TRANSFORMERS

 Purpose: that change the intensity of alternating voltage and current by mutual induction.

 Definition: electromagnetic devices which change an alternating current (AC) from low voltage to
high voltage or from high voltage to low voltage without loss of an appreciable amount of electric
energy.

 Note: does not convert any form of energy into another.

 Function: its main function is to change the magnitude of an alternating voltage.

Types of Coils:

1. Primary Coil: Define as the coil to which the supply is connected (N₁).

2. Secondary Coil: Define as the coil from which the output is taken (N₂).

Transformer Law:

 Direct Proportional: VOLTS and TURNS

 Inverse Proportional: CURRENT and TURNS

ELECTRICAL POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

 Transformers are not 100% efficient as there are some power (energy) losses during the process of
changing the voltage. The electrical power losses are caused by 3 major factors:

i. I²R Loss: Resistance in the wires.

ii. Hysteresis Loss: Results from energy expended as the continually changing AC current
magnetizes, demagnetizes, and remagnetizes the core material. A lagging or retardation of
the effect, when the forces acting upon a body are changed as if from velocity or internal
friction, a temporary resistance to change from a condition previously induced is observed in
magnetism, thermoelectricity, etc., on reversal of polarity.

iii. Eddy Currents: Currents that oppose the magnetic field that induced them.

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

1. Step-Up Transformer:

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 o This type of transformer is used to increase the incident voltage. The number of turns in the
secondary coil is larger than the number of turns in the primary coil.

o A transformer having more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil.

o The output voltage is higher than the input voltage.

o The turns ratio is greater than 1.

2. Step-Down Transformer

 This type of transformer is used to decrease incident voltage. The number of turns in the primary coil
is larger than the number of turns in the secondary coil.

 A transformer having more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil.

 The output voltage is lower than the input voltage.

 The turns ratio is less than 1.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER (FOUR MAIN TYPES)

1. Air Core Transformer:

o It consists simply of 2 insulated coils lying side by side.

o simple arrangement of two coils of wire in proximity to facilitate induction

Main Types Used:

1. Close Core.

2. Shell-Type.

3. Autotransformer (used in X-ray machines).

2. Open-Core Transformer

 An iron core inserted into a coil of wire carrying an electric current.

 strength of the magnetic field is greatly increased

3. Closed-Core Transformer

 A type of iron core that provides a continuous path for the magnetic flux so that a
small fraction of the magnetic energy is lost by leakage.

 Built about a square core of ferromagnetic material.

 Result in a significant system net increase in field strength.

4. Shell-Type Transformer

 The most advanced type of transformer used as a commercial power transformer.

 This is more efficient than the 3 transformers, as well as the most currently used transformer.

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5.Autotransformer

 Consists of 1 winding.

 Sometimes called auto step-down transformer.

 An electrical transformer with only one winding.

 Often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-117-120 volt range
and voltages in the 220-230-240.

 single coil transformer with taps for adjusting voltage by changing connections at different points
along the coil.

 variable transformer

THREE CRITICAL TRANSFORMER LOCATIONS IN THE DIAGNOSTIC X-RAY CIRCUIT.

1. The AUTOTRANSFORMER permits selection of the voltage (by controls labeled kV on the console).
2. The HIGH-VOLTAGE STEP-UP TRANSFORMER steps the incoming-line voltage up to the kV range
before sending it to the x-ray tube.
3. THE FILAMENT TRANSFORMER steps the incoming-line voltage down to heat the x-ray tube filament.

CAPACITORS

 An electric circuit element used to store charge temporarily, consisting, in general, of two metallic
plates separated and insulated from each other by a dielectric.

 A device used to store and release electricity, usually as the result of a chemical action.

 Acts like a battery as both store electrical energy, but it does not conduct electricity.

A DIELECTRIC

 is a material that can sustain an electric field but does not conduct electric current because it is a
non-conducting substance.

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THE X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM

The function of the X-ray Imaging System is to provide a controlled flow of electrons intense enough to
produce an X-ray beam appropriate for imaging.

The first X-ray device was discovered accidentally by the German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923) on
November 8, 1895. He found that a cathode-ray tube emitted invisible rays that could penetrate paper and
wood. The rays caused a screen of fluorescent material (barium platinocyanide) several yards away to glow.
Roentgen used his device to examine the bone structure of the human hand (his wife, Betha).

The most important application of X-ray has been its use in medicine. This importance was recognized almost
immediately after Roentgen's findings were published in 1895. Within weeks of its first demonstration, an X-
ray machine was used in America to diagnose bone fractures.

There Are Two Main Uses For X-Ray Energy:

1. Diagnostic methods are used to determine the source or cause of a disease, disorder, or traumatic
injury.

2. Therapeutic methods used to treat and rehabilitate a disease, disorder, or traumatic injury.

Fluoroscopic X-ray Tube

 located under the examining table

Radiographic X-ray Tube

 Attached to an overhead movable crane assembly that permits easy positioning of the tube and
aiming of the X-ray beam

Bucky Tray

 Holds the cassette and grid

 located under the table

 discovered by Gustave Bucky and Hollis Potter and known as Potter-Bucky

Bucky Slot Cover

 During fluoroscopy, the Bucky tray is moved to the end of the table

 This leaves an opening in the side of the table about 5 cm

 The opening should automatically be covered with at least 0.25 mm lead (Pb) equivalence

THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM

1. X-ray Tube

2. Operating Console

3. High-Voltage Generator

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THE TYPES OF X-RAY UNITS ARE IDENTIFIED ACCORDING TO

1. Energy of the X-rays they produce:

An X-ray unit can either produce high or low energy X-rays depending on the type of examinations it
is intended for.

2. The way the X-rays are used:

X-ray machines are used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.

X-RAY MACHINES ARE USUALLY OPERATED AT

 Kilovoltage ranging from 25 to 150 kVp

 Tube currents from 1,000 to 1,200 mA

THE MODERN, GENERAL PURPOSE X-RAY EXAMINATION ROOM USUALLY CONTAINS

 A Radiographic Unit And

 Fluoroscopic Unit W/ An Image Intensifier

OPERATING CONSOLE

 Used to control the voltage applied to the X-ray tube, the current through the X-ray tube, and the
exposure time.

 The part of the machine that the operator controls the operation of the X-ray machine.

 Component of the system that is most familiar to radiographers.

 The console is where we control the X-ray tube, current, and voltage.

BASIC CONTROLS OF OPERATING CONSOLE:

1. On/Off Control

2. mAs Selection

3. kVp Selection

4. Table/wall unit activation

5. Exposure Switch

ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS OF MODERN CONTROL CONSOLE

1. Adjustment of the Line Compensator

LINE COMPENSATOR
o Measures the voltage provided by the X-ray unit and adjusts the voltage to precisely 220V.

o Most machines are designed to operate at 220 volts, while some will work with 110 volts or 440 volts.
The power company often cannot provide exactly 220 volts at all times. Elevators and Air Conditioners
may reduce the voltage available for the X-ray unit.

o Older machines have a meter to monitor the line voltage attached to the autotransformer. The
operator can adjust the taps on the transformer to account for low or high incoming voltage.

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 o More modern units automatically adjust for the incoming power, so a meter is not provided.

2. Separate mA & Time Exposure Control

o Usually seen in modern X-ray units.

AUTOTRANSFORMER

o Has a single winding and is designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament circuit and
the high-voltage circuit of the X-ray imaging system.

o Designed to supply voltage of varying magnitude to several different circuits of the X-ray
machine, including both the filament circuit and high voltage circuits.

o The power for the X-ray imaging system is delivered first to the autotransformer.

kVp ADJUSTMENT

 Most consoles will have one or two knobs that change the taps on the autotransformer for major
and minor kVp.

 Modern units have a LED readout of kVp.

 Setting the desired kVp will determine the voltage applied to the step-up transformer in the high-
voltage section of the machine.

 Major kVp Adjustment: – by 10

 Minor kVp Adjustment: – by 2, by 5

 kVp determines the quality of the X-ray beam.

kVp METER

 Placed across the outwood terminal of the autotransformer.

 Read the Volt (V), not the kVp.

 Some units have a pre-reading voltmeter that allows the voltage to be monitored before the
examination.

CONTROL OF MILLIMPERAGE (mA)

 The tube current, the intensity, and the number of electrons crossing from the cathode to anode per
second are measured in milliamperes (mA).

 The quantity of electrons is determined by filament temperature.

 The filament normally operates at currents between 3 and 6 A.

 The tube current is controlled through a separate circuit called the filament circuit.

 Voltage is provided by taps of the autotransformer; this voltage is reduced with precise resistors to a
value corresponding to the mA stations available.

 The voltage is then delivered to the filament transformer; the filament transformer lowers the
voltage, so it is called a step-down transformer.

 The selection of the small or large filament is connected to the mA selection or as a separate control.

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EXPOSURE TIMERS

 For any given radiographic examination, the number of X-rays reaching the image receptor is directly
related to the tube current and the time that the tube is energized.

 The timer circuit is separate from the other main circuits.

 It consists of a mechanical or electronic device whose action is to make or break the high voltage
across the tube on the primary side of the high voltage section.

Mechanical Timers

 Very simple device that operates by clockwork.

 The operator turns the dial to the desired time; as it unwinds, the exposure is made.

 It can be used for exposure time longer than 250 milliseconds.

 Used for very old machines and dental units.

Synchronous Timers

 A special type of electric motor and a precision device designed to drive a shaft at precisely 60
revolutions per second (rps).

 Used as timing mechanisms and recognizable because the minimum exposure time possible is 160
ms (1/60 s) and timing intervals increase by multiples thereof, such as 1/30, 1/20, and so on.

Electronic Timers

 The most sophisticated, most complicated, and most accurate of the X-ray exposure timers.

 Consists of a complex circuit based upon the time required to charge a capacitor through a variable
resister depending upon the incoming power.

 Accuracy to 1 ms. Most units have this type of timer.

 Most exposure timers are electronic and controlled by a microprocessor.

4. mAs Timers

 A special kind of electric timer that monitors the product of mA and exposure time and terminates
the exposure when the desired mAs value is attained.

 Most modern machines are designed to control the tube current and exposure time accurately.

 The product of mA and time (mAs) determines the number of X-ray photons emitted and the density
on the film.

 Usually designed to provide the highest safe tube current for the shortest exposure for any mAs
selected.

 APR or Anatomically Programmed Radiography timers have computers that store the technical
factors in the machine. Select the view and enter the patient size, and the machine is ready!!!

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5. Phototimer

 Measures the quantity of radiation reaching the receptor and terminates the exposure when
sufficient radiation is needed to produce the correct density on the film.

 Offered in addition to a manual timer.

TWO TYPES OF PHOTOTIMER

1. Photomultiplier Tube

o Converts light energy to electrical energy and must be calibrated to produce a given optical
density on the radiograph.

o Reads a fluorescent screen behind the film.

2. Ionization Chamber

o A flat, parallel plate ionization chamber positioned between the patient and the image
receptor.

o Used on most modern X-ray units.

o Radiolucent so it will not interfere with the image; multiple chambers can be used to
optimize the image.

o Commonly referred to as Automatic Exposure Control or AEC.

o Widely used in Medical Radiography.

o Adjust exposure for the patient’s habitus and area density.

o With AEC, the operator can select:

 Where to read the radiation.

 Desired FILM DENSITY

 kVp and backup mAs

Spinning Top Timer

 simple device that can be used to check the accuracy of the X-ray timer in half-wave and full-wave
rectified units

 The "top" is a flat metal disk with a small hole drilled near one edge

 It is placed above an x-ray film or cassette and made to spin while a short exposure is made

Solid State Radiation Detectors

 Used for exposure time check and to replace the spinning top

 also called Semiconductor Radiation Detector

 a semiconductor material such as a silicon or germanium crystal constitutes the detecting medium

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HIGH-VOLTAGE GENERATOR

 Responsible for increasing the output voltage from the autotransformer to the kVp necessary for X-
ray production

 converts low-voltage from incoming power to kilovoltage of the correct waveform

 provides the tube current at the required voltage for X-ray production

 connected to the Major and Minor kVp selector

THREE PRIMARY PARTS OF A HIGH-VOLTAGE GENERATOR

 All 3 components are immersed in oil to avoid overheating.

High-Voltage Transformer (step-up)

 The secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage because the number of turns in the
secondary winding is higher than the number of turns in the primary winding.

 The turns ratio for most X-ray high voltage transformers is between 500 and 1000 incoming volts
converted to output kilovolts.

 The only difference between the primary and secondary waveforms is the amplitude.

Filament Transformer

 A step-down transformer that lowers the voltage received from the autotransformer to be used by
the filament in the production of high-speed electrons.

 Reduces the current to the filament.

Rectifier (diode)

 electronic device that allows the current flow in only one direction.

 converts AC to DC.

 During the negative cycle, the current can only flow from anode to cathode.
 Electrons must travel from cathode to anode; DC keeps electrons traveling in the
correct direction, cathode to anode.

VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION

"Voltage Rectification is required to ensure that electrons flow from cathode to anode only."

Rectification

 is accomplished with diodes.

Diode

 an electronic device containing two electrodes (negative electrode [cathode) and positive electrode
[anode)).

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GENERAL TYPES OF RECTIFIERS

1. Vacuum Tube Rectifiers

o an evacuated glass tube with a small coil of wire.

o a device controlling electric current through a vacuum in a sealed container.

o The best example is the x-ray tube.

2. Solid-State Rectifiers

o Devices built entirely from solid materials and in which the electrons or other charge carriers
are confined entirely within the solid material.

o much faster and more reliable but are usually more expensive.

o An example is Thyristor, a silicon-controlled rectifier. A solid-state switching device for

semiconductors to convert AC in one of two directions controlled by an electrode.

Unrectified Voltage

o appears as the voltage waveform supplied to the primary side of the high-voltage
transformers.

TYPES OF RECTIFICATION

1. Half-wave rectification

o is a condition in which the voltage is not allowed to swing negatively during the negative half
of its cycle.

o Photons are produced & emitted only during the positive cycle.

o One or two diodes are placed in the circuit to stop the negative flow of electrons.

o 60 pulses per second.

o Half-wave rectification passes only one-half of each incoming sinusoid and does not pass the
opposite half cycle.

o The output contains a single half-sine pulse for each input cycle.

o A single rectifier provides half-wave rectification.

o 100% voltage ripple - quality is the same as full-wave rectification, but the quantity is half.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

1. Inefficient use of power: No X-rays are produced in the negative half cycle.

2. The possibility of reverse conduction - low power output unless a rectifier is used.

3. The minimum exposure time is 0.02s, which includes one whole AC cycle.

4. However, the unit can be made relatively small and cheaply for situations requiring limited output.

5. Reduce strain on high tension cables so there is good insulation.

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2. Self-Rectified

 The X-ray tube serves as the vacuum tube rectifier and is not used in the medical unit.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

1. Small size

2. Light in weight

3. Relative inexpensive

4. Simple to operate

5. Easy to transport and maneuver

6. Has limited X-ray tube rating

7. Poor insulation

8. High possibility of a reverse current, which may shorten tube life

3. Full-Wave Rectification

 Contain at least four diodes in the high-voltage circuit, and the negative half-cycle corresponding to
the inverse voltage is reversed so that the anode is always positive.

 same as a half-wave, except there is no dead time.

 Half the exposure time is needed for full-wave rather than half-wave.

 Full-wave rectified X-ray machines contain at least four diodes.

 This allows 120 pulses of X-ray per second.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

 The principal disadvantage is the inefficiency of radiation production due to the pulsating waveform.

 not providing enough voltage to produce X-rays for a portion of the time, and

 the inability to select short exposure times.

POWER FOR X-RAY GENERATION

Single-Phase Power

 Results in a pulsating X-ray beam caused by the alternate swing in voltage from zero to maximum
potential 120 times each second under full-wave rectification.

 When you turn on an electrical device in your house, alternating current is engaged; with alternating
current, the current goes toward the light and then switches away from the light. It does this 60
times a second.

 The symbol for single phase power is ii.

 In the X-ray circuit, we need direct current. So, as illustrated in the diagram, the current that is below
the horizontal axis must be modified so that it is above the axis.

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2. Three-Phase Power

 the type of power that is usually used for X-ray machines.

 Multiple voltage waveforms are superimposed on one another, resulting in a waveform that
maintains a nearly constant high voltage.

 The voltage impressed across the X-ray tube is nearly constant, never dropping to zero during
exposure.

 Results in higher quality and quantity photons.

 The symbol for three-phase power is 33.

 6 pulses/60s half-wave and 12/1/60s full-wave.

 expensive to install but cheaper to maintain.

HIGH-FREQUENCY GENERATOR

 Produce a nearly constant potential voltage waveform, improving image quality at lower patient
dose.

 very efficient and works with single or three-phase power.

 Automatically adjusts to the highest mA at the shortest exposure time possible.

 Requires a small place for installation as compared to high voltage generators but is expensive.

 "Full-wave rectification or high-frequency voltage generation is used in almost all stationary X-ray
imaging systems."

WAVE FORMS OF DIFFERENT GENERATOR TYPES

 Half wave = 100%

 Full wave = 100%

 Three phase, six pulse = 13%

 Three phase, twelve pulse = 4%

 High frequency = < 1%

CAPACITOR DISCHARGE GENERATOR

 uses a high voltage generator, which operates by charging a series of silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) from the DC voltage of a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery.

 There is a short charging time before the exposure can be made.

 The disadvantage to the design is a drop in power at the end of the exposure of about 1 kV/mAs. This
is called a falling load generator.

 Works on conventional 110-volt power, but batteries must be replaced.

VOLTAGE RIPPLE

 the amount of fluctuation in the voltage of the power to an x-ray machine

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  For x-ray machines, the less ripple, the better

Variations in voltage supplied:

 Single-phase power has 100% ripple - voltage varies from zero to the maximum value.

 Three-phase, 6 pulse power has 13% - 14% ripple - voltage never falls below 86% of the maximum.

 Three-phase, 12 pulse power has 3% - 4% ripple - voltage never falls below 96% of the maximum.

 High-frequency power has 1% ripple - voltage to the tube never falls below 99% and therefore has
higher x-ray quantity and quality.

Less voltage ripple results in higher radiation quantity and quality.

A BASIC X-RAY CIRCUIT

Main Circuit - supplies power to the x-ray tube so that x-rays are produced

 Main Switch - the switch that generates the power to the x-ray tube

 Exposure Switch - a remote control device that permits current to flow through the circuit

Timer - device used to end the exposure at an accurately measured preset time.

In the diagram on the right are the important parts of the circuit. The blue part is the main X-ray circuit, and
the tan part is the filament circuit.

1. Main breaker - this is where the alternating current comes from to power the circuit.

2. Exposure Switch - when you push the button to start an exposure, this switch closes to start the
exposure.

3. Autotransformer - this is where you adjust the kVp for the exposure.

4. Timer circuit - this part of the circuit stops the exposure.

5. High-voltage step-up transformer - this transformer bumps the voltage up so that the x-ray tube has
a very high voltage to give the electrons enough energy to form x-rays.

6. Four-diode rectification circuit - this makes the current only go in one direction through the x-ray
tube.

7. Filament circuit variable resistor - this variable resistor adjusts the current going to the filament.

8. Filament step-down transformer - this transformer steps the voltage down and therefore the current
up.

9. Rotator - This rotates the anode.

10. Filament Circuit - supplies power to the filament of the x-ray tube so that the filament supplies
enough electrons by thermionic emission.

Filament Transformer - a step-down transformer that supplies electrical power to the filament for
thermionic emission.

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 Variable Resistor - allows for the selection of tube current by regulating the input current to the
primary side of the filament transformer.

Table

CONTROL FACTOR ELECTRICAL DEVICE AND LOCATION IN CIRCUIT

kVp kVp Level Autotransformer (between incoming line and

Selection exposure switch)

mA Selector Filament Variable resistor (in filament circuit between

Current incoming line and step-down transformer)

Time Length of Timer circuit (between exposure switch and

Selection exposure step-up transformer)

Rotor Speed of Stator (separate circuit from stator of anode

Switch rotating anode motor)

Exposure Moment of Switch (between autotransformer and timer

Switch exposure circuit)

POWER RATING

 Indicates the rate at which the device converts electrical energy into another form of energy, such as
light, heat, or motion.

 An example of such a rating is noted when comparing a 150-watt lamp to a 100-watt lamp. The
higher wattage rating of the 150-watt lamp indicates it is capable of converting more electrical
energy into light energy than the lamp of the lower rating.

Power = Current X Potential

Watts = Amperes X Volts

 The power unit is watts, the current is ampere, and a potential difference is volts.

 1W=1V(A)

 The maximum tube current (mA) possible at 100 kVp for an exposure of 100 ms.

"High-voltage generator power (kW) = maximum x-ray tube current (mA) at 100 kVp and 100 ms."

Formula for Three-Phase Power:

Formula for Single-Phase Power:

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