Ecology

No microorganism, plant or animal species including man is an isolated organism living in a

void. Each of them is surrounded by biotic and abiotic factors. Plants exhibit different
characters under different environmental conditions. This is because environment has huge
impact on growth and development of plant. All living organisms are affected by many
factors of environment and in turn develop character to adapt to respective environment.

Ecology is a study of interrelationship of organisms with their physical and biotic

environments also called as environmental biology. The term ecology (oekologie) is derived
from two Greek words – oikos meaning house and logos meaning study. Literally means the
study of organism in their dwelling place. The term was first introduced by Reiter 1868. The
most widely accepted definition of ecology was proposed by zoologist named Haeckel.
According to him ecology is the study of reciprocal relationship between living organism and
their environment. According to Odum ecology is the study of structure and function of
ecosystems.

Aim and Scope of Ecology: Off all the branches of science it is the ecology which is closely
associated to humans. Ecology is contributing to socioeconomic, political etc., it is very
important to conserve to environment for once own survival. The changes in climate,
weather, monsoon etc., are all related to changes in environment. So the knowledge of
ecology will help in monitoring the climatic changes. Hence ecology has an important role in
human welfare. Ecology has a huge scope and practically applied in all sciences like
agriculture, soil conservation, forestry, fishery, pollution control, pest control, wild life
management and so on where knowledge on ecology is very much essential.

Relation of ecology with other disciplines: ecology draws knowledge from various branches
such as Physical sciences, chemical sciences, biological sciences and geology. These
branches of science give better understanding of ecology and ecological concept. e.g.
knowledge of forest type and forestry will help forest ecologist to understand forest
distribution, floristic diversity and the existing environmental factors. Similarly statistics help
ecologist to analyze and interpret population increase, migration, nutritional aspects etc.,
hence interdisciplinary approach to study ecology is important for better understanding.

Some of the subdivisions of ecology based on interdisciplinary approach:

Physiological ecology: it deals with functional adjustment of the organism under different
environmental conditions.

Paleoecology: it deals with extinct organisms and their relationships with environmental
conditions prevailing in the past.

Subdivisions of Ecology: Ecological studies are based on three main aspects that are
taxonomical relationships, habitats and levels of organization. Following are the major
subdivisions based on these main aspects.
 1. Division based on taxonomical relationship
Ecology may be divided into plant and animal ecology based on taxonomic relationship of
organisms. Meaningful understanding of the concepts of ecology is not possible if plants and
animals are studied separated, in nature plants and animals are interrelated.
2. Division based on habitat
The study of interrelationship between organism and their local environment has led to
habitat ecology like fresh water, marine, grassland etc.,
3. Divisions based on level of organization – plant ecology is concerned with the
relationship between plants and their surroundings. It can be divided into Autecology
and Synecology.
a. Autecology: here the individual organism constitutes the unit of study. The
relationship and the interaction of an organism with its environment is the main basis
of study.
b. Synecology deals with the study of group of organisms and their mutual and
collective interaction with the environment. It seems to be more natural than
autecological approach because organism’s, plants, animals as well as microbes
always live in groups or population and their interaction between is collective.
Synecology is also called bioecology when plants and animals are considered
together. Synecology has the following subdivisions:
 Population ecology: a population may be defined as a group or collection of
individuals belonging to the single species. Study of interactions between individuals
in terms of growth, reproduction etc., constitutes population ecology.
 Community ecology: community might be defined as population of different species
bound together in a common habitat. The members of the community may be plants
as well as animals. Only the living components of a community however are studied
here mainly to analyze the nature of interdependence.
 Biome ecology: a biome may be defined as a complex of several communities living
under similar climatic conditions. They interaction between the different communities
of a biome constitutes the main aspects of the biome ecology.
c. Ecosystem ecology – the biotic and abiotic components of nature in an area interact
and they together constitute an ecosystem. In ecosystem ecology, the interdependence
of the various components of an ecosystem and their balances is studied.
BIOTIC FACTORS

Under natural situations, organism lives together influencing each other’s

life directly or indirectly. Such vital processes as growth, nutrition and
reproduction depend very much upon the interaction between the
individuals of same species (intraspecific interaction) or between the
individual of different species (interspecific). Pollination, seed and fruit
dispersal, grazing, parasitism, symbiosis are the common examples of
such interaction. The relationship between species may be beneficial to
both, harmful to both or beneficial or harmful to one and neutral for the
other.

Symbiosis: Symbiosis literally mean ‘living together. But the term has
been used in different ways by ecologist, most of the ecologist include all
types of interactions including ‘parasitism’ under symbiosis. Odum a
famous ecologist also agreed upon the use of term in broader sense which
both positive and negative interaction.

But other like Clarke restrict the use of the term symbiosis only for such
types of interactions which are mutually beneficial and where one or both
the species are benefited and neither is harmed. The relationship where at
least one of the species is harmed have been grouped under
antagonism.

McDougal grouped all i.e beneficial as well as harmful effects of

association under the single term ‘symbiosis’ and classified them into
two major groups:

1) Disjunctive symbiosis: where associated organisms are not in

constant contact.
2) Conjunctive symbiosis: where dissimilar organisms live in contact
with each other.

Each of the two has been further subdivided into – social (no direct
relationship) and nutritive (with food relationship), the later may be
antagonistic or reciprocal.

Eg. 1: Lianas and epiphytes are classified under ‘social conjunctive

symbiosis’

Eg. 2. Parasites fall under the category of ‘antagonistic nutritive

conjuctive symbiosis’

Eg. 3. Lichens, mycorrhizae and nitrogen fixing organisms under

‘reciprocal nutritive conjuctive symbiosis’

Odum (1971) used the term ‘symbiosis’ in broader sense and preferred to
group symbiotic interaction into two major groups:

1) Positive interaction: Where populations help one another, the

interactions being either one way or reciprocal. These include

 Commensalism
 Protocooperation
 Mutualism
 2) Negative interaction: Where the members on one population may
eat members of the other population, compete for foods, excrete
harmful waster or otherwise interfere with the other population.
These are subdivided into
 Competition
 Parasitism
 Antibiosis

POSITIVE INTERACTION: Here population helps one another and either

one or both the species are benefited. The benefit may be in respect of
food, shelter, substratum or transport and the association may be
continuous or transitory, obligate or facultatative and the two partners
may be in close contact with each other.

I Mutualism: Mutually beneficial interspecific interactions are more

common in the tropics than elsewhere. Here both the species derive
benefit. In such association there occurs a close and often permanent and
obligatory contact more or less essential for survival of each. The two
populations enter into some sort of psychological exchange. Some of the
common examples of mutualism are:

 Pollination by animals: Bees, moths, butterflies etc., derive food

from the nectar or other plant product and in return bring about
pollination.
 Dispersal of fruits and seeds: Seeds and fruits are commonly
transported by animals. The fruits are eaten by birds, mammals
etc., and seeds contained in them are dropped in excrement at
various places.
 Lichens: These are examples of mutualism where contact is close
and permanent as well as obligatory. Their body is made up of a
matrix formed by fungus with the cells of which an algae is
embedded. The fungus makes moisture as well as minerals
available, whereas algae manufacture food. Neither of the two can
grow alone independently in nature. The fungus is usually an
ascomycete and about 20,000 lichen fungi have been described.
There are only some 30 genera of algae and cyanobacteria known
to form lichens.
 Symbiotic nitrogen fixers: Leaf nodules: There are leaf nodules
in plants of genera like Ardisia, Pavetta and Psychotria some of
which fix nitrogen very slowly and are unlikely to produce significant
amounts.
Root nodules: This is well known example of mutualism where the
bacterium Rhizopium forms root nodules in the roots of leguminous
plants and lives symbiotically with the host. Bacteria get a
protective space to live in and derive prepared food from the higher
plant and in turn fix gaseous nitrogen, making it available to plants.
The leguminous plants use this nitrogen in the protein synthesis and
so legumes are rich in proteins.

Similarly root nodules of Alnus, Casuarina and Cycas and leaves of

near 400 species of non-legumes are examples of such associations.
 Mycorrhizae: This is also an example of similar nutrition in fungi
that form mycorrhizal structure either inside the roots or on outside
root surface of plants. The two types of mycorrhizae are endotrophic
(including vesicular abruscular) and ecotropic. In such relationship
the fungus derive their food from the tree roots and in turn their
hyphae supply water and minerals that they absorb from the soil
 much like the root hairs of trees. It is believed that the fungus also
regulates pH and sugar level for the good growth of roots in acidic
soils.
Ectotrohic mycorrhizae represent one of the most common forms
of mycorrhizal association. This type of mycorrhiza are
characterized by formation of weft of hyphae (mantle) covering the
slow growing unsuberised parts of roots. New roots develop under
this weft. This hyphae neve penetrate the endodermal cells but they
spread intercellularly in cortex and a Harting net is formed, the
fungus does not harm the cortical cells.

II

II Commensalism

In this association between members of different species only one is

benefited and neither is harmed. Here two or more populations live
together without entering into kind of physiological exchange. One is
benefited without any effect on the other some common examples are:

 Lianas: These are vascular plants rooted in the ground and

maintain erectness of their stems by making use of other objects for
support. Thus, with much economy of mechanical tissues they are
able to get better light. Lianas are common in dense forest of moist
climates. They maintain no nutritional relationship with the trees
upon which they grow.
 Epiphytes: Epiphytes are plants growing perches on other plants.
They use other plants only as support and not for water or food
supply. They differ from lianas in that they are not rooted in soil.
 Epiphytes may grown on trees, shrubs, or larger submerged plants.
They grow either on trunks or leaves and are common in tropical
rainforest. Many Orchids, bromeliads, hanging mosses are well
known examples of epiphytes. In orchids there is a special layer
called velamen over the root surface. The cells of velamen are
whitish can take up abundant water rapidly from the atmosphere.

For meeting water in the epiphyte Dischidia, the leave folds to form
a large jug-like structure having a narrow mouth were water
accumulates, roots of the epiphyte penetrate this jug like structure
and not only absorb the water but also roots develop a thick
network of roots upon which wind blown dust accumulates and
provides necessary edaphic environment.

 In nature exist various associations between a variety of

microorganisms and higher plants. For examples, soil around the
roots of higher plants characterized by intense microbial activity
known as rhizosphere; the surface proper of roots gorwing in soil
the rhizoplane.
 The boundary layer of air over the green leaves with active
microbes – phyllosphere and the leaf surface phylloplane
constitute important ecological niches where we find rich
populations of microorganisms mainly fungi, actinomycetes and
bacteria that remain all the time active there. It has been
established that there is a continuous diffusion of their metabolic
products mainly sugar and amino acids which are sources of
nutrition for micro-organism and thus are examples of
commensalism. The micro-organism in turn provide protection
against the attack of pathogens directly by inhibiting the growth of
pathogens.
 Protocoperation: In some cases the association is ahead of
commensalism where both the populations are benefited. The
association although benefited to boths it is not obligatory i.e. not
essential for survival of either populations. Such associations are
referred as protocoperation or nonobligatory mutualism. One good
example is of coelenterate sea anemeone attached to shells of
hermit crab.

NEGATIVE INTERACTIONS

These include the relations in which one or both the species are harmed
any way during their life period. Some authors such as Clarke prefer to
call these types of interactions as antagonism Such negative interactions
are generally classified into three broad categories such as exploitation,
antiobiosis and competition.

EXPLOITATION: Here one species harms the others by making its direct
or indirect used for support, shelter or food.

Parasitism: A parasite is the organism living on or in the body of another

organism deriving its food less permanently from its tissues. Those
organisms which derive their nourishment only for a short period of their
life cycle, however, are not true parasites. The typical parasite lives in its
host without killing it, whereas predator kills its prey upon which it feeds.
Species of Cuscuta total stem parasite grow on other plants on which
they depend for nourishment. Young stems twines around the host stem
from which adventitious roots develop that finally penetrate the stem of
the host, establishing relationship with its conducting elements. These
specialized roots are called haustoria.

Other examples of such associations are total parasites as Orobanchus

which are found on roots of higher plants. Rafflesia is total parasite found
on roots of Vitis. Santalum album are partial parasites.

PREDATION: In contrast with a parasite which derives nourishment from

the host without killing it, a predator is free living which catches and kills
another species for foot. Carnivores plants are examples of such
predation

Carnivorous plants: A number of plants as Nepenthes (Pitcher plant),

Dorsera (Sun dew) and Utricularia (Bladder wort) consume insects and
other small animals for their food. They are also known as insectivorous
plants. They are adapted in remarkable ways to attract, catch and digest
their victims. Their leaves or foliar appendages produce proteolytic
enzymes for digestion of the insects. The carnivorous habit in plants is
said to incidental feature of their nutrition, since none of them is
dependent upon its animal prey for nitrogenous compounds.
Antibiosis: The term antibiosis generally refers to the complete or
partial inhibition or death of one organism by another through the
production of some substances or environmental conditions as a result of
metabolic pathways. Here none of them derives any benefit. These
substances or conditions are harmful (antagonistic) to other organism.
The phenomenon of antibiosis is much common among microbial world.
Production of chemicals that are anatgonisitc to microbes – the antibiotics
is well known. Antagonistic substances are also reported in some algae for
example Chlorella vulgaris which inhibits growth of diatoms. Pond blooms
of blue green algae especially Microcystis are known to produce toxins
such as hydroxylamine which causes death of fist and cattle. In marine
waters population of some microbes popularly known as red tide, cause
catastrophic destruction of fish and other animals.

The majority of inhibiting chemical are produced as secondary substances

by plants and released into soil through the roots or leaf wash. The
suppression of growth through the release of chemicals by higher plants is
known as allelopathy. Thus, allelopathy (allelon = each other + Pathy =
suffering) means chemical control of distribution among plants. For
example Walnut tree produces a non toxic chemical juglone which is
found in leaves, fruits and other tissues. When leaves or fruits fall on the
ground, juglone is released to the soil, where it is oxidized to substance
that inhibit the growth of certain understory species and grasses and
blackberries.

COMPETITION: Competition occurs when individuals attempt to obtain a

resource that is inadequate to support all the individuals, seeking it or
even if the resources are adequate individuals try o harm one another in
trying to obtain it. The competition can be for the raw materials or the
space. The competition may be classified into two categories 1)
Intraspecific: occurring between the members of the same population or
2) Interspecific: occurring between populations of different species.

Intraspecific competiton: This is often called scramble competition

and is an important density dependent factor regulating population. The
wildebeest population is thought to be regulated by intraspecific scramble
completion for a limited supply of grass of adequate quality in dry season.

Intraspecific competition is responsible for leveling off or fluctuations

around certain density of a population. Interaspecific completion is worked
out in beetle, the azuki bean weevil, which feed on stored legume seeds.
At high population density female fecundity is reduced because of
overcrowding lead to fewer successful matings due to mechanical
interference between individuals. These conflicts are the main factors
which result in decrease in population density. Minor effects include
increase egg mortality and increased level of competition for food at high
density. The egg mortality is due to adult knocking eggs from the sites at
which they were laid.

Interspecific competition: This is also called contest (interference

competition). The classical mathematical model of competition between
two species is called the Lotka-Volterra competition equations in honor
of the two co-founders. Based on the logistic model, these equations
predicts the following three types of outcome:

1) One species only survives, it being the one with the greater negative
effect on its competitor. Growth of the surviving population to its carrying
capacity is lower than if the second population had been absent.

Thus only one species will survive and there will be an exclusion or
displacement of one of the populations by competition. This is called
Gauses principle of competitive exclusion which states that complete
competitors cannot exist.

Example: Gause studies the growth patterns in two species of

Paramecium (P.aurelia and P.caudatum). Each species population as a
sigmoidal growth pattern when grown independently. However, when
both species were grown together, their growth patterns were sigmoid in
the first week, but later there was a gradual increase in P.aurelia and
gradual decrease in P.caudatum. P.aurelia too did not grow to the level it
had done when grown separately. Thus the experiment confirmed the
competitive exclusion principle.

2) Both species coexist indefinitely. This occurs when interspecific

competition is less intense than intraspecific one in both species. Neither
population reaches the carrying capacity it would have in absence of other
species.

3) The species beginning at higher density persists and the other is

eliminated. This is a special case when the populations have equally
negative effects on the growth of each other, but interspecific
competition is stronger than intraspecific one.

SOIL
Soil provide mechanical anchorage to plants and hold water and mineral
ions on which plants depend on their nutrition. They provide a substrate
for activities of micro-organism and animals. Soil is the shallow upper
layer of the earth’s crust whose characteristic depends upon the parent
rock material and whose later development depends on climate,
topography and vegetation. Soil is made up substances existing in solid,
liquid and gaseous states with colloidal particles of organic and inorganic
nature.

SOIL PROFILE

Soil profile is the term used for vertical section earth crust generally upto
the depth of 1.83 m or up to the parent material. It is made of succession
of horizontal layers or horizons, each of which varies in thickness, colour,
structure, consistency, acidity and composition.

In general soils have four horizons an organic or O-horizon and three

mineral horizons namely A, B and C horizons. R horizon is the
consolidated bed rock on which a soil profile rests. A and B horizons form
the true soil or solum.

O – Horizon: It is the surface layer forming above the mineral layers and
is composed of freshly or partially decomposed organic material as found
in temperate forest soils. It is usually absent in cultivated soils and almost
visible in tropical forests. The O-horizon is divided into the following two
sub-layers.

1) O1 region: It is the uppermost layer which consists of freshly fallen

dead leaves, branches, flowers and fruits, dead remains of animals
etc. All these do not show evident breakdown.
2) O2 region: Below O1 region is O2 region of partially decomposed
organic matter. The process of decomposition starts at O 2 region,
thus organic matter is found under different stages of
decomposition and microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi,
actionmycetes are frequently found in it.

A–Horizon: It is characterized by major organic matter accumulation, by

the loss of clay, iron and aluminium. This region is dark and rich in organic
mattera and is called humic or melanized region. The amorphous finely
divided organic matter here becomes mixed with the mineral matter
which is now known as humus and dark brown or black coloured.

In places characterized by heavy rainfall, just below the A horizon is

another horizon called E horizon or zone of leaching or eluvial zone which
is characterized by rapidly eroding humus which accumulated down and
making it light coloured.
B-Horizon: It lies below A-horizon and also called sub-soil or illuviation
or illuvial zone, since the nutrients received from A-horizon due to
leaching are accumulated in this region. B-horizon is dark coloured and
coarse textured due to the presence of silica rich clay, organic
compounds, hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. It is poorly developed
in dry areas. The minerals which are deposited by wash off from the
Horizon-B makes the sublayer very compack, hard or impermeable. Such
a hard sublayer is called Pan. Soil pan are hard compacted layers or
horizons found in the soil, which decreases the permeability and
penetrability of the soil. There are two types of soil pans 1) cemented
(indurated): hard and impermeable pans; cemented with iron, iron and
organic matter, silica, silica and iron, silica and lime. 2) Uncemented (non-
indurated)- soft and slightly permeable eg. clay pan, frag pan.

C-Horizon: This horizon is composed of gleyed layers containing

accumulated CaCO3 and CaSO4. It mainly comprises of weathering matter
and sometimes called as illuvial zone. Long roots of the big plants reach
this horizon. This horizon is rich in moisture but has negligible biological
activity.

R-Horizon or Horizon D: It consists of unweathered parent rock or

bedrock which underlines the soil. The horizon is impermeable and affords
no biological activity. Roots cannot reach this zone as they are unable to
penetrate.

SOIL FORMATION

Soil is formed from the parent rock material by the process of physical, chemical
and biological weathering. The rocks from which the soils are formed are called
soil forming rocks by fragmentation or weathering, while the organic
components of soil are formed either by decomposition (or transformation) of
dead remains of plants or animals or through metabolic activities of living
organism present in the soil. Some of the soil forming rocks are:

Igneous rock which are formed due to cooling of molten magma or lava eg.
granite, diorite and basalt.

Sedimentary rocks which are formed by deposition of weathered minerals

which are derived from igneous rocks eg. shales, sandstone and limestone.

Metamorphic rocks which are formed by deposition of weathered minerals

which are derived from igneous or sedimentary rocks through heat and pressure
eg. schist, slated, quartzite and marble

 Physical weathering: Physical weathering is caused by various climatic

factors. River current, water and gravity produce soil. Water and high
temperature cause corrosive humidity and bring about unequal expansion
and contraction of rocks facilitating their break down. Freezing water
expands rocky crevices and breaks rocks. Wind action causes the
sculpturing of rocks. River water fragments and grinds rock chips and
stones into sand and smaller forms.
 Chemical weathering: This involves the breaking down of complex
compounds by carbonic acid present in water and by acidic substances
derives from the decomposition process or organic matter in soil. The
hydrogen ions of acid solutions displace the alkali (sodium and potassium)
and alkaline earths (calcium and magnesium) in silicate materials. The
main end products of chemical weathering of rock chips, stones etc are
silica, clay inorganic salts and hydrated oxides.
 Biological weathering: It involves decomposition process by which
organic materials are broken down and lead to humification and
mineralization. Soil invertebrate animals consume this organic matter and
process it in their gut, facilitating the action of microorganisms. In this
process of decomposition, acidic substances are produced which help in
weathering of rock fragments. Humus is formed and it mixes with clay,
sand and silt to form soil. In the beginning it was perhaps formed in
patches and helped small plants to take root and grow. Then more organic
matter is added to soil, leading to formation of soil layers.

CHEMICAL PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL

Death
Hydrolysis Water & glaciers Growth of SOIL
and
Hydration Temperature lichens, mosses Decay Organic
Oxidation Rain matter
Reduction clay, slit,
Carbonation Bacteria sand
Arthopods, Algae gravel
Fungi

ROCKS Gravel & Sand

WEATHERING PEDOGENESIS
MATURATION OF SOIL

Maturation of soil is result of interaction of many factors over long period of time.
Four major maturation process may be recognized.

 Melanisation: The humus derived from the dead organic matter gets
mixed up in the upper layers of the soil which become dark coloured. It
occurs mostly in regions with low humidity.
 Podzolisation: In regions with high rainfall or high humidity and low
temperature, the minerals in the humus become leached from upper
horizon (eluvial) and get precipitated in the middle horizon (illuvial)
forming a hard pan. This leaves an ash coloured surface layer of the soil
from which soil derives its name Podzol.
 Gleization: In very cold climates, the underground water laying above
rock layer continuously reacts with partly weathered mineral matter. The
hydrolysis and reduction of minerals result in formation of hard grey
horizon.
 Laterization: In very hot and humid climate, the rapid decay of organic
matter and release bases from organic combination result in solubility of
silica and formation of oxides of iron, aluminum and manganese etc. This
results in a red coloured soil usually rich in iron and deficient in bases and
organic matter.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

The effect of various factors which operate in the formation of soil is briefly
explained:

 Parent material: If the soil develops is the product of bed-rock and if it

consists of mixture of clay, silt and gravel the soil will be fine textured and
fertile loam. If the parent material consists of quartz and sand the soil type
will be coarse textured and infertile sand.
 Climate: Soil is formed as a result of meteorological actions upon rocks. If
the soil develops in humid climates which are subjected to intense
leaching it will result in a soil of low nutrient content. If soil develops from
a region which influences higher temperature, it will result in increase in
clay content of soil, lesser content of nitrogen and organic matter and also
very less organic content because of burning of decomposing organic
matter at high temperatures.
 Living organism: The effect of living organism on soil formation is
remarkable The plant alter the microclimate and incorporate the residual
into the mineral body. Deep rooted species contribute more to soil
development while shallow rooted one less because deep roots help in
weathering of parent material in lower layers and absorb nutrient
 elements which subsequently retained to the soil surface in leaf fall. The
microorganisms also help in rock weathering and in decomposition of
organic matter.
 Topography: The effect of topography on soil development is mainly
through its effect on water relations. The rain that falls on the soil always
tends to run along the slopes and collect in depressions as a result soil on
steep slopes receive more water than those in the flat areas. The process
of erosion is also maximum on slopes and therefore the soil remains in
youthful state of development.

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with organic matter, loss
of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinization and soil acidity
problems. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The
agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant
amount of soil loss.

WATER EROSION

Sheet Erosion: It is the uniform removal of surface soil in thin layers by

rainfall and runoff water. The breaking action of raindrop combined with
surface flow is the major cause of sheet erosion. It is first stage of erosion
and is least conspicuous but most extensive.

Rill Erosion: When run off starts, channelization begins and erosion is no
longer uniform. Raindrop impact does not directly detach any particles
below flow line in rills but increases the detachment and transportation
capacity of the flow. Rill erosion starts when the run off exceeds 0.3 to
0.7mm/s. Incisions are formed on the ground due to runoff and erosion is
more apparent than sheet erosion. This is the second stage of erosion.
Rills are small channels which can be removed by timely normal tillage
operations.

Gully erosion: It is the advanced stage of water erosion. Size of the

unchecked rills increase due to run off. Gullies are formed when
channelized runoff from vast sloping land is sufficient in volume and
velocity to cut deep and wide channels. Gullies are the spectacular
symptoms of erosion. If unchecked in time no scope of arable crop
production.

Ravines: They are manifestation of prolonged process of gully erosion.

They are deep and wide gullies indicating advanced stage of gullies
indicating advanced stage of gully erosion.
Landslides: Landslides occur on mountain slopes, when slopes exceed
20% and width is 6m. Generally landslides cause blockage of traffic in
ghat roads.

Stream bank erosion: Small stream, rivulets, torrents (hill streams) are
subjected to stream bank erosion due to obstruction of their flow.
Vegetation sprouts when streams dry up and obstructs the flow causing
cutting of bank or changing of flow course.

WIND EROSION

Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind erosion. It is a

serious problem on lands devoid of vegetation. It is more common in arid
and semi-arid regions. It is essentially a dry weather phenomenon
stimulated by the soil moisture deficiency. The process of wind erosion
consists of three phases, initiation of movement, transportation and
deposition. About 33 m. ha in India is affected by wind erosion. This
includes 23.49 m ha of desert and abut 6.5 m ha of coastal sands. The
Thar Desert is formed mainly by blow of sand.

MECHANISM OF WIND EROSION

Lifting and abrasive action of wind results in detachment of tiny soil

particles from the granules or clods. The impact of these rapidly moving
particles dislodge other particles from clods and aggregates. These
dislodged particles are ready for movement. Movement of soil particles in
wind erosion is initiated when the pressure by wind against the surface
soil grains overcomes the force of gravity on the grains. Minimum wind
velocity necessary for initiating the most erodible soil particles (about
0.1mm diameter) is about 16 km/hr at a height of 30.5 cm. Most particle
limit under field conditions where a mixture of sizes of single grained
material present is about 21km/hr at height of 30.5 cm.

In general movement of soil particles by wind takes place in three stages

1) Saltation: It is first stage of movement of soil particles in a short

series of bounces or jumps along the ground surface. After being
rolled by the wind, soil particles suddenly leap most vertically to
form the initial stage of movement of saltation. The size of soil
particles moved by saltation is between 0.1 to 0.5 mm in diameter.
This process may account for 50 to 70% of the total movement by
wind erosion.
2) Surface creep: Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground
surface due to impact of particles descending and hitting during
saltation is called surface creep. Movement of particles by surface
creep causes an abrasive action of soil surface leading to break
 down of non erodible soil aggregates. Coarse particles longer than
0.5 – 2.0 mm diameter are moved by surface creep. This process
may account for 5 to 25 % of the total movement.
3) Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles smaller than 0.1 mm
diameter by floating in air is known as suspension. Soil particles
carried in suspension are deposited when sedimentation force is
greater than force holding the particles in suspension. This occurs
with decrease in wind velocity. Suspension usually may not account
for more than 15% of total movement.
PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

The science dealing with the origin, distribution and environmental

interrelationships of plants is known as phytogeography. There are two
major approaches to study of phytogeography (i) Descriptive approach: It
deals with description of flora and vegetation of different botanical areas
(ii) Interpretive approach: It deals with interpretations of causes of plant
distribution.

With the descriptive approach we deal first with major plant communities
of India and different vegetation belts of India.

As Indian subcontinent is characterized with variety of climate types, the

flora of India is basically categorized into nine different regions.

1) Western Himalayas 2) Eastern Himalayas 3) West Indian Deserts 4)

Gangetic plain 5) Assam 6) Central India 7) Malabar 8) The Deccan
and 9) Andamans.

I – WESTERN HIMALAYAS

It extends from central region of Kumaon to north west region of Kashmir.

Altitudinally there are three zones of vegetation corresponding to three
climatic belts.

1. Submontane or lower region (tropical and subtropical): It

extends from 1,000 to 5,000 ft above sea level in regions of Siwaliks
and adjacent areas. The forest is dominated by timber trees of
Shorea robusta. In riverian regions trees of Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus
glomerata and Eugenis jambolana. In dry belts towards west
xerophytes such as Ziziphus, Carissa, Acacia with thorny succulent
Euphorbias on slopes.
2. Temperatue or montane zone: It extends from 5,000 to 11,675
ft above sea level. At about 5,500 ft Pinus starts appearing. From
an altitude of 6,000 ft Cedrus deodara is found as pure forest
patches. Slowly Cedrus deodara is replaced by Quercus, Betula,
Salix and Populus. Higher altitudes have patches of Taxus baccata
with Rhodoendron’s being the last. Rice, wheat, barley and saffron
are cultivated in patches.
3. Alpine zone: It is the limit of tree growth at about 12,000 ft known
as timber or tree line, where the height of plants is considerably
reduced. Plants are mostly dwarfed and cushion shaped shrubs and
grasses. At about 15,000 ft and above snow line plant growth is
almost nil. On lower levels of this zone there are Rhododendrons,
Betula and small Junnipers. Herbaceous plants common in this
 region are Primula, Potentila, Polygonum, Geranium, Saxifraga,
Aster etc.

II – EASTERN HIMALAYAS

It extends in regions of Sikkim and extends in the east upto North Eastern
Frontier Agency. Eastern Himalayas have more of tropical elements like
Oaks, Rhododendron and less of conifers than western Himalayas. The
chief differences are the higher rainfall, warmer conditions in this part of
Himalayas. The tree and snow lines are higher by about 1,000 than the
corresponding lines on western Himalayas. In terms of species diversity
and vegetation density the region is much richer.

1. Submontane zone: Due to warm and humid weather, it is typically

tropical with dense forests of Shorea robusta. It extends from the
plain foot of the hills upto to 6,000 ft altitude. Mixed forests of
deciduous trees like Stereospermum, Bauhinia, Athocephalus
cadamba, Lagerstroemia are dominant, intermixed with bamboo like
Dendrocalamus.
2. Temperate zone: It extends from 6,000 to 12,000 ft altitude above
sea level. The lower regions has several species of Oaks, such
Quercus, Michelia, Cedrela and Eugenia. The upper region is cooler
and Conifers such as Juniperus, Abies and Tsuga. The bamboo
Arundinaria is also common.
3. Alpine zone: It is above 12,000 ft where vegetation is devoid of
trees, shrubby growth of Junniperus and Rhododendron is found in
grassy areas.

III. WEST INDIAN DESERTS (INDUS PLAIN)

This region consist of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and part of Gujarat.
The climate is characterized by very hot and dry summer and cold winter.
Rainfall is less than 70 cm. The plants are mostly xerophytic. The common
plants trees found in this region are Acacia, Salvadora, Tecoma, Capparis
aphylla, Tamarix, Ziziphus nummularia. The ground vegetation is
dominated by thorny plants like Tribulus, Eleusine etc.

IV. GANGETIC PLAINS

The region comprising Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal is most fertile
region, the climatic factors, the temperature and rainfall together are
responsible for distinct type of vegetation. The rainfall is less than 70 cm
in Uttar Pradesh, more than 150 cm in Bengal. Vegetation is chiefly
tropical moist and deciduous forest. Common plants found in this region
are Acacia nilotica, Butea monosperma, Terminalia arjuna, Diospyros
melanoxylon etc. Some of the common weeds are Argemone Mexicana,
Bothriochloa pertusa etc. In gangetic delta region extreme swampy and
halophytic vegetation is common where dominant species are Rhizophora,
Bruguiera, Avicennia, Acanthus, Suaeda etc.

V NORTH EAST REGIONS

This region receives the heaviest rainfall with Mawsynram as much as

more than 110 cm. The temperature and wetness are very high which are
responsible for dense tropical evergreen forests. Some of the important
trees such as Dipeterocarpus, Mesua ferrea, Michelia champaca, Shorea
robusta are common in this region. Bamboos like Bambusa pallida
BIOMAGNIFICATION

Pesticides are the chemicals used for killing the plant and animal pests. It
is a general term that includes bactericides, fungicides, nematicides,
insecticides and also herbicides and weedicides. Since weeds are not
pests like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, etc the spectrum of activity of these
chemicals is extended beyond pests and thus a broader terms biocide is
used.

There is wide range of chemicals used as biocides, but the most harmful
are those which do not degrade or degrade very slowly in nature and are
referred as hazardous substance of toxicants. These are highly potent
chemicals that enter our food chain and then begin to increase in their
concentration at successive trophic level and in the food chain. The
hazardous biocides cause considerable harm since their effects are
cumulative. Most nations have banned the use of some of these biocides.

Some of the most toxic biocides are DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-

trichloroethane), BHC (Benzene hexa chloride), Chlordane, Heptachlor,
PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls). Indiscriminate use of biocides makes
them integral part of our biological, geological and chemical cycles of
earth. The biocides remain in the same form for instance if DDT enters a
pond, lake, it is taken as such by the plants of pond, then reaches
zooplankton feeding on plant, then minnows feeding the zooplanktons,
then fish which eats minnows and finally in the body of birds who eat the
fishes. In this process DDT remains as such in its original form and keeps
on moving from water to different living components of the pond
ecosystem but more threatening is that DDT concentration continuously
increases in successive trophic level in a food chain. This phenomenon is
known as biological magnification or biological amplification.

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

The science dealing with the origin, distribution and environmental

interrelationships of plants is known as phytogeography. There are two major
approaches to study of phytogeography (i) Descriptive approach: It deals with
description of flora and vegetation of different botanical areas (ii) Interpretive
approach: It deals with interpretations of causes of plant distribution.

With the descriptive approach we deal first with major plant communities of India
and different vegetation belts of India.
As Indian subcontinent is characterized with variety of climate types, the flora of
India is basically categorized into nine different regions.

2) Western Himalayas 2) Eastern Himalayas 3) West Indian Deserts 4)

Gangetic plain 5) Assam 6) Central India 7) Malabar 8) The Deccan and 9)
Andamans.

I – WESTERN HIMALAYAS

It extends from central region of Kumaon to north west region of Kashmir.

Altitudinally there are three zones of vegetation corresponding to three climatic
belts.

4. Submontane or lower region (tropical and subtropical): It extends

from 1,000 to 5,000 ft above sea level in regions of Siwaliks and adjacent
areas. The forest is dominated by timber trees of Shorea robusta. In
riverian regions trees of Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus glomerata and Eugenis
jambolana. In dry belts towards west xerophytes such as Ziziphus,
Carissa, Acacia with thorny succulent Euphorbias on slopes.
5. Temperatue or montane zone: It extends from 5,000 to 11,675 ft
above sea level. At about 5,500 ft Pinus starts appearing. From an
altitude of 6,000 ft Cedrus deodara is found as pure forest patches. Slowly
Cedrus deodara is replaced by Quercus, Betula, Salix and Populus. Higher
altitudes have patches of Taxus baccata with Rhodoendron’s being the
last. Rice, wheat, barley and saffron are cultivated in patches.
6. Alpine zone: It is the limit of tree growth at about 12,000 ft known as
timber or tree line, where the height of plants is considerably reduced.
Plants are mostly dwarfed and cushion shaped shrubs and grasses. At
about 15,000 ft and above snow line plant growth is almost nil. On lower
levels of this zone there are Rhododendrons, Betula and small Junnipers.
Herbaceous plants common in this region are Primula, Potentila,
Polygonum, Geranium, Saxifraga, Aster etc.

II – EASTERN HIMALAYAS

It extends in regions of Sikkim and extends in the east upto North Eastern
Frontier Agency. Eastern Himalayas have more of tropical elements like Oaks,
Rhododendron and less of conifers than western Himalayas. The chief differences
are the higher rainfall, warmer conditions in this part of Himalayas. The tree and
snow lines are higher by about 1,000 than the corresponding lines on western
Himalayas. In terms of species diversity and vegetation density the region is
much richer.

4. Submontane zone: Due to warm and humid weather, it is typically

tropical with dense forests of Shorea robusta. It extends from the plain
foot of the hills upto to 6,000 ft altitude. Mixed forests of deciduous trees
like Stereospermum, Bauhinia, Athocephalus cadamba, Lagerstroemia are
dominant, intermixed with bamboo like Dendrocalamus.
 5. Temperate zone: It extends from 6,000 to 12,000 ft altitude above sea
level. The lower regions has several species of Oaks, such Quercus,
Michelia, Cedrela and Eugenia. The upper region is cooler and Conifers
such as Juniperus, Abies and Tsuga. The bamboo Arundinaria is also
common.
6. Alpine zone: It is above 12,000 ft where vegetation is devoid of trees,
shrubby growth of Junniperus and Rhododendron is found in grassy areas.

III. WEST INDIAN DESERTS (INDUS PLAIN)

This region consist of parts of Rajasthan, Kutch, Delhi and part of Gujarat. The
climate is characterized by very hot and dry summer and cold winter. Rainfall is
less than 70 cm. The plants are mostly xerophytic. The common plants trees
found in this region are Acacia, Salvadora, Tecoma, Capparis aphylla, Tamarix,
Ziziphus nummularia. The ground vegetation is dominated by thorny plants like
Tribulus, Eleusine etc.

IV. GANGETIC PLAINS

The region comprising Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal is most fertile region, the
climatic factors, the temperature and rainfall together are responsible for distinct
type of vegetation. The rainfall is less than 70 cm in Uttar Pradesh, more than
150 cm in Bengal. Vegetation is chiefly tropical moist and deciduous forest.
Common plants found in this region are Acacia nilotica, Butea monosperma,
Terminalia arjuna, Diospyros melanoxylon etc. Some of the common weeds are
Argemone Mexicana, Bothriochloa pertusa etc. In gangetic delta region extreme
swampy and halophytic vegetation is common where dominant species are
Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Avicennia, Acanthus, Suaeda etc.

V NORTH EAST REGIONS

This region receives the heaviest rainfall with Mawsynram as much as more than
110 cm. The temperature and wetness are very high which are responsible for
dense tropical evergreen forests. Some of the important trees such as
Dipeterocarpus, Mesua ferrea, Michelia champaca, Shorea robusta are common
in this region. Bamboos like Bambusa pallida
BIOMAGNIFICATION

Pesticides are the chemicals used for killing the plant and animal pests. It is a
general term that includes bactericides, fungicides, nematicides, insecticides and
also herbicides and weedicides. Since weeds are not pests like bacteria, fungi,
nematodes, etc the spectrum of activity of these chemicals is extended beyond
pests and thus a broader terms biocide is used.

There is wide range of chemicals used as biocides, but the most harmful are
those which do not degrade or degrade very slowly in nature and are referred as
hazardous substance of toxicants. These are highly potent chemicals that
enter our food chain and then begin to increase in their concentration at
successive trophic level and in the food chain. The hazardous biocides cause
considerable harm since their effects are cumulative. Most nations have banned
the use of some of these biocides.

Some of the most toxic biocides are DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane),

BHC (Benzene hexa chloride), Chlordane, Heptachlor, PCBs (Polychlorinated
biphenyls). Indiscriminate use of biocides makes them integral part of our
biological, geological and chemical cycles of earth. The biocides remain in the
same form for instance if DDT enters a pond, lake, it is taken as such by the
plants of pond, then reaches zooplankton feeding on plant, then minnows
feeding the zooplanktons, then fish which eats minnows and finally in the body of
birds who eat the fishes. In this process DDT remains as such in its original form
and keeps on moving from water to different living components of the pond
ecosystem but more threatening is that DDT concentration continuously
increases in successive trophic level in a food chain. This phenomenon is known
as biological magnification or biological amplification.
EUTROPHICATION

Due to addition of domestic waste like phosphate, nitrates etc. from wastes or
their decomposition products in water bodies, they become rich in nutrients
especially phosphate and nitrate ions. Thus with the passage of these nutrients,
the water bodies become highly productive or eurtophic and the phenomenon is
known as eutropihication. The ponds, lakes etc. during early stages of formation
are relatively barren and nutrient deficient thus supporting poor aquativ life. This
state of these bodies is known as oliogotropic. With the addition of nutrients,
there a stimulated luxuriant growth of algae in water. There is also general a
shift in algal floral, blue green algae begin to predominate. These start forming
algal blooms, floating like scum or blanket of algae. Blooms of algae are
generally not utilized by zoo-planktons. These algal blooms compete with other
aquatic plants for light for photosynthesis. Thus oxygen level is depleted.
Moreover, these blooms also release some toxic chemicals which kill fish, birds
and other animals, thus water begin to stink. Decomposition of blooms also
release some chemicals which kill fish, birds and other animals, thus water
begins to stink. Decomposition of blooms also leads to oxygen depletion in
water. Thus in a poorly oxygenated water with high carbon-di-oxide levels, fish
and other animals being to die and clean water body is turned into stinking drain.

Eutrophication becomes a limiting factor for supply of clean water for drinking,
fishing and navigation etc. Following are the methods to stop or reverse
eutrophication.

1. The waste water must be treated before its discharge into lake or river.
This would limit its nutrient input.
 2. Bacterial multiplication should be stimulated so that it would disrupt the
algal food web.
3. To check recycle of nutrients into the water through harvest and removal
of algal blooms upon their death and decomposition.
4. To remove the nutrients from water by physical or chemical methods. For
instance phosphorus can be removed by precipitation, nitrogen by
biological nitrification and denitrification.

Many pathogenic microbes (viruses, bacteria, proteozoa etc.) may being to grow
on products coming from tanneries, slaughter houses, sewage disposal plants
etc, in water bodies under anaerobic conditions. These may result into spread of
fatal water borne diseases, some of which may assume an epidemic state. These
are viral hepatitis, polio, cholera, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea, amoebiasis etc.
CONSERVATION

The world wide fund defines it as millions of plants and animals and micro-
organisms, the genes they contain and the intricate ecosystem they help to build
into living environment. Biodiversity must be considered at three levels.

o Species diversity: All the species on earth, including bacteria and

protists as well as the species of multicellular kingdoms (Plants,
animals & Fungi)
o Genetic diversity: The genetic variation within species, both
geographically separate population and among individuals within a
single population.
o Community/Ecosystem diversity: The different biological
communities association with the physical environment.

There are two main categories of conservation: in–situ conservation and ex-
situ conservation.

In-situ conservation: This is the conservation of the genetic resources through

their maintenance within natural or even human made ecosystems in which they
occur. This is ideal for genetic resources conservation. This type includes a
system of protected areas of different categories, managed with different
objectives to bring benefit to the society. National Parks, Sanctuaries, Nature
Reserves, Natural monuments, Cultural landscapes, Biosphere Reserves, belong
to this type of conservation.

National Parks
Biosphere reserves

Biosphere Reserve programme was launched by UNESCO in 1971 under its “Man
and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). The main aim of Biosphere Reserve
Programme is to have four major groups of objectives 1) conservation 2)
research 3) education and 4) local community involvement.

For management purposes, the biosphere reserve areas are divided into

1) Core zone: It represents natural and minimally disturbed ecosystems.

2) Manipulation (Tourism zone): It includes areas earmarked for tourism,

education and training.
 Ecosystem

Plant individuals and populations do not live alone in nature. They are very much
associated with animals. The plants and the animals not only influence one
another, but also interact with their non-living environment. In fact, the
interaction between organisms and the environment is so intimate that all
organisms are largely the product of their environments. A square of grassland
or of a forest, the edge of a pond, a tide pool, or any large area of nature that
has living organisms and non-living substances are interacting and exchanging
materials between them is called an Ecological system or Ecosystem. The term
ecosystem refers to the sum total of physical and biological factors operating in
any area. It is the basic functional unit in ecology, and therefore, this term is
applicable to even a very small and temporary system provided the major
components are present and operate together to achieve some sort of functional
stability. The term was first suggested by Tanslay in 1935. Karl Mobius (1877)
used the term like biocoenosis, Forbes (1887) like microcosm, and Friederichs
(1930) like holocoen to express the ideas of ecosystem. The size of an
ecosystem can be as small as a drop of pond water (microecosystem) or as large
as an ocean. It can be temporary nature like freshwater pool of water, a field of
cultivated crops or permanent as a forest or an ocean.

There are two basic processes in an ecosystem:

1. Exchange of material: it is a cycle involving exchange of materials
between living and the environment. The plants synthesize complex
organic materials from the raw materials. The organic matter ultimately
releases the raw material which is returned to the environment. Because
of which minerals like nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water are continually
cycled through this system. This is known as cycling of materials.

2. Input of energy: the ultimate source of energy is the solar energy which
is captured by green plants. Other organisms derive their nutrition energy
from the plants. The energy taken by these organisms is passed on to
other organisms. In this way energy is transferred from one organism to
another. This is known as flow of energy. In this process, there is always
loss of energy in each transfer. The energy has a unidirectional (one way)
flow and does not circulate like the nutrients.

Another important feature of an ecosystem is that it is capable of self-

maintenance and self-regulation. It has a tendency to resist change and to
remain in a state of equilibrium, a phenomenon which is called homeostasis.
The cybernetics (science of control) helps the ecosystem in achieving
homeostasis by feeding back output information from the system to control
future input. A feedback of the ecosystem must be a negative sort.

The structure and function of the ecosystems also depends on the dimensions of
space and time. They have width, depth, and height, and a past as well as a
present and a future.
Component of an ecosystem: Odum (1971) recognizes four structural
components in an ecosystem,

I. Abiotic components: these are the radiant energy of sun,

inorganic elements and compounds like atmospheric gases (CO 2, O2,
N2 etc.), soil, minerals, wind, water etc. the radiant energy or solar
energy is the primary source of energy of an ecosystem. Hence
every ecosystem for its survival must have a community to trap the
solar energy.

II. Biotic components

II a. Producers: important component of ecosystem, where they depend
directly on the abiotic component for their survival and production of
nutrients. Green plants and a few organisms like photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic bacteria are the only living beings that trap solar energy
from the non-living environment and change its form to make it available
to all other organisms and for themselves as well for their own growth and
reproduction and thus becoming chief producers.

II b. Consumers: the living components of ecosystem which depend on

producers for their nutrition are called consumers. All the animals and
certain plants come under this category. A community without green
plants cannot exist whereas, without animals can. There are different
types of consumers:

 Primary consumers/macro-consumers: all the herbivorous animals

like rodents, cow, elephants, deer, and goats etc. which directly
consume the plants are called primary consumers.

 Secondary consumers: carnivorous and omnivorous animals belong

to this category. These animals predate on herbivorous animals.
Omnivorous animals eat herbivorous animals as well as plants.
Sparrow, crow, fox, cat, dogs etc.

 Tertiary consumers: these are strictly carnivorous animals that prey

upon carnivores, herbivores and omnivorous organisms. Lions,
tigers, vultures etc are regarded as tertiary consumers.

II c. Decomposers/transformers: they comprise a very large and

diverse group of organisms. They transform organic compounds into
inorganic or simple compounds. e.g. saprophytic fungi and bacteria. They
act upon the dead bodies of plants and animals and decompose them to
their elemental stage which in turn is used by producers for their
existence and photosynthetic activity. The chemical substance which are
passed from organism to organism, cycling back to soil and atmosphere,
ultimately given back to the non-living environment and thus the materials
are once again made available to the primary producers.

From a functional point of view an ecosystem has two components:

i. Autotrophic component: this traps the solar energy and prepares
complex food material.

ii. Heterotrophic component: it obtains energy form the autotrophic

component and redistributes it in nature after utilization for its own
maintenance.
 Marine Ecosystem

The ecosystem of large body of salt water (ocean, seas) is known as Marine
ecosystem.

It also includes abiotic and biotic components.

Abiotic components:

The normal salt content of ocean is 3.5%. The chief salts are chlorides,
sulphates, bicarbonates and bromides of sodium, magnesium, calcium and
potassium. Of these NaCl2 is present in large quantity. The nutrients are very
less when compared to fresh water.

Biotic components:

1. Producers: Photosynthetic organisms such as phytoplanktons, large sea

weeds ( algae & higher plants) constitute the producers. Among the
phytoplanktons diatoms are most important. The other phytoplanktons are
dinoflagellates and microscopic algae. Many large sea weeds called “giant
kelp’s” such as Sargassum, Microcystis, laminaria etc are also producers.
Flowering plants such as Enalus, Avicennia, Salicornia, Rhizophora etc are
representatives of higher plants.
2. Consumers : These are usually classified into primary, secondary and
tertiary consumers. These are carnivorous fish such as herring, shad,
mackerel etc. The consumers that feed on secondary consumers are
called tertiary consumers eg. Cod, shark, Haddock etc.
3. Decomposers : The marine ecosystem also comprises the decomposing
bacteria, fungi etc, which bring about the decay of producers and all types
of consumers.
 Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem

Tropical Rain Forest (TRF) receives plenty of rainfall-150cm/year and the

temperature is high. The vegetation is very luxuriant and consists of dense tall
trees. There is no drought & no winter hence animals & plants (trees) which lack
resistant to drought or cold are more in this region.
TRF is the most luxuriant forest both in species and growth. It is virgin forest
consisting vast ecological complex of plants and animals. This forest comprises
parts of Belgium, Congo, Islands of Java, Sumatra, Amazon, Sri Lanka etc. and
India, the Western Ghats
The Climatic conditions required for the formation of TRF are high rainfall – 200
inches/year, high temperature, intense illumination and such conditions are seen
near the equator.
The vegetation here exhibits a characteristic storeyed appearance. The foliage of
the tall trees forms the top storey, besides the ground vegetation. The trees
alone are arranged in three layers. Two upper layer of trees which are about 200
feet and 100 feet tall, forms closed canopies of evergreen leaves. They have tall
trunks and shallow roots. The lowest layer consists of trees which are only 5 to
10 meters tall. Some of them are seedlings of trees of the upper layer.
Leguminous trees are the most abundant. They maintain the nitrogen supply of
the community.

The foliage of trees whose height exceeds 200 feet , forms a more or less
continuous canopy for the whole vegetation. The trees usually devoid of the
branches at the base of their trunks and grow straight. Leaf bearing branches are
borne only near the top region of the trunk. The canopy does not exhibit a
uniform height, but is quite uneven with deep depression and high elevations.
Many trees have buttresses in forms of vertical plants at the base for providing
additional support to tall trunks. The middle storey is palms and large shrubs.
These also exhibit many characters of tree species, but have larger and thinner
leaves. The bottom storey is formed by herbs and ground vegetation. All the
herbs and ground vegetation are shade tolerant plants because they have to live
under the continuous shade of the upper two storeys. The herbs have large thin
leaves because they are protected by the trees and shrubs from the action of
violent rain.

Number of species in rain forest is very large. There are about thousands of
species of Orchids, about four hundred species of Trees. There are varieties of
herbs, shrubs, epiphyte & lianas, some examples like, Trees – Leguminosae ,
Moraceae , Myrtaceae, Palmae etc. Epiphyte- Orchidaceae & Araceae. Liana –
Piperaceae, Apocynaceae etc.
Epiphyte & Liana grow and cover the trees and shrubs; epiphyte also consists of
ferns, mosses, & lichens. Parasites & saprophytic plants and fungi are also seen
abundantly.

Atmosphere of tropical rain forest , inside the forest it is very humid and ground
vegetation reduce the rate of evaporation hence soil is moist, this is due to thick
canopy. The water vapors evaporated from soil & transpired herds, does not
escape the canopy, hence no shortage for moisture. But, competition for light is
seen in lower strata & ground vegetation due to which the plants develop shade
tolerating capacity at the seedling stage itself. Uniform climate is present
throughout the year, hence no winter or summer. Hence vegetation does not
exhibit any periodicity like resting period, vegetative period, flowering period etc.

Associations formed by single dominant species are very rare in the tropical rain
forest. The ecological relationship between the numerous plant species and the
animals make the rain forest the most spectacular scene of nature’s wild and
immense grandeur. It is the most productive of the ecosystems.

Tropical rain forests are the richest biomass on earth and more than 50% worlds
flora & fauna of the world are found here example,
Flora- Mesua, Cedar, cane, Jamun, Hopea Bamboo etc.
Mangrove forest – Sonneratia found in littoral or swamp forest.
Fauna – comprises about 70 – 80 % insects, large fish, monkeys, birds,
Elephants, Lion, and Tiger etc. The productivity of tropical rain forest is
estimated to 10 to 20 grams/sq. mt/day.

Tropical rain forests occurring in India are classified into three basic categories.
These are Classified into 3 categories:-

• Moist tropical forests

• Montane subtropical forests
• Montane wet temperate forests
1. Moist tropical forest- These further divided into -

• Southern tropical wet evergreen forest - found in Maharashtra, TN,

Kerala & ever green low forest of Andaman.
• Northern tropical wet evergreen forest – Assam, Bengal & Cachar
• Southern tropical semi- evergreen forest – Karnataka, Andaman
• Northern tropical semi - evergreen forest – Assam, Cachar, Orrisa

2. Montane subtropical forests- This is further sub-divided into-

• Southern subtropical broad- leaved hill forest - found in Kerala, TN,

Karnataka, Bombay, MP, Rajasthan, Orissa
• Southern subtropical broad- leaved wet hill forest - Assam , Khasi,
Bengal
• Subtropical Pine forests - chill forest of Himachal, chir forests of Almora
in U.P, Pine forests of Assam, Shillong, Manipur

3. Montane wet temperate forests- these are further divide into-

 Southern – found in Kodaikanal, Otakamund, & Coonoor in TN and Kerala

 Northern west temperate forests – Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Naga hills
 Himalayan Moist temperate forest – JK, HP, UP, Bengal & Assam