Multiple Access Protocols in Computer Network


The Data Link Layer is responsible for transmission of data between two nodes. Its main
functions are-
 Data Link Control
 Multiple Access Control

Introduction to Data Link Layer

The data link layer is manipulated in a computer network to transmit the information between 2
devices or nodes. It divides the layer into components like data link control and multiple access
protocols. The upper layer is responsible for flow management and error management in the data
link layer; thus, it is known as logical data link control. At the same time, the bottom layer is
manipulated to handle and scale back the collision or multiple access on a channel. Thus it is
termed media access control or multiple access resolutions.

What are Multiple Access Protocols?

The fair of multiple access protocols are optimization of global time, depreciation of collisions,
and run away from give-and-take.

Let's assume, that there is a classroom filled with children. Once an educator asks an issue, all
the children (small channels) within the classroom begin to respond to the question at an
identical time (transferring the information concurrently). All the children respond at identical
times thanks to that data/information overlapping or data being lost. So it is the responsibility of
an educator (multiple access protocols) to lead the students and build them one answer.
Types of Multiple Access Protocols

Following are the types of Multiple Access Protocols, which are separated into many different
processes, are listed below.

Random Access Protocols

Let's use the instance of a telephone conversation. Whenever you give a call to someone, a link
between you and the wanted person is confirmed, additionally, anyone will make the call to
anyone. Thus here we have all the users at a similar priority, wherever any station will send
data/information providing on the medium's state whether or not it is idle or busy, meaning that
if your friend is chatting to somebody else through the telephone, then its standing is busy and
you are not able to build a connection/link and since all the users are allotted equal precedence
you can not disconnect your friend's current call and establish yours.

The random access protocols carry with them the subsequent characteristics:

1 First of all, There is no time restriction for transmitting the data/information with your friends
with no time restriction.

2. There is a set of sequences of stations that are communicating the data or the information.

The Random access protocol is further subdivided into 4 different categories which are listed
below:

1. ALOHA
2. CSMA
 3. CSMA/CD
4. CSMA/CA

Let’s discuss each one of them.

ALOHA

The ALOHA protocol or conjointly referred to as the ALOHA methodology could be an easy
communication medium during which each transmittal station or supply in an exceeding network
can send the data or the information whenever a frame is accessible for transmission. If we tend
to succeed and therefore the frame reaches its destination, then the successive frame is lined up
for transmission. however keep in mind, that if the data or the information frame isn't received
by the receiver which may be due to the collision then the frame is shipped once more till it
reaches the receiver's end successfully.

 Pure Aloha The Data Transmission in Pure Aloha can transmit the data randomly which
is any number of stations that can transmit the data at any given time. The timestamp in
Pure Aloha is continuous and basically, it is globally synchronized with any other number
of stations. The maximum efficiency of Pure Aloha is 18.4%. The Collision status of
Pure Aloha is that it does not reduce the total number to half.


 Slotted Aloha The Data Transmission in Slotted Aloha can transmit the data randomly at
the start of any random time slot. The timestamp in Slotted Aloha is discrete and
basically, it is universally synchronized The maximum efficiency of Slotted Aloha is
36.8%. The Collision status of Slotted Aloha is that it basically reduces the total number
to half and doubles the efficiency of pure Aloha.
 

CSM CSMA basically stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Currently, we have understood
that once two or more stations begin redirecting data/information, then a collision happens,
therefore this CSMA technique was developed to reduce the probabilities of collisions once two
or more stations begin redirecting their signals over the data link layer. So the question is how
they are doing it? The CSMA makes every station first check the medium whether it is busy or
not before redirecting any data packet.

CSMA is having 4 different access protocol which is listed below:

 1-persistent :- In this, initially, the node checks the channel, if the channel is passive
then the node or station transmits information, it keeps on waiting and whenever the
channel is passive, the stations transmit the data frame.

 Non-persistent:- In this non-persistent, the station checks the channel equally as 1-

persistent mode, however, the sole distinction is that once the channel is busy it checks it
once more after a random quantity of your time, not like the 1-persistent mode wherever
the stations keep it up checking incessantly.
  P-persistent :- In P-persistent, the station checks the channel and if found passive then it
transmits the information/data frame with the likelihood of P and if the data isn't
transmitted (1-P) then the station waits for a random quantity of your time and another
time transmits the data with the likelihood P and this cycle goes on endlessly till the data-
frame is sent successfully.

 O-persistent :- In O-persistent, the transmission supports the prevalence of stations

which is set beforehand and transmission happens in this given order. If the channel is
passive, then the station waits for its address to send the data frame.

CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD basically means CSMA with Collision Detection. In CSMA/CD, whenever the
station transmits data-frame it then detects the channel or the medium to admit the state of the
transmission that is profitably transmitted or failed. If the transmission succeeds, then it produces
the successive frame otherwise it resends the formerly failed data frame. The purpose to recollect
here is, that the frame coordinate universal time ought to be at minimum twice the most
propagation time, which might be deduced once the gap between the 2 stations concerned in a
collision is most.

CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA is generally known as CSMA with collision avoidance. To sight the potential
collisions, the sender receives the acknowledgment, and if there is just one acknowledgment gift
of its own. then this suggests that the data frame has been sent profitably. But, if there are two or
more additional acknowledgment signals then this means that the collision has occurred.

To avoid collision following methods are used in general

 Interframe Space In the Interface space case, assume that your station waits for the
channel to become passive and locate that the channel is passive, then it will not convey
the data-frame Straight away to keep away from the collision due to propagation hold on.
It rather waits for a few moments called interframe space or IFS, and when the time is up
the station once again checks the medium for being passive. However, it ought to have
remained in mind that the IFS length depends on the first concern of the station.
 Contention Window In this contention window, the time is split into slots. Say, if the
sender is prepared for transmission of the data or the in, it then chooses a random variety
of slots as waiting time that doubles every time if the channel is busy. But, if the channel
is not passive at that moment, then it does not restart the whole method; however, it
restarts the timer once when the channel is found passive again.
 Acknowledgement We have a tendency to mention on top of the sender station that will
re-transmit the data if acknowledgment is not received prior to the timer runouts.

Controlled Access Protocols

In a controlled access protocol, the stations obtain info from each other to seek out what the
station has the authority to send. It permits just one node to send at a time, to control the collision
of messages on a shared medium. The 3 controlled-access methods are given below:

 Reservation

In the reservation methodology, a station has to create a reservation prior to data.

The schedule has 2 kinds of periods:

1. Reservation interval of agreed time length

2. Data transmission duration of variable frames.

If there are M stations, the reservation interval is split into M slots, and every station has only
one slot.

Assume that station one encompasses a frame to send, it transmits one bit throughout slot one.
No alternative station is permitted to transmit throughout this slot.

Commonly, i the station could announce that it’s a frame to send by inserting one bit into i the
slot. Finally, all N slots have been checked, every station is aware of which stations want to
transmit.

In this figure a condition with 5 stations and 5 slot reservations available. However in this given
first interval only 1,3 and 4 are able to make the reservation and in another second interval, only
1 could make it.

 Polling

The polling method is analogous to the roll call performed in school. rather like the teacher, a
controller sends a message to every node successively.

In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and therefore the others are secondary stations.
All data exchanges should be created through the controller.

The message sent by the controller holds the address of the node being hand-picked for granting
access.

Although all nodes receive the message however the addressed one responds to that and sends
data if any. If no data is available, normally a “poll rejection”(NAK) message is dispatched back.

 Token Passing

In the token-passing process, the stations are linked logically to every alternative in the form of a
ring, and access to stations is ruled by tokens.

A token could be a special bit pattern or a little message, that flows from 1 station to the
consecutive in some predefined order.

In a Token ring, the token is passed from 1 station to a different adjacent station within the ring
whereas, in the case of a Token bus, every station uses the bus to send the token to the
consecutive station in some predefined order.
Basically, in both the given cases, the token represents permission to send. If a station
incorporates a frame queued for transmission once it receives the token, it will redirect that frame
before it passes the token to the consecutive station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the token
merely.

Channelization Protocols

In the channelization protocol, the accessible bandwidth of the link is split in time, frequency,
and code to numerous stations to access the channel at the same time.

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

The convenient bandwidth is split into equal bands for every station that will be allotted its band.
Guard bands are attached in such an order that no 2 bands overlap to avoid debate and noise.

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In this Time Division of Multiple Access, the bandwidth is divided between multiple stations. To
circumvent collision time is split into slots and stations are allocated these slots to transmit data.
but there is an overhead of synchronization as every station must grasp its time slot. This is often
resolved by adding synchronization bits to every slot. Another issue with TDMA is propagation
delay which is determined by the supplementary guard bands.

 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

One channel carries every transmission at the same time. There is neither a splitting of
bandwidth nor a splitting of time. Let's Assume, that there are plenty of people in a hall all
speaking at an identical time, then in addition to that excellent reception of data is feasible if only
2 people speak an identical language. Similarly, data from completely different stations will be
transmitted at the same time in numerous code languages.

Conclusion

 Multiple access protocols are used to coordinate access to the link.

 In Multiple access protocols, Nodes can regulate their transmission onto the shared
broadcast channel by using Multiple Access Protocols.
 Multiple Access Protocol is used in both wired and wireless local area networks (LAN)
and satellite networks.
 In Multiple Access Protocols, All nodes are capable of transmitting frames, more than 2
nodes can transmit frames at the same time.
 In the Multiple Access Protocol a sense, the signals of the colliding frames become
inextricably tangled together.
 Thus, all the frames in the Multiple Access Protocol involved in the collision are lost, and
the broadcast channel is wasted during the collision interval.
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet in computer networks refers to the most common type of Local Area Network (LAN)
used at the moment. Due to its simplicity and the ability to support faster speeds with backward
compatibility, it has grown along with technology advancements.

Why is Ethernet Used?

 Ethernet is still a common form of network connection, which is used for its high Speed,
Security, and trustability.
 Ethernet can also be used to connect telephone lines and internet entry points to Wi-Fi routers and
internet ports.
 Wireless connectivity may be used to link devices that are connected to the Internet, such
as TVs, laptops, and other electronic gadgets.
 For different organizations, such as company headquarters, academy premises, and hospitals,
actual networks are employed. Ethernet is popular because of its Speed, Security, and
responsibility.

Types of Ethernet Networks

An Ethernet network generally is active in a 10 km fringe. Fiber optic cable extension

significantly extends the distance covered by the network. Here are some types of Ethernet
networks-

 Fast Ethernet- This type of Ethernet protocol is generally supported by a crooked cable
or CAT5 cable, which has the implicit in transferring or admitting data at around 100 Mbps. They
serve at 100Base and 10/100Base, on the fiber side of the link if any device similar to a camera,
laptop, or other is connected to a network. The 100BASE- TX, 100BASE- FX, and 100BASE-
T4 are the three orders of Fast Ethernet.
 Gigabit Ethernet- This type of network transfers data at an advanced speed of about 1000 Mbps
or 1 Gbps. In this type of network, all the pairs in the crooked brace string contribute to the data
transfer speed. This network type finds a large operation in video calling systems that use CAT5e
or other advanced lines. In ultramodern times, gigabit Ethernet is more common.
 10- Gigabit Ethernet- With a data transfer rate of 10 Gigabits per second, this is considered a
much higher-speed and more advanced network. It makes use of CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-brace
lines and optical fiber lines as well. With the aid of fiber optic cables, this network can be
extended to almost any extent.
 Switch Ethernet- A switch or hub can be added to this type of network, which helps to increase
its performance as each workstation in this network can have a separate 10Mbps connection
instead of sharing the medium. For the rearmost Ethernet, it supports 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps and 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps for fast Ethernet.
Why is Ethernet used?
Ethernet is still a common form of network connection, which is used for its high speed, security,
and reliability. It is used to connect devices in a network that is used by specific organizations for
local networks, organizations such as school campuses and hospitals, company offices, etc.

As compared to technology such as IBM's Token Ring, due to Ethernet's low price, it initially grew
popular. As gradually network technology advanced, Ethernet ensured its sustained popularity as
it has the potential to develop and deliver higher levels of performance with maintaining backward
compatibility. In the mid-1990s, the original ten megabits per second of Ethernet increased to 100
Mbps. Furthermore, up to 400 gigabits per second can be supported by current versions of Ethernet.

How to connect or plug in an Ethernet cable

The process will be the same, whether you are connecting an Ethernet cable to your computer or
setting up a home network. As the below image is representing that it appears to be a large
telephone cord jack. Once you have located it, then, until you hear a click, you have to push the
cable connector into the port. You will see a green light that indicates a signal is found if the
connection is properly established on the other end

Advantages of Ethernet
o It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As compared to other systems of connecting
computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
o Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in terms of data security.
o Also, the Gigabit network allows the users to transmit data at a speed of 1-100Gbps.
o In this network, the quality of the data transfer does maintain.
o In this network, administration and maintenance are easier.
o The latest version of gigabit ethernet and wireless ethernet have the potential to transmit data at the
speed of 1-100Gbps.

Disadvantages of Ethernet
o It needs deterministic service; therefore, it is not considered the best for real-time applications.
o The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is best for using in short
distances.
o If you create a wired ethernet network that needs cables, hubs, switches, routers, they increase the
cost of installation.
o Data needs quick transfer in an interactive application, as well as data is very small.
 o In ethernet network, any acknowledge is not sent by receiver after accepting a packet.
o If you are planning to set up a wireless Ethernet network, it can be difficult if you have no
experience in the network field.
o Comparing with the wired Ethernet network, wireless network is not more secure.
o The full-duplex data communication mode is not supported by the 100Base-T4 version.
o Additionally, finding a problem is very difficult in an Ethernet network (if has), as it is not easy to
determine which node or cable is causing the problem.

History of Ethernet
At the beginning of the 1970s, Ethernet was developed over several years from ALOHAnet from
the University of Hawaii. Then, a test was performed, which was peaked with a scientific paper in
1976, and published by Metcalfe together with David Boggs. Late in 1977, a patent on this
technology was filed by Xerox Corporation.

The Ethernet as a standard was established by companies Xerox, Intel, and Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC); first, these companies were combined to improve Ethernet in 1979, then
published the first standard in 1980. Other technologies, including CSMA/CD protocol, were also
developed with the help of this process, which later became known as IEEE 802.3. This process
also led to creating a token bus (802.4) and token ring (802.5).

In 1983, the IEEE technology became standard, and before 802.11, 802.3 was born. Many modern
PCs started to include Ethernet cards on the motherboard, as due to the invention of single-chip
Ethernet controllers, the Ethernet card became very inexpensive. Consequently, the use of Ethernet
networks in the workplace began by some small companies but still used with the help of
telephone-based four-wire lines.

Until the early 1990s, creating the Ethernet connection through twisted pair and fiberoptic cables
was not established. That led to the development of the 100 MB/s standard in 1995.

Ethernet standards
There are different standards of Ethernet, which are discussed below with additional information
about each of them.

Ethernet II / DIX / 802.3

A studied edition of Ethernet, Ethernet II, also called as DIX. The DIX stands for Digital, Intel,
and Xerox. And, 802.3, which is rewritten by Digital Equipment Corp, Xerox, and Intel.
Fast Ethernet / 100BASE-T / 802.3u
Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T or 802.3u) is a communications protocol, which is usually supported
by a twisted pair or CAT5 cable.

The 100BASE-T standards have two types. The 100BASE-T is the first standard that makes use
of CSMA/CD.

Three different kinds of cable technologies are available with 100BASE-T.

1. 100BASE-T4: It is utilized for a network that requires a low-quality twisted-pair on a 100-Mbps

Ethernet.
2. 100BASE-TX: It makes use of two-wire data grade twisted-pair wire, developed by ANSI
100BASE-TX, which is also called 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-X.
3. 100BASE-FX: It uses 2 stands of fiber cable and developed by ANSI.

Gigabit Ethernet / 1000BASE-T / 802.3z / 802.ab

Gigabit Ethernet has the potential to transmit data up to 1 Gbps, which makes use of all four copper
wires in category 5, which is also called 1000BASE-T or 802.3z / 802.3ab.

10 Gigabit Ethernet / 802.3ae

10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GE or 10 GbE or 10 GigE) is a new standard that defines only full-duplex
point-to-point links. It supports up to 10 Gb/s transmissions that were published in 2002, which is
also known as 802.3ae. The hubs, CSMA/CD, and half-duplex operation do not exist in 10 GbE.

Introduction to Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local Area
Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network
(LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path sharing,
802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.

Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an
office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected to the
network.
In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable, while in
other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the public. Whatever
the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Advantages of WLANs
o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction. Radio
waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g.,
within devices, in walls etc.).
o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous planning,
any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices which can for
example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of small notepads,
PDAs, etc.
o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc. whereas,
networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down completely in disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower than the cost of
installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two reasons. First, after providing wireless
access to the wireless network via an access point for the first user, adding additional users to a
network will not increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of cabling
and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new information to take
advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs
o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired networks. The main
reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is radio transmission, higher error rates
due to interference and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have come up
with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality plus many enhanced features.
Most components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the operation and
restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
 o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national and international
frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power consuming, also
wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN design should take this into account
and implement special power saving modes and power management functions.
o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license to be able to use
the product. The equipment must operate in a license free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many other electrical
devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless
LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect transmission is a standard office or production
environment.

What is wireless broadband (WiBB)?

Wireless broadband (WiBB) a networking technology designed to impart highspeed Internet and data
service through wireless networks. Wireless broadband may be delivered through wireless local area
networks (WLANs) or wide area networks (WWANs).

Similar to other wireless services, wireless broadband can be either fixed or mobile.

Types of WiBB
Features of WiBB
 WiBB is similar to wired broadband service since they connect to an internet backbone, with
the difference that they use radio waves instead of cables to connect to the last mile of the
network.
 The range of most broadband wireless access (BWA) services varies around 50 km from the
transmitting tower.
 Download speeds provided by some wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) are over 100
Mbps.
 WiBB mostly provides asymmetrical data rates for downloads and uploads.
 WiBB may also be symmetrical, i.e. they have the same data rate in both downstream as well
as upstream. This is most seen only in fixed wireless networks.
 Any device connected to WiBB needs to be equipped with a wireless adapter to translate data
into radio signals which can be then transmitted using an antenna.
o

Limitations of wireless broadband

Some limitations that may come with wireless broadband include the following:

 Data limits. Some services may come with data limits; however, users can
normally choose a plan that offers different data rates.

 Signal consistency. If there are mobile network issues, a user's connection could
stop working. Signal strength also weakens when the signal passes through thick
walls or roofs. Bad weather might also weaken internet speeds.

 Security. Unauthorized access will narrow network bandwidth, slowing speeds.

Fixed Wireless Broadband

Fixed WiBB provides wireless Internet services for devices located in more or less fixed locations, like
homes and offices. The services are comparable to those provided through digital subscriber line (DSL)
or cable modem, with the difference that it has wireless mode of transmission.

The two main technologies used in fixed WiBB are −

 LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution System)

 MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service) systems
 Mobile Wireless Broadband

Mobile WiBB, also called mobile broadband, provides high – speed broadband the connection from
mobile phone service providers which is accessible from random locations. The locations are within
the coverage area of the phone towers of mobile service provider and the connections are subject to
monthly service plan subscribed by the user. Mobile broadband can be costlier due to its portability.
Also, they generally have varying or limited speed except in urban areas.

What is Bluetooth?

Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data
communications over smaller distances. This generation changed into being invented
via Ericson in 1994. It operates within the unlicensed, business, scientific, and clinical
(ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending
upon the version, it presents information up to at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps. The spreading
method that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping unfold spectrum). A Bluetooth
network is called a piconet and a group of interconnected piconets is called a scatternet.
What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio
waves. It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be
within the estimated communication range to connect. When two devices start to share
data, they form a network called piconet which can further accommodate more than
five devices.
Key Features of Bluetooth
 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless device.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
Piconet: Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called
the master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say
that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The
communication between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-
many. Possible communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave
communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes
and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets converted to the active
state.

Bluetooth Architecture

Scatternet: It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one

piconet can act as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node
can receive a message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its
slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node is referred
to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency,
the use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs
modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical
characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of physical links:
connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system
and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection
 establishment within a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power
control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already
established links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is
responsible for creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them
gracefully upon command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known
as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between
upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data
packets received from upper layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also
performs segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery
Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled
device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend
Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides
emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and adaption
protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to
exchange objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The
basic function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management
for the gateway serving multiple devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use
of mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or
phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via
Bluetooth with mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use Global Positioning System
(GPS) in cars, one can connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch
the directions of the address.

Advantages of Bluetooth
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

Applications of Bluetooth
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wireless to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell
phone to another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical healthcare, sports and fitness, Military.

What is Bluetooth range?

Commercial electronics bluetooth have a range of around 33 feet , which includes the
majority of smartphones, headphones, earbuds, and portable speakers. Bluetooth
versions 5.0 and higher improve quality and range.

How fast is Bluetooth?

Approximately 1 Mbps is the transmission rate of Bluetooth device when employing
frequency-shift keying modulation. With Bluetooth low-energy, the data rate can be
increased up to 24 Mbps (BLE).

Who is the inventor of Bluetooth?

Jaap Haartsen is the inventor of Bluetooth.