1.

​ Article:
○​ What it is: An article is a word used before a noun to specify whether the noun
is specific or unspecific.1 Articles act like adjectives because they modify
nouns.2
○​ Function: They indicate the definiteness of a noun.3
○​ Types and Examples:
■​ Definite Article: 'the'.4 It refers to a specific, particular noun that both the
speaker and listener know.5
■​ Example: "The dog barked." (A specific dog, perhaps one already
mentioned or known).
■​ Example: "Pass me the salt." (The specific salt shaker on the table).
■​ Indefinite Articles: 'a' and 'an'.6 They refer to a general, non-specific noun,
or introduce a noun for the first time.7 'a' is used before words starting
with a consonant sound, and 'an' is used before words starting with a
vowel sound.8
■​ Example: "I saw a cat." (Any cat, not a specific one).
■​ Example: "She wants an apple." (Any apple).
2.​ Conjunction:
○​ What it is: A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses
within a sentence.9 Think of them as joining words.
○​ Function: They link different parts of a sentence together and show the
relationship between these parts (e.g., addition, contrast, cause, choice).10
○​ Types and Examples:
■​ Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect grammatically equal elements
(words, phrases, independent clauses).11 Common examples are
remembered by the acronym FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.12
■​ Example: "I like tea and coffee." (Connects two nouns).
■​ Example: "He is tired, but he will finish the work." (Connects two
independent clauses).
■​ Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect a dependent (subordinate) clause
to an independent (main) clause.13 They show relationships like time,
cause, condition, etc.14 Examples include because, since, although, while,
if, when, after, before, unless.
■​ Example: "She didn't go to the party because she was sick."
(Connects a dependent clause explaining why to the main clause).
■​ Example: "Although it rained, we had fun." (Connects a dependent
clause showing contrast to the main clause).
 ■​ Correlative Conjunctions: Pairs of conjunctions that work together to
connect grammatically equal elements. Examples include either...or,
neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also.15
■​ Example: "You can have either cake or ice cream."
3.​ Interjection:
○​ What it is: An interjection is a word or short phrase used to express a sudden
feeling, emotion, or reaction.16
○​ Function: It expresses surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, pain, hesitation, or
other emotions.17 Interjections are often grammatically independent from the
rest of the sentence.18
○​ Punctuation: They are usually set off from the rest of the sentence by an
exclamation mark (!) or a comma (,).
○​ Examples:
■​ Example: "Wow! That's amazing!" (Expresses surprise/admiration).19
■​ Example: "Ouch! That hurt." (Expresses pain).
■​ Example: "Oh dear, I forgot my keys." (Expresses dismay).
■​ Example: "Well, I guess that's okay." (Expresses hesitation or resignation).
■​ Example: "Hey! Stop that!" (Used to get attention or express annoyance).

In summary:

●​ Articles (a, an, the) point out nouns and specify their definiteness.
●​ Conjunctions (and, but, because, while, etc.) join parts of a sentence.
●​ Interjections (Wow!, Ouch!, Well,, etc.) express sudden emotions or reactions.

—----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Classification by Purpose (Function)

This categorizes sentences based on the intention or job they perform:

●​ Declarative Sentence:​

○​ Purpose: Makes a statement, states a fact, conveys information, or

provides an explanation.
○​ Punctuation: Ends with a period (.).
○​ Example: "The sky is blue."
○​ Example: "Peshawar is a city in Pakistan." (Note: Using current location
context)
○​ Example: "I need to finish my work by this evening."
●​ Interrogative Sentence:​
 ○​ Purpose: Asks a question.
○​ Punctuation: Ends with a question mark (?).
○​ Example: "What time is it?"
○​ Example: "Did you enjoy the meal?"
○​ Example: "Where is the nearest market?"
●​ Imperative Sentence:​

○​ Purpose: Gives a command, makes a request, or offers advice. The

subject (often "you") is usually implied rather than stated.
○​ Punctuation: Usually ends with a period (.) but can end with an
exclamation mark (!) for forceful commands.
○​ Example: "Please pass the salt." (Request)
○​ Example: "Close the door." (Command)
○​ Example: "Watch out!" (Forceful command/warning)
○​ Example: "Try to get some rest." (Advice)
●​ Exclamatory Sentence:​

○​ Purpose: Expresses strong emotion or excitement (like surprise, joy,

anger, fear). It often starts with "What" or "How" but is structured
differently than a question.
○​ Punctuation: Ends with an exclamation mark (!).
○​ Example: "What a beautiful day it is!"
○​ Example: "That's incredible!"
○​ Example: "How wonderful you could make it!"

2. Classification by Structure (Based on Clauses)

This categorizes sentences based on the number and types of clauses they contain
(an independent clause can stand alone as a sentence; a dependent clause cannot).

●​ Simple Sentence:​

○​ Structure: Contains only one independent clause and no dependent

clauses. It has a single subject-verb combination, though the subject or
verb can be compound.
○​ Example: "The cat slept." (Simple subject, simple verb)
○​ Example: "The cat and the dog slept." (Compound subject, simple verb)
○​ Example: "The cat slept and dreamed." (Simple subject, compound verb)
●​ Compound Sentence:​

○​ Structure: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction (like for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), a semicolon
(;), or a semicolon with a conjunctive adverb (like however, therefore). It
has no dependent clauses.
○​ Example: "The cat slept, but the dog stayed awake." (Joined by
coordinating conjunction 'but')
○​ Example: "It was raining; we decided to stay indoors." (Joined by a
semicolon)
○​ Example: "He finished his work; therefore, he went home early." (Joined
by semicolon and conjunctive adverb)
●​ Complex Sentence:​

○​ Structure: Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent

clause. The dependent clause often starts with a subordinating
1
conjunction (like because, although, when, while, since, if, unless) or a
relative pronoun (like who, which, that).
○​ Example: "The dog barked when the mailman arrived." (Independent:
"The dog barked"; Dependent: "when the mailman arrived")
○​ Example: "Although it was late, she continued working." (Dependent:
"Although it was late"; Independent: "she continued working")
○​ Example: "This is the book that I borrowed." (Independent: "This is the
book"; Dependent: "that I borrowed")
●​ Compound-Complex Sentence:​

○​ Structure: Contains two or more independent clauses and at least one

dependent clause. It's a combination of compound and complex
structures.
○​ Example: "Because he was running late, he skipped breakfast, and he
drove quickly to work." (Dependent: "Because he was running late";
Independent 1: "he skipped breakfast"; Independent 2: "he drove quickly
to work")
○​ Example: "The cat slept on the mat while the dog chewed its bone, but
neither noticed the mouse sneaking by." (Independent 1: "The cat slept
on the mat"; Dependent: "while the dog chewed its bone"; Independent
 2: "neither noticed the mouse sneaking by")

Understanding these types helps in analyzing grammar and improving writing style by
using a variety of sentence structures and functions.

—---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1.​ Simile (SIM-ih-lee)​

○​ What it is: A comparison between two essentially unlike things using

2
specific comparison words, usually "like" or "as".
○​ Purpose: To create a vivid picture in the reader's mind by highlighting a
shared quality between the two things being compared.
3
○​ Key Feature: Uses "like" or "as".
○​ Examples:
■​ "He is as brave as a lion." (Comparing his bravery to a lion's).
■​ "She floated in like a cloud." (Comparing her graceful movement
to a cloud's).
■​ "The soldier was as strong as an ox." (Comparing the soldier's
4
strength to an ox's).
■​ "Life is like a box of chocolates." (Comparing the unpredictability
of life to choosing chocolates).
2.​ Alliteration (uh-LIT-er-AY-shun)​

○​ What it is: The repetition of the same initial consonant sound in words
5
that are close together (usually within the same sentence or phrase).
○​ Purpose: To create rhythm, draw attention to certain words, add
6
emphasis, and make phrases more memorable or musical.
7
○​ Key Feature: Repetition of the beginning sound of words.
○​ Examples:
■​ "She sells seashells by the seashore." (Repetition of the 's' sound).
■​ "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." (Repetition of the
'p' sound).
■​ "The dew dropped daintily." (Repetition of the 'd' sound).
 ■​ "Come and clean the chaos in your closet." (Repetition of the hard
'c'/k sound).
8​
3.​ Metaphor (MET-uh-for)

○​ What it is: A direct comparison between two unlike things without using
"like" or "as". It states that one thing is another thing, implying a shared
quality.
○​ Purpose: To create a strong image or understanding by equating one
thing with another, suggesting a deeper similarity than a simile might.
○​ Key Feature: Direct comparison, says X is Y (figuratively).
○​ Examples:
■​ "The classroom was a zoo today." (Comparing the chaotic
classroom directly to a zoo).
■​ "He is a shining star in his field." (Comparing his
talent/prominence directly to a star).
■​ "Her tears were a river flowing down her cheeks." (Comparing the
flow/volume of tears directly to a river).
■​ "Time is money." (Equating the value and finite nature of time to
money).
4.​ Personification (per-SON-ih-fih-KAY-shun)​

○​ What it is: Giving human qualities, actions, emotions, or characteristics

9
to inanimate objects, animals, or abstract ideas.
○​ Purpose: To make descriptions more vivid and relatable, allowing readers
to connect emotionally or intellectually with non-human things.
○​ Key Feature: Assigning human traits to non-human entities.
○​ Examples:
■​ "The wind whispered secrets through the trees." (Wind can't
whisper; that's a human action).
■​ "Opportunity knocked on the door." (Opportunity is an abstract
idea and cannot literally knock).
■​ "The angry clouds marched across the sky." (Clouds don't feel
anger or march).
■​ "My alarm clock yells at me every morning." (Alarm clocks make
 noise, but don't 'yell' with intent like a person).

In summary:

●​ Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as".

10
●​ Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds.
●​ Metaphor: Direct comparison stating one thing is another (no "like" or "as").
11
●​ Personification: Giving human traits to non-human things.