizer
rings instead of passing through the brushes.
This reduces sparking at the brushes
• Equalizer rings are not used in wave winding
because there is no imbalance in the voltages
of the two parallel paths

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 Dummy coils
• In a simplex wave winding, the average pitch
YA should be a whole number
• Sometimes the standard armature punchings
available in the market have slots that do not
satisfy the above requirement so that more
coils (usually only one more) are provided
than can be utilized
• These extra coils are called dummy coils or
dead coils

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• The dummy coil is inserted into the slots in
the same way as the others to make the
armature dynamically balanced but it is not a
part of the armature winding.

❖Note:In general, a high-current armature is

lap-wound to provide a large number of
parallel paths(P nos.) and a low-current
armature is wave-wound to provide a small
number of parallel paths(2nos.)

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 Electromagnetic torque
• When a current carrying conductor is placed
in the magnetic field, a force is exerted on it
which exerts torque T= F x r
• This torque is produced due to
the electromagnetic effect, hence is
called Electromagnetic torque
• When a DC machine is loaded either as a
generator or as a motor, the rotor conductors
carry current. These conductors lie in the
magnetic field of the air gap.
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• Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The
conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a
common radius from its centre. Hence, a torque
is produced around the circumference of the
rotor, and the rotor starts rotating
• When the machine operates as a generator at a
constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite
to that provided by the prime mover
• When the machine is operating as a motor, the
torque is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and
drives the mechanical load. The expression is
same for the generator and motor
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 • The torque which is produced in the armature
is not fully used at the shaft for doing the
useful work. Some part of it gets lost due to
mechanical losses. The torque which is used
for doing useful work is known as the shaft
torque. We have
Where V is the input voltage ,Eb is the back emf and IaRa is the voltage drop in armature

EbIa is the mechanical power developed in the armature

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Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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• Thus, from the above equation (5) it is clear
that the torque produced in the armature is
directly proportional to the flux per pole and
the armature current.
• Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic
torque developed in the armature depends
upon the current in armature conductors.
• If either of the two is reversed the direction
of torque produced is reversed and hence the
direction of rotation.
• But when both are reversed, the direction of
torque does not change.
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur