SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION:

To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital from. This
involves two processes – sampling and quantization. An image may be continuous with respect
to the x and y coordinates and also in amplitude. To convert it into digital form we have to
sample the function in both coordinates and in amplitudes.
Digitalizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitalizing the amplitude values is called
quantization. There is a continuous the image along the line segment AB. To simple this
function, we take equally spaced samples along line AB. The location of each samples is given
by a vertical tick back (mark) in the bottom part. The samples are shown as block squares
superimposed on function the set of these discrete locations gives the sampled function.
In order to form a digital, the gray level values must also be converted (quantized) into discrete
quantities. So we divide the gray level scale into eight discrete levels ranging from eight level
values. The continuous gray levels are quantized simply by assigning one of the eight discrete
gray levels to each sample. The assignment it made depending on the vertical proximity of a
simple to a vertical tick mark.
Starting at the top of the image and covering out this procedure line by line produces a two
dimensional digital image.
Digital Image definition:
A digital image f(m,n) described in a 2D discrete space is derived from an analog image
f(x,y) in a 2D continuous space through a sampling process that is frequently referred to as
digitization. The mathematics of that sampling process will be described in subsequent Chapters.
For now we will look at some basic definitions associated with the digital image. The effect of
digitization is shown in figure.
The 2D continuous image f(x,y) is divided into N rows and M columns. The intersection
of a row and a column is termed a pixel. The value assigned to the integer coordinates (m,n) with
m=0,1,2..N-1 and n=0,1,2…N-1 is f(m,n). In fact, in most cases, is actually a function of many
variables including depth, color and time (t).
There are three types of computerized processes in the processing of image
1) Low level process -these involve primitive operations such as image processing to reduce
noise, contrast enhancement and image sharpening. These kind of processes are characterized by
fact the both inputs and output are images.
2) Mid level image processing - it involves tasks like segmentation, description of those objects
to reduce them to a form suitable for computer processing, and classification of individual
objects. The inputs to the process are generally images but outputs are attributes extracted from
images.
3) High level processing – It involves “making sense” of an ensemble of recognized objects, as
in image analysis, and performing the cognitive functions normally associated with vision.
Representing Digital Images:
The result of sampling and quantization is matrix of real numbers. Assume that an image
f(x,y) is sampled so that the resulting digital image has M rows and N Columns. The values of
the coordinates (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the value of the coordinates at orgin
become 9X,y) =(o,o) The next Coordinates value along the first signify the iamge along the first
row. it does not mean that these are the actual values of physical coordinates when the image
was sampled.

Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel. The matrix can be
represented in the following form as well. The sampling process may be viewed as partitioning
the xy plane into a grid with the coordinates of the center of each grid being a pair of elements
from the Cartesian products Z2 which is the set of all ordered pair of elements (Zi, Zj) with Zi
and Zj being integers from Z. Hence f(x,y) is a digital image if gray level (that is, a real number
from the set of real number R) to each distinct pair of coordinates (x,y). This functional
assignment is the quantization process. If the gray levels are also integers, Z replaces R, the and
a digital image become a 2D function whose coordinates and she amplitude value are integers.
Due to processing storage and hardware consideration, the number gray levels typically is an
integer power of 2.
L=2k

Then, the number, b, of bites required to store a digital image is b=M *N* k When M=N, the

equation become b=N2*k

When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is referred to as “k- bit”. An image with 256 possible

gray levels is called an “8- bit image” (256=28).

Spatial and Gray level resolution:

Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible details are an image. Suppose a chart can be
constructed with vertical lines of width w with the space between the also having width W, so a
line pair consists of one such line and its adjacent space thus. The width of the line pair is 2w
and there is 1/2w line pair per unit distance resolution is simply the smallest number of
discernible line pair unit distance.
Gray levels resolution refers to smallest discernible change in gray levels. Measuring discernible
change in gray levels is a highly subjective process reducing the number of bits R while
repairing the spatial resolution constant creates the problem of false contouring.
It is caused by the use of an insufficient number of gray levels on the smooth areas of the
digital image . It is called so because the rides resemble top graphics contours in a map. It is
generally quite visible in image displayed using 16 or less uniformly spaced gray levels.
Image sensing and Acquisition:
The types of images in which we are interested are generated by the combination of an
“illumination” source and the reflection or absorption of energy from that source by the elements
of the “scene” being imaged. We enclose illumination and scene in quotes to emphasize the fact
that they are considerably more general than the familiar situation in which a visible light source
illuminates a common everyday 3-D (three-dimensional) scene. For example, the illumination
may originate from a source of electromagnetic energy such as radar, infrared, or X-ray energy.
But, as noted earlier, it could originate from less traditional sources, such as ultrasound or even a
computer-generated illumination pattern. Similarly, the scene elements could be familiar objects,
but they can just as easily be molecules, buried rock formations, or a human brain. We could
even image a source, such as acquiring images of the sun. Depending on the nature of the source,
illumination energy is reflected from, or transmitted through, objects. An example in the first
category is light reflected from a planar surface. An example in the second category is when X-
rays pass through a patient’s body for the purpose of generating a diagnostic X-ray film. In some
applications, the reflected or transmitted energy is focused onto a photo converter (e.g., a
phosphor screen), which converts the energy into visible light. Electron microscopy and some
applications of gamma imaging use this approach. The idea is simple: Incoming energy is
transformed into a voltage by the combination of input electrical power and sensor material that
is responsive to the particular type of energy being detected. The output voltage waveform is the
response of the sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing its
response. In this section, we look at the principal modalities for image sensing and generation.

Fig:Single Image sensor

Fig: Line Sensor

Fig: Array sensor

Image Acquisition using a Single sensor:
The components of a single sensor. Perhaps the most familiar sensor of this type is the
photodiode, which is constructed of silicon materials and whose output voltage waveform is
proportional to light. The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For example, a
green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor favors light in the green band of the color spectrum.
As a consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green light than for other components in
the visible spectrum.

In order to generate a 2-D image using a single sensor, there has to be relative displacements in
both the x- and y-directions between the sensor and the area to be imaged. Figure shows an
arrangement used in high-precision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a drum
whose mechanical rotation provides displacement in one dimension. The single sensor is
mounted on a lead screw that provides motion in the perpendicular direction. Since mechanical
motion can be controlled with high precision, this method is an inexpensive (but slow) way to
obtain high-resolution images. Other similar mechanical arrangements use a flat bed, with the
sensor moving in two linear directions. These types of mechanical digitizers sometimes are
referred to as microdensitometers.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor strips:
A geometry that is used much more frequently than single sensors consists of an in-line
arrangement of sensors in the form of a sensor strip, shows. The strip provides imaging elements
in one direction. Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other direction. This
is the type of arrangement used in most flat bed scanners. Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-
line sensors are possible. In-line sensors are used routinely in airborne imaging applications, in
which the imaging system is mounted on an aircraft that flies at a constant altitude and speed
over the geographical area to be imaged. One dimensional imaging sensor strips that respond to
various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are mounted perpendicular to the direction of
flight. The imaging strip gives one line of an image at a time, and the motion of the strip
completes the other dimension of a two-dimensional image. Lenses or other focusing schemes
are used to project area to be scanned onto the sensors. Sensor strips mounted in a ring
configuration are used in medical and industrial imaging to obtain cross-sectional (“slice”)
images of 3-D objects.
 Fig: Image Acquisition using linear strip and circular strips.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor Arrays:
The individual sensors arranged in the form of a 2-D array. Numerous electromagnetic and some
ultrasonic sensing devices frequently are arranged in an array format. This is also the
predominant arrangement found in digital cameras. A typical sensor for these cameras is a CCD
array, which can be manufactured with a broad range of sensing properties and can be packaged
in rugged arrays of elements or more. CCD sensors are used widely in digital cameras and other
light sensing instruments. The response of each sensor is proportional to the integral of the light
energy projected onto the surface of the sensor, a property that is used in astronomical and other
applications requiring low noise images. Noise reduction is achieved by letting the sensor
integrate the input light signal over minutes or even hours. The two dimensional, its key
advantage is that a complete image can be obtained by focusing the energy pattern onto the
surface of the array. Motion obviously is not necessary, as is the case with the sensor
arrangements This figure shows the energy from an illumination source being reflected from a
scene element, but, as mentioned at the beginning of this section, the energy also could be
transmitted through the scene elements. The first function performed by the imaging system is to
collect the incoming energy and focus it onto an image plane. If the illumination is light, the
front end of the imaging system is a lens, which projects the viewed scene onto the lens focal
plane. The sensor array, which is coincident with the focal plane, produces outputs proportional
to the integral of the light received at each sensor. Digital and analog circuitry sweep these
outputs and convert them to a video signal, which is then digitized by another section of the
imaging system.

Image sampling and Quantization:

To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital form. This
involves two processes: sampling and quantization. A continuous image, f(x, y), that we want to
convert to digital form. An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y-coordinates,
and also in amplitude. To convert it to digital form, we have to sample the function in both
coordinates and in amplitude. Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the
amplitude values is called quantization.
Digital Image representation:
Digital image is a finite collection of discrete samples (pixels) of any observable object. The
pixels represent a two- or higher dimensional “view” of the object, each pixel having its own
discrete value in a finite range. The pixel values may represent the amount of visible light, infra
red light, absortation of x-rays, electrons, or any other measurable value such as ultrasound wave
impulses. The image does not need to have any visual sense; it is sufficient that the samples
form a two-dimensional spatial structure that may be illustrated as an image. The images may be
obtained by a digital camera, scanner, electron microscope, ultrasound stethoscope, or any other
optical or non-optical sensor. Examples of digital image are:
• digital photographs
• satellite images
• radiological images (x-rays, mammograms)
• binary images, fax images, engineering drawings
Computer graphics, CAD drawings, and vector graphics in general are not considered in this
course even though their reproduction is a possible source of an image. In fact, one goal of
intermediate level image processing may be to reconstruct a model (e.g. vector representation)
for a given digital image.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PIXELS:
We consider several important relationships between pixels in a digital image.
NEIGHBORS OF A PIXEL
• A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose
coordinates are given by:
(x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x,y-1)
 This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors or p, is denoted by N4(p). Each pixel is one unit
distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital image if (x,y) is on the
border of the image. The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates and are denoted by ND
(p).
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)

These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p, denoted by
N8 (p).

As before, some of the points in ND (p) and N8 (p) fall outside the image if (x,y) is on the
border of the image.
ADJACENCY AND CONNECTIVITY
Let v be the set of gray –level values used to define adjacency, in a binary image, v={1}. In a
gray-scale image, the idea is the same, but V typically contains more elements, for example, V
= {180, 181, 182, …, 200}.
If the possible intensity values 0 – 255, V set can be any subset of these 256 values.
if we are reference to adjacency of pixel with value.
Three types of adjacency
• 4- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 4 –adjacency if A is in the set
N4(P)
 • 8- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 8 –adjacency if A is in the set
N8(P)
• M-adjacency –two pixel P and Q with value from V are m – adjacency if (i) Q is in N 4(p)
or (ii) Q is in ND(q) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixel whose values are from V.
• Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the
ambiguities that often arise when 8-adjacency is used.
• For example:

Fig:1.8(a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent (shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
Types of Adjacency:
• In this example, we can note that to connect between two pixels (finding a path between
two pixels):
– In 8-adjacency way, you can find multiple paths between two pixels
– While, in m-adjacency, you can find only one path between two pixels
• So, m-adjacency has eliminated the multiple path connection that has been generated by
the 8-adjacency.
• Two subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent, if some pixel in S1 is adjacent to some pixel in S2.
Adjacent means, either 4-, 8- or m-adjacency.
A Digital Path:
• A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with coordinate (s,t) is a
sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn, yn) where (x0,y0) = (x,y)
and (xn, yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
• n is the length of the path
• If (x0,y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed.
We can specify 4-, 8- or m-paths depending on the type of adjacency specified.
• Return to the previous example:
 Fig:1.8 (a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent(shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
In figure (b) the paths between the top right and bottom right pixels are 8-paths. And the
path between the same 2 pixels in figure (c) is m-path
Connectivity:
• Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image, two pixels p and q are said to be connected
in S if there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in S.
• For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a connected
component of S. If it only has one connected component, then set S is called a connected
set.
Region and Boundary:
• REGION: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image, we call R a region of the image if R is
a connected set.
• BOUNDARY: The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is the
set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first and
last rows and columns in the image. This extra definition is required because an image has no
neighbors beyond its borders. Normally, when we refer to a region, we are referring to subset of
an image, and any pixels in the boundary of the region that happen to coincide with the border of
the image are included implicitly as part of the region boundary.
DISTANCE MEASURES:
For pixel p,q and z with coordinate (x.y) ,(s,t) and (v,w) respectively D is a distance function or
metric if
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q] = O iff p=q}
D [p.q] = D [p.q] and
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q]+D(q,z)
• The Euclidean Distance between p and q is defined as:
 De (p,q) = [(x – s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

Pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x,y) are the points
contained in a disk of radius ‘ r ‘centered at (x,y)

• The D4 distance (also called city-block distance) between p and q is defined as:
D4 (p,q) = | x – s | + | y – t |
Pixels having a D4 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
Diamond centered at (x,y)

Example:
The pixels with distance D4 ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of
constant distance.
The pixels with D4 = 1 are the 4-neighbors of (x,y)

• The D8 distance (also called chessboard distance) between p and q is defined as:
D8 (p,q) = max(| x – s |,| y – t |)
Pixels having a D8 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a square
Centered at (x,y).
 Example:
D8 distance ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of constant distance.

• Dm distance:
It is defined as the shortest m-path between the points.
In this case, the distance between two pixels will depend on the values of the
pixels along the path, as well as the values of their neighbors.
Example:
Consider the following arrangement of pixels and assume that p, p2, and p4 have
value 1 and that p1 and p3 can have can have a value of 0 or 1 Suppose that we
consider the adjacency of pixels’ values 1 (i.e. V = {1})

Now, to compute the Dm between points p and p4

Here we have 4 cases:
Case1: If p1 =0 and p3 = 0
The length of the shortest m-path
(the Dm distance) is 2 (p, p2, p4)
 Case2: If p1 =1 and p3 = 0
now, p1 and p will no longer be adjacent (see m-adjacency definition)
then, the length of the shortest
path will be 3 (p, p1, p2, p4)

Case3: If p1 =0 and p3 = 1
The same applies here, and the shortest –m-path will be 3 (p, p2, p3, p4)

Case4: If p1 =1 and p3 = 1
The length of the shortest m-path will be 4 (p, p1 , p2, p3, p4)

IMAGE TRANSFORMS:
2-D FFT: