DC Chopper

Chapter 9 (2nd Edition)

and
Chapter 5 (3rd Edition)
Definitions:
The power electronic circuit which converts directly from dc to dc is
called dc-to-dc converter or dc-chopper.

Chopper is a dc to dc transformer:
The input dc voltage can be increased (step-up) or decreased (step-down)
in output side so a dc chopper circuit can be considered as dc equivalent
to an transformer.

Applications of Chopper:
Traction motor control in electrical automobiles; Battery operated
vehicles; Control of dc motors; Control of induction motors; Trolley cars;
Marine hoists; Forklift trucks; Mine haulers; Switching mode regulator

Using Semiconductor Devices in Chopper:

(1) Power BJT,
(2) Power MOSFET,
(3) GTO, or
(4) Forced-commutated thyristor.
Principle of Step-Down Operation with Resistive Load
When switch SW is closed for a time t1 (or ton), the input voltage Vs appears
across the load.
If the switch remains off for a time t2 (or toff), the voltage across the load is
zero.
Let, vch (in ideal this value is zero) is the voltage drop across the switch when
the switch remains on.
The average output voltage is given by:
t t
1 1
Va   vodt  1 (Vs  v )  ft (Vs  v )  k (Vs  v )
T0 T ch 1 ch ch
 Va k (Vs  vch)
The average output voltage is given by:
Ia  
R R
Where, T is the chopping period, t1 (or ton) is on-time, t2 (or toff) is off-time, k
= t1/T =f/T is duty-cycle, and f = 1/T is the chopping frequency.
Thus, t1 (or ton) = kT; and t2 (or toff) = (1- k)T;

k is varied from 0 to 1. Therefore, the output voltage Vo can be varied from 0

to Vs by controlling k, and the power flow can be controlled.

The rms output t t

1 1 2
voltage is given Vo  T  vo dt  T1 (Vs  vch)  ft (Vs  v )  k (Vs  v )
1 ch ch
by: 0
kT kT v 2 (Vs  v )2
The output power is given by : Po  1  voidt  1  o idt  k ch
T 0 T 0 R R

1 kT 1 kT vo Vs (Vs  v )
The input power is given by : P   Vsidt  Vs  dt  k ch
i T T 0 R R
0
If the chopper is lossless then Pi is equal to Po [i.e. Pi = Po] and vch = 0.
 Po  vch 
The efficiency is given by :    1 
P  Vs 
i
The effective input resistance is given R  (Vs  vch)  (Vs  vch)  R
by : i Ia k (Vs  v ) / R k
ch

Example 9.1 or 5.1

Control of Duty Cycle of Step-Down Chopper
The duty cycle k can be controlled by the
following two ways: (i) Constant-
Frequency Operation, and (ii) Variable-
Frequency Operation
Constant-Frequency Operation: The
chopping frequency f (or chopping period
T) is kept constant and the on-time t1 is
varied. The width of the pulse is varied
and this type of control is known as pulse-
width-modulation (PWM) control.
 Variable-Frequency Operation: The chopping frequency f (or chopping
period T) is variable and the on-time t1 or off-time t2 is kept constant. This
is called frequency modulation.
Disadvantages of frequency modulation control strategy compared to pulse-
width modulation control:
(i) Filter design for wide frequency variation is quite difficult.
(ii) There is a possibility of interference with signaling and telephone lines in
frequency modulation techniques due to the wide variation of frequency.
(iii) The large off time in frequency modulation technique may make the load
current discontinuous, which is undesirable.
Thus, the Pulse Width Modulation (constant frequency) system is the preferred
scheme for chopper drives.
 Principle of Step-UP Operation
When switch SW is closed for a time t1, the inductor current rises and energy
is stored in inductor L.
If switch is opened for a time t2, the energy stored in the inductor is
transferred to load through D1 and the inductor current falls.

When the chopper is turned-on, the voltage across the inductor is: v  L di
L dt
Assuming that the load current rises linearly from I1 to I2, and V
this gives the peak-to-peak ripple current [I= I2-I1] in the I  s t
L 1
inductor as:
 t1 
The instantaneous output voltage is:  I
vo Vs  L t Vs 1t  Vs 1


2 
 2  1k
If a large capacitor CL is connected across the load as shown by dashed lines
in Fig. 9-4(a), the output voltage will be continuous and vo would become the
average value Va.
It is seen from above equation that the voltage across the load can be stepped
up varying the duty cycle k, and the minimum output voltage is Vs when k = 0.
However, the chopper cannot be switched on continuously such that k=1.
For values of k tending to unity, the output voltage becomes very large and is
very sensitive to changes in k, as shown in Fig. 9-4(c).

 t1 
 I
vo Vs  L t Vs 1t  Vs 1


2 
 2  1k

Fig. 9-4(c).
 Performance Parameters
The power semiconductor devices require a minimum time to turn on and
turn off. Therefore, the duty cycle k can only be controlled between a
minimum value kmin and a maximum value kmax thereby limiting the
minimum and maximum value of output voltage.
The switching frequency of the chopper is also limited. The load ripple
current depends inversely on the chopping frequency.
The frequency should be as high as possible to reduce the load ripple current
and to minimize the size of any additional series inductor in the load circuit.

Switching Mode Regulators [Flyback Converters]

The dc chopper which is used to control a unregulated dc voltage to a
regulated output voltage is called switching mode regulator.
The regulation is normally achieved by pulse-width-modulation at a fixed
frequency and the switching device is normally a power BJT or IGBT.
The output of dc choppers with resistive load is discontinuous and contains
harmonics. The ripple content is normally reduced by an LC filter.
The elements of switching-mode regulator are shown in Fig. 9-11(a).
An oscillator consisting of R, C and L is needed to generate the reference
voltage vr. The frequency is selected by choosing R and C. The core loss of
inductors limits the high-frequency operation.
The transistor switching loss increases with the switching frequency and as a
result the efficiency decreases.
As rule of thumb, to maximize the efficiency, the minimum oscillator period
should be about 100 times longer than the transistor switching time.
Control voltage ve is obtained by comparing the output voltage with its
desired value.
vc can be compared with a sawtooth voltage vr to generate the PWM control
signal as shown in Fig. 9.11 (b) for the dc chopper.
 Classification of Switching Mode Regulators
There are four basic topologies of switching regulators:
1. Buck regulators,
2. Boost regulators,
3. Buck-Boost regulators, and
4. Cuk regulators
Buck Regulators
In a buck regulator, the average output voltage Va, is less than the input
voltage Vs  hence the name “buck,” a very popular regulator.
The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power BJT is shown in Fig.
9-12(a), and this is like a step-down chopper.

Fig. 9-12 (a) Circuit Diagram of Buck

Regulator.
 Circuit Operation of a Buck Regulator
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.
Mode 1 begins when Q1 is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which
rises, flows through the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load
resistor R.
Mode 2 begins when Q1 is switched off at t = t2.
The freewheeling diode Dm conducts due to
energy stored in the inductor and the
inductor current continues to flow through
the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, load
resistor R and diode Dm.

The inductor current falls until Q1 is switched on

again in the next cycle.
The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown in Fig. 9-12(c) for a
continuous current flow in the inductor L.
Depending on the switching frequency, filter inductance, filter capacitance,
the inductor current could be discontinuous.

The voltage across the inductor L is:

e  L di
L dt

Assuming that the load current rises

linearly from I1 to I2, in time t1:
I I
Vs Va  L 2t 1  L t I (9.30)
1 1

Where I= I2-I1 is the peak-to-peak ripple

current.
I I
t  L 2 1  LI (9.31)
1 Vs Va Vs Va
Assuming that the load current falls linearly from I2 to I1, in time t2:
I I
Va  L 1t 2  L  I (9.32) t  LI (9.33)
t 2 Va
2 2
Equation Eqs. (9.30) and (9.32) and
t
substituting t1=kT and t2=(1-k)T , the average Va  1Vs  kVs (9.34)
output voltage is obtain as follows: T

Assuming a lossless circuit, VsIs = VaIa = kVsIa and the

average input current : Is  kIa (9.35)

The switching period T can be expressed as [(9.31)+(9.33)]:

LVsI
T  t  t  LI  LI  (9.36)
1 2 Vs Va Va (Vs Va )Va

The peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor is.

(Vs Va )Va Vsk (1 k )

I   (9.38)
fLVs fL
 Using KCL, we can write the inductor current iL as: iL = ic + io

If we assume that the load ripple io is very small and negligible, iL =
ic. The average capacitor current, which flows into for (T/2)=(t1/2)+(t2/2)
is Ic = I/4

The capacitor voltage and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor
are expressed as: 1
vc   icdt  vc (t  0)
C
Vc  vc  vc (t  0)  1 0T / 2 I dt  IT  I (9.39)
C 4 8C 8Cf
The buck regulator requires only one BJT, is simple, and has high efficiency
greater than 90%.
The di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor L. However, the input
current is discontinuous and a smoothing input filter is normally required.
It provides one polarity of output voltage and unidirectional output current.
It requires a protection circuit in case of possible short-circuit across the
diode path.

Example 9.4
Example 5.5
 Boost Regulators
In a boost regulator, the average output voltage Va, is greater than the
input voltage Vs, hence the name “boost,”.
The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power MOSFET is shown
in Fig. 9-13(a), and this is like a step-up chopper.
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.
Mode 1 begins when M1 is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which
rises, flows through the inductor L, and M1.
Mode 2 begins when M1 is switched off at t = t2. The freewheeling diode Dm
conducts due to energy stored in the inductor and the inductor current
continues to flow through the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, load and
diode Dm. The inductor current falls until M1 is switched on again in the
next cycle. The energy stored in the inductor L is transferred to the load.
The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown in Fig. 9-13(c) for a
continuous current flow in the inductor L.
Depending on the switching frequency, filter inductance, filter capacitance,
the inductor current could be discontinuous.

Assuming that the load current rises linearly from I1 to I2, in time t1:
I I
Vs  L 2t 1  L t I (9.42)
1 1
I  I LI
t L 2 1 (9.43)
1 Vs Vs

Assuming that the load current falls Vs Va  L 

t
I (9.44)
linearly from I2 to I1, in time t2: 2
Vs Va  L 
t
I (9.44)
t  LI (9.45)
2 2 Va Vs
t  LI (9.45)
2 Va Vs
Equation Eqs. (9.42) and (9.44) and substituting t1=kT and t2=(1-k)T , the
average output voltage is obtain as follows: V
Va  tT Vs  s (9.46)
2 1 k
Assuming a lossless circuit, VsIs = VaIa = (VsIa)/(1-k) and I
the average input current : Is  a (9.47)
1 k
LVaI
The switching period T can T  t  t  LI  LI  (9.48)
be expressed as:
1 2 Vs Vs Va (Vs Va )Vs

The peak-to-peak ripple current of (Va Vs )Vs Vsk

inductor is:
I   (9  50)
fLVa fL
When the MOSFET is on, the capacitor supplies the load current for t = t1.
The average capacitor current during time t1 is Ic = Ia and the peak-to-peak
ripple voltage of the capacitor is
1 t 1 t Iat
Vc  vc  vc (t  0)   1Icdt   1Iadt  1 (9.51)
C0 C0 C
Eq. (9.46) gives t1 = (Va-Vs)/(Vaf) and substituting t1 in Eq. (9.51) gives

Vc  Ia (Va Vs )  kIa (9.52)

Va fC fC
A boost regulator can be step up output voltage without a transformer.
Due to single MOSFET, it has high efficiency.
The input current is continuous. However, a high peak current has to
flow through the MOSFET. The output voltage is very sensitive to
changes in duty cycle k and it might be difficult to stabilize the regulator.
The average output current is less than the average inductor current by
a factor of (1-k), and a much higher rms current would flow through the
filter capacitor, resulting in the use of a larger filter capacitor and a
larger inductor than those of a buck regulator.

Example 9.5
Example 5.6