Hydraulic Pressure Page: 393

Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure

AP® If you have two pistons whose cylinders are connected, the pressure is the same
throughout the fluid, which means the force on each piston is proportional to its
own area. Thus:
F1 F2
P1 = P2 which means =
A1 A2
This principle is called “hydraulics.” If you have a lift that has two pistons, one that
is 100 times larger than the other, the larger one can supply 100 times as much
force.

This seems like we’re getting something for nothing—we’re lifting a car by applying
only 150 N of force (approximately 35 lbs.). However, conservation of energy tells
us that the work done by F 1 must equal the work done by F 2, which means F 1 must
act over a considerably larger distance than F 2. In order to lift the car on the right
10 cm (about 4 in.), you would have to press the plunger on the left 10 m.

You could also figure this out by realizing that the volume of fluid transferred on
both sides must be the same and multiplying the area by the distance.

This is how hydraulic brakes work in cars. When you step on the brake pedal, the
hydraulic pressure is transmitted to the master cylinder and then to the slave
cylinders. The master cylinder is much smaller in diameter than the slave cylinders,
which means the force applied to the brake pads is considerably greater than the
force from your foot.

Sample Problem
Q: In a hydraulic system, a force of 25 N will be applied to a piston with an area of
0.50 m2. If the force needs to lift a weight of 500. N, what must be the area of
the piston supporting the 500. N weight?
25 A2 = (500)(0.50)
F1 F2 25 500
A: = = 25 A2 = 250
A1 A2 0.50 A2
A2 = 10 m2

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 Hydraulic Pressure Page: 394
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Homework Problems
1. (M) A student who weighs 700. N stands on a hydraulic lift. The lift has a
lever, which you push down in order to lift the student. The cross-sectional
area of the piston pressing on the fluid under the student is 1 m2, and the
cross-sectional area of the piston pressing on the fluid under the lever is
0.1 m2. How much force is needed to lift the student?

Answer: 70 N

2. (M) A hovercraft is made from a circle of

plywood and a wet/dry vacuum cleaner.
The vacuum cleaner motor blows air with a
force of 10 N through a hose that has a
radius of 1.5 cm (0.015 m). The base of the
hovercraft has a radius of 0.6 m. How much
weight (in newtons) can the hovercraft lift?

Answer: 16 000 N (which is approximately 3 600 lbs.)

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 Hydrostatic Pressure Page: 395
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Hydrostatic Pressure
Unit: Fluids & Pressure
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-10(MA), HS-PS2-1
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): 8.2.B, 8.2.B.1,
8.2.B.2, 8.2.B.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of fluid of a given
depth and density.
Success Criteria:
• Pressures are calculated correctly with correct units.
Language Objectives:
• Explain how gravity causes a column of fluid to exert a pressure.

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

• Bottle with hole (feel suction, pressure at exit)
• Burette & funnel manometer
• Syphon hose
• Cup of water & index card
• Magdeburg hemispheres
• Shrink-wrap students

Notes:
hydrostatic pressure: the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fluid

The force of gravity pulling down on the particles in a

fluid creates pressure. The more fluid there is above
a point, the higher the pressure at that point.

The atmospheric pressure that we measure at the

surface of the Earth is caused by the air above us, all
the way to the highest point in the atmosphere, as
shown in the picture at right.

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 Hydrostatic Pressure Page: 396
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Assuming the density of the fluid is constant, the pressure in a column of fluid is
AP®
caused by the weight (force of gravity) acting on an area. Because the force of
gravity is mg (where g = 10 kg
N ), this means:

Fg mg
PH = =
A A
where:
PH = hydrostatic pressure
N on Earth)
g = strength of gravitational field ( 10 kg
A = area of the surface the fluid is pushing on

We can cleverly multiply and divide our equation by volume:

mg mg V m gV
PH = = = 
A A V V A
Then, we need to recognize that (1) density (ρ*) is mass divided by volume, and
(2) the volume of a region is the area of its base times the height (h). Thus the
equation becomes:
gV gAh
PH =   =
A A
PH = gh
Finally, if there is an external pressure, Po, above the fluid, we have to add it to the
hydrostatic pressure from the fluid itself, which gives us the familiar form of the
equation:
P = Po + PH = Po + gh
where:
PH = hydrostatic pressure
Po = pressure above the fluid (if relevant)
ρ = density of the fluid (this is the Greek letter “rho”)
N on Earth)
g = strength of gravity ( 10 kg

h = height of the fluid above the point of interest

Although the depth of the fluid is called the “height,” the term is misleading. The
pressure is caused by gravity pulling down on the fluid above it.

* Note that physicists use the Greek letter ρ (“rho”) for density. You need to pay careful attention to the
difference between the Greek letter ρ and the Roman letter “p”.

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 Hydrostatic Pressure Page: 397
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® In 1654, Otto von Guericke, a German scientist and the mayor of
the town of Magdeburg, invented an apparatus that
demonstrates atmospheric pressure.

In 1650, Guericke had invented the vacuum pump. To

demonstrate his invention, Guericke built an apparatus
consisting of a fitted pair of hemispheres. Guericke pumped
(most of) the air out from inside the hemispheres. Because of
the pressure from the atmosphere on the outside of the
hemispheres, it was difficult if not impossible to pull them apart.

In 1654, Guericke built a large vacuum pump and a large pair of

hemispheres. In a famous demonstration, two teams of horses were unable to pull
the hemispheres apart.

The hemispheres are called Magdeburg hemispheres, after the town that Guericke
was mayor of.

Sample Problem
Q: What is the water pressure in the ocean at a depth of 25 m? The density of sea
water is 1025 kg3 .
m

A: PH = gh = (1025)(10)(25) = 256 250 Pa = 2.56 bar

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 Hydrostatic Pressure Page: 398
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Homework Problems
kg
For all problems, assume that the density of fresh water is 1000 .
m3

1. (S) A diver dives into a swimming pool and descends to a maximum depth
of 3.0 m. What is the pressure on the diver due to the water at this depth?
Give your answer in both pascals (Pa) and in bar.

Answer: 30 000 Pa or 0.3 bar

2. (M) A wet/dry vacuum cleaner is capable of creating enough of a pressure

difference to lift a column of water to a height of 1.5 m at 20 °C. How much
pressure can the vacuum cleaner apply?

Answer: 15 000 Pa

3. (S) A standard water tower is 40 m above the ground. What is the resulting
water pressure at ground level? Express your answer in pascals, bar, and
pounds per square inch. (1 bar = 14.5 psi)

Answer: 400 000 Pa or 4 bar or 58 psi

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 Hydrostatic Pressure Page: 399
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® 4. (M) A set of Magdeburg hemispheres has a radius of 6 cm (0.06 m).
Atmospheric pressure is 1 bar and all of the air inside is pumped out (i.e.,
the pressure inside is zero).
a. Calculate the force needed to pull the hemispheres apart. (The formula
for the surface area of a sphere is S = 4 r 2 ).

Answer: 4 500 N (which is almost 1 000 lbs.)

b. Assume that the density of air is 1 mkg3 . If the density of the atmosphere
were uniform, how high above the Earth would the top of the
atmosphere be?

Answer: 10 000 m
c. The actual height of the atmosphere is approximately 107 m
(10 000 km), which means the atmosphere cannot have a uniform
density. Why is it reasonable to assume that water has a uniform
density, but not air?

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 Buoyancy Page: 400
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Buoyancy
Unit: Fluids & Pressure
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-10(MA), HS-PS2-1
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): 8.3.B, 8.3.B.1,
8.3.B.2, 8.3.B.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Solve problems involving the buoyant force on an object.
• Use a free-body diagram to represent the forces on an object surrounded by a
fluid.
Success Criteria:
• Problems are set up & solved correctly with the correct units.
Language Objectives:
• Explain why a fluid exerts an upward force on an object surrounded by it.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: float, displace

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

• Upside-down beaker with tissue
• Ping-pong ball or balloon under water
• beaker floating in water
o right-side-up with weights
o upside-down with trapped air
• Spring scale with mass in & out of water on a balance
• Cartesian diver
• Aluminum foil & weights
• Cardboard & duct tape canoes

Notes:
displace: to push out of the way

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 Buoyancy Page: 401
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® buoyancy: a net upward force caused by the differences in hydrostatic pressure at
different levels within a fluid.

Buoyancy is ultimately caused by gravity:

1. Gravity pulls down on an object.
2. The object displaces water (or whatever fluid it’s in).
3. Gravity pulls down on the water.
4. The water attempts to displace the object.

The force of the water attempting to displace the object is the buoyant force (FB ) .

If the object floats, it reaches its equilibrium when the weight of the object and the
weight of the water that was displaced (and is trying to displace the object) are
equal.

If the object sinks, it is because the object can only displace its own volume. If an
equal volume of water would weigh less than the object, the weight of the water is
unable to apply enough force to lift the object.

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 Buoyancy Page: 402
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® The reason the object moves upwards is because the hydrostatic pressure is
stronger at the bottom of the object than at the top. This slight difference causes a
net upward force on the object.

When an object displaces a fluid:

1. The volume of the fluid displaced equals the volume of the submerged part
of the object: Vfluid displaced = Vsubmerged part of object

2. The weight of the fluid displaced equals the buoyant force (FB).
3. The net force on the object, if any, is the difference between its weight and
the buoyant force: Fnet = Fg − FB

The equation for the buoyant force is:

FB = Vd g
Where:
FB = buoyant force (N)
ρ = density of fluid ( ) ; fresh water = 1000
kg
m3
kg
m3
Vd = volume of fluid displaced (m3)
(
g = strength of gravitational field g = 10 kg
N
)

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 Buoyancy Page: 403
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Maximum Buoyant Force
The maximum buoyant force on an object is conceptually similar to the maximum
force of static friction.

Friction Buoyancy

Static friction is a reaction force that is Buoyancy is a reaction force that is

equal to the force that caused it. equal to the force that caused it (the
weight of the object).

When static friction reaches its When the buoyant force reaches its
maximum value, the object starts maximum value (i.e., when the volume
moving. of water displaced equals the volume
of the object), the object sinks.

When the object is moving, there is still When an object sinks, there is still
friction, but the force is not strong buoyancy, but the force is not strong
enough to stop the object from moving. enough to cause the object to float.

Detailed Explanation
If the object floats, there is no net force, which means the weight of the
object is equal to the buoyant force. This means:

Fg = FB
mg = Vd g

Cancelling g from both sides gives m = Vd , which can be rearranged

to give the equation for density:
m
=
Vd
Therefore:
• If the object floats, the mass of the object equals the mass of the
fluid displaced.
• The volume of the fluid displaced equals the volume of the object that is
submerged.
• The density of the object (including any air inside of it that is below the
fluid level) is less than the density of the fluid. (This is why a ship made of
steel can float.)

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 Buoyancy Page: 404
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® If the object sinks, the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force. This
means:
FB = Vd g
Fg = mg
Therefore:
• The weight of the submerged object is Fnet = Fg − FB

Note that if the object is resting on the bottom of the container, the net
force must be zero, which means the normal force and the buoyant
force combine to supply the total upward force. I.e., for an object
resting on the bottom:

Fnet = 0 = Fg − (FB + FN )

which means:
Fg = FB + FN

This concept is known as Archimedes’ Principle, named for the ancient Greek
scientist who discovered it.

The buoyant force can be calculated from the following equation:

FB = md g = Vd g
where:
FB = buoyant force
md = mass of fluid displaced by the object
g = N on Earth)
strength of gravitational field ( 10 kg
ρ = density of the fluid applying the buoyant force (e.g., water, air)
Vd = volume of fluid displaced by the object

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 Buoyancy Page: 405
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Sample Problems:
Q: A cruise ship displaces 35 000 tonnes of water when it is floating.
(1 tonne = 1 000 kg) If sea water has a density of 1025 kg3 , what volume of
m
water does the ship displace? What is the buoyant force on the ship?

m
A: =
Vd
(35 000)(1000)
1025 =
Vd
Vd = 34 146 m3
FB = Vd = (1025)(34 146)(10) = 3.5  108 N

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 Buoyancy Page: 406
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Q: Consider the following cartoon:

Given the following assumptions:

• The balloons are standard 11″ balloons, meaning that they have a diameter
of 11 inches (28 cm), which equals a radius of 14 cm = 0.14 m.
• The temperature is 20°C. At this temperature, air has a density of 1.200 kg3 ,
m
kg
and helium has a density of 0.166 .
m3

• Pasquale (the child) is probably about four years old. The average mass a
four-year-old boy is about 16 kg.
• The mass of an empty balloon plus string is 2.37 g = 0.00237 kg

How many balloons would it actually take to lift Pasquale?

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 Buoyancy Page: 407
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® A: In order to lift Pasquale, FB = Fg.
Fg = mg = (16)(10) = 160 N
FB = air Vd g = (1.2) Vd (10)
Because FB = Fg, this means:
160 = 12 Vd
Vd = 13.3 m3
Assuming spherical balloons, the volume of one balloon is:

V = 4  r 3 = ( 4 )(3.14)(0.14)3 = 0.0115m3
3 3
13.3
Therefore, we need = 1 160 balloons to lift Pasquale.
0.0115

However, the problem with this answer is that it doesn’t account for the mass of
the helium, the balloons and the strings.
Each balloon contains 0.0115m3  0.166 kg3 = 0.00191kg of helium.
m

Each empty balloon (including the string) has a mass of 2.37 g = 0.00237 kg.
The total mass of each balloon full of helium is
1.91 g + 2.37 g = 4.28 g = 0.00428 kg.
This means if we have n balloons, the total mass of Pasquale plus the balloons is
16 + 0.00428n kilograms. The total weight (in newtons) of Pasquale plus the
balloons is therefore this number times 10, which equals 160 + 0.0428n.
The buoyant force of one balloon is:
FB = airVd g = (1.2)(0.0115)(10) = 0.138 N
Therefore, the buoyant force of n balloons is 0.138n newtons.
For Pasquale to be able to float, FB = Fg, which means
0.138n = 0.0428n + 160
0.0952n = 160
n = 1 680 balloons

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 Buoyancy Page: 408
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® Homework Problems
1. (M) A block is 0.12 m wide, 0.07 m long and 0.09 m tall and has a mass of
kg
0.50 kg. The block is floating in water with a density of 1000 .
m3

a. What volume of the block is below the surface of the water?

Answer: 5  10−4 m3
b. If the entire block were pushed under water, what volume of water
would it displace?

Answer: 7.56  10−4 m3

c. How much additional mass could be piled on top of the block before
it sinks?

Answer: 0.256 kg
2. (S) The SS United Victory was a cargo ship launched in 1944. The ship had a
mass of 15 200 tonnes fully loaded. (1 tonne = 1 000 kg). The density of sea
kg
water is 1025 . What volume of sea water did the SS United Victory
m3
displace when fully loaded?

Answer: 14 829 m3

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 Buoyancy Page: 409
Big Ideas Details Unit: Fluids & Pressure
AP® 3. (S) An empty box is 0.11 m per side. It will slowly be filled with sand that has
kg
a density of 3500 . What volume of sand will cause the box to sink in
m3
kg
water? Assume water has a density of 1000 . Assume the box is
m3
neutrally buoyant, which means you may neglect the weight of the box.
Strategy:
a. Find the volume of the box.
b. Find the mass of the water displaced.
c. Find the volume of that same mass of sand.

Answer: 3.80  10−4 m3

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 Fluid Flow Page: 410
Big Ideas Details
AP® Fluid Flow
Unit: Fluids & Pressure
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-10(MA), HS-PS2-1
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): 8.3.A, 8.3.A.1,
8.3.A.2, 8.4.A, 8.4.A.1, 8.4.A.1.i, 8.4.A.1.ii, 8..A.2
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Solve problems involving fluid flow using the continuity equation.
Success Criteria:
• Problems are set up & solved correctly with the correct units.
Language Objectives:
• Explain why reducing the cross-sectional area causes a fluid’s velocity to
increase.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: fluid, velocity

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

• Two syringes connected by tubing

Notes:
flow: the net movement of a fluid

velocity of a fluid: the average velocity of a particle of fluid as the fluid flows past a
reference point. (unit = ms )

mass flow rate: the mass of fluid that passes through a section of pipe in a given
amount of time. (unit = kgs )

volumetric flow rate: the volume of a fluid that passes through a section of pipe in a
given amount of time. (unit = m3 )
s

In the United States (where we use Imperial units), the actual volumetric flow
3
ft. or CFM). CFM is measured using
rate is measured in cubic feet per minute ( min.
actual conditions, so it is the flow rate actually observed when using the
equipment.

However, in order to compare the output of one air compressor to another, flow
rates are given in “Standard Cubic Feet per Minute” or SCFM. SCFM is measured
based on “standard” conditions of temperature and pressure. Unfortunately,
those “standard” conditions vary. Depending on the manufacturer, standard
pressure varies from 14.5 to 14.7 psi, and standard temperature varies from
60 – 68 °F.

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 Fluid Flow Page: 411
Big Ideas Details
AP® Continuity
If a pipe has only one inlet and one outlet, all of the fluid that flows in must also flow
V
out, which means the volumetric flow rate through the pipe must be constant
t
everywhere inside the pipe.

Because volume is area times length (distance), we can write the volumetric flow
rate as:
V Ad
=
t t

Assuming the velocity is constant through a section of the pipe as long as the size
d
and elevation are not changing, we can substitute v = , giving:
t

V Ad d
= = A  = Av = constant
t t t

If the volumetric flow rate remains constant but the diameter of the pipe changes:

In order to squeeze the same volume of fluid through a narrower opening, the fluid
needs to flow faster. Because Av must be constant, the cross-sectional area times
the velocity in one section of the pipe must be the same as the cross-sectional
velocity in the other section.

Av = volumetric flow rate = constant

A1v1 = A2v2

This equation is called the continuity equation, and it is one of the important tools
that you will use to solve these problems.

Note that the continuity equation applies only in situations in which the flow rate is
constant, such as inside of a pipe.

For example, if you have a container with a hole in the side, changing the size of the
hole will result in an increased flow rate, but will not affect the fluid velocity.

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 Fluid Flow Page: 412
Big Ideas Details
AP® Homework Problem
1. (M) A pipe has a radius of 0.25 m at the entrance and a radius of 0.12 m at
the exit, as shown in the figure below:

If the fluid in the pipe is flowing at 5.2 ms at the inlet, then how fast is it
flowing at the outlet?
(Hint: the radius of the pipe is given at each end. You will need to use
A =  r 2 to calculate the cross-sectional area.)

Answer: 22.6 ms

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 413
Big Ideas Details
AP® Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law
Unit: Fluids & Pressure
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): HS-PS2-10(MA), HS-PS2-1
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): 8.4.B, 8.4.B.1,
8.4.B.2, 8.4.B.3
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Solve problems involving fluid flow using Bernoulli’s Equation.
Success Criteria:
• Problems are set up & solved correctly with the correct units.
Language Objectives:
• Explain why a fluid has less pressure when the flow rate is faster.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: fluid, velocity

Labs, Activities & Demonstrations:

• Blow across paper (unfolded & folded)
• Blow between two empty cans.
• Ping-pong ball and air blower (without & with funnel)
• Venturi tube
• Leaf blower & large ball

Notes:

Dynamic Pressure
When a fluid is flowing, the fluid must have kinetic energy, which equals the work
that it takes to move that fluid.
Recall the equations for work and kinetic energy:

K = 12 mv 2
W = K = F d

Combining these (the work-energy theorem) gives 12 mv 2 = F d .

F
Solving PD = for force gives F = PDA. Substituting this into the above equation
A
gives:
1 mv 2 = F d = PD Ad
2

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 414
Big Ideas Details
Rearranging the above equation to solve for dynamic pressure gives the following.
Because volume is area times distance (V = Ad), we can then substitute V for Ad:
1 mv 2 1 mv 2
PD = 2
= 2
Ad V
m
Finally, rearranging  = to solve for mass gives m = ρV. This means our equation
V
becomes:
1 mv 2 1 Vv 2
PD = 2
= 2
= 12 v 2
V V
PD = 12 v 2

Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s Principle, named for Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli states

that the pressures in a moving fluid are caused by a combination of:
• The hydrostatic pressure: PH =  gh

• The dynamic pressure: PD = 12 v2

• The “external” pressure, which is the pressure that the fluid exerts on its
surroundings. (This is the pressure we would measure with a pressure gauge.)

A change in any of these pressures affects the others, which means:

Pext . + PH + PD = constant
Pext . +  gh + 12 v 2 = constant
The above equation is Bernoulli’s equation.

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 415
Big Ideas Details
AP® For example, consider the following situation:

• The velocity of the fluid is changing (because the cross-sectional area is

changing—remember the continuity equation A1v1 = A2v2 ). This means the
dynamic pressure, PD = 12 v2 is changing.

• The height is changing, which means the hydrostatic pressure, PH =  gh is

changing.
• The external pressures will also be different, in order to satisfy Bernoulli’s
Law.

This means Bernoulli’s equation becomes:

P1 + gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 + gh2 + 12 v22

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 416
Big Ideas Details
AP® Note particularly that Bernoulli’s equation tells us that increasing the fluid velocity
(v ) increases the dynamic pressure. (If v increases, then PD = 12 v2 increases.)

This means if more of the total pressure is in the form of dynamic pressure, that
means the hydrostatic and/or external pressures will be less.
Consider the following example:

This pipe is horizontal, which means h is constant; therefore gh is constant. This
means that if 1 v 2 increases, then pressure (P ) must decrease so that
2
Pext . + gh + 2 v 2 = constant .
1

Although Bernoulli published his principle in 1738, the application to fluids in

constricted channels was not published until 1797 by Italian physicist Giovanni
Venturi. The above apparatus is named after Venturi and is called a Venturi tube.

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 417
Big Ideas Details
AP® Bernoulli’s Equation and Conservation of Energy
Although we have not yet covered the Energy unit, Bernoulli’s equation is essentially
the conservation of energy per unit volume.

Briefly:
kinetic energy (K or KE): energy that an object or system has due to its motion
potential energy (U or PE): energy due to a force of attraction between two objects
within a system. In the case of potential energy due to gravity, one of the
objects is the Earth.
work (W): energy transferred into or out of a system

The three terms in Bernoulli’s equation are:

P = external pressure = work that the fluid can do per unit volume
PD = 12 v2 = kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume

PH =  gh = gravitational potential energy of the fluid per unit volume

Energy is discussed in detail in the Introduction: Energy, Work & Power unit, starting
on page 439.

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 418
Big Ideas Details
AP® Torricelli’s Theorem
A special case of Bernoulli’s Principle was discovered almost 100 years earlier, in
1643 by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli. Torricelli
observed that in a container with fluid effusing (flowing out) through a hole, the
more fluid there is above the opening, the faster the fluid comes out.

Torricelli found that the velocity of the fluid was

the same as the velocity would have been if the
fluid were falling straight down, which can be
calculated from the change of gravitational
potential energy to kinetic energy:
1 mv 2 = mgh → v 2 = 2gh → v = 2gh
2

Torricelli’s theorem can also be derived from

Bernoulli’s equation*:
P1 + gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 + gh2 + 12 v22

• The external pressures (P1 and P2) are both equal—atmospheric pressure—so
they cancel.
• The fluid level is going down slowly enough that the velocity of the fluid
inside the container (v1) is essentially zero.
• Once the fluid exits the container, the hydrostatic pressure is zero (gh2 = 0) .
This leaves us with:
gh1 = 12 v22 → 2gh1 = v22 → 2gh1 = v2

We could do a similar proof from the kinematic equation: v 2 − vo2 = 2ad

Substituting a = g , d = h, and vo = 0 gives v 2 = 2gh and therefore v = 2gh

Note: as described in Hydrostatic Pressure, starting on page 395, hydrostatic

pressure is caused by the fluid above the point of interest, meaning that height is
measured upward, not downward. In the above situation, the two points of interest
for the application of Bernoulli’s law are actually:
• inside the container next to the opening, where there is fluid above, but
essentially no movement of fluid (v = 0, but h ≠ 0)
• outside the opening where there is no fluid above, but the jet of fluid is
flowing out of the container (h = 0, but v ≠ 0)

* On the AP® Physics exam, you must start problems from equations that are on the formula sheet. This
means you may not use Torricelli’s Theorem on the exam unless you first derive it from Bernoulli’s
Equation.

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 419
Big Ideas Details
AP® The decrease in pressure caused by an increase in fluid velocity explains one of the
ways in which an airplane wing provides lift:

(Of course, most of an airplane’s lift comes from the fact that the wing is inclined
with an angle of attack relative to its direction of motion, an application of Newton’s
third law.)

A common demonstration of Bernoulli’s Law is to blow across a piece of paper:

The air moving across the top of the paper causes a decrease in pressure, which
causes the paper to lift.

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 420
Big Ideas Details
AP® Sample Problems:
Q: A fluid in a pipe with a diameter of 0.40 m is moving with a velocity of 0.30 ms . If
the fluid moves into a second pipe with half the diameter, what will the new
fluid velocity be?

A: The cross-sectional area of the first pipe is:

A1 = πr 2 = (3.14)(0.20)2 = 0.126 m2
The cross-sectional area of the second pipe is:
A2 = πr 2 = (3.14)(0.10)2 = 0.0314 m2
Using the continuity equation:
A1v1 = A2v2
A1v 1 = A2v 2 (0.126)(0.30) = (0.0314)v2
v2 = 1.2 ms

Q: A fluid with a density of 1250 kg3 has a pressure of 45 000 Pa as it flows at 1.5 ms
m
through a pipe. The pipe rises to a height of 2.5 m, where it connects to a
second, smaller pipe. What is the pressure in the smaller pipe if the fluid flows
at a rate of 3.4 ms through it?

A: P1 +  gh1 + 12 v12 = P2 +  gh2 + 12 v22

45 000 + (1250)(10)(0) + ( 12 ) (1250)(1.5)2 = P2 + (1250)(10)(2.5) + ( 12 ) (1250)(3.4)2
45 000 + 1406 = P2 + 31 250 + 7225
P2 = 7931Pa

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 Fluid Motion & Bernoulli’s Law Page: 421
Big Ideas Details
AP® Homework Problem
1. (M) At point A on the pipe to the right, the
water’s speed is 4.8 ms and the external
pressure (the pressure on the walls of the
pipe) is 52.0 kPa. The water drops 14.8 m to
point B, where the pipe’s cross-sectional area
is twice that at point A.
a. Calculate the velocity of the water at
point B.

Answer: 2.4 ms

b. Calculate the external pressure (the pressure on the walls of the pipe) at
point B.

Answer: 208 600 Pa or 208.6 kPa

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 Introduction: Gravitation Page: 423
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation

Introduction: Gravitation
Unit: Gravitation
Topics covered in this chapter:
Early Theories of the Universe .....................................................................426
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion ..............................................................429
Universal Gravitation ...................................................................................431

In this chapter you will learn about different kinds of forces and how they relate.

• Early Theories of the Universe describes the geocentric (Earth-centered) model

of the universe, and the theories of Ptolemy and Copernicus.

• Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion describes the motion of planets and other
celestial bodies and the time period that it takes for planets to revolve around
stars throughout the universe.

• Universal Gravitation describes how to calculate the force of mutual

gravitational attraction between massive objects such as planets and stars.

AP® This unit is part of Unit 2: Force and Translational Dynamics from the 2024
AP® Physics 1 Course and Exam Description.

Standards addressed in this chapter:

NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016):
HS-PS2-4: Use mathematical representations of Newton’s Law of Gravitation
and Coulomb’s Law to describe and predict the gravitational and
electrostatic forces between objects.

AP® AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024):

2.6.A: Describe the gravitational interaction between two objects or systems
with mass.
2.6.A.1: Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes the gravitational
force between two objects or systems as directly proportional to each of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the systems’ centers of mass.
2.6.A.1.i: The gravitational force is attractive.
2.6.A.1.ii: The gravitational force is always exerted along the line
connecting the centers of mass of the two interacting systems.
2.6.A.1.iii: The gravitational force on a system can be considered to be
exerted on the system’s center of mass.

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 Introduction: Gravitation Page: 424
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
AP® 2.6.A.2: A field models the effects of a noncontact force exerted on an
object at various positions in space.
2.6.A.2.i: The magnitude of the gravitational field created by a system of
mass M at a point in space is equal to the ratio of the gravitational force
exerted by the system on a test object of mass m to the mass of the test
object.
2.6.A.2.ii: If the gravitational force is the only force exerted on an object,
the observed acceleration of the object (in m/s2) is numerically equal to
the magnitude of the gravitational field strength (in N/kg) at that
location.
2.6.A.3: The gravitational force exerted by an astronomical body on a
relatively small nearby object is called weight.
2.6.B: Describe situations in which the gravitational force can be considered
constant.
2.6.B.1: If the gravitational force between two systems’ centers of mass has
a negligible change as the relative position of the two systems changes,
the gravitational force can be considered constant at all points between
the initial and final positions of the systems.
2.6.B.2: Near the surface of Earth, the strength of the gravitational field is
g  10 kg
N .

2.6.C: Describe the conditions under which the magnitude of a system’s

apparent weight is different from the magnitude of the gravitational force
exerted on that system.
2.6.C.1: The magnitude of the apparent weight of a system is the magnitude
of the normal force exerted on the system.
2.6.C.2: If the system is accelerating, the apparent weight of the system is
not equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted on the
system.
2.6.C.3: A system appears weightless when there are no forces exerted on
the system or when the force of gravity is the only force exerted on the
system.
2.6.C.4: The equivalence principle states that an observer in a noninertial
reference frame is unable to distinguish between an object’s apparent
weight and the gravitational force exerted on the object by a
gravitational field.
2.6.D: Describe inertial and gravitational mass.
2.6.D.1: Objects have inertial mass, or inertia, a property that determines
how much an object’s motion resists changes when interacting with
another object.
2.6.D.2: Gravitational mass is related to the force of attraction between two
systems with mass.

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 Introduction: Gravitation Page: 425
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
AP® 2.6.D.3: Inertial mass and gravitational mass have been experimentally
verified to be equivalent.
2.9.B: Describe circular orbits using Kepler’s third law.
2.9.B.1: For a satellite in circular orbit around a central body, the satellite’s
centripetal acceleration is caused only by gravitational attraction. The
period and radius of the circular orbit are related to the mass of the
central body.

Skills learned & applied in this chapter:

• Estimating the effect of changing one variable on other variables in the same
equation.

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 Early Theories of the Universe Page: 426
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
CP1 & honors
(not AP®)
Early Theories of the Universe
Unit: Gravitation
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): N/A
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Describe early models of the planets and stars, including Copernicus’s
heliocentric model
Success Criteria:
• Description accounts for observations of the time.
Language Objectives:
• Explain the primary differences between the geocentric (Earth-in-the-center)
and heliocentric (sun-in-the-center) model.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: sphere, cycle, revolve

Notes:
Early Observations
Prior to the renaissance in Europe, most people believed that the Earth was the
center of the universe. Early astronomers observed objects moving across the night
sky, so they theorized that these objects must be orbiting around the Earth. Objects
that moved more quickly across the sky must be closer, and objects that moved
more slowly must be farther away.

© 2024 by the University of South Florida. Used with permission.

Stars, whose positions did not change from one night to the next were considered
part of the “firmament”, which did not move.

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 Early Theories of the Universe Page: 427
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
CP1 & honors Retrograde Motion and Epicycles
(not AP®) Early astronomers observed that planets sometimes moved “backwards” as they
moved across the sky.

retrograde: apparent “backwards” motion

of a planet as it appears to move across
the sky.

The ancient astronomer Claudius Ptolemy

theorized that this retrograde motion must
be caused by the planets moving in small
circles, called epicycles, as they moved in
their large circular path around the Earth,
called the deferent.

deferent: the circluar path around which

the retrograde loops travel.

equant: a point in space such that the center of the deferent is midway between
the Earth and the equant.

As more observations were made and more data collected, Ptolemy’s theory
became unwieldy.

© 2000 by ML Watts. Used with permission.

Eventually, epicycle data was insufficient to describe the motion of the planets, so
Ptolemy suggested that the epicycles themselves had smaller epicycles. The
relationship between these additional epicycles was different for each planet.

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 Early Theories of the Universe Page: 428
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
CP1 & honors Heliocentric Theory
(not AP®) In 1532, Polish mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a
new heliocentric theory of the universe that placed the sun at the center and
designated the Earth as one of the planets that revolve around the sun.
heliocentric theory: the theory that the sun (not the Earth) is the center of the
universe.
The assumptions of Copernicus’s theory were:
1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.*
2. The center of the Earth is the center towards which heavy objects move†,
and the center of the lunar sphere (the moon’s orbit). However, the center
of the Earth is not the center of the universe.
3. All the spheres surround the sun as if it were in the middle of them, and
therefore the center of the universe is near the sun.
4. The spheres containing the stars are much farther from the sun than the
sphere in which the Earth moves. This far-away sphere that contained the
stars was called the firmament.
5. The firmament does not move. The stars appear to move because the Earth
is rotating.
6. The sun appears to move because of a combination of the Earth rotating and
revolving around the sun. This means the Earth is just a planet, and nothing
special (as far as the universe is concerned).
7. The apparent motion of the planets (both direct and retrograde) is explained
by the Earth’s motion.

Copernicus was afraid of criticism, and resisted publishing his work. It was
ultimately published it in a book entitled On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
in 1543, around the time of his death. (It is unclear whether or not Copernicus ever
saw a printed copy.)

The book went against the religious doctrines of the time, and in 1560 it was
included in the newly-created Index of Forbidden Books. (Catholics were forbidden
from printing or reading any book listed in the Index.) The book remained in the
Index until 1758, when it was removed by Pope Benedict XIV. The Index of
Forbidden Books was active until 1966.

* At the time, it was thought that planets and stars were somehow attached to the surface of a hollow
sphere, and that they moved along that sphere.
† Remember that Copernicus published this theory more than 150 years before Isaac Newton published
his theory of gravity.

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 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion Page: 429
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Unit: Gravitation
NGSS Standards/MA Curriculum Frameworks (2016): N/A
AP® Physics 1 Learning Objectives/Essential Knowledge (2024): 2.9.B, 2.9.B.1
Mastery Objective(s): (Students will be able to…)
• Set up and solve problems involving Kepler’s Laws.
Success Criteria:
• All variables are identified and substituted correctly.
• Algebra is correct and rounding to appropriate number of significant figures is
reasonable.
Language Objectives:
• Explain how the speed that a planet is moving changes as it revolves around
the sun.
Tier 2 Vocabulary: focus

Notes:
The German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler lived about 100 years
after Copernicus. Kepler derived three laws and equations that govern planetary
motion, which were published in three volumes between 1617 and 1621.

Kepler’s First Law

The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.

Kepler’s Second Law

A line that joins a planet with the sun will sweep out equal areas in equal amounts of
time.

I.e., the planet moves faster as it moves closer to the sun and slows down as it gets
farther away. If the planet takes exactly 30 days to sweep out one of the blue areas
above, then it will take exactly 30 days to sweep out the other blue area, and any
other such area in its orbit.

While we now know that the planet’s change in speed is caused by the force of
gravity, Kepler’s Laws were published fifty years before Isaac Newton published his
theory of gravity.

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 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion Page: 430
Big Ideas Details Unit: Gravitation
Kepler’s Third Law
If T is the period of time that a planet takes to revolve around a sun and rave. is the
average radius of the planet from the sun (the length of the semi-major axis of its
elliptical orbit) then:

T2
3
= constant for every planet in that solar system
rave.

T2 4 π2
We now know that, 3
= , where G is the universal gravitational constant and
rave.
GM
M is the mass of the star in question, which means this ratio is different for every
T2
planetary system. For our solar system, the value of 3
is approximately
rave.

9.5  10−27 s2 or 3  10−34 years2

.
m3 m3

Kepler’s third law allows us to estimate the mass of a planet in some distant solar
system, based on the mass of its sun and the time it takes for the planet to make
one revolution.

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