Hand Book

Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave

Brushless DC Motors
and Driving Methods

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

－ Table of Contents －

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1. What are 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors? ................................................................... 1

1.1 Outer Appearance and Structure ................................................................................. 1
1.2 Diagram of the Internal Structure and Coil Connection Equivalent Circuit .................. 1
1.3 Principles of Rotation ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Position Detection ........................................................................................................ 4
1.4.1 Position Detection Using Hall Elements (Sensors) ................................... 4
1.4.2 Position Detection Using Induced Voltages (Sensorless) ......................... 5

2. Driving 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors ........................................................................ 6

2.1 120° Commutation Linear-Current Driving with Sensors ............................................. 7
2.2 Sinusoidal Commutation PWM Driving with Sensors .................................................. 7
2.2.1 Circuit Example .......................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Waveform Examples .................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Advance Angle Control .............................................................................. 9
2.2.4 Maximization of Motor-Applied Voltage ................................................... 10
2.2.4.1 Methods for Maximizing Applied Voltage ① ......................... 10
2.2.4.2 Methods for Maximizing Applied Voltage ② ......................... 11
2.3 Sensorless 120° Commutation Driving ...................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Problems with Startup ............................................................................. 13
2.3.2 Startup Method 1: Startup on Detection of Induced Voltage from
Synchronous Operation ........................................................................... 14
2.3.3 Startup Method 2: Startup on Detection of Permanent Magnet Stopped
Position .................................................................................................... 16

3. Overview of Features and Applications ........................................................................................ 19

3.1 Features ..................................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Applications ................................................................................................................ 19

Revision History .............................................................................................................................. 20

Notes ............................................................................................................................................... 21

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Introduction The image on the upper side is an example of a spindle

motor for rotating the disc of an optical disc device. There
3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors are used in
are a total of nine coils installed, three for each of three
precision equipment such as hard disk drives and
phases. The image on the lower side is an example of a
DVD/Blu-ray drives, home appliances, automotive
spindle motor for a FDD device; there are 4 coils for each
electronics, and recently, drones, because of their low
of 3 phases, for a total of 12 coils. The coils are fixed on
electrical and mechanical noise, high reliability, and long
a substrate, wound around an iron core.
life.
The disc-shaped objects placed on the right sides of the
This handbook explains the basics of 3-phase full-wave
coil sections are permanent magnet rotors. The
brushless DC motors, including structure, principle of
peripheral parts are permanent magnets; the shaft of the
operation, position detection, and driving methods.
rotor is inserted into the center of the coil section to install
covering it, so that the permanent magnet surrounds the
1. What are 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors? outside of the coils.

First, the structure, equivalent circuit, principle of rotation, 1.2 Diagram of the Internal Structure and Coil
and position detection of 3-phase full-wave brushless DC Connection Equivalent Circuit
motors are explained. In Figure 2, a summary diagram of the internal structure
1.1 Outer Appearance and Structure and an equivalent circuit of coil connections are
presented.
Figure 1 shows an example of the appearance and
structure of brushless DC motors.

Figure 2. Summary diagram of the internal structure and

an equivalent circuit of coil connections

Figure 1. Example of the appearance and structure of The summary diagram of the internal structure takes as
brushless DC motors an example a motor with a simple structure, having 2
poles (2 magnets) and 3 slots (3 coils). It is similar to the
Sources:
Photo P60_1 SOLITON 36 SPECIAL REPORT Selection and Control of Small structure of a brushed DC motor with the same numbers
Motors, Hiroshi Hagino of poles and slots, but here the coils are fixed and the
Photo P60_2 https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Brushless direct current motors magnets can rotate. Of course, there are no brushes.

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

In this case the coils are Y-connected, and current is (magnet) is to use hall elements.
supplied to the coils by semiconductor elements or the  The coils are fixed in place; a permanent magnet or
like, to control current inflow and outflow according to the magnets (rotor) rotates on the outside.
position of the rotating magnets. In this example, Hall
1.3 Principles of Rotation
elements are used to detect the magnet position. Hall
elements are positioned between coils, and the voltages The principles of rotation of a brushless DC motor are
that they generate according to the strength of the here explained with steps ① to ⑥ in Figure 4. To aid
magnetic field are detected and used as position understanding, a permanent magnet is simplified from a
information. In the photo of the FDD spindle motor shown disc shape to two rectangular shapes.
in Figure 1, lower side, one can see Hall elements for ①: Of the 3 phase coils, coil 1 is fixed in the 12:00
position detection between the coils (on the upper side of direction (upward), coil 2 is at 4:00, and coil 3 is fixed at
the coil). 8:00. Of the 2 poles of the permanent magnet, the N pole
Hall elements are well-known magnetic sensors. They is on the left and the S pole is on the right, and the magnet
convert the magnitude of a magnetic field into a voltage can rotate.
of corresponding magnitude, and the sign of the voltage A current Io is made to flow into coil 1, causing a magnetic
indicates the orientation of the magnetic field. Figure 3 is field the S pole of which is outside coil 1. Currents Io/2
a schematic diagram illustrating the Hall effect. are caused to flow out from coils 2 and 3, generating a
magnetic field with the N pole on the outside of those coils.
Taking the vector resultant of the magnetic fields of coils
2 and 3, the magnetic field at the downward-directed N
pole occurs with an intensity that is 0.5-fold that when the
current Io flows in one coil; added to the magnetic field of
coil 1, the intensity is 1.5-fold. This creates a resultant
magnetic field at a 90° angle with respect to the
permanent magnet, so that the maximum torque can be
generated, and the permanent magnet rotates in the
clockwise direction.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing the Hall effect in a
When the current in coil 2 is reduced and the current in
Hall element
coil 3 is increased according to the rotation position, the
Hall elements utilize the phenomenon in which, when a resultant magnetic field also rotates clockwise, and so the
current IH flows in a semiconductor and magnetic flux B permanent magnet continues to rotate.
crosses the current at a right angle, a voltage VH occurs
②: In the state of rotation by 30°, the current Io is made
in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
to flow into coil 1 and the current in coil 2 is reduced to
magnetic flux. This phenomenon was discovered by the
zero, while the current Io is caused to flow out of coil 3.
American physicist Edwin Herbert Hall, and so is called
the Hall effect. The equation for the generated voltage VH The S pole is then outside of coil 1, and the N pole is
is as follows. outside of coil 3. Taking the vector resultant, a magnetic
field occurs with intensity equal to √3 (≈1.72)-fold of that
V K d I B when the current Io is made to flow in one coil. This also
where KH: Hall coefficient, d: thickness of material creates a resultant magnetic field at an angle of 90° to the
traversed by the magnetic flux magnetic field of the permanent magnet, so that the
permanent magnet rotates in the clockwise direction.
As the equation indicates, when the current is increased,
the voltage also increases. This is used to detect the The current Io flowing into coil 1 is reduced according to
position of the rotor (magnets). the rotation, the current flowing into coil 2 is increased
from zero, and the current flowing out of coil 3 is
<Summary> increased to become Io; the resultant magnetic field
 The coils of a 3-phase brushless DC motor are fixed to rotates clockwise, and the permanent magnet continues
a substrate, and are wound about an iron core. to rotate.
 One method for detecting the position of the rotor

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

* If the current for each phase is represented as a The S pole is outside of coils 1 and 2, and the N pole is
sinusoidal waveform, then these current values become outside of coil 3. Taking the vector resultant, a magnetic
Io×sin( /3) = Io×√3/2. Taking the vector resultant of the field occurs equal to 1.5 times that occurring when the
magnetic field, the overall intensity is (√3 /2)2 ×2 = 1.5 current Io flows in one coil (the same as in ①). A resultant
times the magnetic field that occurs for one coil. When the magnetic field is formed that is at a 90° angle with respect
current for each phase is sinusoidal, the magnitude of the to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, and the
vector resultant magnetic field is 1.5-fold times the permanent magnet rotates clockwise.
magnetic field that occurs for one coil regardless of the
④ to ⑥: Rotation is similar to that in ① to ③
position of the permanent magnet, and the magnetic field
is at 90° to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. When in this way the supply of current to the coils is
switched according to the sequential positions of the
③: Having rotated another 30°, the current Io/2 is made
permanent magnet, the permanent magnet is caused to
to flow into coil 1, Io/2 is made to flow into coil 2, and Io is
rotate in one direction. If the current directions are
made to flow out from coil 3.
reversed, reversing the direction of the resultant magnetic
field, rotation is in the counterclockwise direction.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram showing the principle of rotation of a brushless motor

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 5 shows the continuous change in the current in 1.4.1 Position Detection Using Hall Elements
each of the coils through the steps ① to ⑥ in Figure 4. (Sensors)
The reader should be able to understand the relation
When using Hall elements (sensors) to detect the position
between the changes in the currents as explained above
of the rotating permanent magnet, the installed positions
and the permanent magnet rotation.
of the Hall elements are set at the midpoints between
<Summary> coils, that is, at points located at 1/2 the angles between
 In 3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors, the inflow the coils (see Figure 6).
and outflow of currents into and out of three coils
change the magnet field, causing the rotor to rotate.
1.4 Position Detection
3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors rotate by
switching the drive current to the three coils, and position
detection of the rotating permanent magnets is required
to drive the motor.
There are two main methods of position detection. One is
a method using sensors; specifically, the voltages of Hall
elements are employed. In the diagrams used to explain
the principles of rotation in the previous article, though not
explicitly explained, H1, H2, and H3 are Hall elements
(sensors). The other method involves detection of the Figure 6. Relation between Hall element installation
induced voltages for each coil, and does not use sensors, position and coil position
and so is called a sensorless method.
Each of these methods is described below.

Figure 5. Continuous coil currents for each of the steps ① through ⑥ shown in Figure 4.

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 7. Hall element signal waveform relative to coil current waveform

If the Hall element between coil 3 and coil 1 is H1, the Hall signals, motor driving current waveforms with the desired
element between coils 1 and 2 is H2, and the Hall element phase can be created.
between coils 2 and 3 is H3, then the signal waveforms In order to synthesize output current signals to reverse
of the Hall elements appear as Figure 7 relative to the the motor direction, H1 is subtracted from H2, H2 is
current waveforms for clockwise rotation. subtracted from H3, and H3 is subtracted from H1. That
In this example, when the magnetic field of the N pole is is, M1 = H2 - H1, M2 = H3 - H2, and M3 = H1 - H3, and
sensed by a Hall element, a positive (+) voltage occurs, by supplying output currents in accordance with the
and when the S pole magnetic field is sensed a negative phases of the synthesized waveforms M1, M2, M3,
(-) voltage is induced; the magnetic field strength changes reverse rotation is obtained.
sinusoidally according to the position of the rotating 1.4.2 Position Detection Using Induced Voltages
permanent magnet (the "Hall element voltage (Sensorless)
waveforms" in the lower part of the waveform diagram).
The output current waveforms for each of the phases are In the method not requiring sensors (Hall elements),
taken to be trapezoidal waves (the "current waveforms" induced voltages occurring in the coils are used. In a 3-
in the upper part of the waveform diagram). The numbers phase full-wave brushless DC motor, a permanent
① to ⑥ appearing along the time axis of the waveform magnet rotates relative to the coils and the N pole and S
diagram correspond to the numbers ① to ⑥ of the pole change in alternation, so that changes in magnetic
diagrams used in the explanation of "Principles of flux density occur at the coils, and induced voltages occur
Rotation" in the previous article. The same diagrams are in the coils themselves, generating electricity. The
used in the next section on "Position Detection Using magnetic flux density is greatest when the N pole is at a
Induced Voltages (Sensorless)", and so can be coil end and flux is entering the coil, and when the S pole
referenced there. is at a coil end and flux is leaving the coil. However, when
the magnetization of the permanent magnet is sinusoidal,
For motor driving, output current waveforms are changes in the flux density are greatest at the midpoints
synthesized from the Hall element output signal between the N pole and the S pole.
waveforms, which change according to the rotor position.
In this synthesis, the H2 voltage waveform is subtracted Figure 8 shows the relationship between coil current and
from the H1 voltage waveform, the H3 voltage waveform induced voltage waveforms. The numbers ① to ⑥ in the
is subtracted from the H2 voltage waveform, and the H1 figure indicate motor conditions and correspond to the
voltage waveform is subtracted from the H3 voltage numbers ① to ⑥ in Figure 4. State of ① to ⑥ of the motor
waveform. Through these operations, sine waves (M1, and the induced voltage waveform are shown below.
M2, M3) are obtained that lead H1, H2, H3 in phase by
30°. By generating output currents based on these

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 8. Induced voltage waveform relative to coil current waveform

①: Coil 1 is at a midpoint between the S pole and the N Moreover, as is shown in the waveform diagram, the
pole, and because the action changes from magnetic flux induced voltage waveform and the driving current
due to the S pole leaving the outside of the coil to waveform are in phase for each of the coils.
magnetic flux due to the N pole entering the same space, By detecting zero points of the induced voltages and
the change in magnetic flux density is greatest. Hence the synthesizing output current waveforms, the motor can be
induced voltage in coil 1 is positive relative to the coil driven in rotation using the induced voltages as rotor
midpoint and is maximum. position detection signals. Hence the motor can be
②: The induced voltage in coil 1 drops, because the controlled without using Hall elements for position
change in magnetic flux density is less than before. detection.
③: The change in magnetic flux density near coil 1 further <Summary>
decreases, and so the induced voltage also drops further.  For position detection in 3-phase full-wave brushless
DC motors, there are methods that use Hall elements,
④: The N pole is at the coil end, and the change in
and methods that utilize the voltages induced in the
magnetic flux density is zero, so that the induced voltage
motor coils without relying on Hall elements.
in coil 1 is zero.
2. Driving 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors
⑤: Because the N pole recedes from coil 1, the magnetic
flux entering the coil decreases, so that the induced Starting with this article, methods for driving 3-phase full-
voltage goes negative, but because the change in flux is wave brushless DC motors will be explained. In general,
small, the induced voltage drops a small amount. 3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors are driven by
using control and driving circuits for motor commutation.
⑥: The change in the density of magnetic flux entering
coil 1 further declines, so that the induced voltage falls Commutation methods include 120° commutation and
still further. sinusoidal commutation. Each method has its advantages
and drawbacks. To sum up, sinusoidal commutation is
Similarly in coils 2 and 3, at the midpoint when switching
superior with respect to control precision, efficiency, and
from the S pole to the N pole, the maximum positive
noise, but entails a complex system and results in
induced voltage occurs, at the midpoint when switching
increased costs. In contrast, 120° commutation is inferior
from the N pole to the S pole the maximum negative
to sinusoidal commutation with respect to control
induced voltage occurs, and when the N pole or the S
precision, efficiency, and noise, but the system for this
pole is at the coil end, the induced voltage is zero.
driving is simple, and costs are lower. Each commutation

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

method will be explained in turn.

2.1 120° Commutation Linear-Current Driving with
Sensors
In 120° commutation, driving is performed by control and
driving circuits, with drivers comprising high side and low
side switches for each of the 3 phases. Below, operation
is explained, referring to an example of a driving circuit
for 120° commutation (Figure 9) and input/output
waveform diagrams (Figure 10).

Figure 9. 120° commutation driving circuit example

The current waveforms in Figure 10, with the coil phases

shifted by 120°, cycles are repeated in which current
flows into a given coil over the 120° turn-on interval,
followed by a 60° turn-off interval, then another 120° turn-
on interval in which current flows out from the coil, and
Figure 10. Example of each input/output waveform of 120°
another 60° turn-off interval (vertical dashed lines appear
commutation driving circuit
at 30° intervals). Because the commutation interval is
120°, this is called 120° commutation. Put simply, during the 60° intervals in which the coil
current is turned off, a coil voltage should not occur; but
H1P/H1N to H3P/H3N in the driving circuit are Hall
in actuality, because the motor is rotating and induced
element voltage inputs; signals from the Hall elements
voltages occur in the coils, rising and falling voltage
are received as differential signals (see the Hall element
gradients occur during off intervals, and at the points at
voltage waveforms in Figure 10).
which coil currents change in steps (change suddenly),
Hall element voltages are shaped into square waves by a spike voltage noise occurs, indicated by the arrows.
differential amplifier (see the square waves H1 to H3).
<Summary>
In next-stage logic operations, the square waves become  In 120° commutation driving, each phase is shifted by
driving signals for the high side switches (transistors) and 120°, to drive the motor repeating a 120° on (H), 60° off,
low side switches, to drive the high side and low side 120° on (L), 60° off cycle.
switches via current driver amplifiers (see the synthesized
2.2 Sinusoidal Commutation PWM Driving with
waveforms M1H/M1L to M3H/M3L and the current
Sensors
waveforms for coils 1 to 3).
In general, sinusoidal commutation driving is superior to
120-degree commutation driving in terms of control
accuracy, efficiency, and noise. On the other hand, the
system is more complex.

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 Hand Book
Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

2.2.1 Circuit Example control the gate of the output stage MOSFET, becoming
the PWM output that drives the motor coil. Such PWM
In sinusoidal commutation, driving is performed by control
conversion using a comparator and a triangular wave is a
and driver circuits designed for 3 phases, each of which
widely used technique that is employed in many circuits
has a driver comprising a high side and a low side. Figure
such as PWM generation for switching regulators.
11 is an example of a sinusoidal commutation PWM
driving circuit block using sensors.

Figure 12. PWM conversion of sine waves

Figure 11. Sinusoidal commutation PWM driving circuit
example Next, each input/output waveform is explained (see
Figure 13).
In basic operation, signals from the three Hall sensors are
input to the inputs of Hall amplifiers, and after waveform The Hall element inputs H1P/H1N to H3P/H3N are
synthesis, the signals are converted into PWM signals differential signals from the Hall elements, and result in
using comparators and triangular waves, which drive the H1 to H3 sine wave outputs shifted 120° respectively (see
motor coils via MOSFETs in the output stage. The the Hall element voltage waveforms in Figure 13).
equivalent voltages of the PWM signals A1 to A3 are
Hall element voltages pass through the waveform
sinusoidal commutation waveforms shifted in phase by synthesis circuit to become M1 to M3. Each of the
120°. waveforms is generated with phase leading the original
In 120° commutation, commutation is performed using signal by 30° or more (see the synthesized waveforms in
square waves that are on for 120° and off for 60°; in Figure 13). This is called an advance angle, and is
driving by sinusoidal commutation, on the other hand, explained in detail separately.
180° commutation is used, with sine waves increasing
As explained previously, M1 to M3 are compared with
from zero to the maximum value, so that operation is triangular waves by the comparators and converted into
smoother and low-noise operation is obtained. In addition, PWM signals (see the comparator waveforms P1 to P3 in
PWM driving contributes to improved efficiency. Figure 13).
2.2.2 Waveform Examples
First, PWM conversion of sine waves is explained. Figure
12 shows an example of the H1P/H1N input channels in
Figure 11.
The Hall amplifier output H1 is shaped into the sine wave
M1, shown in purple in the diagram, by a waveform
synthesis circuit. M1 and a triangular wave from the
triangular wave oscillator are input to a comparator, and
a square wave P1 (comparator output) having a certain
pulse width is output as the comparison result. P1 passes
through a level shift/simultaneous-on prevention circuit to

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

2.2.3 Advance Angle Control

This section describes the advance angle control that
appeared in the previous section. The maximum motor
torque is obtained when the phase of the magnetic field
of the magnet (rotor) lags the phase of the magnetic field
of the coils (windings) by 90°. The phase of the phase
induced voltage leads the phase of the magnet (rotor)
magnetic field by 90°, and the phases of the phase
current and the coil magnetic field are the same, and so
when the phases of the phase induced voltage and the
phase current are the same, this condition is satisfied,
and the greatest torque is obtained.
However, as indicated in the diagram of Figure 14, if a
voltage (red) is applied having the same phase as that of
the phase induced voltage, in the expectation that the
phase of the phase current (yellow) will be the same as
that of the phase induced voltage (blue), the inductance
of the windings causes a phase lag (indicated by the red
arrows) to occur in the phase current (yellow). The torque
for the phase is equal to the product of the phase induced
voltage and the phase current, but there is a part of the
cycle in which the product is negative (on the left side of
Figure 13. Example of each input/output waveforms of the waveform diagram in Figure 14, the intervals
sinusoidal commutation PWM driving indicated by the gray bands); during these intervals, a
The voltage waveforms of motor coils applied to the motor negative torque occurs, and efficiency is reduced.
coils are PWM signals, but in the waveform diagram, In order to alleviate this problem and raise the efficiency,
equivalent voltage waveforms are shown. We see that there is a correction method in which the phase of the
driving is performed by the equivalent of sine waves. phase current is advanced by advancing the phase of the
The coil currents are of course sinusoidal. By providing phase applied voltage, bringing the phases of the phase
an advance angle in the waveform synthesis circuit, the induced voltage and the phase current into agreement
coil current waveforms are always kept 30° ahead of the (on the right side of the diagram in Figure 14, green
Hall element voltages (H1 to H3). This series of control is arrow), and eliminating the negative torque interval. This
called advance angle control. is what is called advance angle control; the angle by
which the phase of the phase applied voltage is advanced
In the case of 120° commutation, spike noise due to turn-
is called the advance angle.
on/turn-off of coil currents is observed in the coil voltage
waveforms (see Figure 10). In driving by sinusoidal The optimum value of the advance angle varies
commutation, however, 180° commutation is used and depending on the motor characteristics, rotation rate, and
there is no turn-on/turn-off, so that spike noise does not load torque (current value), and so the appropriate value
occur. must be set according to the state of motor use. There
are five main methods of advance angle control by motor
<Summary>
drivers: 1) fixed, 2) detecting the phase of the phase
 In sinusoidal commutation driving, sine waves are used
current, 3) comparing and matching the phase of the rotor
for driving each of the phases, which are shifted 120°.
position signal, 4) varying according to the rotation speed,
 Because in sinusoidal commutation there is no spike
and 5) varying according to the torque command value.
noise such as occurs in 120° commutation, the method
is superior with respect to noise.
 High efficiency is achieved through PWM driving.

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 14. Advance angle control

<Summary> As one can probably grasp things from the waveforms,

 The motor torque is maximum when the phase of the when unmodified sine waves are used for driving, VM is
magnetic field of the magnet is lagging the phase of the √3/2 of the power supply voltage, so that put simply, only
magnetic field of the windings by 90°. voltages up to 13% lower than the power supply voltage
 The above condition is satisfied and the maximum can be applied. In motor driving, maximization of the
torque is obtained, when the phases of the phase applied voltage is of course absolutely necessary; in
induced voltage and the phase current are the same. actual applications using sinusoidal commutation driving,
 However, if the voltage is applied with the same phase methods to maximize the applied voltage are employed.
as the phase induced voltage, a phase lag occurs in the
2.2.4.1 Methods for Maximizing Applied Voltage ①
phase current, and a negative torque occurs.
 Advance angle control is a method in which the phase In Figure 16 waveform, halves of a lower-side arc part of
of the phase applied voltage is advanced such that the the sine waves (broken lines) are added to the upper
phase of the phase current and the phase of the phase sides of each of the two other phases (green arrows). As
induced voltage coincide. can be seen in the waveform diagram, a VM that is
greater than the unmodified sine waves can be applied.
2.2.4 Maximization of Motor-Applied Voltage
Methods to maximize the voltage applied in sinusoidal
commutation driving of a 3-phase full-wave brushless DC
motor are explained.
In Figure 15, the PWM signal in sinusoidal commutation
PWM driving is replaced with a voltage, showing that a
motor-applied voltage VM is applied using sine waves
(broken lines) in three phases with the power supply
voltage as the amplitude.

Figure 16. Methods for maximizing applied voltage ①

The applied voltage waveforms are no longer sinusoidal,

and are deformed, but the voltages actually applied to the
motor are differential voltages between the phases, and
adjustments are made such that the differential voltages
are sinusoidal, to make the phase currents sinusoidal.
Consequently, there is no adverse effect on the high
efficiency or smoothness that are advantages of
Figure 15. When voltage is applied as sine waveform
sinusoidal commutation.

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

2.2.4.2 Methods for Maximizing Applied Voltage ② <Summary>

 In sinusoidal driving of a 3-phase full-wave brushless
In this method (Figure 17), third harmonic waves are
DC motor, if the motor is driven using unmodified sine
added to the fundamental wave (broken-line sine wave).
waves, the motor-applied voltage is 0.87 times the
The sine wave becomes a trapezoidal waveform, and as
power supply voltage.
is again seen in the waveform diagram, a larger VM can
 There are two methods to maximize the motor-applied
be applied, and the phase current becomes sinusoidal.
voltage.
‑ Add halves of a lower-side arc part of the sine wave to
the upper sides of the other two phases to drive the
motor.
‑ Add third harmonic waves to the fundamental sine
wave.
2.3 Sensorless 120° Commutation Driving
From here, sensorless driving without Hall element of a
3-phase full-wave brushless DC motor is explained. As an
example, we consider basic 120° commutation driving.
Figure 18 is an example of a general circuit for sensorless
120° commutation driving of a 3-phase full-wave
brushless DC motor.
Figure 17. Methods for maximizing applied voltage ②
In sensorless driving, there is a method in which the
The basic principles of these driving methods have
induced voltages in the coils are used in place of Hall
already been explained, but in actual motor driving, we
elements for motor position detection. In this method, the
have such techniques for improving efficiency.
signal CT at the midpoint of the three coils is used. This
CT signal and the signals A1, A2, A3 are input to the
driving circuit, and comparators are used to perform
comparison processing, and outputs are generated. This
process is essentially the same as when using sensors,
except that induced voltages are used instead.

Figure 18. Example of sensorless 120° commutation driving of 3-phase full-wave brushless DC Motors

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Induced voltages occur when the permanent magnet from waveforms which have been delayed in phase by
rotates and the magnetic flux passing through a coil that 30°, the synthesized waveforms and output gate
is not passing a current changes; it cannot be detected in waveforms are generated.
coils in which current is flowing. In 120° commutation
driving, current is flowing in two out of the three phases,
and is not flowing in the third phase. An induced voltage
appears across the terminal of the phase in which current
is not flowing; by using the voltage CT at the midpoint to
detect the zero crossing point of the induced voltage, the
motor position is detected.
In one phase of a 3-phase motor, there are two off-
intervals in which current does not flow during one motor
rotation (through 360°) (two 120° intervals with current
and two 60° off intervals), and so there are six off-intervals
for the three phases. That is, position detection is possible
once every 60°. Output signals are generated on the
basis of 60° signals between zero crossing points for
each phase.
Figure 19 is a detailed explanation using a driving
waveform example. The current waveforms in coils 1, 2,
and 3 indicate that driving is by 120° commutation; that is,
current enters into a coil over 120° and is then off for 60°,
current flows out over the next 120°, and is then turned
off for another 60°. The resulting output voltage
waveforms are A1, A2, and A3.
Induced voltages used in detecting the motor position can
be detected during 60° off-intervals for each phase.
Taking coil 1 as an example, during the off intervals
indicated in red, an induced voltage appears in the output
A1, and is detected. At these times, currents are flowing
in coils 2 and 3. Upon switching to off from a state in which
current is flowing into the coil, after spike noise (a
transient voltage) occurs upon switching, the induced
voltage declines. During the transition from a current
outflowing state to off, after spike noise has appeared, the
induced voltage rises. Figure 19. Example of driving waveforms

The comparator output BE is a signal obtained by Figure 20 shows in enlargement the behavior of the
comparing the induced voltage signal occurring in the outputs A1-3 during coil-off intervals. This is an example
output and the coil midpoint signal CT (not shown); at the of a 60° interval in which coil 3 goes from a state in which
induced voltage zero crossing point, there is a H→L current is flowing out to the off state. The circuit diagram
transition when falling, and a L→H transition when rising. shows the state of the circuit at this time.
The comparator outputs BE1-3 are used to synthesize In the case of A2, the high side MOSFET is on and the
signals shifted 60° by a process called waveform section low side MOSFET is off, so that current is flowing out and
selection and synthesis, in which the additions are the voltage is at high level. In the case of A1, the low side
performed. Because these signals include spike noise, MOSFET is turned on, so that current flows from A2 and
which was not in the original induced voltages, a mask the voltage is at low level. A3 switches from the state of
signal (H parts) is used to mask the spike noise to inflowing current to the off state, so that, as the waveform
synthesize induced-voltage 60° signal waveforms, and indicates, after a momentary jump in voltage, the induced

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 20. Expands the behavior of outputs A1-3 during the coil-off period

voltage appears gradually and linearly. The voltage sensors can be used to ascertain the positions of the N
difference between A3 and CT at this time is shown as a and S poles of the permanent magnet (rotor) when
broken line together with the A3 voltage waveform. The stopped. Therefore, startup is performed by beginning to
CT voltage is approximately one-half the voltages of A2 pass currents through the coils so as to generate a
and A1. synthetic magnetic field at 90°, as in Figure 21.
On taking the difference between the voltages A3 and CT,
the zero crossing point of the induced voltage can be
detected, as shown on the right side, and BE3 in the
preceding timing chart transitions from L to H.
Compared with 120° commutation driving using sensors,
the broad outline is much the same, with the difference
that induced voltages are detected instead of relying on
sensor signals.
<Summary>
 In sensorless driving, there is a method in which the
induced voltages in the coils are used in place of Hall
elements for motor position detection.
 In this method, the signal CT at the midpoint of the three
coils is utilized.
 The CT signal and the signals A1, A2, A3 are input to
the driving circuit, comparison processing is performed
by comparators, and outputs are generated. Figure 21. Rotor position and startup when with sensor
 Except for the use of induced voltages, this sensorless
When sensors are not present (that is, in sensorless
driving is basically the same as driving using sensors.
driving), as explained in "2.3 Sensorless 120°
2.3.1 Problems with Startup Commutation Driving", the position detection is
As explained in "1.3 Principles of Rotation” and “1.4 performed by using the induced voltage occurring in the
Position Detection”, in startup of a 3-phase full-wave coil which is not passing a current when the permanent
brushless DC motor, when sensors are present the magnet rotates. Hence while the motor is stopped, the

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

position of the permanent magnet cannot be ascertained, ③, ④: However, the movement is not yet sufficient to
and so a procedure for motor startup is needed. There cause an induced voltage, and so a synthetic magnetic
are two methods for startup in the case of a sensorless field is next generated in the 7 o'clock direction. The
system. permanent magnet then similarly moves clockwise.
2.3.2 Startup Method 1: Startup on Detection of ⑤, ⑥: Next a synthetic magnetic field is generated in the
Induced Voltage from Synchronous Operation 9 o'clock direction; the permanent magnet moves still
further in the clockwise direction, and begins to rotate.
As stated previously, in sensorless driving, the position of
the permanent magnet when stopped cannot be This operation is continued, and the time until the next
determined, and so it cannot be known what currents switching is shortened little by little, so that the permanent
should be passed in the three coils upon startup. As one magnet rotation rate increases, and gradually the induced
means to deal with this, synchronous operation is used to voltage rises to a level at which detection is possible.
rotate the permanent magnet, the induced voltage that When a state is reached in which the induced voltage can
occurs is detected, and 120° commutation driving is then be detected, normal sensorless 120° communication
performed; this is explained using Figure 22. driving commences.
①: If the permanent magnet is in the position in ①, then In other words, in this method a synthetic magnetic field
ordinarily currents would be passed in the coils so as to is created in a rotation direction regardless of the position
form a synthetic magnetic field in the 6 o'clock direction; of the permanent magnet, and by switching at fixed times
but because the permanent magnet position is unknown, to start rotation of the permanent magnet, an induced
a synthetic magnetic field is generated in a direction voltage occurs and is detected, and normal control is
determined in advance (in the diagram, the 5 o'clock begun.
direction), regardless of the permanent magnet position.
In this method, if at the start the synthetic magnetic field
②: When this state is maintained for a fixed length of time, switching occurs too quickly, the permanent magnet may
the S(N) pole of the permanent magnet is drawn toward not be able to follow, and so a method must be used in
the synthetic magnetic field N(S) pole, and the permanent which the switching period begins slowly and is gradually
magnet moves (rotates) clockwise a small amount. quickened.

Figure 22. Startup detecting induced voltage from synchronous operation driving

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

A function block diagram for the operations is presented A startup period generation oscillator sends a ST_CLK
in Figure 23. signal to a driving basic waveform generation block, and
the signal causes a synthetic magnetic field to be
generated in a direction determined in advance,
regardless of the above-described permanent magnet
position; the synthetic magnetic field is then switched in
the direction of rotation according to the period of the
signal.
BEMF_DET is a signal used to notify detection of an
induced voltage. When this signal enters the startup
period generation oscillator, the ST_CLK signal is
stopped, BEMF_DET is input to the driving basic
waveform generation block, generation of a synthetic
magnetic field based on the induced voltage begins, and
normal control commences.
Figure 23. Function block diagram detecting induced
voltage from synchronous operation driving

Figure 24. Startup waveforms detecting induced voltage from synchronous operation driving

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

Figure 24 is waveform examples illustrating the series of diagram used to explain the principles and operation
operations described using Figure 22. The ST_CLK involved in detection of the permanent magnet position.
signal and BEMF_DET signal as well as the signal Using the outputs A1, A2, A3, the coils are energized such
resulting from their addition (see the block diagram), and that current flows through the coils in the six patterns ①
the output voltage waveforms A1 to A3, are relevant to the to ⑥. This energizing is for a short time duration, such
present explanation. The fact that the period of the that the permanent magnet does not rotate.
BEMF_DET signal becomes shorter and shorter indicates
that the rotation rate is increasing.
However, this startup method has the following issues.
 A synthetic magnetic field is created regardless of the
position of the permanent magnet, so that depending on
the magnet state, a reverse-direction torque may act,
and for some stopped positions of the magnet, time may
Figure 25. Example of permanent magnet stop state
be required for startup.
 Originally, the relative positions of the permanent
magnet and the created synthetic magnetic field should
differ by 90° in order to generate a large amount of
torque. But because the synthetic magnetic field is
created irrespective of the permanent magnet position,
motion may start from an angle such as 70° or 60°, so
that the required large startup torque is not obtained.
The other startup method that addresses these issues is
Figure 26. Schematic diagram showing the principle of
to detect the position of the permanent magnet stop and
position detection and operation of a permanent magnet
start it up.
The energizing waveforms and current waveforms (IVM)
<Summary>
for the six patterns are shown in Figure 27. A1 to A3
 In the sensorless system, two types of startup methods
output voltages corresponding to the energization
are used to deal with the fact that the position of the
patterns ① to ⑥. The power supply current is of varying
permanent magnet at the stop is not known.
sizes for each of these patterns. This is because the
 The first method is, a synthetic magnetic field is formed
current for each pattern differs depending on the position
in a rotation direction regardless of the position of the
of the permanent magnet; in this method, the difference
permanent magnet, and upon switching at fixed times to
in currents is used to detect the position of the permanent
start rotation of the permanent magnet and detecting
magnet.
the induced voltage that occurs, normal control is
initiated.
 However, there are some problems with this method,
and if they need to be addressed, it takes the method
that the permanent magnet stop position is detected
and started it up.
2.3.3 Startup Method 2: Startup on Detection of
Permanent Magnet Stopped Position
Method 2, which includes addressing the issues of
Method 1 described in the previous section, is to detect
the stopped position of the permanent magnet and start.
Figure 27. Current waveforms of the six patterns in Figure
Figure 25 shows an example of a stopped permanent 26 and the current waveforms flowing
magnet (rotor), assuming that the S pole is stopped at the
3 o'clock position and the N pole at the 9 o'clock position. The operation is as follows. In ③, energization results in
the S pole at coil 2 and the N pole at coil 3. The permanent
Next, the circuit diagram in Figure 26 is a schematic

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

magnet S pole opposes coil 2, and the permanent magnet The flow of operation is as follows: (1) The six patterns
N pole opposes coil 3, so that magnetic polarization of the generated by the position detection pattern generation
coils is impeded. Hence the current rise is most gradual, block are sent to a driving basic waveform synthesis block,
and the current is small. and energization is performed by A1 to A3. The detected
power supply currents are converted into voltages by a
However, ⑥ is the opposite of ③; energization causes an
current detection resistor and an amplifier, and based on
N pole to appear at coil 2 and an S pole at coil 3. Because
(2) a sample and hold circuit and (3) a current
the permanent magnet S pole opposes coil 2 and the
comparison/maximum value pattern detection circuit, (4)
permanent magnet N pole opposes coil 3, the coil
an initial driving pattern generation block generates an
magnetic polarization is promoted. As a result, the current
initial driving pattern based on the permanent magnet
rise is most rapid, and the current is large.
position, and returns the pattern to the driving basic
In other words, by determining the energization pattern waveform synthesis block, and driving begins.
resulting in the largest or the smallest current, the
Short pulses are shown immediately after power-on in the
permanent magnet position can be detected.
output voltage waveforms A1 to A3 in the operation
To illustrate this a little more concretely, we will use an waveform diagrams in Figure 29. This represents
example of a driver circuit block and an operating energization of the six patterns for position detection. As
waveform diagram. explained above, the energization is over a short time,
The circuit block in Figure 28 is basically the method 1 and so in contrast with the other waveforms, the time is
circuit block in Figure 23 for detecting the induced voltage very short.
from synchronous operation to start the motor, to which is Immediately after power-on, the permanent magnet
added a circuit for generating the six energization position is detected, and based on the result, an initial
patterns and detecting the power supply currents, driving pattern is used for driving, so that the problems of
comparing the currents, and generating an initial driving reverse rotation and low-torque startup that occurred in
pattern. Some parts are omitted, but the blue blocks are the method of startup by detecting an induced voltage are
the outputs A1 to A3. avoided, and the motor can be rotated by a large torque
from the very beginning.
Operation after startup basically relies on the same
process as in the method of startup by detecting an
induced voltage. The timing for switching the driving
pattern during initial driving is, similarly to the method of
startup by detecting an induced voltage, based on
ST_CLK.
However, rotation is begun using a large torque from the
start, so that a sufficient induced voltage is obtained using
several patterns (in these waveform diagrams, four
ST_CLK signals), and steady-state driving is begun using
an induced voltage. That is, the problem with the method
of startup by detecting an induced voltage, that time is
required for startup, is alleviated.
<Summary>
 The method of detecting the stopped position of the
permanent magnet to start the motor avoids the
problems of reverse rotation and low-torque startup of
the method in which the induced voltage from
synchronous operation is detected for startup, and so
Figure 28. Example of function block diagram for reduces the time needed for startup.
detecting permanent magnet stop position  To detect the stopped position of the permanent magnet,
current is passed in six patterns over short intervals

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

during which the motor does not rotate, and the pattern
for which the power supply current is largest (or
smallest) is determined.

Figure 29. Example of operation waveform of permanent magnet stop position detection

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Basics of 3-Phase Full-Wave Brushless DC Motors and Driving Methods

3. Overview of Features and Applications 3.1 Applications

Finally, the table summarizes the features and Table 2 summarizes typical devices and examples of 3-
applications of 3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors. phase full-wave brushless DC motor applications in those
devices. Since there are a wide variety of other
3.1 Features
applications, please take this as an example.
Features, advantages, and disadvantages of 3-phase full-
wave brushless DC motors are summarized in Table 1.
Items in bold are particularly important.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Minimal electrical, mechanical noise  Rotor is a permanent magnet, so moment of inertia cannot be
 High reliability, long lifetime decreased
 Easily reaches high speeds  Added costs due to complicated electronic circuits and
 High efficiency sensors required for rectification function
 Easily miniaturized and designed in various shapes  Numerous wires needed between driving circuit and motor
 Rotation speed proportional to applied voltage  Tendency for torque fluctuation (when coils have iron cores)
 Rotation speed falls in proportion to load
 Large torque on startup and at low speeds
 Torque proportional to current
 Main characteristics vary linearly, making control easy

Table 1. Features of 3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors

Devices Applications
HDD ・Spindles: Disc rotation → 3-phase sensorless
PCs/Game console DVD/Blu-ray drives ・Spindles: Disc rotation → 3-phase sensorless
Blu-ray recorders/players
Laser-beam printers (LBP) ・Paper feed → 3-phase sensored
PPC ・Polygon mirrors: Rotation of polygon mirrors for laser light scanning
→ 3-phase sensored, 3-phase sensorless
DC fan → 2-phase half-wave brushless, Single-phase full-wave brushless, 3-phase sensorless
Drones ・Propellors → 3-phase sensorless
・Gimbal control: Fixing camera directions → 3-phase sensorless
Machine tools ・Screwdrivers, ・Drills, ・Saws, etc.: Rotation → 3-phase sensored
Home appliances ・Air conditioners: Compressors, fans (indoor, outdoor), ・Air purifiers
・Vacuum cleaners etc., Refrigerators (Compressors, fans)
Automotive ・Air conditioners: Fans，・Battery cooling fans
・Seats: Fans etc., Pumps

Table 2. Applications of 3-phase full-wave brushless DC motors

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Revision History

Date Version Details

2023.10.05 001 Initial version in English. Translation of Japanese version 002.

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Notes
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