MODULE IN

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2

CE 3231

CIVIL AND GEODETIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 CE 3231

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. Calculate the stresses transferred
to underlying soils applied by the
super structural loads
2. Apply the different methods to
estimate compressibility and
settlement of soils for shallow
foundations.
3. Demonstrate proficiency in
conducting the different
methods and procedures in the
determination of soil shear
strength and how to interpret
GEOTECHNICAL these data necessary for solving
other related problems to civil
ENGINEERING 2 engineering.

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 “Successful and unsuccessful people do not vary greatly in their abilities.
They vary in their desires to reach their potential”
– John Maxwell

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE OVERVIEW

In this course, you will learn about soil as part of the design parameters. This course will
enable you to identify and determine the stresses through different loading conditions,
settlement, and shear strength of soil.

As a result of your educational experiences in the course CE 3231, you should be able
to:
1. Calculate the stresses transferred to underlying soils applied by the super structural
loads
2. Apply the different methods to estimate compressibility and settlement of soils for
shallow foundations.
3. Demonstrate proficiency in conducting the different methods and procedures in the
determination of soil shear strength and how to interpret these data necessary for
solving other related problems to civil engineering.

Your academic experience as a Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this course.
To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at the end
of the semester, this module is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: In Situ Stresses – This aims to give you an overview of the components of stress
determination through different condition of soil strata. This module includes the concept of
effective stress, stresses in saturated soil with different seepage conditions, seepage force,
conditions for heaving, use of filters, and capillary rise in soils.

MODULE 2: Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane – This aims to give you an overview of the
stresses on a plane. It will enable you to determine the normal and shear stresses on an
inclined plane with known stresses on a two-dimensional stress element. This module includes
the use of derived equation, Mohr’s Circle, and Pole-Method.

MODULE 3: Stresses in a Soil Mass – This aims to give you an overview of the increase in the
soil stress. It will enable you to analyze and determine the net increase due to different
loading conditions. This module includes the determination of increase in vertical stress at a
certain depth due to the application of load on the surface, the loading type includes: point
load, line load, uniformly distributed load, linearly increasing vertical loading, embankment
loading, uniformly loaded circular and rectangular area.

MODULE 4: Compressibility of Soil – This aims to give you an overview of the fundamentals of
settlement. It will enable you to analyze and compute the compression of soil under
foundations or other loading conditions. This module includes the different broad categories:

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 elastic settlement, primary consolidation settlement, and secondary consolidation
settlement.

MODULE 5: Shear Strength of Soil – This aims to give you an overview of the parameters used
to analyze soil stability problems. This module includes the different methods to estimate the
shear strength parameters of the soil.

Review the course study guide and study schedule for your guidance.

COURSE STUDY GUIDE

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and
mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and feedback
for this course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as a civil engineer
practicing your profession. The following course guides and house rules are designed for you
to practice decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic
environment.

These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and
clear communication among learners and instructors throughout the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual
cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically,
online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities that take
up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning.
Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they could
help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a dedicated space in your
residence conducive for learning.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the
distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-
face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been
answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided.
Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this
course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums,
and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid

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 text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal expressions in your
posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.

3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making
use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would
be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the
applications you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and
your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note are
Google Classroom, Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available
alternatives to Microsoft Office tools you might want to explore. Certain
requirements will require you to take a video on your smart phone, save it, and
submit it electronically. Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the
most convenient means for express mail correspondence and inform me as
early as possible so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning

outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you
are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing
beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of
thought and care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very
tangible measure of how much of the competencies you have developed and
fully obtained throughout this course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from
me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and
updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document
and will be made available and widely disseminated to enrollees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital
footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly
for referenced statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute
statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he
said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your

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 competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your
disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be
your independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this
course. The only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to
learn as much from it as an individual. Make it count.

8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow in the
conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally accepted norms
of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time. Unless
of utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication between
8:30 PM and 7:30 AM every day and the whole day on Sundays and official
holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This will allow
us all to dedicate personal time and space to other aspects of our life and
maintain a healthy work-life/study-life balance.

9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on
the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate).
The following icons will help you find some of the most critical areas in the units
of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.

Part of the module unit that contains detailed

discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous stage.

Part of the module unit that expounds on the

ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper
into the finer details of the topics.

Part of the module unit that gives us the

opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

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 Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

• If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)

mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at
given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to me, on or
before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the feedback on your
submissions at the soonest possible time through any of the available means
of communication.
• While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
• If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means.

STUDY SCHEDULE

TOPIC LEARNING
WEEK ACTIVITIES
OUTCOME
MODULE 1: In Situ Stresses
Engage: Determine the distribution of stress
throughout an identified cross-section of soil
Explore: In Situ Stresses (pp. 271-300)
Explain:
Understand the
• Concept of effective stress
theoretical
January 18 – • Stresses in saturated soil with different
concept of
February 5, seepage conditions
effective stress and
2021 • Seepage force
apply it in different
• Conditions for heaving
site scenario.
• Use of filters
• Capillary rise in soils
Elaborate: Problem Solving
Evaluate: Answer assessment questions
MODULE 2: Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
Engage: Determine the normal and shear stresses
on a plane
Exhibit proficiency Explore: Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane
in using the pole (pp. 306-311)
February 8 – method to Explain:
19, 2021 determine the • Normal and Shear Stresses using equations
normal and shear • Mohr’s Circle
stress in a plane. • Pole-Method
Elaborate: Problem Solving
Evaluate: Answer assessment questions
February 19,
Summative Assessment: PRELIM QUIZ
2021

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 February 22,
Summative Assessment: PRELIM EXAMINATION
2021
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR
BEFORE MARCH 3, 2021
MODULE 3: Stresses in a Soil Mass
Engage: Determine the increase in vertical stress
due to application of various loadings
Explore: Stresses in a Soil Mass (pp. 312-345)
Explain:
• Stresses Caused by Point Load
• Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical and
Horizontal Line Load
Exhibit proficiency
• Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Strip
in determining the
Load (Finite Width)
vertical stress in soil
March 2 - • Linearly Increasing Vertical Loading on an
under different
April 9, 2021 Infinite Strip
loading conditions
• Vertical Stress due to Embankment
and using different
Loading
methods.
• Vertical stress below a Uniformly Loaded
Circular Area
• Vertical stress below a Uniformly Loaded
Rectangular Area
• Influence Chart for Vertical Pressure
Elaborate: Problem Solving
Evaluate: Answer assessment questions
April 8, 2021 Summative Assessment: MIDTERM QUIZ
April 12,
Summative Assessment: MIDTERM EXAMINATION
2021
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR
BEFORE APRIL 19, 2021
MODULE 4: Compressibility of Soil
Engage: Determine the settlement due to stress
Exhibits proficiency
increase caused by additional loads
in understanding
Explore: Compressibility of Soil (pp. 353-420)
the principles of
Explain:
April 19 – 30, consolidation and
• Elastic Settlement
2021 the step-by-step
• Primary Consolidation Settlement
process of
• Secondary Consolidation Settlement
computing soil
Elaborate: Problem Solving
settlements.
Evaluate: Answer assessment questions
MODULE 5: Shear Strength of Soil
Proficiency in the Engage: Determine the shear resistance
determination of parameters of soils which will be used to analyze
May 3-14,
shear strength soil stability problems
2021
determination Explore: Shear Strength of Soil (pp. 429-484)
using laboratory Explain:

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 procedures with • Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
indexes. • Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Test
• Unconfined Compression Test
Elaborate: Problem Solving
Evaluate: Answer assessment questions
May 18,
Summative Assessment: FINAL QUIZ
2021
May 20,
Summative Assessment: FINAL EXAMINATION
2021
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR
BEFORE MAY 28, 2021

Saint Louis University Calendar for the Second Semester AY 2020-2021

Online Registration: January 5 – 8, 2021
Start of Classes: January 18, 2021
Chinese New Year: February 12, 2021 (No Classes)
Preliminary Exams: February 22 – March 1, 2021
EDSA People Power Revolution: February 25, 2021
Holy Week: March 29 – April 3, 2021
Araw ng Kagitingan: April 9, 2021
Mid-Term Exams: April 12 – 17, 2021
Extension & Outreach Week: April 26 – 30, 2021
Labor Day: May 1, 2021
Research, Innovations, & Creatives Week: May 3 – 7, 2021
Final Exams: May 20 – 26, 2021
Baccalaureate Mass & Graduation Exercises: June 24 – 25, 2021

EVALUATION

TO PASS THE COURSE, YOU MUST:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities and problem sets.
2. Submit graded quiz for prelims, midterms, and finals.
3. Take the Prelim, Midterm, and Final Examination.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Formative Assessment

Formative assessments such as self-assessment activities and problem sets aim

to enhance and deepen your understanding of the course. The requirements are
written after each module and you are expected to submit your output by the
scheduled due dates.

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 The honor pledge shall always be a part of all requirements submitted.

Summative Assessment

Quizzes and Examination – the graded quizzes will be posted one week before
its scheduled date through courier/sms.

Prelim, Midterm, and Final Individual assessments will be conducted as

scheduled. You will be assigned problems to be answered. The problems will be given
through courier/sms on the scheduled date of examination.

You will have to compile all course requirements including the

prelim/midterm/final quiz and exam and then send it via courier (if printed or saved
in USB memory stick or both) on or before the deadline.

The honor pledge shall always be a part of all requirements submitted.

TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will be needing the following
software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, Publication, and Spreadsheet. These
are applications that are available in your desktop or laptops that will not require internet
connection for you to use them.

Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging; hence, you need to have
with you a cellphone. If you need to call, or you want to talk to me, send me a message first
and wait for me to respond.

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

Engr. Eleazar H. Santiago, MSCE

FB account/messenger: Eleazar Hipol Santiago
E-mails: [email protected],
[email protected]
Cellphone No.: 09177169696

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i

COURSE GUIDE ......................................................................................................................... iii

COURSE OVERVIEW...................................................................................................................................... iii

COURSE STUDY GUIDE ............................................................................................................. iv

STUDY SCHEDULE ......................................................................................................................................... vii

EVALUATION .................................................................................................................................................. ix

TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS ............................................................................................................................. x

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR ....................................................................................... x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ xi

MODULE 1: IN - SITU STRESSES (ON - SITE STRESSES) ............................................................. 1

ENGAGE ............................................................................................................................................ 1
EXPLORE ............................................................................................................................................ 1

UNIT 1: TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS FOR SATURATED SOIL (NO SEEPAGE) ................................................ 2
EXPLAIN ............................................................................................................................................. 2
ELABORATE ....................................................................................................................................... 6

UNIT 2: STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH SEEPAGE .............................................................................. 7

EXPLAIN ............................................................................................................................................. 7
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 13

UNIT 3: SEEPAGE FORCE ............................................................................................................................. 14

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 14
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 15

UNIT 4: HEAVING IN SOIL DUE TO FLOW AROUND SHEET PILES ........................................................... 15

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 15
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 19

UNIT 5: CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS .............................................................................................................. 19

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 19
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 22
EVALUATE ........................................................................................................................................ 22

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 MODULE 2: NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE ................................................. 24
ENGAGE .......................................................................................................................................... 24
EXPLORE .......................................................................................................................................... 24

UNIT 1: STRESS EQUATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 25

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 25
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 30

UNIT 2: MOHR’S CIRCLE .............................................................................................................................. 30

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 30
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 37

UNIT 3: POLE METHOD ................................................................................................................................. 37

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 37
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 43
EVALUATE ........................................................................................................................................ 43

MODULE 3: STRESSES IN A SOIL MASS................................................................................... 48

ENGAGE .......................................................................................................................................... 48
EXPLORE .......................................................................................................................................... 48

UNIT 1: STRESSES CAUSED BY POINT LOAD ............................................................................................. 49

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 49
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 52

UNIT 2: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL LINE LOAD ............................................................ 52

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 52
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 55

UNIT 3: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A HORIZONTAL LINE LOAD ...................................................... 55

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 55
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 57

UNIT 4: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL STRIP LOAD (FINITE WIDTH AND INFINITE
LENGTH)......................................................................................................................................................... 57
EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 57
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 62

UNIT 5: LINEARLY INCREASING VERTICAL LOADING ON AN INFINITE STRIP ..................................... 62

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 62
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 67

UNIT 6: VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO EMBANKMENT LOADING ................................................................. 68

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 68
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 75

UNIT 7: VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA.......... 77

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 EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 77
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 79

UNIT 8: VERTICAL STRESS AT ANY POINT BELOW A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA ........... 79
EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 79
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 82

UNIT 9: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA............................................ 83

EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 83
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 88

UNIT 10: VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF A RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA ..................... 89
EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 89
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 90

UNIT 11: INFLUENCE CHART FOR VERTICAL PRESSURE (NEWMARK’S CHART) ................................... 91
EXPLAIN ........................................................................................................................................... 91
ELABORATE ..................................................................................................................................... 97
EVALUATE ........................................................................................................................................ 97

MODULE 4: COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL ............................................................................... 100

ENGAGE ........................................................................................................................................ 100
EXPLORE ........................................................................................................................................ 100

UNIT 1: SETTLEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 101

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 101

UNIT 2: ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (Se) ............................................................................................................. 104

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 104
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 111

UNIT 3: FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION ..................................................................................... 111

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 111
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 120

UNIT 4: PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION (SC) ................................................................................................ 120

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 120
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 123

UNIT 5: SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (SS).......................................................................................... 123

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 123
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 126

UNIT 6: TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION ................................................................................................ 126

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 126
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 132
EVALUATE ...................................................................................................................................... 133

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 MODULE 5: SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL ................................................................................ 134
ENGAGE ........................................................................................................................................ 134
EXPLORE ........................................................................................................................................ 134

UNIT 1: MOHR – COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION .................................................................................. 135

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 135

UNIT 2: DIRECT SHEAR TEST ....................................................................................................................... 138

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 138
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 143

UNIT 3: TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST-GENERAL ................................................................................................. 143

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 143

UNIT 4: CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TRIAXIAL TEST....................................................................... 145

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 145
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 150

UNIT 5: CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (CU) TRIAXIAL TEST.................................................................. 150

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 150
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 153

UNIT 6: UNCONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (UU) TRIAXIAL TEST ............................................................. 153

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 153

UNIT 7: UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST ON SATURATED CLAY .................................................... 154

EXPLAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 154
ELABORATE ................................................................................................................................... 156
EVALUATE ...................................................................................................................................... 156

REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................. 162

ASSIGNMENT GUIDE ............................................................................................................. 162

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 MODULE 1:
IN - SITU STRESSES (ON - SITE STRESSES)

ENGAGE

For various geotechnical engineering problems, we need to analyze and determine

the nature of stress distribution along an identified soil profile cross-section. As described from
the course CE 412: Geotechnical Engineering 1, the soil is a multiphase system.

Recall your learnings and answer the following questions by writing your answers in
the space provided.

1. What are the different components of soil?

2. What are the different weight and volume relationship parameters in determining
the soil unit weight?

3. What are the different types of soil unit weight?

4. What might be the impact of layers of soil in total weight?

This module includes the concept of effective stress, stresses in saturated soil with
different seepage conditions, seepage force, conditions for heaving, use of filters, and
capillary rise in soils.

EXPLORE

Read: In Situ Stresses (pp. 271-299)

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS FOR SATURATED SOIL (NO SEEPAGE)

EXPLAIN

Total Stress, σ
- Total weight of the soil column
- It includes all the components, such as weight of soil solids and water (weight of air is
negligible)
σ = Σ(γH) (1.1)

where: γ = unit weight of the material, H = height/depth of the material

The total stress therefore for point A along the

section a – a for Figure 1.1. is:
σA = γw H + γsat (HA − H) (1.2)

Components of total stress:

σ = u + σ′ (1.3)

1. Water in the void space, u

- hydrostatic pressure
- pore water pressure
- neutral stress

u = γw h (1.4)

where: γw = unit weight of water

sample from Figure 1.1.:
Figure 1.1. Saturated soil column uA = γw HA (1.5)
without seepage
2. Soil solids at their points of contact, σ’
- effective vertical stress

σ′ = σ − u (1.6)

For the effective stress at sample point A, using equation 1.6, substitute equations 1.2 and
1.5:
σ′A = γw H + γsat HA − γsat H − γw HA (1.7)

σA uA
Consider terms with same type of unit weight and extract -1 for γw group:
σ′A = γsat (HA − H) − γw ( HA − H) (1.8)

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 Extract (H-HA):
σ′A = (γsat − γw )(HA − H) (1.9)

Effective Soil Unit Weight Depth of the soil

Effective Soil Unit Weight, γ’

- submerged unit weight
γ′ = γsat − γw (1.10)

Effective Vertical Stress, σ’

σ′ = Σ(γ′H) (1.11)

Notes:
- The stress acting for a certain point is the weight above it
- For layers of soil (total and effective), apply summation of stresses from free surface (sample:
ground level) to the sample point
- For dry soil, consider effective unit weight = dry unit weight
- Better to present computations in table form

Sample Problems:

9.3 A soil profile consisting of three layers is shown in Figure 1.2. Calculate the values of σ,
]
300 u, and σ’ at points A, B, C, and D. In each case, plot the variations of σ, u, and σ’ with
depth.

Figure 1.2

Solution:
Processes:
1. In table form, identify the different points (at the surface/interface of different layers)
2. Use equations 1.1 for σ, 1.4 for u, and 1.6 (or 1.11) for σ’

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 σ u σ'
Points
(Eq. 1.1) (Eq. 1.4) (Eq. 1.6) (Eq. 1.11)
0 (no load above
A 0 (no ground 0 0 (no load above A)
A)
water present
kN kN
(16 3 ) (3m) above the (16 ) (3m)
B m 48 kPa m3
sample point)
= 48 kPa = 48 kPa
48 kPa kN kN
kN (9.81 ) (6m) 48 kPa + (18 − 9.81) (6m)
C + (18 3 ) (6m) m3 97.14 kPa m3
m = 58.86 kPa = 97.14 kPa
= 156 kPa
156 kPa kN 97.14 kPa
kN (9.81 3 ) (8.5m) 115.115 kN
D + (17 3 ) (2.5m) m + (17 − 9.81) (2.5m)
m kPa m3
= 83.385 kPa
= 198.5 kPa = 115.115 kPa

Must be equal

Stress Diagrams:

σ u σ′
0 0 0

48 kPa 0 48 kPa

156 kPa 58.86 kPa 97.14 kPa

198.5 kPa 83.385 kPa

115.115 kPa
z z z

Figure 1.3

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 9.5 Consider the soil profile shown in Figure 1.4:
]
301 a. Calculate the effective stress at C (modified requirement).
b. How high should the groundwater table rise/drop so that the effective stress at C
is 111 kN/m2?

Figure 1.4

Solution:
Determine first the unit weight of the two layers:
- Dry Sand:
kN
Gs γw (2.66) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γd = = = 16.208 3
1+e 1 + 0.61 m
- Saturated Sand
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (Gs + eS)γw (2.67 + 0.48) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = = 20.879 3
1+e 1+e 1 + 0.48 m

a. Effective Stress at C:
Method 1:
Total Stress at C (Eq. 1.1):
kN kN
σC = Σ(γH) = (16.208 ) (4m) + (20.879 ) (5m) = 169.227 kPa
m3 m3
Pore water pressure at C (Eq. 1.4):
kN
uC = γw h = (9.81 ) (5m) = 49.05 kPa
m3
Effective stress at C (Eq. 1.6):
σ′C = σC − uC = 169.227 kPa − 49.05 kPa = 120.177 kPa
Method 2:
Effective stress at C (Eq. 1.11):
kN kN
σ′C = Σ(γ′ H) = (16.208 3 ) (4m) + (20.879 − 9.81 3 ) (5m) = 120.177 kPa
m m

Note for the changes of effective stress value:

- If the effective stress increases (↑) = the ground water table surface drop (↓)
- If the effective stress decreases (↓) = the ground water table surface rise (↑)

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 b. Rise/drop in the depth of the ground water table, x
Comparing the initial effective stress with the new effective stress:
initial effective stress ? new effective stress
120.177 kPa > 111 kPa
- decreases, therefore ground water table surface rise

Solve the unit weight of the portion of

Layer 1 converted from dry to saturated
condition:
x γsat =
Gs γw + eSγw (Gs + eS)γw
=
1+e 1+e
kN
(2.66 + 0.61) (9.81 3 )
= m
1 + 0.61
kN
= 19.925 3
m

Figure 1.5

Effective stress at C (Eq. 1.11):

σ′C = Σ(γ′ H)
kN kN kN kN
111 2 = (16.208 3 ) (4m − x) + (19.925 − 9.81 3 ) (x) + (20.879 − 9.81 3 ) (5m)
m m m m

x =1.506 m

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problems:

Practice Problem 1: Consider the soil profile
shown in Figure 1.4: How high should the
groundwater table rise/drop so that the
effective stress at C is 130 kN/m2?
Practice Problem 2: A soil profile consisting
of three layers is shown in Figure 1.6.
Calculate the values of σ, u, and σ’ at
points A, B, C, and D. In each case, plot
the variations of σ, u, and σ’ with depth.

Figure 1.6

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 UNIT 2: STRESSES IN SATURATED SOIL WITH SEEPAGE

EXPLAIN

Effect of Seepage:
- Effective stress will change at any point (increase or decrease) depending on the
direction of seepage
o Due to the increase or decrease of pore water pressure

Upward Seepage

Without Seepage

(a) (b)

Figure 1.7. Layer of soil in tank with upward seepage

The impact of seepage will be analyzed using the concept of:

Hydraulic Gradient
head loss h
𝐢= = (1.12)
distance between points H2

- the modification will be for the value of the pore water pressure
- same computation for total and effective stresses

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 Table 1.1. Variations of Stresses for Soil with Upward Seepage
𝛔 𝐮 𝛔′
Points
(Eq. 1.1) (Eq. 1.4) (Eq. 1.6)

A γw H1 γw H1 0

γsat z − γw z − γw iz
B γw H1 + γsat z γw (H1 + z + iz) = (γsat − γw )z − γw iz
= γ′ z − γw iz

γsat H2 − γw H2 − γw h
C γw H1 + γsat H2 γw (H1 + H2 + h) = (γsat − γw )H2 − γw h
= γ′H2 −γw h

Boiling or Quick Condition

 When the rate of seepage and hydraulic gradient gradually are increased
 Limiting condition will be reached
 Soil stability is lost

For critical condition:

effective stress, σ’ = 0, thus σ = u

σ′c = γ′ z − γw icr z = 0 (1.13)

γ′
icr = (1.14)
γw

for most soils: icr ≈ 0.9 – 1.1, with average of 1

failure if: i > icr

Factor of Safety, Fs

For critical condition:

effective stress, σ’ = 0, thus σ = u

strength or resisting value (downward force/load)
Factor of Safety = (1.15)
stress or generator of failure (upward force)

σ
Fs = (1.16)
u

Fs > 1 (safe), Fs = 1 (critical), Fs < 1 (unsafe)

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 Downward Seepage

Without Seepage

(a) (b)
Figure 1.8. Layer of soil in tank with downward seepage

The impact of seepage will be analyzed using the concept of Hydraulic Gradient using
Eq.1.12
- the modification will be for the value of the pore water pressure
- same computation for total and effective stresses

Table 1.2. Variations of Stresses for Soil with Downward Seepage

𝛔 𝐮 𝛔′
Points
(Eq. 1.1) (Eq. 1.4) (Eq. 1.6)

A γw H1 γw H1 0

γsat z − γw z − γw iz
B γw H1 + γsat z γw (H1 + z − iz) = (γsat − γw )z − γw iz
= γ′ z + γw iz

γsat H2 − γw H2 − γw h
C γw H1 + γsat H2 γw (H1 + H2 − h) = (γsat − γw )H2 − γw h
= γ′H2 +γw h

Note for the soil with seepage as shown in Tables 1.1 and 1.2:
- upward seepage (↑) = the effective stress decreases (↓)
- downward seepage (↓) = the effective stress increases (↑)

Sample Problems:

9.7 An exploratory drill hole was made in a stiff saturated clay having a moisture content
]
301 of 29% and Gs = 2.68 as shown in Figure 1.9a. The sand layer underlying the clay was
observed to be under artesian pressure. Water in the drill hole rose to a height of 6 m

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 above the top of sand layer. If an open excavation is to be made in the clay,
determine the safe depth of excavation before the bottom heaves.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.9

Required: H (safe cut)

Solution:
Determine the unit weight of the stiff saturated clay:
Gs w = eS, (S = 1 for saturated soils)
e = Gs w = 2.68(0.29) = 0.7772
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (Gs + eS)γw (2.68 + 0.7772) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = = 19.083 3
1+e 1+e 1 + 0.7772 m

Total Stress at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq 1.1):

kN
σ = Σ(γH) = (19.083 ) (10m − H)
m3
Pore water pressure at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq. 1.4):
kN
u = γw h = (9.81 ) (6m) = 58.86 kPa
m3

For critical condition:

effective stress, σ’ = 0, thus σ = u
kN
(19.083 3 ) (10m − H) = 58.86 kPa
m
H < 6.916 m
(if the problem asks determine the maximum/critical depth of excavation, then the
answer must be H = 6.916m)

9.8 A 10-m-thick layer of stiff saturated clay is underlain by a layer of sand as shown in
]
302 Figure 1.10. The sand is under artesian pressure. A 5.75-m-deep cut is made in the clay.
Determine the factor of safety against heaving at point A.

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 Figure 1.10

Required: Fs

Solution:
Determine the saturated unit weight:
kg m N kN
γsat = ρsat (g) = 1925 3 (9.81 2 ) = 18884.25 3 = 18.884 3
m s m m

Factor of safety (Eq. 1.16):

kN
σ γsat H (18.884 m3 ) (10m − 5.75m)
Fs = = = = 1.363 > 1 (safe)
u γw h kN
(9.81 3 ) (6m)
m

9.9 Refer to the Figure 1.10. What would be the maximum permissible depth of cut before
]
302 heaving would occur?

Required: H (maximum/critical)

Solution:
Total Stress at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq 1.1):
kN
σ = Σ(γH) = (18.884 3 ) (10m − H)
m
Pore water pressure at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq. 1.4):
kN
u = γw h = (9.81 3 ) (6m) = 58.86 kPa
m

For critical condition:

effective stress, σ’ = 0, thus σ = u
kN
(18.884 3 ) (10m − H) = 58.86 kPa
m
H = 6.883 m

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 9.10 Refer to Problem 9.9. Water may be introduced into the cut to improve the stability
]
302 against heaving. Assuming that a cut is made up to the maximum permissible depth
calculated in Problem 9.9, what would be the required height of water inside the cut
in order to ensure a factor of safety of 1.5?

Required: hw inside the cut (infiltration is not permitted because the soil is stiff
clay/impermeable)

Solution:
Total Stress at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq 1.1):
kN kN
σ = Σ(γH) = (18.884 3 ) (10m − 6.883m) + (9.81 3 ) (hw )
m m
Pore water pressure at the bottom of the stiff soil (Eq. 1.4):
kN
u = γw h = (9.81 3 ) (6m) = 58.86 kPa
m

Factor of safety (Eq. 1.16):

kN kN
σ (18.884 m3 ) (10m − 6.883m) + (9.81 m3 ) (hw )
Fs = 1.5 = =
u 58.86 kPa
hw ≈ 3 m

9.12 Refer to Figure 1.7b. If H1 = 0.91 m, H2 = 1.37 m, h = 0.46 m, γsat = 18.67 kN/m3, area of
]
302 the tank = 0.58 m2, and hydraulic conductivity of the sand (k) = 0.16 cm/sec,
a. What is the rate of upward seepage of water (m 3/min)?
b. If the point C is located at the middle of the soil layer, then what is the effective
stress at C?

Solution:
a. rate of upward seepage, q = kiA (from CE 412)
Hydraulic gradient (Eq. 1.12):
loss
)h (head 0.46 m
gain
i= = = 0.336
L (distance travelled by water particle through the soil medium) 1.37 m
cm 1m 60 sec m3
q = (0.16 ) (0.336)(0.58 m2 ) ( )( ) = 0.019
sec 100cm 1 min. min

b. Effective Stress at point C, using the equation from Table 1.1:

kN 1.37m kN 1.37m
σ′C = γ′ z − γw iz = (18.67 − 9.81) 3 ( ) − (9.81 3 ) (0.336) ( ) = 3.811 kPa
m 2 m 2

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problems:

Practice Problem 1: An exploratory drill hole was made in a stiff saturated clay having a
moisture content of 15% and Gs = 2.8 as shown in Figure 1.11. The sand layer underlying the
clay was observed to be under artesian pressure. Water in the drill hole rose to a height of 8
m above the top of sand layer. If an open excavation is to be made in the clay, determine
the safe depth of excavation before the bottom heaves.

Figure 1.11

Practice Problem 2: Refer to Figure 1.12. If H1 = 1.5 m, H2 = 2.5 m, h = 1.5 m, e =0.49, Gs =

2.66, area of the tank = 0.62 m2, and hydraulic conductivity of the sand (k) = 0.21 cm/sec.
a. What is the rate of upward seepage of water (m3/min)?
b. Will boiling occur when h = 1.5 m?
c. What would be the critical value of h to cause boiling?

Figure 1.12

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 UNIT 3: SEEPAGE FORCE

EXPLAIN

Seepage Force
 Force is equal to the soil stress multiplied to the area

no seepage

P’1 =

with upward seepage

P’2 =

with downward seepage

Figure 1.13. Force on a volume of soil due to (a) no seepage, (b) upward seepage, and
(c) downward seepage

From Figure 1.13a:

P1′ = zγ′ A (1.17)

From Figure 1.13b:

P2′ = (zγ′ − izγw )A (1.18)

The seepage force = decrease (or increase) in the total force due to seepage:

P1′ − P2′ = γ′ zA − (γ′ z − γ𝑤 iz)A = γ𝑤 𝑖𝑧𝐴 (1.19)

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 If vol. = volume of the contributing to the effective force equal to zA

Then we may express seepage force per unit volume as:

𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 P1′ − P2′ γw izA
= = = 𝑖γ𝑤 (1.20)
𝑣𝑜𝑙. zA zA

Sample Problem:

9.12 Refer to Figure 1.7b. If H1 = 0.91 m, H2 = 1.37 m, h = 0.46 m, γsat = 18.67 kN/m3, area of
]
302 the tank = 0.58 m2, and hydraulic conductivity of the sand (k) = 0.16 cm/sec,
additional requirement
What is the upward seepage force per unit volume of soil?

Solution:
Seepage force per unit volume (Eq. 1.20):
seepage force kN kN
= iγw = 0.336 (9.81 3 ) = 3.296 3
vol. m m

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: Refer to Figure 1.7b. If H1 = 1.5 m, H2 = 2.5 m, h = 1.5 m, e =0.49, Gs = 2.66,
area of the tank = 0.62 m2, and hydraulic conductivity of the sand (k) = 0.21 cm/sec. What is
the upward seepage force per unit volume of soil?

UNIT 4: HEAVING IN SOIL DUE TO FLOW AROUND SHEET PILES

EXPLAIN
According to Terzaghi (1922), heaving
occurs within a horizontal distance of D/2 from
the sheet piles (Figure 1.14)
D = embedment depth in permeable
layer

Factor of Safety against Heaving, Fs:

W′
Fs = (1.21)
U
where:
W’ = submerged / effective weight of
soil (per length)
W ′ = γ′ Vol (1.22)
Figure 1.14. Heave zone

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 D
W ′ = γ′ (D) ( ) (sample length) (1.23)
2
1
W = D2 γ′
′ (1.24)
2
U = hydrostatic uplift due to seepage
= equal to volume multiplied to seepage force per unit volume
1
U = D2 (iav )(γw ) (1.25)
2
iav =average hydraulic gradient at the bottom of the block
1 2 ′
W′ D γ
Fs = = 2 (1.26)
U 1 2
D (iav )(γw )
2

γ′
Fs = (1.27)
iav (γw )

For flow around sheet pile in a homogeneous soil:

W′ 0.5D2 γ′
Fs = = (1.28)
U 0.5Co γw D(H1 − H2 )

Dγ′
Fs = (1.29)
Co γw (H1 − H2 )

where: Co =function of D/T(thickness of permeable layer) from Table 1.3

Table 1.3. Variation of Co with D/T

Sample Problem:

9.15 Determine the factor of safety against heave on the downstream side of the single-
]
303 row sheet pile structure shown in Figure 1.15. Use the following soil and design
parameters: H1 = 7 m; H2 = 3 m; thickness of permeable layer (T) = 12 m; design depth
of penetration of sheet pile (D) = 4.5 m; and γsat = 17 kN/m3.

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 Figure 1.15

Required: Fs

Solution:
For the homogeneous soil, determine first Co from Table 1.3:
D 4.5 m
= = 0.375
T 12 m

Referring to Table 1.3:

Using interpolation:
Co − 0.359 0.375 − 0.3
= ; Co = 0.3545
0.353 − 0.359 0.4 − 0.3

Factor of Safety, Fs (Eq. 1.29):

kN
Dγ′ (4.5m)(17 − 9.81) 3
Fs = = m
Co γw (H1 − H2 ) (0.3545) (9.81 kN ) (7m − 3m)
m3
Fs = 2.326

Use of Filters to Increase the Factor of Safety against Heave

Filter = is a granular material with openings small enough to prevent the movement of the
soil particles upon which it is placed and, at the same time, is pervious enough to offer
little resistance to seepage through it

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 Figure 1.16. Filter

Factor of Safety against heaving with filter, Fs:

1 2 ′ 1 ′
W ′ + WF′ 2 D γ + 2 DD1 γF
Fs = = (1.30)
U 1 2
D (iav )(γw )
2

D1 ′
γ′ + ( )γ
Fs = D F (1.31)
iav (γw )

For flow around sheet pile in a homogeneous soil:

1
W ′ + WF′ 0.5D2 γ′ + DD1 γ′F
Fs = = 2 (1.32)
U 0.5Co γw D(H1 − H2 )

Dγ′ + D1 γ′F
Fs = (1.33)
Co γw (H1 − H2 )
Conservative Fs ≈ 4 to 5

Sample Problem:

9.15 Continued. If the factor of safety against heaving needs to be increased to 4 by laying
]
303 a filter layer on the downstream side, what should be the thickness of this layer? Given
saturated unit weight of the filter material is 20 kN/m3.

Required: thickness of filter material, D1

Solution:
Factor of safety against heaving with filter for homogeneous soil (Eq. 1.33):
Dγ′ + D1 γ′F
Fs =
Co γw (H1 − H2 )

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 FsCo γw (H1 − H2 ) − Dγ′
D1 =
γ′F
kN kN
(4)(0.3545) (9.81 3 ) (7m − 3m) − (4.5m)(17 − 9.81) 3
D1 = m m
kN
(20 − 9.81) 3
m
D1 = 2.285 m

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: Find the factor of safety against heave on the downstream side of the
single-row sheet pile structure shown in Figure 1.15. (Note: H1 = 5.6m., H2 = 2.2m., Thickness of
permeable layer = 10 m and depth of penetration of sheet pile = 6 m.) Assume γ sat = 19
kN/m3. If the factor of safety against heaving needs to be increased to 5 by laying a filter
layer on the downstream side, what should be the thickness of this layer? Given saturated
unit weight of the filter material is 20.5 kN/m3.

UNIT 5: CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS

EXPLAIN

 Soil voids behaves as bundles of capillary tubes of variable cross sections.

 Capillary rise, hc:

4Tcosα
hc = (1.34)
γw d
where:
T = surface tension
α = contact angle (angle measured
from the tangent line with respect
to the surface of the liquid to the
vertical surface)
d = diameter of the capillary tube
1
hc ∝ (1.35)
d

General relationship
Figure 1.17. Rise of water and pressure inside from Eq. 1.3: σ = σ′ + u
the capillary tube Effective Stress
from Eq. 1.6: σ′ = σ − u

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 The variation of pore water pressure (u) by capillary rise:
1. Fully saturated
u = −γw h (1.36)
2. Partially saturated
S
u = −( ) γw h (1.37)
100
where:
h = capillary height (of the point of consideration) from groundwater table
S = degree of saturation, %

Sample Problem:

9.13 Figure 1.18 shows the zone of capillary rise within a clay layer above the groundwater
]
303 table. For the following variables, calculate and plot σ, u,
and σ’ with depth. H1 = 3.05 m., H2 = 2.43 m., H3 = 4.88 m., and S = 40% (at the zone of
capillary rise).

Figure 1.18

Solution:
Determine first the unit weight of the three layers:
- Dry Sand:
kN
Gs γw (2.69) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γd = = = 17.952 3
1+e 1 + 0.47 m
- Moist Clay (Zone of Capillary Rise)
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (Gs + eS)γw [2.73 + (0.68)(0.40)] (9.81 m3 )
γm = = =
1+e 1+e 1 + 0.68
kN
γm = 17.530 3
m

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 - Saturated Clay
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (Gs + eS)γw (2.7 + 0.89) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = = 18.634 3
1+e 1+e 1 + 0.89 m

Processes:
1. In table form, identify the different points (at the surface/interface of different layers)
as shown in Figure 1.19

●A

●B

●C

●D

Figure 1.19

2. Use equations (1.1) for σ; (1.4, 1.36, or 1.37) for u; and (1.6) for σ’

σ u σ'
Points
(Eq. 1.1) (Eq. 1.4/1.36/1.37) (Eq. 1.6)
0 (no ground water present above
A 0 (no load above A) 0
the sample point)
Above B: (Above B)
0 (no ground water present above 54.753
kN
(17.952 ) (3.05m) the sample point) kPa
B m3
= 54.753 kPa Below B: Due to capillary action (Below B)
40 kN 64.288
− ( ) (9.81 3 ) (2.43m) = −9.535 kPa
100 m kPa
kN 0 (neutral axis, point where the
54.753 kPa + (17.530 ) (2.43m) 97.352
C m3 negative/vacuum pressure changes
kPa
= 97.352 kPa to positive pressure)

kN kN
97.352 kPa + (18.634 ) (4.88m) (9.81 ) (4.88m) 140.412
D m3 m3 kPa
= 188.285 kPa = 47.873 kPa

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 Stress Diagrams:
σ u σ′
●A
0 0 0

54.753 kPa 0 54.753 kPa

●B
−9.535 kPa 64.288 kPa

●C 97.352 kPa 0 97.352 kPa

●D 188.285 kPa 47.873 kPa

140.412 kPa
z z z

Figure 1.20

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: Figure 1.19 shows the zone of capillary rise within a clay layer above the
groundwater table. For the following variables, calculate and plot σ, u, and σ’ with depth.
H1 = 2.5 m., H2 = 3 m., H3 = 3.5 m., and S = 60% (at the zone of capillary rise).

EVALUATE

As civil engineers, what are the advantages of knowing the subsurface stresses in soil?
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 Assignment:

Solve the following problem, neatly and orderly. Follow your assignment or task guides.

Problem: A soil profile consisting of three

layers is shown in Figure 1.21. Calculate
the value of σ’:
a. at the mid height of Layer 2
b. at the mid height of Layer 3

Figure 1.21

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 MODULE 2:
NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE

ENGAGE

As part of the fundamentals of the course MECH321: Strength of Materials, when a

sample element is subjected to several types of loads acting simultaneously, we can
determine the state of stress at any plane.

Recall your learnings and answer the following questions by writing your answers in
the space provided.

1. What are the internal impacts of this external loadings to a certain element?

2. What is the value of the shear stress on principal planes?

3. What is the value of the maximum shear stress?

This module aims to give you an overview/review of the stresses on a plane. It will
enable you to determine the normal and shear stresses on an inclined plane with known
stresses on a two-dimensional stress element. It includes the use of derived equation, Mohr’s
Circle, and Pole-Method.

EXPLORE

Read: Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane (pp. 306-311)

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: STRESS EQUATIONS

EXPLAIN

Two – dimensional soil element as shown in Figure 2.1

that is subjected to normal and shear stresses (σy > σx).

External stresses are:

Normal Stresses:
- σx (normal stress along x)
- σy (normal stress along y)
Shear Stresses:
Figure 2.1. Soil element with - τxy (all sides)
stresses acting on it

Consider plane EF shown in Figure 2.2.

θ θ

θ
θ

θ θ

θ θ

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.2. FBD of element EFB

For the Normal Stress (perpendicular) acting along plane EF, in Figure 2.2b:
For the sides of triangle EFB:
̅̅̅̅
EB = EF ̅̅̅̅cosθ (2.1)
̅̅̅̅ = EF
FB ̅̅̅̅sinθ (2.2)
Consider the components of forces along N:
̅̅̅̅) = σx (FB
σn (EF ̅̅̅̅) sin θ + τxy (FB ̅̅̅̅) cos θ + σy (EB
̅̅̅̅) cos θ + τxy (EB̅̅̅̅) sin θ (2.3)
σn (EF̅̅̅̅) = σx (EF ̅̅̅̅sinθ) sin θ + τxy (EF
̅̅̅̅sinθ) cos θ
Note: (Trigonometric identities) ̅̅̅̅cosθ) cos θ + τxy (EF̅̅̅̅cosθ) sin θ
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 +σy (EF (2.4)
sin2 𝜃 = ,
2
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 Substitute values of EF and FB from Eqs. 2.1 and 2.2 in
cos 2 𝜃 =
2 Eq. 2.4:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 c𝑜𝑠 𝜃
σn = σx sin2 θ + σy cos 2 θ + 2τxy sinθ cos θ (2.5)

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 Simplifying the equation using the trigonometric identities, the Normal Stress on plane
EF is:
σy + σx σy − σx
σn = + cos2θ + τxy sin2θ (2.6)
2 2

For the Shear Stress (parallel) acting along plane EF, in Figure 2.2c:
For the sides of triangle EFB:
̅̅̅̅
EB = EF ̅̅̅̅cosθ (2.7)
̅̅̅̅ = EF
FB ̅̅̅̅sinθ (2.8)

Consider the components of forces along T:

̅̅̅̅) = −σx (FB
τn (EF ̅̅̅̅) cos θ + τxy (FB
̅̅̅̅) sin θ + σy (EB
̅̅̅̅) sin θ − τxy (EB
̅̅̅̅) cos θ (2.9)
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
τn (EF) = −σx (EFsinθ) cos θ + τxy (EFsinθ) sin θ
+σy (EF ̅̅̅̅cosθ) sin θ − τxy (EF̅̅̅̅cosθ) cos θ (2.10)
Note: (Trigonometric identities)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 Substitute values of EF and FB from Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8 in
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 Eq. 2.10:
τn = σy sin θ cosθ − σx sin θ cosθ
−τxy (cos 2 θ − sin2 θ) (2.11)

Simplifying the equation using the trigonometric identities, the Shear Stress along
plane EF is:
σy − σx
τn = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ (2.12)
2

For the Principal Stresses:

If the two planes are perpendicular (θ = 90o) then τn = 0:
σy − σx
τn = 0 = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ (2.13)
2
τxy
tan2θ = σ − σ (2.14)
y x
( )
2

From equation 2.14, we can derive the variables of a right

triangle as shown in Figure 2.3.

For H (using Pythagorean Theorem):

𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝐻 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 (2.15)
2
Figure 2.3. Right
triangle variables

Consider equation of σn:

𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑛 = + ( 2 ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (2.16)
2 2 𝐻 𝐻

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 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 ( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
𝜎𝑛 = + 2 (2.17)
2 𝐻

Substitute H from Eq. 2.15 in Eq. 2.17:

𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 ( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
𝜎𝑛 = + × (2.18)
2 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
√( ) + 𝜏 2 √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ]
[ 2 𝑥𝑦 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑥 2
2 } × √( 𝑦
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 {( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
𝜎𝑛 = + (2.19)
2 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
[ 2 ]

Simplify Eq. 2.19, the principal stresses are:

Major (Maximum) Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟏 :

𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎1 = + √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 (2.20)
2 2

Minor (Minimum) Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟑 :

𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎1 (2.21)

𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎3 = − √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 (2.22)
2 2

Some Notes in using the derived equations (Eq. 2.6, 2.12, 2.20, and 2.22):
● Angle θ is always measured from the (global) horizontal axis)
● For Normal Stresses: ● For Shear Stresses:
- Positive if under compression - Positive if outward
(away from vertex with 90o angle)

(a) (c)
- Negative if under tension - Negative if inward
(towards the vertex with 90o angle)

(b) (d)
Figure 2.4

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 Sample Problems:

10.1 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.5. Determine the

]
346 following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Given:
σx = 162 kPa
σy = 128 kPa
Figure 2.5
(note: check the directions of the shear arrows
referenced at vertex with 90o angle)
From Figure 2.5: shear arrows are away from vertex (positive)
τxy = +32 kPa
(note: angle is always measured from the global horizontal axis)
θ = 90o – 55o = 35o
2θ = 70o

Solution:
a. Maximum Stress, 𝜎1 : (Eq. 2.20)
σy + σx σy − σx 2
σ1 = + √( ) + τxy 2
2 2

128 kPa + 162 kPa 128 kPa − 162 kPa 2

σ1 = + √( ) + (32 kPa)2 = 181.235 kPa
2 2
Minimum Stress, σ3 : (Eq. 2.22)
σy + σx σy − σx 2
σ3 = − √( ) + τxy 2
2 2

128 kPa + 162 kPa 128 kPa − 162 kPa 2

σ3 = − √( ) + (32 kPa)2 = 108.765 kPa
2 2

b. Normal Stress along AB, σn : (Eq. 2.6)

σy + σx σy − σx
σn = + cos2θ + τxy sin2θ
2 2
128 kPa + 162 kPa 128 kPa − 162 kPa
σn = + cos70 + (32 kPa)sin70
2 2
σn = 169.256 kPa

Shear Stress along AB, τn : (Eq. 2.12)

σy − σx 128 kPa − 162 kPa
τn = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ = sin70 − (32 kPa)cos70
2 2
τn = −26.919 kPa

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 10.2 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.6. Determine the
]
346 following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Given:
σx = 72 kPa
σy = 121 kPa
(note: check the directions of the shear arrows
Figure 2.6
referenced at vertex with 90o angle)
From Figure 2.6: shear arrows are towards the vertex (negative)
τxy = -39 kPa
(note: angle is always measured from the global horizontal axis)
θ = 33o
2θ = 66o

Solution:
a. Maximum Stress, 𝜎1 : (Eq. 2.20)
σy + σx σy − σx 2
σ1 = + √( ) + τxy 2
2 2

121 kPa + 72 kPa 121 kPa − 72 kPa 2

σ1 = + √( ) + (−39 kPa)2 = 142.557 kPa
2 2
Minimum Stress, σ3 : (Eq. 2.22)
σy + σx σy − σx 2
σ3 = − √( ) + τxy 2
2 2

121 kPa + 72 kPa 121 kPa − 72 kPa 2

σ3 = √
− ( ) + (−39 kPa)2 = 50.443 kPa
2 2

b. Normal Stress along AB, σn : (Eq. 2.6)

σy + σx σy − σx
σn = + cos2θ + τxy sin2θ
2 2
121 kPa + 72 kPa 121 kPa − 72 kPa
σn = + cos66 + (−39 kPa)sin66
2 2
σn = 70.837 kPa

Shear Stress along AB, τn : (Eq. 2.12)

σy − σx 121 kPa − 72 kPa
τn = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ = sin66 − (−39 kPa)cos66
2 2
τn = 38.245 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: A soil element is shown in Figure 2.7.
Determine the following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Figure 2.7

UNIT 2: MOHR’S CIRCLE

EXPLAIN

The normal stress and shear stress that act on

any plane can also be determined by plotting
a Mohr’s Circle.

Sign conventions:
● Normal Stresses, σ:
- Compression: “+”
- Tension: “-”
● Shear Stresses, τ:
- “+” if same direction with θ Figure 2.8. Mohr’s circle
● For 2θ
- Rotation is always CCW (the direction of θ is assumed as positive, then the rotation is
based on the positive direction in the Cartesian plane)

Process:
a. Identify the coordinates of points 𝑥(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) and y(𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) as shown in Figure 2.8 and
plot the coordinates as shown in Figure 2.10.

Sample (Based on Figure 2.9):

● θ rotation with respect to the horizontal is

CCW

Figure 2.9

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 Notes: ● Coordinate x:
● Follow sign conventions and the vertical and
horizontal axis must have equal interval and
+σx (compression = +)
measurements. +τxy (CCW with the element= +)
● For the origin of the graph: ∴ 𝑥 (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 )
- For τ -axis, always start at zero (0)
- For σ -axis you may start at zero (0), or the least ● Coordinate y:
normal stress minus the approximate radius of the
Mohr’s circle (apply distance Formula to points x and +σy (compression = +)
y to determine the diameter) -τxy (CW with the element = -)
● Always check the rotation of θ from the horizontal ∴ 𝑦 (𝜎𝑦 , −𝜏𝑥𝑦 )

Figure 2.10

b. Connect points x and y with a straight line, and identify the intersection with the
normal stress axis as point O (the center of the Mohr’s circle) as shown in Figure
2.11

Figure 2.11

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 c. Draw the circle using the compass (place the metallic needle of the compass at
the center of Mohr’s circle or point O, and the pen at either x and y, then draw
the circle) as shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12

d. Identify the principal stresses (maximum and minimum) at the intersection of the
Mohr’s circle at the Normal Stress axis (𝜏 = 0) as shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13

e. Draw line from point O towards the Mohr’s circle measured 2θ (CCW always)
from the leg (radius) ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑦 as shown in Figure 2.14.

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 Figure 2.14

f. Identify the intersection coordinate of the point as σn and τn.

Sample Problems:
Repeat problems from Module 2, Unit 1 using Mohr’s Circle

10.1 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.15. Determine

]
346 the following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Solution:
Identify coordinates:
- consider angle θ measured from the horizontal
axis as shown in Figure 2.16
Figure 2.15

θ = 35o
CCW 2θ = 70o

θ
Figure 2.16

- Coordinate of point x: - Coordinate of point y:

+162 kPa (compression = +) +128 kPa (compression = +)
+32 kPa (CCW w/ the element = +) -32 kPa (CW w/ the element= -)
∴ 𝑥 (162 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 32 𝑘𝑃𝑎) ∴ 𝑦 (128 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −32 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

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 𝝈, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−230

−220

−210

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑥 (162 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 32 𝑘𝑃𝑎) −200

−190

(𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏𝑛 )
−180

−170

●
●

−160

2𝜃 = 70𝑜
−150
●

𝝈𝟏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂

−140
𝑂

𝝈𝟑 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝈𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂

−130

𝝉𝒏 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ −𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

●
𝑦 (128 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −32 𝑘𝑃𝑎)
−120

−110

Figure 2.17. Mohr’s circle solution for problem 10.1 (p.346)

b. Stresses along plane AB:
−100
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎3

−90
a. Principal Stresses:

−80

−70

−60

−50
Answers:

−40
Follow processes a to f:

−30

−20

−10
60 −
70 −

40 −

20 −

10 −

−20 −

−50 −

−60 −
50 −

30 −

−10 −

−40 −

−70 −
−30 −
𝝉, 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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 10.2 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.18. Determine the
]
346 following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Solution:
Identify coordinates:
- consider angle θ measured from the horizontal
axis as shown in Figure 2.19
Figure 2.18

θ CW
θ = 33o
2θ = 66o

Figure 2.19

- Coordinate of point x:
+72 kPa (compression = +)
-39 kPa (CCW with the element = -)
∴ 𝑥 (72 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

- Coordinate of point y:
+121 kPa (compression = +)
+39 kPa (CW with the element= +)
∴ 𝑦 (121 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

Notes:
● Even though the direction of θ in the element is clock wise (CW), always measure 2 θ in
counter-clock wise (CCW) manner in the Mohr’s circle
● The initial identification of the direction of θ in the element is intended only for the
determination of the sign of shear stresses (τxy):
- same direction = +
- different direction = -

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 𝝈, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−230

−220

−210

−200

−190

−180
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
−170
𝑦 (121 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

−160

−150

−140

𝝈𝟏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝈𝟑 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−130

𝝈𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟕𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝉𝒏 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂
●

−120

−110
2𝜃 = 66𝑜

Figure 2.20. Mohr’s circle solution for problem 10.2 (p.346)

−100

b. Stresses along plane AB:

●
𝑂

−90
a. Principal Stresses:

−80
●
●

−70
(𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏𝑛 )

𝑥 (72 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

−60

−50
Answers:

−40
Follow processes a to f:

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎3

−30

−20

−10
60 −
70 −

40 −

20 −

10 −

−20 −

−50 −

−60 −
50 −

30 −

−10 −

−40 −

−70 −
−30 −
𝝉, 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: (Repeat practice problem from
Module 2, Unit 1 using Mohr’s Circle)
A soil element is shown in Figure 2.21. Determine the
following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Figure 2.21

UNIT 3: POLE METHOD

EXPLAIN

Same Sign Conventions of Mohr’s

Circle:
● Normal Stresses, σ:
- Compression: “+”
- Tension: “-”
● Shear Stresses, τ:
- “+” if same direction with θ
● For θ
- Rotation is always CCW (the
direction of θ is assumed as positive,
then the rotation is based on the
positive direction in the Cartesian
plane) Figure 2.22. Pole method

Process:
a. Plot the coordinates of points 𝑥(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) and y(𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ).
- same process of identifying the sign of stresses and coordinates
b. Connect points x and y and identify the intersection with the normal stress axis as
point O.
c. Draw the circle using the compass.
d. Identify the principal stresses (maximum and minimum) at the intersection of the
Mohr’s circle at the Normal Stress axis (𝜏 = 0).

Note:
● Same processes for a to d from Mohr’s Circle as shown in Figure 2.23

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 Figure 2.23

e. Draw horizontal line at point “y” until it intersects the circle and mark as point “P” as
shown in Figure 2.24

Figure 2.24

f. Measure CCW (always) angle “θ” with respect to the horizontal line and draw line
until it intersects the circle as shown in Figure 2.25.

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 Figure 2.25

g. Identify the point as the σn and τn.

Sample Problems:
Repeat problems from Module 2, Unit 1 using Pole Method

10.1 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.26. Determine

]
346 the following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Solution:
Identify coordinates:
- consider angle θ measured from the horizontal
axis as shown in Figure 2.27
Figure 2.26

θ = 35o

CCW
θ
Figure 2.27

- Coordinate of point x: - Coordinate of point y:

+162 kPa (compression = +) +128 kPa (compression = +)
+32 kPa (CCW w/ the element = +) -32 kPa (CW w/ the element= -)
∴ 𝑥 (162 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 32 𝑘𝑃𝑎) ∴ 𝑦 (128 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −32 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

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 𝝈, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−230

−220

−210

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑥 (162 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 32 𝑘𝑃𝑎) −200

𝜃 = 35𝑜
−190

−180

−170

●
(𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏𝑛 )

𝑃
●
●

−160

−150
●

𝝈𝟏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑂

−140

𝝈𝟑 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝈𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂

−130

𝝉𝒏 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ −𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

●
𝑦 (128 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −32 𝑘𝑃𝑎)
−120

−110

Figure 2.28. Pole method solution for problem 10.1 (p.346)

b. Stresses along plane AB:
−100
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎3

−90
a. Principal Stresses:

−80

−70

−60

−50
Answers:

−40
Follow processes a to g:

−30

−20

−10
60 −
70 −

40 −

20 −

10 −

−20 −

−50 −

−60 −
50 −

30 −

−10 −

−40 −

−70 −
−30 −
𝝉, 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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 10.2 A soil element is shown in Figure 2.29. Determine the
]
346 following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Solution:
Identify coordinates:
- consider angle θ measured from the horizontal
axis as shown in Figure 2.30

Figure 2.29
θ CW

θ = 33o

Figure 2.30

- Coordinate of point x:
+72 kPa (compression = +)
-39 kPa (CCW with the element = -)
∴ 𝑥 (72 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

- Coordinate of point y:
+121 kPa (compression = +)
+39 kPa (CW with the element= +)
∴ 𝑦 (121 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

Reminders:
● Even though the direction of θ in the element is clock wise (CW), always measure 2 θ in
counter-clock wise (CCW) manner in the Mohr’s circle
● The initial identification of the direction of θ in the element is intended only for the
determination of the sign of shear stresses (τxy):
- same direction = +
- different direction = -

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 𝝈, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−230

−220

−210

−200

−190

−180
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
−170
𝑦 (121 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

−160

−150

−140

𝝈𝟏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝈𝟑 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂
−130

𝝈𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟕𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝝉𝒏 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ≈ 𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂
●

−120

−110
𝜃 = 33𝑜

Figure 2.31. Pole method solution for problem 10.2 (p.346)

b. Stresses along plane AB:
−100
●
𝑂

−90
●
𝑃

(𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏𝑛 )

a. Principal Stresses:

−80
●
●

−70
𝑥 (72 𝑘𝑃𝑎, −39 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

−60

−50
Answers:

−40
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎3
Follow processes a to g:

−30

−20

−10
60 −
70 −

40 −

20 −

10 −

−20 −

−50 −

−60 −
50 −

30 −

−10 −

−40 −

−70 −
−30 −
𝝉, 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem 1: (Repeat practice problem from Module 2, Unit 1 using Pole Method)
A soil element is shown in Figure 2.32. Determine the following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

Figure 2.32

EVALUATE

What is/are the difference/s of the analysis of stresses on plane surface of soil to the
assessment discussed in your Mech 321: Strength of Materials?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment:

Solve the following problem, neatly and orderly. Follow

your assignment or task guides.

Problem: A soil element is shown in Figure 2.33.

Determine the following: (Compare the three methods)
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB
Figure 2.33

In addition to your activities, please answer your major assessments: Prelim Quiz, and Exam.

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 PRELIMINARY TERM QUIZ IN CE 3231: Geotechnical Engineering 2
Instructions: Solve and answer the following problems orderly and show complete solutions
and indicate correct units. Label properly and enclose your “final answers” in a rectangular
box only. Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers. Each excess answer will be
a deduction of 5 points to the total score.

1. A soil profile consisting of three soil layers is shown. Characteristics of the layers are:

Layer No. Thickness Soil Parameters

1 H1 = 5m e = 0.7; Gs = 2.69

2 H2 = 8m e = 0.55; Gs = 2.7

3 H3 = 3m w = 38%; e = 1.2

Determine:
a.) (5pts) The effective stress at Point C
b.) (5pts) The maximum Neutral Stress at Point D
c.) (5pts) What is the change in the effective stress at C if the water level rises 3m above
Point A due to flooding?

2. (5pts) An exploratory drill hole was made in a stiff saturated clay (G s = 2.72, and w = 35%).
The sand layer underlying the clay was observed to be under artesian pressure. Water in
the drill hole rose to a height of 12 ft above the top of the sand layer. If an open
excavation is to be made in the clay, how deep can the excavation proceed before the
bottom heaves?

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 1. (20 pts) A soil element is shown in the figure. Determine the following:
a. Maximum and minimum principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB

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 PRELIMINARY TERM EXAM IN CE 3231: Geotechnical Engineering 2
This exam is designed to assess whether you are able to:
(TLO 1) Understand the theoretical concept of effective stress and apply it in different site
scenario, and (TLO 2) Exhibit proficiency in using the pole method to determine the normal
and shear stress in a plane.
Instructions: Solve and answer the following problems neatly and orderly. Enclose your
final answers with box only. Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers. Each
excess answer will be a deduction of 5 points to the total score.

I. A soil excavation was done until 4m below the surface of the soil. It was identified
that the shallow ground water level is 2m below the ground level and the upper
is dry. The properties of the soil are: Gs = 2.7, e = 0.50, and ϕ’ = 30o. Assuming no
seepage.

1. (5pts.) What is the value of the in-situ soil’s unit weight above G.W.T. in kN/m3?
2. (5pts.) What is the maximum neutral stress at the deepest point of excavation
in kPa?
3. (5pts.) What is the value of the total stress of soil at the surface of the ground
water table in kPa?
4. (5pts.) What is the value of the effective stress at the deepest point of
excavation in kPa?

II. An exploratory drill hole was made in a stiff saturated clay, as shown in Figure 1,
having a moisture content of 25% and Gs = 2.56. The sand layer underlying the
clay was observed to be under artesian pressure. Water in the drill hole rose to
a height of 3 m above the top of sand layer. If an open excavation is to be
made in the clay.

5. (5pts.) What is the maximum depth of excavation before the bottom

heaves?
6. (5pts.) What would be the required height of water inside the cut in order to
ensure a factor of safety of 1.5?

Figure 1
Figure 2

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 III. Figure 2 shows the zone of capillary rise within a clay layer above the
groundwater table. Using: H1 = 3 m., H2 = 2 m., H3 = 4 m.
7. (5pts.) What is the value of the total stress 9m below the ground surface in
kPa?
8. (5pts.) What is the value of the effective stress 5m below the ground surface
in kPa?
9. (5pts.) What is the value of the effective stress 9m below the ground surface
in kPa?

IV. A soil element is shown in Figure 3. (use equations)

Figure 3
10. (5pts.) What is the value of the maximum stress in kPa?
11. (5pts.) What is the value of the normal stress acting at the plane AB in kPa?
12. (5pts.) What is the value of the shear stress acting at the plane AB in kPa?

V. A soil element is shown in Figure 4. (use any graphical method)

Figure 4
13. (5pts.) What is the value of the minimum stress in psf?
14. (5pts.) What is the value of the normal stress acting at the plane AB in psf?
15. (5pts.) What is the value of the shear stress acting at the plane AB in psf?

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 MODULE 3:
STRESSES IN A SOIL MASS

ENGAGE

With increasing needs and hunger of human on vast developments, various structures
on top of the natural strata subjects the soil to increase in stresses. In line with this, answer the
following questions by writing your answers in the space provided.

1. What are the possible loadings which over stresses the soil?

2. What are the possible impacts of over stressing the soil?

3. What is the impact of this surface loadings to the in-situ stresses?

This module aims to give you an overview of the increase in the soil stress. It will enable
you to analyze and determine the net increase due to different loading conditions. This
module includes the determination of increase in vertical stress at a certain depth due to
the application of load on the surface, the loading type includes: point load, line load,
uniformly distributed load, linearly increasing vertical loading, embankment loading,
uniformly loaded circular and rectangular area.

EXPLORE

Read: Stresses in a Soil Mass (pp. 312-345)

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: STRESSES CAUSED BY POINT LOAD

EXPLAIN

According to Boussinesq (1983), the normal stresses

at a point (as shown in Figure 3.1) caused by the
point load P are:
P 3x 2 z x2 − y2 y2z
∆𝜎𝑥 = { 5 − (1 − 2μ) [ 2 + 3 2 ]} (3.1)
L 2π L Lr (L + z) L r
2
P 3y z y2 − x2 x 2z
∆σy = { 5 − (1 − 2μ) [ 2 + 3 2 ]} (3.2)
2π L Lr (L + z) L r

3P z 3
∆σz = (3.3)
2π L5
Figure 3.1. Stress caused by point
load

where:
μ = Poisson' s ratio
r = shortest distance (on the surface) of the point load to the sample point
r = √x 2 + y 2 (3.4)
L = shortest distance of the point load to the sample point
L = √x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (3.5)

Simplify Eq. 3.5 with Eq. 3.4:

L = √r 2 + z 2 (3.6)
Substitute Eq. 3.6 in Eq. 3.3:
3P z3
∆σz = (3.7)
2π (r 2 + z 2 )5/2
Extract P/z2:
P 3 1
∆σz = { } (3.8)
z 2π [(r/z) + 1]5/2
2 2

The portion of the equation inside the grouping may be represented with I1:
3 1
I1 = (3.9)
2π [(r/z) + 1]5/2
2

P
∆σz = I (3.10)
z2 1

For I1 , refer to Table 3.1 or Figure 3.2

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 Table 3.1. Variation of I1 for Various Values of r/z (Eq. 3.9)

Note:
If the value of r/z cannot be found in Table 3.1, it is better to use Method 1 (Eq. 3.3) to
avoid possible errors due to interpolation process

Figure 3.2. Variation of I1 with r/z

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 Sample Problem:

10.7 Point loads of magnitude 100, 200, and 400 kN

]
347 act at B, C, and D, respectively as shown in
Figure 3.3. Determine the increase in vertical
stress at a depth of 6 m below the point A. Use
Boussinesq’s equation.

Given:
PB = 100 kN
PC = 200 kN
PD = 400 kN Figure 3.3
z=6m
Note:
Required: ΔσZA For problems with various
Figure 3.2. Variation of I1 with r/z loading, apply summation to
Solution: ∆σzA = (∆σz )P@B + (∆σz )P@C + (∆σz )P@D determine the increase in
vertical stress.

Method 1: (Using Eq. 3.3) in table form

L ΔσZ
Points P, kN
(Eq. 3.5) (Eq. 3.3)
3(100kN) (6m)3
B 100 √(6m)2 + (6m)2 = 6√2 m 2π 5 = 0.234 kPa
(6√2m)
3(200kN) (6m)3
C 200 √(6m)2 + (6m)2 + (6m)2 = 6√3 m 2π 5 = 0.170 kPa
(6√3m)
3(400kN) (6m)3
D 400 √(3m)2 + (6m)2 + (6m)2 = 9 m = 0.699 kPa
2π (9m)5
∆σzA = 1.103 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.1 data (for Eq. 3.10) in table form
P, r I1 ΔσZ
Pts. r/z
kN (Eq. 3.4) (Table 3.1) (Eq. 3.10)
6𝑚 (100𝑘𝑁)
B 100 6m =1 0.0844 (0.0844) = 0.234 𝑘𝑃𝑎
6𝑚 (6𝑚)2
(Apply (200𝑘𝑁)
√(6m)2 + (6m)2 6√2𝑚
C 200 = 1.41 Interpolation) (0.0311) = 0.173 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 6√2 m 6𝑚 (6𝑚)2
0.0311
(Apply
√(3m)2 + (6m)2 3√5𝑚 3(400kN) (6m)3
D 400 = 1.12 Interpolation) = 0.717 kPa
= 3√5 m 6𝑚 2π (9m)5
0.0645
∆σzA = 1.124 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Point loads of magnitude 2000, 4000, and
6000 lb. act at A, B, and C, respectively as shown in Figure 3.4.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 10 ft.
below the point D. Use Boussinesq’s equation.

Figure 3.4

UNIT 2: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL LINE LOAD

EXPLAIN

Determined by the principles of the theory

of elasticity:

2qz 3
∆σz = (3.11)
π(x 2 + z 2 )2

Rearrange Eq. 3.11:

2q
∆σz = 2 (3.12)
x 2
πz [( ) + 1]
z
Figure 3.5. Line load over the surface of a ∆σz 2
semi-infinite soil = 2 (3.13)
(q/z) x 2
π [( ) + 1]
z

The right side of the equation may be represented as C:

2
C= 2 (3.14)
x 2
π [( ) + 1]
z

∆σz
=C (3.15)
(q/z)

For C, the value may be determined using Table 3.2 or Figure 3.6

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 Table 3.2. Variation of Δσz/(q/z) or C with x/z (Eq. 3.14)

Note:
If the value of x/z cannot be found in Table 3.2, it is better to use Method 1 (Eq. 3.11) to avoid
possible errors due to interpolation process

Figure 3.6. Variation of Δσz/(q/z) or C with x/z

q
∆σz = C ( ) (3.16)
z

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 Sample Problem:

Refer to Figure 3.7. Determine the vertical stress increaseΔσz, at point A with the following
values: q1 = 90 kN/m; q2 = 325 kN/m; x1 = 3 m; x2 = 3 m; z = 3 m.

Given:
q1 = 90 kN/m
q2 = 325 kN/m
x1 = 3 m
x2 = 3 m
z=3m

Required: ΔσzA
Figure 3.7

Solution:
∆σzA = (∆σz )q1 + (∆σz )q2

Method 1: (Using Eq. 3.11) in table form

Line Load q (kN/m) x, m Δσz

kN
2 (90 ) (3𝑚)3
1 90 6 m = 0.764 𝑘𝑃𝑎
π[(6𝑚)2 + (3𝑚)2 ]2
kN
2 (325 ) (3𝑚)3
2 325 3 m = 17.242 𝑘𝑃𝑎
π[(3𝑚)2 + (3𝑚)2 ]2

∆σzA = 18.006 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.2 data (for Eq. 3.16) in table form

Line C
q (kN/m) x, m x/z Δσz
Load (Table 3.2)
𝑘𝑁
6𝑚 90
1 90 6 =2 0.025 0.025 ( 𝑚 ) = 0.75 𝑘𝑃𝑎
3𝑚 3𝑚
𝑘𝑁
3𝑚 325
2 325 3 0.159 0.159 ( 𝑚 ) = 17.225 𝑘𝑃𝑎
=1
3𝑚 3𝑚

∆σzA = 17.975 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.8. Determine the
vertical stress increaseΔσz, at point A with the following
values: q = 750 lb/ft; x = 8 ft; z = 3 ft.

Figure 3.8

UNIT 3: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A HORIZONTAL LINE LOAD

EXPLAIN

The vertical increase at point A in the soil

mass is:

2qxz 2
∆σz = (3.17)
π(x 2 + z 2 )2

Rearrange Eq. 3.17:

2xq
∆σz = 2
(3.18)
Figure 3.9. Horizontal line load over the x 2
πz 2 [( ) + 1]
surface of a semi-infinite soil z
∆σz 2x
= 2 (3.19)
(q/z) x 2
πz [( ) + 1]
z

The right side of the equation may be represented as C:

2x
C= 2 (3.20)
x 2
πz [( ) + 1]
z

∆σz
=C (3.21)
(q/z)

For C, the value may be determined using Table 3.3

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 Table 3.3. Variation of Δσz/(q/z) or C with x/z (Eq. 3.20)

q
∆σz = C ( ) (3.22)
z

Note:
If the value of x/z cannot be found in Table 3.3, it is better to use Eq. 3.17 to avoid possible
errors due to interpolation process

Sample Problem:

10.11 Refer to Figure 3.10. Due to application of line loads q1 and q2, the vertical stress
]
348 increase at point A is 42 kN/m . Determine the magnitude of q2.
2

Given:
q1 = 292 kN/m
z=3m
ΔσzA = 42 kN/m2

Required: q2
Figure 3.10
Solution:
Determine the components of inclined load q 2 (Figure 3.11):

q2 q2V for the components of a 45o angle force:

vertical component = horizontal component
45o q 2V = q 2H
q 2V = q 2 sin45o = q 2H
q2H
Figure 3.11 Using Eq. 3.11 (for vertical line loads) and Eq. 3.17 (for horizontal load):
∆σzA = (∆σz )q1 + (∆σz )q2V + (∆σz )q2H
kN
kN 2 (292 ) (3m)3 2(q 2 )sin45(3m)3 2(q 2 )sin45(7.5m)(3m)2
42 2 = m + +
m π[(3m)2 + (3m)2 ]2 π[(7.5m)2 + (3m)2 ]2 π[(7.5m)2 + (3m)2 ]2
kN
q 2 = 2653.115 ↘ 45o
m

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.12. Determine the
vertical stress increaseΔσz, at point A with the following
values: q = 75 lb/ft; x = 6 ft; z = 5 ft.

Figure 3.12

UNIT 4: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A VERTICAL STRIP LOAD

(FINITE WIDTH AND INFINITE LENGTH)

EXPLAIN

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass is:

q z z
∆σz = {tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]
π x − (𝐵/2) x + (B/2)
Bz[x 2 − z 2 − (B 2 /4)]
− 2 } (3.23)
[x + z 2 − (B 2 /4)]2 + B 2 z 2

Notes:
a. Terms in arctan must be converted to
radians
b. If x ≥ B/2, same equation.
Figure 3.12. Vertical stress caused by a 𝐳
c. If x < B/2, replace 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 [𝐱−(𝐁/𝟐)] with 𝛑 +
flexible strip load 𝐳
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 [𝐱−(𝐁/𝟐)]

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass using Table 3.4:
a. Determine 2z/B and 2x/B
b. Refer to Table 3.4 and identify the value of ∆𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 or C.

∆σz = Cq (3.24)

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 Table 3.4. Variation of Δσz/q with 2x/B and 2z/B

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 Table 3.4. (continued)

Note:
If the values of 2x/B and 2z/B cannot be found in Table 3.4, it is better to use Eq. 3.23 to avoid
possible errors due to interpolation process

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 Sample Problems:

Problem 1: Refer to Figure 3.13. A strip load of q =

43 kN/m2 is applied over a width, B = 10 m.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at point A
located z = 4 m below the surface. Given: x = 8 m.

Given:
B = 10 m
B/2 = 5 m
q = 43 kPa
z=4m
x = 8 m (measured from centerline) Figure 3.13

Required: ΔσzA

Solution:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.23

*Check:
𝐵
𝑥 ?
2
8m > 5m

*reminder: if x < B/2 or within the range of the strip load, add “π” inside the grouping
original equation: (x ≥ B/2)
q z z Bz[x 2 − z 2 − (B 2 /4)]
Δσz = {tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]− 2 }
π x − (B/2) x + (B/2) [x + z 2 − (B 2 /4)]2 + B 2 z 2
modified equation: (x < B/2)
q z z Bz[x 2 − z 2 − (B 2 /4)]
Δσz = {π + tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]− 2 }
π x − (B/2) x + (B/2) [x + z 2 − (B 2 /4)]2 + B 2 z 2
*reminder: terms in “tan-1[ ]” must be converted to radians form
Using the original equation:
43 kPa 4m 4m
Δσz = {tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]
π 8m − (5m) 8m + (5m)
(10m)(4m)[(8m)2 − (4m)2 − (102 /4)m2 ]
− }
[(8m)2 + (4m)2 − (102 /4)m2 ]2 + (10m)2 (4m)2
43 kPa
Δσz = {0.927 − 0.298 − (0.199)} = 5.884 kPa
π

Method 2: Using Table 3.4 data (for Eq. 3.24)

2x 2(8m)
= = 1.6
B 10m
2z 2(4m)
= = 0.8
B 10m
From Table 3.4: C = 0.137
In Eq. 3.24:
Δσq = Cq = (0.137)(43 kPa) = 5.891 kPa

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 Problem 2: Refer to Figure 3.14. A strip load of q =
120 kN/m2, B = 6 m, z = 3 m, and the soil element A
is located along the centerline under the strip load.

Given:
B = 6m
B/2 = 3m
q = 120 kPa
z = 3m
x = 0 (measured from centerline)
Figure 3.14
Required: ΔσzA

Solution:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.23

*Check:
B
x ?
2
0 < 3m

*reminder: if x < B/2 or within the range of the strip load, add “π” inside the grouping
original equation: (x ≥ B/2)
q z z Bz[x 2 − z 2 − (B 2 /4)]
Δσz = {tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]− 2 }
π x − (B/2) x + (B/2) [x + z 2 − (B 2 /4)]2 + B 2 z 2
modified equation: (x < B/2)
q z z Bz[x 2 − z 2 − (B 2 /4)]
Δσz = {π + tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]− 2 }
π x − (B/2) x + (B/2) [x + z 2 − (B 2 /4)]2 + B 2 z 2
*reminder: terms in “tan-1[ ]” must be converted to radians form

Using the modified equation:

120 kPa 3m 3m
Δσz = {π + tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]
π 0 − (3m) 0 + (3m)
(6m)(3m)[0 − (3m)2 − (62 /4)m2 ]
− }
[0 + (3m)2 − (62 /4)m2 ]2 + (6m)2 (3m)2
120 kPa π π
Δσz = {π + (− ) − ( ) − (−1)} = 98.197 kPa
π 4 4

Method 2: Using Table 3.4 data (for Eq. 3.24)

2x 2(0)
= =0
B 6m
2z 2(3m)
= =1
B 6m
From Table 3.4: C = 0.818
In Eq. 3.24:
Δσq = Cq = (0.818)(120kPa) = 98.16 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.15. A strip load of q
= 100 kN/m2 is applied over a width, B = 10 m.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at point A
located z = 5 m below the surface. Given: x = 5 m.

Figure 3.15

UNIT 5: LINEARLY INCREASING VERTICAL LOADING ON AN INFINITE STRIP

EXPLAIN

The vertical increase at point A in the

soil mass is:

q 2x
∆σz = ( α − sin2δ) (3.25)
2π B

Figure 3.16. Vertical stress caused by linearly

increasing load

For coordinate of A (x,z):

x = horizontal distance of A, always measured from the minimum magnitude of the
triangular/uniformly increasing vertical load
z = vertical distance of A, measured from ground level or reference line

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 Notes:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.25

● Convert alpha to radians (alpha is always positive)
● The sign of angle delta is measured from the global vertical axis (+ if CCW, same orientation of
the figure), the behavior of angle delta with different locations of point A as shown in Figure 3.17.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.17. Variation of sign of angle delta

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass using Table 3.5:
a. Determine 2z/B and 2x/B
b. Refer to Table 3.5 and identify the value of ∆𝜎𝑧 /𝑞

∆σz = Cq (3.26)

Table 3.5. Variation of Δσz/q with 2x/B and 2z/B

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 Notes:

Method 2: Using Table 3.5 data (for Eq. 3.26)

● If the values of 2x/B and 2z/B cannot be found in Table 3.5, it is better to use Eq. 3.25 to avoid
possible errors due to interpolation process
● Consider the orientation based on the diagram (the strip load is located at first quadrant always),
“x” is either + or - based on its location from the origin as shown in Figure 3.18

Figure 3.18. Variation of sign of x

Sample Problems:

Problem 1: Refer to Figure 3.19. For a linearly increasing vertical loading on an infinite strip,
given: B = 3 m; q = 100 kN/m2. Determine the vertical stress increase at A (6 m, 1.5 m).

•
A (6m, 1.5m)

Given:
B = 3m Figure 3.19
q = 100 kPa
coordinate A: (x,z)
x = 6m
z = 1.5m

Required: ΔσzA

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 Solution:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.25

+δ
α
•
A (6m, 1.5m)

Figure 3.20

Determine angles α and δ:

For δ, consider Figure 3.21 from Figure 3.20:

3m 3m
tan(+δ) = ; δ = +63.43o
+δ 1.5 m 1.5m

Figure 3.21

For α, consider Figure 3.22 from Figure 3.20:

6m
6m tan(α + δ) = ; α + δ = 75.96o
α 1.5m
+δ 1.5 m α = 75.96o − δ = 75.96o − 63.43o = 12.53o
Figure 3.22

In Eq. 3.25:
q 2x 100kPa 2(6m) π
∆σzA = ( α − sin2δ) = {[ ] [12.53o ( )] − sin 2(63.43o )}
2π B 2π 3m 180o
∆σzA = 1.188 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.5 data (for Eq. 3.26)

x = +6m (note: always check the sign of x)
2x 2(6m)
= =4
B 3m
2z 2(1.5m)
= =1
B 3m

From Table 3.5: C = 0.0119

In Eq. 3.26:
∆σzA = Cq = (0.0119)(100kPa) = 1.19 kPa

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 Problem 2: Refer to Figure 3.23. For a linearly increasing vertical loading on an infinite strip,
given: B = 3 m; q = 100 kN/m2. Determine the vertical stress increase at A (1.5 m, 1.5 m).

Given:
B = 3m
q = 100 kPa
coordinate A: (x,z)
x = 1.5 m •
z = 1.5 m A (1.5m, 1.5m)

Required: ΔσzA
Figure 3.23
Solution:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.25

-δ
α •
A (1.5m, 1.5m)

Figure 3.24

Determine angles α and δ:

For δ, based on the direction of the angle it is “-“; then consider Figure 3.25 from
Figure 3.24:

1.5m
1.5 m tan(δ) = ; thus δ = " − "45o
1.5m
1.5 m δ

Figure 3.25

For α, consider Figure 3.26 from Figure 3.24:

3m - based on the diagram/geometry, α is twice the value

δ of δ:
1.5 m
α α = 2(δ) = 2(45o ) = 90o
Figure 3.26

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 In Eq. 3.25:
q 2x 100kPa 2(1.5m) π
∆σz = ( α − sin2δ) = {[ ] [90o ( )] − sin 2(−45o )}
2π B 2π 3m 180o
∆σzA = 40.915 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.5 data (for Eq. 3.26)

x = +1.5m (note: always check the sign of x)
2𝑥 2(1.5𝑚)
= =1
𝐵 3𝑚
2𝑧 2(1.5𝑚)
= =1
𝐵 3𝑚

From Table 3.5: C = 0.4092

In Eq. 3.26:
∆σzA = Cq = (0.4092)(100kPa) = 40.92 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.27. For a linearly increasing vertical loading on an infinite
strip, given: B = 4 m; q = 50 kN/m2. Determine the vertical stress increase at A (0, 3 m).

Figure 3.27

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 UNIT 6: VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO EMBANKMENT LOADING

EXPLAIN

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass is:

q o B1 + B2 B1
∆σz = [( ) (α1 + α2 ) − (α2 )] (3.27)
π B2 B2

where:
q o = γH
γ = unit weight of the embankment soil
H = height of the embankment
B1 = width of uniformly distributed load
(rectangular) portion of the embankment
loading
Figure 3.28. Embankment loading B2 = width of uniformly increasing load
(triangular) portion of the embankment loading
𝛼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛼2 are in radians

Notes:

Method 1: Using Vertical Stress Due to Embankment Loading Analysis (Eq. 3.27)
● Always follow the diagram of the loading, and α 2 is always measured from the
global vertical axis, thus for the analysis, the sample point is always below the end of
the uniformly distributed load (sample: point A1, and corresponding red lines)

Figure 3.29. Position of point A for embankment loading analysis

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 Method 2: Combined analysis
● The analysis may be based on the combined (1) Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Strip
Load (Finite Width and Infinite Length), and (2) Linearly Increasing Vertical Loading on an
Infinite Strip, or combined rectangular and triangular analysis

Figure 3.30. Combined strip load and uniformly increasing analysis

● Consider the rules for the analysis of rectangular and triangular loading

Sample Problem:

10.15 An earth embankment is shown in Figure 3.31. Determine the stress increase at
] point A due to the embankment load.
349

Figure 3.31

Given:
Embankment properties:
H = 15 m
Unit weight of embankment:
γ = 19 kN/m3

Required: ΔσzA
Figure 3.32

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 Solution:

Method 1: Using Vertical Stress Due to Embankment Loading Analysis

*to satisfy the method, consider the diagram/form of loading for the analysis of
embankment loading by dividing the diagram into two as shown in Figure 3.33.

Figure 3.33

*The increase in vertical stress at point A, ΔσzA:

ΔσzA = ΔσzA1 + ΔσzA2
But the component diagram is symmetrical:
ΔσzA1 = ΔσzA2
Thus: ΔσzA = 2(ΔσzA1 )

*Solve for embankment load, qo:

kN
q o = γH = (19 3 ) (15m) = 285 kPa
m

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 *for Δσz1 :

Solve for B2, using ratio and proportion:

B2 2
= ; B2 = 30m
15m 1

For α2, using Figure 3.35 from Figure 3.34:

3.5 m
tanα2 =
8m
α2 = 23.629o
in radians: α2 = 0.412

Figure 3.34 Figure 3.35

For α1, using Figure 3.36 from Figure 3.34:

33.5 m
tan(α1 + α2 ) =
8m
α1 + α2 = 76.569o
α1 = 76.569o − α2 = 76.569o − 23.629o
α1 = 52.94o
Figure 3.36 in radians: α1 = 0.924

Using Eq. 3.27:

285kPa 3.5m + 30m 3.5m
∆𝛔𝐳𝐀𝟏 = [( ) (0.924 + 0.412) − (0.412)]
π 30m 30m
∆σzA1 = 130.979 kPa

Determine the increase of stress at point A:

ΔσzA = 2(ΔσzA1 ) = 2(130.979 kPa) = 261.958 kPa

Method 2: Using combined rectangular (uniform) and triangular (increasing) analysis

*to satisfy the method, divide the diagram into three as shown in Figure 3.37

Figure 3.37

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 *The increase in vertical stress at point A, ΔσzA:
ΔσzA = ΔσzA1 + ΔσzA2 + ΔσzA3
But the component diagram is symmetrical:
ΔσzA1 = ΔσzA3
Thus: ΔσzA = 2(ΔσzA1 ) + ΔσzA2

*Consider shape 1:
q = qo = 285 kPa

coordinate of A from the minimum value of the

increasing load (x,z):
x = 33.5 m
z=8m

B = 30m
Angle δ = α2 of Method 1 = +23.629o
Angle α = α1 of Method 1 = 52.94o , in radians: α = 0.924
Figure 3.38

Using Eq. 3.25:

285kPa 2(33.5m)
∆σzA1 = {[ ] [0.924] − sin 2(23.629o )}
2π 30m
∆σzA1 = 60.291 kPa
*Consider shape 2:
q = qo = 285 kPa
x = 0 (at the center of the uniformly distributed load)
z=8m
B = 7m
B/2 = 3.5m

*Check:
B
x ?
2
0 < 3.5m
*reminder: if x < B/2 or within the range of the strip load, add “π”
inside the grouping

Using the modified equation (Eq. 3.23):

285 kPa 8m 8m
ΔσzA2 = {π + tan−1 [ ] − tan−1 [ ]
π 0 − (3.5m) 0 + (3.5m)
(7m)(8m)[0 − (8m)2 − (72 /4)m2 ]
− }
[0 + (8m)2 − (72 /4)m2 ]2 + (7m)2 (8m)2
Figure 3.39
285 kPa 224
ΔσzA2 = {π + (−1.158) − (1.158) − (− )} = 141.452 kPa
π 305

Determine the increase of stress at point A:

ΔσzA = 2(ΔσzA1 ) + ΔσzA2 = 2(60.291 kPa) + 141.522 kPa = 262.034 kPa

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 10.15 An earth embankment is shown in Figure 3.40. Determine the stress increase at point
]
349 C due to the embankment load.

Given:
Embankment properties:
H = 15 m
Unit weight of embankment:
γ = 19 kN/m3

Required: ΔσzC

Solution: Figure 3.40

Method 1: Using Vertical Stress Due to Embankment Loading Analysis

*to satisfy the method, consider the diagram/form of loading for the analysis of
embankment loading by applying a dummy load and subtract the imaginary/dummy load
as shown in Figure 3.41

Figure 3.41
*The increase in vertical stress at point C, ΔσzC:
ΔσzA = ΔσzC1 − ΔσzC2

*Consider Shape 1

Figure 3.42

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 q = qo = 285 kPa
B2 (from previous problem) = 30 m
B1 = 30 m + 7 m = 37 m

For α2, using Figure 3.43 from Figure 3.42:

37 m
tanα2 =
8m
α2 = 77.800o
in radians: α2 = 1.358

Figure 3.43
For α1, using Figure 3.44 from Figure 3.42:

67 m
tan(α1 + α2 ) = , α + α2 = 83.191o
8m 1
α1 = 83.191o − α2 = 83.191o − 77.800o
Figure 3.44 = 5.391o
in radians: α1 = 0.094
Using Eq. 3.27:
285kPa 37m + 30m 37m
∆𝛔𝐳𝐂𝟏 = [( ) (0.094 + 1.358) − (1.358)]
π 30m 30m
∆σzC1 = 142.240 kPa

*Consider Shape 2: q = qo = 285 kPa

coordinate of C from the minimum value of the

increasing load (x,z):
x = 30 m (positive if location is towards the
loading)
z=8m
B = 30m
Angle δ = 0
30 m
tanα = ; α = 75.069o ,
8m
in radians: α = 1.310

Using the Eq. 3.25:

Figure 3.45 285kPa 2(30m)
∆σzC2 = {[ ] [1.310] − sin 2(0)}
2π 30m
∆σzC2 = 118.841 kPa

Determine the increase in stress at point C:

ΔσzC = ΔσzC1 + ΔσzC2 = 142.240 kPa − 118.841 kPa = 23.399 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problems:

Practice Problem 1: An earth embankment is shown in Figure 3.46. Determine the stress
increase at point C due to the embankment load. (Use Method 2)

Figure 3.46

Guide:

Method 2: Using combined rectangular (uniform) and triangular (increasing) analysis

*to satisfy the method, for the analysis divide the diagram into three as shown in Figure
3.47

Figure 3.47

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 Practice Problem 2: An earth embankment is shown in Figure 3.48. Determine the stress
increase at point B due to the embankment load.

Figure 3.48

Guide:

Method 1: Using Vertical Stress Due to Embankment Loading Analysis

*to satisfy the method, consider the diagram/form of loading for the analysis of
embankment loading by dividing the diagram into two: one triangular (uniformly
increasing) and trapezoidal (embankment load) as shown in Figure 3.49

Figure 3.49

Method 2: Using combined rectangular (uniform) and triangular (increasing) analysis

*to satisfy the method, for the analysis divide the diagram into three as shown in Figure 3.50

Figure 3.50

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 UNIT 7: VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF
A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA

EXPLAIN

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass is:

1
∆σz = q {1 − } (3.28)
[(R/z)2 + 1]3/2

The vertical increase at point A in the soil mass using

Table 3.6:
a. Determine z/R
b. Refer to Table 3.6 and identify the value of
∆𝜎𝑧 /𝑞

∆σz = Cq (3.29)

Figure 3.51

Table 3.6. Variation of Δσz/q with z/R

Note:
● If the value of z/R cannot be found in Table 3.6, it is better to use Eq. 3.28 to avoid possible
errors due to interpolation process

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 Sample Problem:

A flexible circular area (Figure 3.52) on the

ground surface is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load, q = 105 kN/m2. If the circular
area has a radius, R = 3.6m, determine the
vertical stress increase at point 0 below the
ground surface along the centerline of the
circular area.

Given:
q = 105 kN/m2
R = 3.6 m
z=0 Figure 3.52

Required: ΔσzA (centerline)

Solution:

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.28

1
∆σzA = 105 kPa 1 − 3/2
= 105 kPa
3.6m 2
[( ) + 1]
{ 0 }

Note:
● Immediately below the distributed loading:
increase in stress = distributed loading

Method 2: Using Table 3.6 data (for Eq. 3.29)

𝑧 0
= =0
𝑅 3.6 𝑚

From Table 3.6: C = 1

In Eq. 3.29:
Δσq = Cq = (1)(105 kPa) = 105 kPa

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: A flexible circular area (Figure
3.53) on the ground surface is subjected to a
uniformly distributed load, q = 105 kN/m2. If the
circular area has a radius, R = 3.6m, determine
the vertical stress increase at point 7.2 m. below
the ground surface along the centerline of the
circular area.

Figure 3.53

UNIT 8: VERTICAL STRESS AT ANY POINT BELOW

A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA

EXPLAIN

A detailed tabulation for calculation of vertical

stress below a uniformly loaded flexible circular
area was given by Ahlvin and Ulery (1962), as
presented in Tables 3.7 and 3.8:

∆σz = q(A′ + B ′ ) (3.30)

where:
A’ and B’ are functions of z/R and r/R

Figure 3.54

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 Table 3.7. Variation of A’ with z/R and r/R

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 Table 3.8. Variation of B’ with z/R and r/R

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 Sample Problem:

Refer to Figure 3.55, a flexible circular area of

radius 6 m is uniformly loaded by q = 450 kN/m2.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at point
A.

Given:
R=6m
q = 450 kN/m2
z=6m
r=6m

Required: ΔσzA

Solution:

For A’ and B’: Figure 3.55

z 6m
= =1
R 6m
r 6m
= =1
R 6m

Using Table 3.7: A’ = 0.17868

Table 3.8: B’ = 0.15355

Solve the increase in stress using Eq. 3.30:

∆σz = 450 kPa (0.17868 + 0.15355) = 149.5035 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.56, a flexible circular area of radius 6 m is uniformly loaded
by q = 450 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at point A, if point A is moved at
a distance from center, r = 12 m, and depth, z = 3.

Figure 3.56

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 UNIT 9: VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA

EXPLAIN

The increase in the stress, at point A caused by the

entire loaded area is:

∆σz = qI3 (3.31)

where:
1 2mn√m2 + n2 + 1 m2 + n2 + 2
I3 = [ ( )
4π m2 + n2 + m2 n2 + 1 m2 + n2 + 1
2mn√m2 + n2 + 1
+ tan−1 ( 2 )] (3.32)
m + n2 − m2 n2 + 1
m = B⁄z (3.33)
n = L⁄z (3.34)

Variation of I3 with m and n is shown in Table 3.9

-term in arctan must be converted to radians
Figure 3.57 - if the value of arctan is negative, then add “π”

Table 3.9. Variation of I3 with m and n (Eq. 3.32)

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 Table 3.9. (continued)

Note:
● If the values of m and n cannot be found in Table 3.9, it is better to use Eq. 3.32 to determine
I3 to avoid possible errors due to interpolation process

Sample Problems:

Problem 1: Refer to Figure 3.58, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a uniformly

distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at depth of z = 3
m under point A.

Given:
q = 225 kN/ m2
z=3m
B=3m
L=6m

Required: ΔσzA

Solution:
Figure 3.58
*Solve I3
Solve m and n using Eqs. 3.33 and 3.34:
B 3m
m= = =1
z 3m

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 L 6m
n= = =2
z 3m

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.32

1 2(1)(2)√(1)2 + (2)2 + 1 12 + 22 + 2 −1 (
2 × 1 × 2 × √12 + 22 + 1
I3 = [ 2 ( ) + tan )]
4π (1) + (2)2 + (1)2 (2)2 + 1 12 + 22 + 1 12 + 22 − 12 22 + 1
1
I3 = [1.143 + 1.369] = 0.1999
4π

In Eq. 3.31:
∆σzA = qI3 = 225 kPa(0.1999) = 44.977 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.9 data (for Eq. 3.31)

𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 2

From Table 3.9: I3 = 0.1999

In Eq. 3.31:
ΔσzA = (225kPa)(0.1999) = 44.977 kPa

Problem 2: Refer to Figure 3.59, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a uniformly

distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at depth of z = 3
m under point B.

Given:
q = 225 kN/ m2
z=3m

Required: ΔσzB

Solution:
Figure 3.59
*to satisfy the criteria, divide the rectangle into four parts, and sum all the increase in
stresses as shown in Figure 3.60

Figure 3.60

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 *The increase in stress at point B is:
∆σzB = qI3 I + qI3 II + qI3 III + qI3 IV
IV

∆σzB = q (∑ I3 )
I

For this problem, if the values of m and n fits the Table 3.9, then use the table, instead of the
equation. But if you prefer Eq. 3.32, then use the equation.

*For rectangular area I:

Solve m and n:
B 1.8 m
m= = = 0.6
z 3m
L 3.6 m
n= = = 1.2
z 3m
• Using Table 3.9:
I3 𝐼 =0.1431
Figure 3.61
*For rectangular area II:
Solve m and n:
B 1.8 m
m= = = 0.6
z 3m
L 2.4 m
n= = = 0.8
z 3m
• Using Table 3.9:
I3 𝐼𝐼 =0.1247
Figure 3.62
*For rectangular area III:
Solve m and n:
B 1.2 m
m= = = 0.4
z 3m
L 3.6 m
n= = = 1.2
z 3m
• Using Table 3.9:
I3 𝐼𝐼𝐼 =0.1063 Figure 3.63

*For rectangular area IV:

Solve m and n:
B 1.2 m
m= = = 0.4
z 3m
L 2.4 m
n= = = 0.8
z 3m
• Using Table 3.9:
I3 𝐼𝑉 =0.0931 Figure 3.64

Determine the increase in stress at point B:

∆𝛔𝐳𝐁 = 225 kPa (0.1431 + 0.1247 + 0.1063 + 0.0931) = 105.12 kPa

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 Problem 3: Refer to Figure 3.65, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at depth of z = 3
m under point C.

Given:
q = 225 kN/ m2
z=3m

Required: ΔσzC

Solution: Figure 3.65

*to satisfy the criteria, apply dummy/imaginary load extension as shown in Figure 3.66

Figure 3.66

*The increase in stress at point C:

∆σzC = qI3 extended − qI3 imaginary
∆σzC = q (I3 extended − I3 imaginary )

*For extended rectangular area (assume: B = 3 m and L = 7.8 m)

Solve m and n:
B 3m
m= = =1
z 3m
L 7.8 m
n= = = 2.6 (not available in Table 3.9, thus use Eq. 3.32 only)
z 3m
Solve I3 extended using Eq. 3.32:
1 2(1)(2.6)√(1)2 + (2.6)2 + 1 12 + 2.62 + 2
I3 extended = [ ( )
4π (1)2 + (2.6)2 + (1)2 (2.6)2 + 1 12 + 2.62 + 1
2 × 1 × 2.6 × √12 + 2.62 + 1
+ tan−1 ( )]
12 + 2.62 − 12 2.62 + 1

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 1
I3 extended = [1.105 + 1.442] = 0.2026
4π

*For imaginary rectangular area (assume: B = 3 m and L = 1.8 m)

Solve m and n:
B 3m
m= = =1
z 3m
L 1.8 m
n= = = 0.6 (available in Table 3.9)
z 3m

Solve I3 imaginary :
• Using Eq. 3.32:
1 2(1)(0.6)√(1)2 + (0.6)2 + 1 12 + 0.62 + 2
I3 imaginary = [ ( )
4π (1)2 + (0.6)2 + (1)2 (0.6)2 + 1 12 + 0.62 + 1
2 × 1 × 0.6 × √12 + 0.62 + 1
+ tan−1 ( )]
12 + 0.62 − 12 0.62 + 1
1
I3 imaginary = [0.965 + 0.745] = 0.136
4π
• Using Table 3.9 (check I3):
I3 imaginary =0.1361

Determine the increase in stress at point C:

∆𝛔𝐳𝐂 = 𝐪 (𝐈𝟑 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 − 𝐈𝟑 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐲 ) = 225 kPa (0.2026 − 0.1361) = 14.9625 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.67, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at
depth of z = 3 m under point D.

Figure 3.67

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 UNIT 10: VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF
A RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA

EXPLAIN

The increase in the stress, at point A caused by the

entire loaded area is:
∆σz = qI4 (3.35)
where:
2 𝑚1 𝑛1 (1 + 𝑚12 + 2𝑛12 )
I4 = [
𝜋 √1 + 𝑚12 + 𝑛12 (1 + 𝑛12 )(𝑚12 + 𝑛12 )
𝑚1
+ sin−1 ( )] (3.36)
√𝑚12 + 𝑛12 √1 + 𝑛12

𝑚1 = 𝐿⁄𝐵 (3.37)
𝑛1 = 2𝑧⁄𝐵 (3.38)
Variation of I4 with m1 and n1 is shown in Table 3.10
Figure 3.68
Table 3.10. Variation of I4 with m1 and n1 (Eq. 3.36)

Notes:
● The term in arcsin must be converted to radians
● The sample point must be below the center of the area
● Assign:
B = shorter side
L = longer side
● If the values of m1 and n1 cannot be found in Table 3.10, then it is better to use Eq. 3.36 to
determine I4 to avoid possible errors due to interpolation process

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 Sample Problem:

Refer to Figure 3.69, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a uniformly distributed load
of q = 225 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at the center at a depth of z = 3
m.

Given:
q = 225 kN/ m2
z=3m
B=3m
L=6m

Required: Δσz at the center

Solution:
Figure 3.69

*Solve I4
Solve m and n, using Eqs. 3.37 and 3.38:
L 6m
𝑚1 = = =2
B 3m
2z 2(3 m)
𝑛1 = = =2
B 3m

Method 1: Using Eq. 3.36

2 2(2) (1 + 22 + 2{22 }) 2 2
I4 = [ 2 2 2 + sin−1 ( )] = [0.433 + 0.322]
π √1 + 22 + 22 (1 + 2 )(2 + 2 ) √22 + 22 × √1 + 22 π
= 0.481

Determine the increase in stress at the center using Eq. 3.35:

∆σz center = 225 kPa(0.481) = 108.225 kPa

Method 2: Using Table 3.10 data (for Eq. 3.35)

m1 = 2 and n1 = 2

From Table 3.10: I4 = 0.481

Using Eq. 3.35:
∆σz center = (225kPa)(0.481) = 108.225 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.70, a flexible square area
is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of q = 100 kN/m2.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at the center at a
depth of z = 4 m.

Figure 3.70

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 UNIT 11: INFLUENCE CHART FOR VERTICAL PRESSURE (NEWMARK’S CHART)

EXPLAIN

Notes:
● The circles are divided by several equally
spaced radial lines.
● The influence value of the chart is given by 1/N,
where N is equal to the number of elements in the
chart.
● There are 200 elements; hence, the influence
value is 0.005.
● Works for uniformly loaded area (any shape)
● The accuracy of solution is based on the
accuracy of perceived cell count

Figure 3.71. Newmark’s chart

Procedure:
1. Determine the depth z below the uniformly loaded area at which the stress increase
is required.
2. Plot the plan of the loaded area with a scale of z equal to the unit length of the
chart (𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ).
3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the influence chart in such a way that the point
below which the stress is to be determined is located at the center of the chart.
4. Count the number of elements (M) of the chart enclosed by the plan of the loaded
area.

The increase in the pressure at the point under consideration is given by:

∆σz = (IV)qM (3.39)

where:
IV = influence value
q = pressure on loaded area

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 Figure 3.72. Newmark’s chart

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 Sample Problems:

Problem 1: Refer to Figure 3.73. A flexible

circular area of radius 6 m is uniformly
loaded by q = 450 kN/m2. Using
Newmark’s chart, determine the
increase in vertical stress, ∆𝜎𝑧 , at point A.

Given:
Circular area
q = 450 kN/ m2
z=6m
Diameter, D = 12 m
Radius, R = 6 m
Figure 3.73
Required: ΔσzA

Solution:

Process:
1. Determine the depth z below the uniformly loaded area at which the stress increase
is required.

z=6m

2. Plot the plan of the loaded area with a scale of z equal to the unit length of the
chart (𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ ).

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = z = 6 m

Figure 3.74

For this example, the scale of the AB = z = 6m.

Thus for the circular area:

Radius, R = 6 m = z = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵

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 𝑅 =6m

•A

Figure 3.75

3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the influence chart in such a way that the point
below which the stress is to be determined is located at the center of the chart.

0.03
0.125
0.875
0.4
0.7 1 0.65
1 1 0.8
0.06
1 1
1 0.35
1 1
1
1 1 1 0.45
0.01 0.96 1 1
1 1
1 0.8
1 1 1 1

•A
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0.8
0.96 1 1
0.01 1
1 1 1
1 0.45
1 1 1
1 0.35
1
1 1 0.06
0.8
0.7 1 0.65
0.4
0.875
0.125
0.03

Figure 3.76

4. Count the number of elements (M) of the chart enclosed by the plan of the loaded
area.

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 Notes:
● Better to print the chart on acetate so that it can be used/ placed directly on top of the
diagram for easier counting of number of elements
● Count 1 for full cell/element inside the area (sample: green circle)
● Consider ratio/proportion (in decimal) as representation for partial area/element occupied
by the area (sample: purple circle)
● Outside the biggest circle, the element approaches infinity
● The accuracy of answer is based on the assessment of number of elements within the loaded
area

•A

Figure 3.77

For this example:

M = 66.42

Using Eq. 3.39:

kN
∆σz = (0.005) (450 ) (66.42) = 149.445 kPa
m2

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 Problem 2: Refer to Figure 3.78, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Using Newmark’s chart, determine the increase in vertical
stress at depth of z = 3 m under point A

Given:
Rectangular area
q = 225 kN/ m2
z=3m
Width, B = 3 m
Length, L = 6 m

Required: ΔσzA
Figure 3.78
Solution:
Under point A
Measure 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅, and use as a scale to draw the rectangle:

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = z = 3 m = width, B

•A
Figure 3.79

Place the rectangular area on top of the influence chart (or vv.), placing point A at
the center of the chart:

0.31 0.3 0.65

0.05 0.85 0.98
0.93 0 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
0.05 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 11
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 11
•A
Figure 3.80

M = 40.12

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 Determine the increase in stress using Eq. 3.39:
kN
∆σz = (𝐼𝑉) 𝑞 𝑀 = (0.005) (225 2 ) (40.12) = 45.135 kPa
m

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 3.81, a flexible rectangular area is subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of q = 225 kN/m2. Using Newmark’s chart, determine the increase
in vertical stress at:
a. depth of z = 3 m under point B
b. depth of z = 3 m at the center

Figure 3.81

EVALUATE

What is/are the advantages of knowing how to estimate the additional stress/es due to
surface/structural loads? Explain your answer/s.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment:

Solve the following problem, neatly and orderly. Follow your assignment or task guides.

Problem: A flexible rectangular area (3m x 2m) is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of
q = 100 kN/m2. Determine the increase in vertical stress at the center at a depth of z = 3 m.
Use equation only.

In addition to your activity, please answer your major assessments: Midterm Quiz, and Exam.

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 MIDTERM QUIZ IN CE 3231: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2
Instructions: Solve and answer the following problems orderly and show complete solutions
and indicate correct units. Use equation method only. Label properly and enclose your “final
answers” in a rectangular box only. Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers.
Each excess answer will be a deduction of 5 points to the total score.

1. (10pts) Point loads of magnitude 100, and 150 kN act at A, and C, respectively.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 7 m below the point B.

2. (10pts) An earth embankment is shown in the figure. Determine the stress increase at
point A due to the embankment load.

3. (10pts) A rectangular area 3m x 1m is uniformly loaded with load intensity 100 kPa at the
ground surface. Calculate the vertical pressure at a point 4m below one of its corners

4. (10pts) A Circular Footing 3 ft in diameter has a uniform gross pressure equal to 300 psf.
Determine the vertical increase below the center at a depth of 3 ft.

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 MIDTERM EXAM IN CE 3231: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2
This exam is designed to assess whether you are able to analyze and solve problems related
to (TLO3) vertical stress in soil under different loading conditions and using different methods,
and (TLO4) determination and calculation of elastic settlement.
Instructions: Solve and answer the following problems orderly and show complete solutions
and indicate correct units. Use equation method only. Consider 3 decimal places when
rounding numbers. Label properly and enclose your “final answers” in a rectangle only.
Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers. Each excess answer will be a
deduction of 5 points to the total score.

1. (10 pts) A point load of magnitude 200kN is concentraded at a (horizontal) distance

above the ground about 4m from point A. Determine the increase in vertical stress at a
depth of 2m below this point A.

2. (10 pts) Refer to Figure 1. Due to application of line

load q1, the vertical stress increase at point A is 30
kN/m2. Determine the magnitude of q1.

3. (10 pts) A flexible circular area of radius 3 m is uniformly loaded by q = 300 kN/m 2.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at the center of the circle, 3m deep.

4. (10 pts) A square footing (2mx2m) will carry gross load of 650 kN. Determine the increase
in vertical stress 4 m. below the center of the footing.

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 MODULE 4:
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

ENGAGE

As discussed under your course CE 412: Geotechnical Engineering 1, the soil is a

multiphase material. Due to its components, it is possible that it exhibits large voids which
contains water and air. As future engineers, you need to assess and estimate the possible
impact when we put up structures on top of the soil strata. These loadings may alter the
arrangement of particles or decrease the volume which is the compression of soil. The
compression of soil is otherwise called as settlement. Settlement is the lowering of the surface
level or elevation due to the changes of volume of soil.

In line with this, answer the following questions by writing your answers in the space
provided.

1. What is/are the possible cause/s of settlement?

2. Cite some structures/locations with settlement problems.

This module aims to give you an overview of the fundamentals of settlement. It will
enable you to analyze and compute the compression of soil under foundations or other
loading conditions. This module includes the different broad categories: elastic settlement,
primary consolidation settlement, and secondary consolidation settlement.

EXPLORE

Read: Compressibility of Soil (pp. 353-420)

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: SETTLEMENT

EXPLAIN

Condition:
- structures are built on soil
- loads are transferred through foundations
- the effect is normally felt by the soil up to
a depth of four to five times its foundation
width
- the soil within this depth is compressed

Settlement = the change in volume which is the

result of the compression of soil due to the loading
applied at or near its top surface

* Settlement happens not only under the action

of “external loads” (surcharge loads) but also
under its own (soil) weight above the point
considered (geostatic loads)

Figure 4.1. Leaning tower of Pisa

Concept:
- The volume of soil solid remains constant in the soil profile.
- Any change in height in the soil is equal to the change in height or volume of voids
as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2. Change of volume of soil

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 Settlement on the Basis of the Movement of Foundation:

The different impacts of settlement on the structure is shown in Figure 4.3.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.3. Settlement on the basis of the movement of foundation

Types of Settlement:

1. Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Se)

- caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without
change in the moisture content

2. Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc)

- volume change in saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water that
occupies the void spaces

3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss)

- volume change due to the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics under a constant
effective stress

Note:
●Coarse-grained soil = do not undergo consolidation settlement due to high hydraulic
conductivity, instead, it undergoes immediate settlement

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 Consolidation Settlement:

- vertical displacement due to volume change in saturated cohesive soil as a result

of the expulsion of the water that occupies the voids as shown in Figure 4.4a
- time – dependent settlement of fine-grained soils as shown in Figure 4.4b

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4. Consolidation settlement in soil

- clay has low permeability, thus settlement is delayed

- clayey soils undergo settlement when dewatered (e.g. ground water pumping)
because the effective stress on the clay increases

Table 4.1. Comparison between Consolidation and Compaction

Compaction Consolidation

Time-dependent process
- Applicable to clayey soils only
Instantaneous process
- can occur over hundreds of
years

Applicable to unsaturated soils Applicable to saturated soils

- Decrease in Air Voids - Decrease in Water Voids

Dry density increases

Dry density increases
- Water content does not
- Water content decreases
change

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 UNIT 2: ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (Se)

EXPLAIN

Theoretically, foundation is perfectly

flexible, the settlement may be expressed
as:

1 − μ2s
Se = ∆σ(αB ′ ) I I (4.1)
Es s f

where:
∆𝜎 = net applied pressure on the
foundation
𝜇 s = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the
soil under the foundation measured
from z = 0 to about z = 5B
B’ = B/2 (center) or B (corner of the
foundation)
Figure 4.5. Elastic settlement Is = shape factor

1 − 2μs
Is = F1 + F (4.2)
1 − μs 2

For Is:
1
F1 = (A + A1 ) (4.3)
π 0
Convert the value of F2 in Eq. 4.4 to radians.
n′
F2 = tan−1 A2 (4.4)
2π

where:
(1 + √m′ 2 + 1) √m′ 2 + n′2
A0 = m′ ln (4.5)
m′ (1 + √m′ 2 + n′ 2 + 1)
(m′ + √m′ 2 + 1) √1 + n′2
A1 = ln (4.6)
m ′ + √m ′ 2 + n ′ 2 + 1
m′
A2 = (4.7)
n ′ √m ′ 2 + n ′ 2 + 1

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 For calculation at the center of the foundation: 𝛼 = 4
L
m′ = (4.8)
B
H
n′ = (4.9)
B
( )
2

For calculation of settlement at a corner of the foundation: α = 1

L
m′ = (4.10)
B
H
n′ = (4.11)
B

*variations of F1 and F2 with m’ and n’ are given in Tables 4.2 and 4.3

Table 4.2. Variation of F1 with m’ and n’ (Eq. 4.3)

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 Table 4.3. Variation of F2 with m’ and n’ (Eq. 4.4)

Note:
● If the values of m’ and n’ cannot be found in Tables 4.2 and 4.3, then it is better to use Eqs.
4.3 to 4.7 to avoid possible errors due to interpolation process

If = depth factor
Df L
If = f ( , μs , and ) (4.12)
B B

*variations are given in Table 4.4.

Note:
● If Df = 0, If = 1
● May apply interpolation for Table 4.4

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 Table 4.4. Variation of If with L/B and Df/B

For nonhomogeneous soil deposits, weighted average value of E s:

∑ Esi (∆z)
Es = (4.13)
z̅
where:
Esi = soil modulus of elasticity within a depth ∆𝑧
𝑧̅ = H or 5B, whichever is smaller

Elastic Settlement for RIGID FOUNDATION:

Se(rigid) ≈ 0.93Se(flexible,center) (4.14)

Sample Problems:

Problem 1: A rigid foundation is subjected to a vertical

column load, P = 355 kN, as shown in Figure 4.6. Estimate
the elastic settlement due to the net applied pressure,
∆𝜎, at the center of the foundation. Given: B = 2 m; L =
4 m; Df = 1.5 m; H = 4 m; Es = 13,500 kN/m2; and 𝜇 s = 0.4.

Given:
P = 355 kN
Rectangular Footing:
B=2m
L=4m
Depth of footing/foundation, Df = 1.5 m
Distance from base of footing to competent layer,
H=4m
Es = 13,500 kN/m2 Figure 4.6
𝜇s = 0.4

Required: Elastic settlement (Se) ate the center of the foundation

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 Note:
● If the foundation is rigid, thus compute for Se Rigid

Solution:
Net applied pressure on the foundation
load P 355 kN
∆σ = = = = 44.375 kPa
fooring area B × L (2m)(4m)

At center of foundation:
α=4
B 2m
B′ = = = 1m
2 2

Shape factor, using Eq. 4.2:

1 − 2μs
Is = F1 + F
1 − μs 2

Center of the foundation using Eq. 4.8 and 4.9:

L 4m
m′ = = =2
B 2m
H 4m
n′ = = =4
B 2m
( ) ( )
2 2

For F1 and F2:

Method 1: Using Eqs. 4.3 to 4.7:
(1 + √(2)2 + 1) √(2)2 + (4)2
A0 = (2)ln = 0.5189
(2) (1 + √(2)2 + (4)2 + 1)
(2 + √22 + 1)√1 + 42
A1 = ln = 0.9758
2 + √22 + 42 + 1
2
A2 = = 0.1091
(4)√22 + 42 + 1
1
(0.5189 + 0.9758) = 0.4758
F1 =
π
4 𝜋
F2 = (tan−1 0.1091) ( ) = 0.0692
2π 180
Method 2: Using Tables 4.2 and 4.3 data
Using Table 4.2: F1 = 0.476
Using Table 4.3: F2 = 0.069

1 − 2(0.4)
Is = 0.4758 + 0.0692 = 0.4989
1 − (0.4)

Depth factor:
Criteria:
L 4m
= =2
B 2m

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 Df 1.5 m
= = 0.75
B 2m
𝜇s = 0.4
From Table 4.4:
If = 0.79

For flexible foundation settlement, using Eq. 4.1:

kN 1 − (0.4)2
Se = (44.375 2 ) (4)(1m) (0.4989)(0.79) = 0.004353 m
m kN
13,500 2
m

For Rigid Foundation settlement, using Eq. 4.14:

Se(rigid) ≈ 0.93Se(flexible,center) = 0.93(0.004353 m) = 0.004048 m = 4.048 mm.

Problem 2: Refer to Figure 4.7. A square rigid

foundation measuring 2 m x 2 m in plan is supported by
8 m (H) of layered soil with the following characteristics:

Given that P = 450 kN; Df = 1 m; and 𝜇 s = 0.3 for all layers,

estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation at
the center.

Given:
P = 450 kN
Square Footing:
B=L=2m
Figure 4.7
Depth of footing/foundation, Df = 1 m
Distance from base of footing to competent layer, H = 8 m
𝜇s = 0.3

Required: Elastic settlement (Se) ate the center of the foundation

Note:
● If the foundation is rigid, thus compute for Se Rigid
Solution:
Net applied pressure on the foundation
load P 450 kN
∆σ = = = = 112.5 kPa
fooring area B × L (2m)(2m)
At center of foundation:
α=4
B 2m
B′ = = = 1m
2 2

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 Shape factor, using Eq. 4.2:
1 − 2μs
Is = F1 + F
1 − μs 2

Center of the foundation:

L 2m
m′ = = =1
B 2m
H 8m
n′ = = =8
B 2m
( ) ( )
2 2

For F1 and F2:

Method 1: Using Eqs. 4.3 to 4.7:
(1 + √12 + 1)√12 + 82
A0 = (1)ln = 0.7577
(1)(1 + √12 + 82 + 1)
(1 + √12 + 1)√1 + 82
A1 = ln = 0.7577
1 + √12 + 82 + 1
1
A2 = = 0.0154
8 × √12 + 82 + 1
1 1
F1 = (A0 + A1 ) = (0.7577 + 0.7577) = 0.4823
π π
n′ −1
8 𝜋
F2 = tan A2 = (tan−1 0.0154) ( ) = 0.0196
2π 2π 180
Method 2: Using Tables 4.2 and 4.3 data
Using Table 4.2: F1 = 0.482
Using Table 4.3: F2 = 0.020

1 − 2(0.3)
Is = 0.4823 + 0.0196 = 0.4935
1 − (0.3)

Depth factor:
Criteria:
L 2m
= =1
B 2m
Df 1 m
= = 0.5
B 2m
𝜇s = 0.3
From Table 4.4:
If = 0.77

For average modulus of elasticity, Es using Eq. 4.13:

(20680kPa)(2m)
[ +(7580kPa)(2.5m) ]
+(58600kPa)(3.5m)
Es =
8m
Es = 33176.25 kPa
Figure 4.8

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 For flexible foundation settlement, using Eq. 4.1:
kN 1 − (0.3)2
Se = (112.5 2 ) (4)(1m) (0.4935)(0.77) = 0.004690 m
m kN
33176.25 2
m

For Rigid Foundation settlement, using Eq. 4.14:

Se(rigid) ≈ 0.93Se(flexible,center) = 0.93(0.004690 m) = 0.004362 m = 4.362 mm.

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: A rigid foundation is subjected to a
vertical column load, P = 550 kN, as shown in Figure 4.9.
Estimate the elastic settlement due to the net applied
pressure, ∆𝜎, at the center of the foundation. Given: B = 2
m; L = 3 m; Df = 1.5 m; H = 5 m; Es = 13,500 kN/m2; and 𝜇 s =
0.5.

Figure 4.9

UNIT 3: FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION

EXPLAIN

Spring Cylinder Method:

- Simple model which presents time-dependent deformation (Figure 4.10)
- It is filled with saturated soil and has a frictionless watertight piston and valve
- Variations in a clay layer drained at the top and bottom as the result of an added
stress (Figure 4.11)

Figure 4.10. Spring cylinder model (valve closed) with variations of stresses

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 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.11. Spring cylinder model (valve open) with variations of stresses

Laboratory Consolidation Test

- (ASTM D2435 / D2435M - 11 ) Standard Test
Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation
Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading
- Equipment/apparatus (Figure 4.12):
- Consolidometer (oedometer)

Performed on an undisturbed sample of a

cohesive soil to determine its compressibility
characteristics (represents a soil layer in the ground)

Conducted over a number of load increments

(load increments expected to experience due to the
proposed construction) Figure 4.12. Oedometer

Laboratory Process:
1. Place sample in the ring
2. Apply load
3. Measure height of change
4. Repeat for new load (usually doubling the previous increment)

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 Figure 4.13. Consolidometer – schematic diagram

Assumptions:
- Load distribution is uniform
- Stress distribution (in diff. height) - the same
- No lateral deformation
- The area of the sample section – unchangeable
- Soil solid component - uncompressible

Void – Ratio Pressure Plots:

Figure 4.14. Change of height of specimen in one-dimensional

consolidation test

a. Determine the height of solids (Hs) of the specimen in the mold

Ws
Hs = (4.15)
AGs γw
b. Determine the height of the voids (Hv)
H v = H − Hs (4.16)

c. Determine the initial void ratio

Hv
eo = (4.17)
Hs

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 d. Determine the change in height (ΔH) and compute change in void ratio (Δe1)
∆H = Ht(i) − Ht(f) (4.18)

Determine the initial and final specimen height, (H t,(I and f))
e. Calculate the new void ratio
∆H
∆e1 = (4.19)
Hs
f. Repeat process d and e
enew = eo − ∆e1 (4.20)

Figure 4.15. Typical plot of e against log σ’

General Shape of Deformation Curve:

Three Distinct Stages : Stage 1

Stage 1: Initial Compression: caused mostly by
preloading
Stage 2: Primary Consolidation: excess water
pressure is gradually transferred into effective Stage 2
stress because of the expulsion of pore water
Stage 3: Secondary Consolidation: occurs after
complete dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure, caused by plastic readjustment of soil
Stage 3
fabric

Figure 4.16. General shape of

deformation curve

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 Compressibility Parameters:

1. Compression Index, Cc
- slope of virgin consolidation curve (orange
line)
sample:
e1 − e2
Cc = (4.21)
logσ2 − logσ1

2. Swelling Index, Cs
- slope of rebound curve (red line)
sample:
e1 − e2
Cs = (4.22)
logσ2 − logσ1

Figure 4.17. Plot of e against log σ’

showing loading, unloading, and
reloading branches

*Normally Consolidated Clay – present effective overburden pressure (vertical effective

stress) is the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past

*Overconsolidated – present effective overburden pressure is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past

3. Preconsolidation Pressure
- maximum effective past pressure

Process of determining preconsolidation pressure

(Casagrande’s Method):

1. By visual observation, establish point a, at which the

e-log σ’plot has a minimum radius of curvature.
(Figure 4.18)
- assess the upper curved portion, the point/portion
with maximum curvature will be selected as point a

Figure 4.18

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 2. Draw a horizontal line ab. (Figure 4.19)

Figure 4.19

3. Draw the line ac tangent at a. (Figure 4.20)

Figure 4.20

4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the angle

bac. (Figure 4.21)

Figure 4.21

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 5. Project the straight-line portion gh of the e-log σ’
plot back to intersect line ad at f (Figure 4.22). The
abscissa of point f is the preconsolidation pressure,
σc’

Figure 4.22

Overconsolidation Ration, OCR:

σ′c
OCR = ′ (4.23)
σo
where:
σ′c = preconsolidation pressure
σ′o = present overburden pressure (vertical effective stress)

● OCR for Overconsolidated Soil > 1

most OC soil have fairly high shear strength
● OCR cannot have a value less than 1

Note:
● Check the value of σ′c vs σ′o
- normally consolidated clay, σ′c ≤ σ′o (OCR = 1)
- over-consolidated clay, σ′c > σ′o (OCR > 1)
-

Sample Problem:

11.1 The following are the results of a consolidation test

]
421 on a sample of a clayey soil:
Plot the e – log σ’ curve
Using Casagrande’s method, determine the
preconsolidation pressure.
Calculate the compression index, Cc

Solution:
Plot the points:
- e – vertical axis
- pressure (logarithmic) – horizontal axis

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 Figure 4.23

Process of determining preconsolidation pressure (Casagrande’s Method):

1. By visual observation, establish point a, at which the e-log σ’plot has a minimum radius
of curvature.
- assess the upper curved portion, the point/portion with maximum curvature will be
selected as point a
2. Draw a horizontal line ab. (orange line)
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a. (purple line)
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the angle bac. (blue line)
5. Project the straight-line portion gh (dark red line) of the e-log σ’ plot back to intersect
line ad at f. The abscissa of point f is the preconsolidation pressure, σc’

For compression index, Cc: (Using Eq. 4.21)

- consider the slope of virgin consolidation curve (dark red line)
- consider 2 sample points along the line, for this example consider the 4 th and the 5th
point data
e1 − e2 0.962 − 0.845
Cc = = = 0.3887
logσ2 − logσ1 log400 − log200

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 Correlations for Compression Index (C C):

Empirical expression of Skempton (1944):

Cc = 0.009(LL − 10) (4.24)
Rendon-Herrero (1983):
1.2
1 + eo 2.38
Cc = 0.141Gs ( ) (4.25)
Gs
Nagaraj and Murty (1985):
LL(%)
Cc = 0.2343 [ ] Gs (4.26)
100
Cam Clay Model of Wroth and Wood (1978):
PI(%)
Cc ≈ 0.5Gs [ ] (4.27)
100
Kulhawy and Mayne (1990):
PI
Cc ≈ (4.28)
74
Park and Koumoto (2004):
no
Cc = (4.29)
371.747 − 4.275no

where:
LL = liquid limit
eo = in-situ void ratio
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
PI = plasticity index
no = in-situ porosity

Note:
● Some prefer to use Eq. 4.24 to estimate the value of Cc

Table 4.5. Correlations for Compression Index, 𝐶𝑐∗

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 Correlations for Swell Index (CS):

CS is smaller in magnitude than CC:

1 1
CS ≈ to Cc (4.30)
5 10

where: Cc=compression index

Nagaraj and Murty (1985):

LL(%)
CS = 0.0463 [ ] GS (4.31)
100
Cam Clay Model of Wroth and Wood (1978):
PI
Cs ≈ (4.32)
370

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: The following are the results of a
consolidation test on a sample soil:

a. Plot the e – log σ’ curve

b. Using Casagrande’s method, determine the
preconsolidation pressure.
c. Calculate the compression index, Cc

UNIT 4: PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION (SC)

EXPLAIN

Normally Consolidated Clay:

Cc H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ( ) (4.33)
1 + eo σ′o
Overconsolidated Clay:
For: σ′o + ∆σ′ ≤ σ′c
Cs H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ( ) (4.34)
1 + eo σ′o
For: σ′o + ∆σ′ > σ′c
Cs H σ′c Cc H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ′ + log ( ) (4.35)
1 + eo σo 1 + eo σ′c

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 where:
eo = initial void ratio of the clay layer
H = thickness of the clay layer
σ′o = overburden pressure (vertical effective stress) at the middle of the clay layer
∆σ′ = uniformly distributed load at the ground surface
σ′c = preconsolidation pressure
Cc = compression index
Cs = swell index

Sample Problem:

11.8 Consider the soil profile shown in

]
423 Figure 4.24 subjected to the
uniformly distributed load, Δσ, on
the ground surface. Given Δσ = 26
kN/m2; H1 = 1.83m; H2 = 3.66m; and
H3 = 5.5m. Soil characteristics are as
follows:

*Sand: γd =17.9kN/m3; γsat =18.5kN/m3

*Clay: γsat = 18.3 kN/m3; LL = 38%;
e = 0.73; Cs = (1/5) Cc

Estimate the primary consolidation Figure 4.24

settlement in the clay if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure,
𝜎𝑐′ = 105 kN/m2

Given:
Δσ = 26 kN/m2
H1 = 1.83 m
H2 = 3.66 m
H3 = 5.5 m
*Sand: γd = 17.9 kN/m3;
γsat = 18.5 kN/m3
*Clay: γsat = 18.3 kN/m3;
LL = 38%; e = 0.73; Cs = (1/5) Cc

Required:
a. Sc (Normally Consolidated Clay, NCC)
b. Sc (Overconsolidated Clay, OCC, preconsolidation pressure, 𝜎𝑐′ = 105 kN/m2)

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 Solution:

a. Normally Consolidated Clay, NCC:

For Cc:
- Use the empirical expression of Skempton (1944), Eq. 4.24:
Cc = 0.009(38 − 10) = 0.252

H = thickness/height of the clay layer = 5.5 m

eo = initial/original in-situ void ratio of the clay layer = 0.73

overburden pressure (vertical effective stress) at the middle of the clay layer (Eq. 1.11
from Module 1):
kN kN kN 5.5 m
σ′o = Σγ′ z = (17.9 3 ) (1.83 m) + (18.5 − 9.81) 3 (3.66 m) + (18.3 − 9.81) 3 ( )
m m m 2
′
σo = 87.9099 kPa

In Eq. 4.33:
(0.252)(5.5m) 87.9099 kPa + 26 kPa
Sc = log ( )
1 + (0.73) 87.9099 kPa

Sc = 0.0901 m ≈ 90.1 mm

b. Overconsolidated Clay, OCC:

- check the value of σ′c 𝑣𝑠 σ′o

105 kPa > 87.9099 kPa (∴ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦)

For overconsolidated soil:

Check:
σ′o + ∆σ′ ? σ′c
87.9099 kPa + 26 kPa ? 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎
113.9099 kPa > 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Use Eq. 4.35:

Cs H σ′c Cc H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ′ + log ( )
1 + eo σo 1 + eo σ′c

Swell index, Cs:

1 1
Cs = Cc = (0.252) = 0.0504
5 5

(0.0504)(5.5m) 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (0.252)(5.5𝑚) 87.9099 kPa + 26 kPa

Sc = log + log ( )
1 + 0.73 87.9099 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1 + 0.73 105 kPa

Sc = 0.0407 m ≈ 40.7 mm.

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 ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Figure 4.25 shows a soil profile.
The uniformly distributed load on the ground
surface is Δσ. Given Δσ = 1000 lb/ft2; H1 = 8ft; H2
= 15ft; and H3 = 18ft. Also:
*Sand: γd = 110 lb/ft3; γsat = 116 lb/ft3
*Clay: γsat = 120 lb/ft3; LL = 50%;
e = 0.90; Cs ≈ (1/6) Cc
Estimate the primary consolidation settlement if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated Figure 4.25
b. The preconsolidation pressure, 𝜎𝑐′ = 2600 lb/ft2

UNIT 5: SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (SS)

EXPLAIN

- After primary consolidation (complete dissipation of excess pore water pressure)

- Settlement is observed that is due to plastic adjustment of soil fabrics
- At this stage, the plot of deformation vs. the log of time is practically linear

• Secondary Compression Index (Cα ):

∆e
Cα = (4.36)
logt 2 − logt1
∆e
Cα = t (4.37)
log ( 2 )
t1
where:
∆e = change of void ratio
t1 and t2 = sample time from the graph

Figure 4.26. Variation of e log t under a given

load increments

Secondary Consolidation, Ss:

t2
Ss = Cα′ Hlog ( ) (4.38)
t1
and:
Cα
Cα′ = (4.39)
1 + ep

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 where:
ep = void ratio at the end of the primary consolidation
H = thickness of the clay layer
t1 = time for completion of primary settlement
t2 = time after completion of the primary settlement, where settlement is required

For ep (from primary consolidation e.g NCC):

Cc H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ( ) (4.40)
1 + eo σ′o

∆eH
Sc = (4.41)
1 + eo
Thus
σ′o + ∆σ′
∆e = Cc log ( ) (4.42)
σ′o
and
ep = eo − ∆e (4.43)

Note:
● Derive and use another formula for ∆e (to solve ep) for OCC cases
(use the concept of Eq. 4.41)

Sample Problems:

Problem 1: Consider the profile of a

normally consolidated soil shown in the
figure subjected to the uniformly
distributed load, Δσ, on the ground
surface. Given Δσ = 85kN/m2; H1 = 2m; H2 =
4m; and H3 = 6m. Soil characteristics are as
follows:
*Sand: e = 0.65; Gs = 2.66
*Clay: e = 0.98; LL = 54%; Gs = 2.74
Assume: Cα = 0.02
Estimate the total settlement of the clay
layer five years after the completion of the Figure 4.27
primary settlement.
(note: time for completion of primary consolidation settlement is about 2 years)

Given:
Δσ = 85 kN/m2
H1 = 2 m

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 H2 = 4 m
H3 = 6 m
*Sand: e = 0.65; Gs = 2.66
*Clay: e = 0.98; LL = 54%; Gs = 2.74
Cα = 0.02
t1 = 2 yrs
t2 = 5 yrs

Required: Total Consolidation Settlement, STC = SC + SS

Solution:
Compute first the unit weight of soil for the different layers:
For dry sand (above GWT):
kN
Gs γw 2.66 (9.81 m3 ) kN
γd = = = 15.815 3
1+e 1 + 0.65 m
For saturated sand (below GWT):
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (2.66 + 0.65) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = 19.679 3
1+e 1 + 0.65 m
For saturated clay:
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (2.74 + 0.98) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = 18.431 3
1+e 1 + 0.98 m

Primary Consolidation, Sc:

Normally consolidated clay:

For Cc:
- Use the empirical expression of Skempton (1944), Eq. 4.24:
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(54 − 10) = 0.396

H = thickness/height of the clay layer = 6 m

eo = initial/original in-situ void ratio of the clay layer = 0.98

overburden pressure (vertical effective stress) at the middle of the clay layer (Eq. 1.11
from Module 1):
kN kN kN 6 m
σ′o = Σγ′ z = (15.815 3 ) (2 m) + (19.679 − 9.81) 3 (4 m) + (18.431 − 9.81) 3 ( )
m m m 2
σ′o = 96.969 kPa

In Eq. 4.33:
(0.396)(6m) 96.969 kPa + 85 kPa
Sc = log ( ) = 0.328 m = 328 mm.
1 + (0.98) 96.969 kPa

Secondary Consolidation, Ss:

Cα = 0.02

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 For eP (Eqs. 4.42 and 4.43):
96.969 kPa + 85 kPa
∆e = (0.396) log ( ) = 0.1083
96.969 kPa
ep = eo − ∆e = 0.98 − 0.1083 = 0.8717

In Eq. 4.39:
Cα 0.02
Cα′ = = = 0.0107
1 + ep 1 + 0.8717

In Eq. 4.38:
t 5 yrs
Ss = Cα′ Hlog ( 2 ) = (0.0107)(6m)log ( ) = 0.0255 m = 25.5 mm
t1 2 yrs

Solve total consolidation settlement (combined primary and secondary):

STC = SC + SS = 328 mm + 25.5 mm = 353.5 mm

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: A normally consolidated clay layer, 3m thick, has the following properties:
Initial void ration, eo = 0.8
Compression Index, Cc = 0.25
Average effective pressure, σ’o = 120 kPa
Expected pressure increase due to loading on ground surface = 40kPa
Secondary compression index, Cα = 0.02
Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years

What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary
consolidation settlement?

UNIT 6: TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

EXPLAIN

Assumptions:
1. The clay–water system is homogeneous.
2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of compression).
6. Darcy’s law is valid.

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 Time Factor, Tv:
cv t
Tv = 2 (4.44)
Hdr

Degree of Consolidation (U) at a distance z:

Any time t:
uz
Uz = 1 − (4.45)
uo

Average degree of consolidation at any time:

Sc(t)
U(%) = (100%) (4.46)
Sc

where:
Hdr = average drainage path during consolidation
= for specimens drained at both top and bottom, equals one-half the average
height of the specimen during consolidation
cv = coefficient of consolidation
t = time
uz = excess pore water pressure at time t
Sc(t) = settlement of the layer at time t
Sc = ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation

Approximately:

* for U = 0 to 60%
π U% 2
Tv = ( ) (4.47)
4 100

* for U > 60%

Tv = 1.781 − 0.933 log (100 − U%) (4.48)

The variations of Tv are shown in Table 4.6.

Note:
● If the value of U cannot be found in Table 4.6, then it is better to use Eqs. 4.47 and 4.48 to
avoid possible errors due to interpolation process

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 Table 4.6. Variations of Tv with U

Methods in determining cv:

* Logarithm-of-Time Method
* Square-Root-of-Time Method
* Hyperbola Method

Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation:

Assumption:
- pressure increase parabolically

Simpson’s Rule to estimate ∆σ′ave (weighted average method):

∆σ′t + 4∆σ′m + ∆σ′b

∆σ′ave = (4.49)
6
where:
∆𝜎𝑡′ , ∆𝜎𝑚
′ , and ∆𝜎 ′ = increase in the effective pressure at the top, middle and bottom
𝑏
of the layer

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 Differential Settlement:
- structural problem when two (or more) footing/s exhibits different settlements as
shown in Figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28
∆S
θ= ≤ 0.002 (radians) (4.50)
L

Note:
● If 𝜃 > 0.002, then provide tie beam

Sample Problem:

11.19 Refer to Figure 4.29. A square footing, 2 x 2 m in size, supports a column load of 300
] kN. The soil characteristics are given in the figure. Field monitoring indicated that the
425
foundation settlement was 19 mm during the first 12 months.

a. Estimate the average stress

increase in the clay layer due to
the applied load.
b. Estimate the primary
consolidation settlement.
c. What is the degree of
consolidation after 12 months?
d. Estimate the coefficient of
consolidation for the pressure
range.

Given:
P = 300 kN
Square footing:
B=L=2m
*Sand:
γd = 14 kN/m3
γsat = 17 kN/m3 Figure 4.29

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 *Clay:
w = 24% = 0.24
Gs = 2.74
LL = 46%
σ'c = 40 kPa
Cs = (1/5) Cc
Sc(t) = 19 mm, t = 12 months

Required:
a. Δσ’ave •T
b. Sc
c. U (%)
d. cv •M
Solution:
•B
Compute first the unit weight of saturated clay:
Gs w = eS
e = Gs w = (2.74)(0.24) = 0.6576 = 𝑒𝑜 Figure 4.30
kN
Gs γw + eSγw (2.74 + 0.6576 ) (9.81 m3 ) kN
γsat = = = 20.108 3
1+e 1 + 0.6576 m

a. Simpson’s Rule to estimate ∆𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒

′ (weighted average method):
- consider clay layer only

Note:
● Consider the concept of increase in the vertical stress below the center of a rectangular area

In tabular form: (Method 2: using Table 3.10, from Unit 10 Module 3)

P 300 kN
q= = = 75 kPa
A (2 m)2

z, m I4
𝐋 𝟐𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝟐𝐳 (from
Points 𝐦𝟏 = = 𝐧𝟏 = ∆𝛔𝐳 = 𝐪(𝐈𝟒 ), 𝐤𝐏𝐚
𝐁 𝟐𝐦 ( 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐨𝐟 ) 𝐁 Table
𝐟𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 3.10)
2(1m) (75)(0.701)
T 1 1 =1 0.701
(2 m) = 52.575
2(2m) (75)(0.336)
M 1 2 =2 0.336
(2 m) = 25.2
2(3m) (75)(0.179)
B 1 3 =3 0.179
(2 m) = 13.425

where: T = top, M = middle, and B = bottom of the clay layer (Figure 4.30)
In Eq. 4.49:
(52.575 kPa) + 4(25.2 kPa) + (13.425 kPa)
∆σ′ave = = 28 kPa
6

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 b. Primary consolidation, Sc:
For Cc:
- Use the empirical expression of Skempton (1944), Eq. 4.24:
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(46 − 10) = 0.324

H = thickness/height of the clay layer = 2 m

eo = initial/original in-situ void ratio of the clay layer = 0.6576

overburden pressure (vertical effective stress) at the middle of the clay layer (Eq. 1.11
from Module 1):
kN kN kN 2 m
σ′o = Σγ′ z = (14 3 ) (1 m) + (17 − 9.81) 3 (1 m) + (20.108 − 9.81) 3 ( )
m m m 2
′
σo = 31.488 kPa

- check the value of σ′c 𝑣𝑠 σ′o

40 kPa > 31.488 kPa (∴ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦)

Check:
σ′o + ∆σ′ (from letter a) ? σ′c
31.488 kPa + 28 kPa ? 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎
59.488 kPa > 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Use Eq. 4.35:

Cs H σ′c Cc H σ′o + ∆σ′
Sc = log ′ + log ( )
1 + eo σo 1 + eo σ′c

Swell index, Cs:

1 1
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑐 = (0.324) = 0.0648
5 5

In Eq. 4.35:
(0.0648)(2m) 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (0.324)(2𝑚) 31.488 kPa + 28 kPa
Sc = log + log ( )
1 + 0.6576 31.488 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1 + 0.6576 40 kPa

Sc = 0.0755 m ≈ 75.5 mm.

c. Degree of Consolidation, U (%):

- after 12 months

In Eq. 4.46:
Sc(t) 19 mm
U= (100%) = (100%) = 25.1656%
Sc 75.5 mm

d. Coefficient of Consolidation, cv:

*Approximately for U = 0 to 60%, using Eq. 4.47:
π U% 2 π 25.1656 2
Tv = ( ) = ( ) = 0.0497
4 100 4 100

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 From Eq. 4.44 of time factor:
cv t
Tv = 2 ;
Hdr
Coefficient of consolidation, cv:
2m 2
2
Tv Hdr 0.0497 ( ) m2
cv = = 2 = 0.00414
t 12 months month

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: Refer to Figure 4.31. Given that B = 1m, L = 3m, and Q = 110 kN, calculate
the primary consolidation settlement of the foundation.

Figure 4.31

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 EVALUATE

What is/are the importance of estimating the value of total settlement in the design of a
structure?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

What is/are the possible measure/s to prevent settlement? Explain your answer/s.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment:

Solve the following problem, neatly and orderly. Follow your assignment or task guides.

Problem: A normally consolidated clay layer, 4m thick, has the following properties:
Initial void ration, eo = 0.65
Compression Index, Cc = 0.20
Average effective pressure, σ’o = 100 kPa
Expected pressure increase due to loading on ground surface = 30 kPa
Secondary compression index, Cα = 0.02
Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years

What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary
consolidation settlement?

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 MODULE 5:
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

ENGAGE

Soil as a multiphase material behaves differently if it is exposed to varying loading and

moisture condition. As future engineers, you need to assess and estimate the performance
of soil to be used in the different stability analysis, such as lateral earth pressure, bearing
capacity and slope stability. The performance indicator of soil is otherwise its shear strength.

In line with this, answer the following questions by writing your answers in the space
provided.

1. What is the difference of cohesive and cohesionless soil?

2. Give example/s of cohesive soil?

3. Mention example/s of cohesionless soil?

This module aims to give you an overview of the parameters used to analyze soil
stability problems. This module includes the different methods to estimate the shear strength
parameters of the soil.

EXPLORE

Read: Shear Strength of Soil (pp. 429-484)

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

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 UNIT 1: MOHR – COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

EXPLAIN

Shear Strength
– internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding
along any plane inside it

Purpose:
- The parameters will be used to analyze soil stability problems related to:
• Lateral earth pressure on earth retaining structures
• Bearing capacity
• Slope stability

Condition:

Figure 5.1. Shear activity due to movement of soil

● Soils generally fail in shear

● At failure, shear stress along the failure surface, reaches the shear strength
● The soil grains slide over each other along the failure surface (no crushing of grains)
● At failure, the shear stress (τ) along the failure surface reaches the shear strength (τf)

Mohr – Coulomb Failure Criterion:

- due to application of increasing normal stress on a sample element (Figure 5.2a), we may
obtain the value of shear which may be used to plot the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria curve
as shown in Figure 5.2b. This line represents the critical value, which serves as the boundary
between the failure and the safe zone.

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 Failure Zone

Safe Zone

(a) (b)
Figure 5.2. Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

For the different sample points at Figure 5.2b:

Point A = safe
Point B = critical
Point C = unsafe/failing

Total Stress:
τf = c + σtanϕ (5.1)

Effective Stress:
τf = c′ + σ′tanϕ′ (5.2)

where:
c = cohesion
ϕ = angle of internal friction
σ = normal stress on the failure plane
τf = shear strength
c‘ and ϕ’ = parameters based on effective stress

Note:
● Parameters: c and ϕ = measures of shear strength
*the higher the values, higher the shear strength

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 Figure 5.3. Inclination of failure Figure 5.4. Mohr’s circle and failure envelope
plane in soil with major principal
plane

Consider triangle adf from Figure 5.4 as shown in Figure 5.5:

From Figure 5.5:

2θ = 90o + ϕ′ (5.3)
thus,
ϕ′
θ = 45o + (5.4)
2

Figure 5.5

For right triangle adf:

̅̅̅
ad
sinϕ′ = ̅ (5.5)
af
where:
̅ = ̅̅̅
af fO + ̅̅̅̅
Oa (5.6)
′
σ + σ′3
̅ = c ′ cotϕ′ + 1
af (5.7)
2
σ1′ − σ′3
̅̅̅
ad = (5.8)
2
Therefore in Eq. 5.5:
σ1′ − σ′3
sinϕ′ = 2 (5.9)
σ′ + σ′3
c ′ cotϕ′ + 1
2

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 or
1 + sinϕ′ cosϕ′
σ1′ = σ′3 ( ) + 2c ′( ) (5.10)
1 − sinϕ′ 1 − sinϕ′
However, by identity:
1 + sinϕ′ 2 (45o +
ϕ′
= tan ) (5.11)
1 − sinϕ′ 2
and
cosϕ′ o+
ϕ′
= tan (45 ) (5.12)
1 − sinϕ′ 2
Thus in Eq. 5.10:
ϕ′ ϕ′
σ1′ = σ′3 tan2 (45o + ) + 2c ′ tan (45o + ) (5.13)
2 2

Laboratory Test for Determination of Shear Strength Parameters:

• Direct Shear test
• Triaxial test
• Direct simple shear test
• Plane strain triaxial test
• Torsional ring shear test

UNIT 2: DIRECT SHEAR TEST

EXPLAIN

(a) (b)
Figure 5.6. Diagrams of direct shear test arrangement

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 Direct Shear Test:
- The oldest and simplest form of shear test
arrangement
- The size of the specimens generally used
is about 51 mm x 51 mm or 102 mm x 102
mm across (square or circular) and about
25 mm high

Figure 5.7. Failure envelope for clay obtained

from drained direct shear test

Direct Shear Test for Foundation Material:

- In some foundation design problems, it is required to determine the strength
parameters between the soil and structural material (concrete, steel, or wood)

τf = ca + σ′ tanδ (5.14)
where:
𝑐𝑎 = adhesion
𝛿 = skin friction between the soil and the material

Figure 5.8. Diagram of direct shear test arrangement (adhesion)

Advantages of Direct Shear Test:

- Rapid drainage – due to smaller thickness of the sample
- Can be used to determine interface strength parameters
- Clay samples can be oriented along plane of weakness or an identified failure
surface

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 Disadvantages of Direct Shear Test:
- Failure occurs at a predetermined failure plane
- Area of sliding surface changes as the test progresses
- Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

Sample Problems:

12.1 Following data are given for a direct shear test conducted on a dry sand:
]
485 • Specimen dimensions: 63 mm x 63 mm x 25 mm (height)
• Normal stress: 105 kN/m2
• Shear force at failure: 300 N
a. Determine the angle of friction
b. For a normal stress of 180 kN/m2, what shear force is required to cause failure?

Given:

Figure 5.9
Shear force, v = 300 N

Required:
a. ϕ
b. v, if σ = 180 kN/m2

Solution:
For sandy soil:
c' ≈ 0, therefore, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion line will intersect the origin
(0,0)

a. For angle of internal friction:

Shear Stress, 𝜏: (A = consider the shear area)
1 kN
v 300 N ( )
τ= = 1000 N
A 2 = 75.59 kPa
1m
(63 mm × )
1000 mm

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 From the diagram:
τ 75.59 kPa
tanϕ′ = = ;
σ′ 105 kPa
75.59
ϕ′ = tan−1 ( )
105
o
ϕ′ = 35.75

Using the Mohr-Coulomb failure

criterion equation:
Figure 5.10 τf = c′ + σ′tanϕ′
75.59
ϕ′ = tan−1 ( )
105
ϕ′ = 35.75o

b. For the shear force to cause failure: From the diagram:

- by similar concept with letter a, the point τ
lies on the same Mohr-Coulomb failure tanϕ′ = ;
σ′
criterion line, therefore τ = σ′tanϕ′ = (180kPa)(tan35.75)
v
τ = 129.58 kPa =
A
kN
v = τA = (129.58 2 ) (0.063 m)2
m
v = 0.5143 kN = 514.3 N

Using the Mohr-Coulomb failure

criterion equation:
τf = c′ + σ′tanϕ′
τf = τ = σ′ tanϕ′
τ = (180kPa)(tan35.75)
v
τ = 129.58 kPa =
A
kN
Figure 5.11 v = τA = (129.58 2 ) (0.063 m)2
m
v = 0.5143 kN = 514.3 N

12.5 The following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on undisturbed normally
]
485 consolidated clay samples having a diameter of 50 mm; specimen height 25 mm.

Draw a graph for shear stress at failure against the normal stress and determine the drained
angle of friction from the graph.

Given:
Diameter (cross-section) = 50 mm
Height = 25 mm

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 Required:
a. Mohr’s Coulomb failure criterion line
b. Shear strength of soil (c’ and ϕ’)

Solution:
a. Determine the value of normal and shear stresses values at failure for the different soil
specimens:
Sample computations, for Specimen 1: (A = area of a circle)
1 kN
Normal force (250 N × )
Normal stress, σ = = 1000 N
Area 2 = 127.32 kPa
π 1m
(50 mm × )
4 1000 mm
1 kN
Shear force (139 N × )
Shear stress, τ = = 1000 N
Area 2 = 70.79 kPa
π 1m
(50 mm × )
4 1000 mm
Normal Shear
Test No. σ, kPa τ, kPa
Force (N) Force (N)
1 250 139 127.32 70.79
2 375 209 190.99 106.44
3 450 250 229.18 127.32
4 540 300 275.02 152.79

Notes:
● The horizontal and vertical axis interval and increment must be the same/equal, start at the origin
(0,0) always
● Plot the points and draw/consider mean line (Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion line) until it
intersects the vertical axis
● The intersection at the vertical axis = cohesion, c
● The angle of the line that it makes with the horizontal is the angle of internal friction, ϕ (measure
using protractor)

Figure 5.12

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 b. Shear strength of the soil:
- from Figure 5.12:
cohesion, c’ ≈ 0 (intersects the origin)
angle of internal friction, ϕ’ ≈ 29o

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: The following are the results of four
drained, direct shear tests on a normally consolidated clay.
Given: size of specimen: 60 mm x 60 mm, and height of
specimen = 30 mm.
Draw a graph for the shear stress at failure against the normal stress, and determine the
drained angle of friction from the graph.

UNIT 3: TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST-GENERAL

EXPLAIN

- One of the most reliable methods available for determining shear strength parameters
- Soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.) long generally is used
- The specimen is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a plastic cylindrical
chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerine. The specimen is subjected to a
confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the chamber.
- To cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress (sometimes called
deviator stress) through a vertical loading ram

Figure 5.13. Diagram of triaxial test equipment

(after Bishop and Bjerrum, 1960)

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 Three standard types of triaxial tests:
1. Consolidated - drained test or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated - undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated - undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

Initial isotropic cell Shearing

pressure application

Figure 5.14. Types of triaxial tests

Table 5.1. Selection of Triaxial Test

Soil Type Type of Construction Type of tests and shear strength

Short Term (end of Triaxial UU or CU for Undrained strength with
construction time) appropriate level of in-situ strength

Triaxial CU for Undrained strength with

Cohesive Staging Construction
appropriate level of in-situ strength
Triaxial CU with pore water pressure
Long Term measurement or Triaxial CD for effective shear
strength parameters
Strength parameter ϕ’ which is from field
Granular All
investigations or direct shear test
Triaxial CU with pore water pressure
Material
Long Term measurement or Triaxial CD for effective shear
c- ϕ
strength parameter

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 UNIT 4: CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TRIAXIAL TEST

EXPLAIN

Figure 5.15. CD – triaxial test Figure 5.16. Effective stress failure envelope from
(a) under chamber confining drained tests on sand and normally consolidated
pressure clay
(b) deviator stress application

Notes:
● Deviator Stress, ∆𝜎𝑑 or q:
∆σd = σ1 − σ3 (5.15)

● u = 0, then 𝜎 = 𝜎’, c = c’, and φ = φ’

● For sand and normally consolidated clay, c = 0

For Overconsolidated Clay:

Figure 5.17. Effective stress failure envelope for

overconsolidated clay

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 c’ and φ’ are used in analyzing fully drained situations (long term stability and very slow
loading), some uses of CD Test:
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay deposit
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

Sample Problems:

12.9 For a normally consolidated clay specimen, the results of a drained triaxial test are
]
486 as follows:
• Chamber-confining pressure 125 kN/m2
• Deviator stress at failure 175 kN/m2
Determine the soil friction angle.

Given:
σ3 = 125 kPa
(∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 175 kPa ≈ diameter of the Mohr’s circle

Required: φ

Solution:
For normally consolidated clay: c = c’ = 0
- thus, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion line will intersect the origin (0,0)

Figure 5.19. Right triangle

Figure 5.18 from figure 5.18

In Figure 5.19:
R
sinϕ′ =
σ3 + R
R
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( )
σ3 + R
(Δσd )𝑓 175 kPa
R= = = 87.5 kPa
2 2
87.5 kPa
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( )
125 kPa + 87.5 kPa
′ o
ϕ = 24.32

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 12.10 In a consolidated-drained triaxial test on a clay, the specimen failed at a deviator
]
486 stress of 124 kN/m2. If the effective stress friction angle is known to be 31°, what was
the effective confining pressure at failure?

Given:
(∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 124 kN/m2 ≈ diameter of the Mohr’s circle
φ’ = 31°

Required: σ3

Solution:
For normally consolidated clay: c = c’ = 0
- thus, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion line will intersect the origin (0,0)

Figure 5.20 Figure 5.21. Right triangle

from figure 5.20

In Figure 5.21:
R
sinϕ′ =
σ3 + R
R
σ3 = −R
sinϕ′
(Δσd )𝑓 124 kPa
R= = = 62 kPa
2 2

62 kPa
σ3 = − 62 kPa
sin31𝑜
σ3 = 58.38 kPa

12.13 A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay

]
486 with a chamber pressure, 𝜎 3 = 172 kN/m2. The deviator stress at failure, (∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 227
kN/m2. Determine:
a. The angle of friction
b. The angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane
c. The normal stress, 𝜎 f, and the shear stress, τf, on the failure plane

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 Given:
σ3 = 172 kN/m2
(∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 227 kN/m2 ≈ diameter of the Mohr’s circle

Required:
a. φ'
b. θ
c. σf and τf

Solution:
a. For normally consolidated clay: c = c’ = 0
- thus, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion line will intersect the origin (0,0)

Figure 5.22 Figure 5.23. Right triangle

from figure 5.22

In Figure 5.23:
R
sinϕ′ =
σ3 + R
R
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( )
σ3 + R
(Δσd )𝑓 227 kPa
R= = = 113.5 kPa
2 2
113.5 kPa
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( )
172 kPa + 113.5 kPa
′ o
ϕ = 23.42

b. The angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane:

Total interior angle = 180o

180o = 90o + 23.42o + (180o - 2θ)
2θ = 90o + 23.42o
θ = 56.71o

Figure 5.24 From Figure 5.24:

(180𝑜 − 2𝜃) = 180𝑜 − 2(56.71𝑜 ) = 66.58𝑜

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 c. The normal stress, σf, and the shear stress, τf, on the failure plane:

Method 1: Using the diagram:

Figure 5.26

Figure 5.25
From letter a requirement: R = 113.5 kPa
Solve for x using Figure 5.26:
x
cos66.58o =
R
x = Rcos66.58o
x = (113.5 kPa)cos66.58o = 45.11 kPa

For shear stress at failure:

τf
sin66.58o =
R
τf = Rsin66.58o = (113.5 kPa)sin66.58o = 104.15 kPa
For normal stress at failure:
σf = (σ3 + R) − x
σf = (172 kPa + 113.5kPa) − 45.11 kPa
σf = 240.39 kPa

Method 2: Using Eqs. 2.6 and 2.12 of normal and shear stresses on plane from Unit 1
of Module 2:

σx = σ3 = 172 kPa
σy = σ1 = σ3 + (Δσd )f = 172 kPa + 227kPa = 399 kPa
τxy = 0
θ = 56.71o (from letter 𝐛 requirement)
2θ = 113.42o

Normal Stress at failure (Eq. 2.6):

σy + σx σy − σx
σn = + cos2θ + τxy sin2θ
2 2
399kPa + 172kPa 399kPa − 172kPa
σn = + cos113.42o
2 2
+ (0)sin113.42o
σf = σn = 240.39 kPa
Figure 5.27

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 Shear Stress at failure (Eq. 2.12):
σy − σx
τn = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ
2
399kPa − 172kPa
τn = sin113.42o − (0)cos113.42o
2
τf = τn = 104.15 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally
consolidated clay. The results were as follows:
Chamber pressure, 𝜎 3 = 250 kN/m2
The deviator stress at failure, (∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 275 kN/m2.
Determine:
a. The angle of friction
b. The angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane
c. The normal stress, 𝜎 f, and the shear stress, τf, on the failure plane

UNIT 5: CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (CU) TRIAXIAL TEST

EXPLAIN

Figure 5.28. CU – triaxial test Figure 5.29. Total and effective stress failure
(a) under chamber confining envelopes for CU – triaxial test (assumes no back
pressure pressure applied)
(b) deviator stress application

Notes:
● Deviator Stress, ∆𝜎𝑑 or q:
∆σd = σ1 − σ3 = σ1′ − σ′3 (5.16)
● (ud )f = pore water pressure at failure

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 For Overconsolidated Clay:

Figure 5.30. Total stress failure envelope obtained from

CU- test in overconsolidated clay

Faster than CD test, c’ and φ’ are used in analyzing fully drained situations (long term
stability and very slow loading), some uses of CU Test:
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay deposit
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

Sample Problem:

A consolidated undrained compression test was conducted on a saturated clay soil using a
cell pressure of, 𝜎 3, 150 kPa and then incrementally applying loads on the plunger while
keeping the cell pressure constant. Failure was observed when the stress exerted by the
plunger (deviator stress) was 160 kPa and the pore water pressure recorded was 54 kPa.

Determine the:
a. Undrained friction angle
b. Drained friction angle

Given:
σ3 = 150 kN/m2
(∆𝜎𝑑 )f = 160 kN/m2 ≈ diameter of the Mohr’s circle
(𝑢𝑑 )f = 54 kPa

Required:
a. φ
b. φ’

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 Solution:
a. Total Stress:

Figure 5.32. Right triangle

Figure 5.31 from figure 5.31

In Figure 5.32:
R
sinϕ =
σ3 + R
R
ϕ = sin−1 ( )
σ3 + R
(Δσd )𝑓 160 kPa
R= = = 80 kPa
2 2
80 kPa
ϕ = sin−1 ( )
150 kPa + 80 kPa
ϕ = 20.35o

b. Effective Stress:
- decrease due to the release of pore water pressure

Figure 5.34

Figure 5.33
In Figure 5.34:
R
sinϕ′ =
+R𝜎3′
R
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( ′ )
𝜎3 + R
(Δσd )𝑓 160 kPa
R= = = 80 kPa
2 2

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 80 kPa
ϕ′ = sin−1 ( )
96 kPa + 80 kPa
o
ϕ′ = 27.04

σ1 = σ3 + (Δσd )f = 150 kPa + 160kPa = 310 kPa

σ1′ = σ1 − (ud )f = 310 kPa − 54 kPa = 256 kPa
σ′3 = σ3 − (ud )f = 150 kPa − 54 kPa = 96 kPa

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: A consolidated-undrained triaxial test was conducted on a dense sand
with a chamber-confining pressure of 138 kN/m2. Results showed that ϕ’ = 24° and ϕ = 31°.
Determine the deviator stress and the pore water pressure at failure. If the sand were loose,
what would have been the expected behavior?

UNIT 6: UNCONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (UU) TRIAXIAL TEST

EXPLAIN

Figure 5.35. UU – triaxial test Figure 5.36. Total stress Mohr’s circles and failure
(a) under chamber confining envelope (φ = 0) obtained from UU – triaxial tests on
pressure fully saturated cohesive soil
(b) deviator stress application

Notes:
● Deviator Stress, ∆𝜎𝑑 or q:
∆σd = σ1 − σ3 = σ1′ − σ′3 (5.17)

● φ = 0 condition, applicable only for saturated clays and silts

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 Undrained shear strength, cu:
cu = c = τf (5.18)

ϕ = 0 condition:

Figure 5.37. The φ = 0 concept

cu and ϕu for analyzing undrained situations (short term stability, quick loading), some uses
of UU Test:
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with no change in water content of soft clay
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

UNIT 7: UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST ON SATURATED CLAY

EXPLAIN

Figure 5.39. Unconfined compression test

ϕ = 0 condition
σ3 = 0 (unconfined)
Figure 5.38. UCT equipment

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 Undrained shear strength, cu:
σ1
cu = c = τf = (5.19)
2
qu
cu = (5.20)
2

where: 𝑞𝑢 = unconfined compression strength

Sample Problem:

The unconfined compression test was carried out on a saturated clay sample. The maximum
load the clay sustained was 127 N and the vertical displacement is 0.8 mm. The size of the
sample was 38 mm diameter x 76 mm long.
Determine:
∆𝐻
a. The axial strain of the soil sample (𝜀 = )
𝐻
𝐴𝑜
b. Major principal stress at failure, σ1 (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐴 = )
1−𝜀
c. The undrained shear strength of the soil sample, c u.

Given:
Initial: Final:

Figure 5.40

P = 127 N = 0.127 kN

Required:
a. 𝜀
b. σ1
c. cu

Solution:
a. Axial strain of the soil sample:
∆H 0.8 mm
ε= = (100%) = 1.05%
H 76 mm

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 b. Major principal stress at failure:
P
σ1 =
A
But for A: (Ao = initial area)
π
Ao (0.038 m. )2
A= =4 = 0.001146 m2
1−ε 1 − 0.0105

P 0.127 kN kN
σ1 = = 2 = 110.8 2
A 0.001146 m m

Figure 5.41
c. The undrained shear strength of the soil sample (Eq. 5.20):
σ1 = (Δσd )f
kN
110.8 2 kN
cu = R = m = 55.4 2
2 m

ELABORATE

Try solving the following problem:

Practice Problem: The unconfined compression test was carried out on a saturated clay
sample. The maximum load the clay sustained was 350 N and the vertical displacement is 1
mm. The size of the sample was 40 mm diameter x 80 mm long. Determine the undrained
shear strength of the soil sample, cu.

EVALUATE

How does cohesive or cohesionless property of soils affect the shear strength of the soil?
Explain your answer.
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 Assignment:

Solve the following problem, neatly and orderly. Follow your assignment or task guides.

Problem: In a triaxial test for a soil sample, when the principal stresses are 270 kPa and 40kPa,
the soil fails along a plane making an angle of 62 o with the horizontal, what is the cohesion
of the soil in kPa?

In addition to your activities, please answer your major assessments: Final Quiz, and Exam.

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 FINAL QUIZ IN CE 3231: Geotechnical Engineering 2
Instructions: Solve and answer the following problems orderly and show complete solutions
and indicate correct units. Label properly and enclose your “final answers” in a rectangular
box only. Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers.

Note: The last four numbers of your id number (***abcd) represents the letters “a”, “b”, “c”
and “d”.
If ID No. = 2191234, then, a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, and d = 4
sample:
2.a m. = 2.1 m.
1bc.d ft. = 123.4 ft.

Problem 1: A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly distributed load of 4b kPa is applied
at the ground surface. Given: H1 = 3.ba m; H2 = 4.dc m; and H3 = 6.ab m. The details of the
soil layers are:

*Sand: γd = 17.ad kN/m3; γsat = 18.bc kN/m3

*Clay: γsat = 19.ca kN/m3; LL = 4d %; e = 0.5b; Cs = (1/5) Cc

Determine the settlement (in mm.) of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation
settlement if:
a. (5 pts) The clay is normally consolidated.
b. (5 pts) The preconsolidation pressure is 1ab kPa.
c. (5 pts) The preconsolidation pressure is 15d kPa.

Problem 2: The soil profile shown in the figure is subjected to the uniformly distributed load,
Δσ, on the ground surface. Given Δσ = da kN/m2; H1 = 3.b m; H2 = 3.c m; and H3 = 5.a m. Soil
characteristics are as follows:
*Sand: γd = 17.5 kN/m3; γsat = 19.a kN/m3
*Clay: γsat = 18.b kN/m3; LL = 3d %; e = 0.6c; Cs = (1/5) Cc
Use: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)
a. (5 pts) Estimate the primary consolidation settlement in the clay (in mm.) if: The
preconsolidation pressure, 𝜎𝑐′ = dba kN/m2

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 b. (5 pts) Estimate the value of the void ratio at the end of the primary
consolidation which will be used for the analysis of the secondary consolidation

Problem 3: A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated

clay with a chamber pressure, 𝜎3 = 2ab kN/m2. The deviator stress at failure, (∆𝜎𝑑)f = 2cd
kN/m2. Determine:
a. (5 pts) The angle of friction
b. (5 pts) The normal stress at failure
c. (5 pts) The shear stress at failure

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 FINAL EXAM IN CE 3231: Geotechnical Engineering 2
This exam is designed to assess whether you are able to analyze and solve problems related
to soil stresses, stresses on a plane, increase in stresses, settlement, and shear strength of soil.
Instructions: Solve the following problems neatly and orderly. Enclose only final answers.
Failure to follow instructions will invalidate your answers. All items are 5 points each.

I. A soil profile consisting of three soil layers is shown. Characteristics of the layers are:

Layer
Thickness Soil Parameters
No.
1 H1 = 4m e = 0.7; Gs = 2.69
2 H2 = 4m e = 0.55; Gs = 2.7
3 H3 = 3m w = 38%; e = 1.2

1. What is the value of the dry density of the soil at the top layer?
2. What is the value of the total stress at point D?
3. What is the value of the effective stress at point C?
4. What is the value of the effective stress at point B?

II. A soil element is shown in the figure

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 5. Determine the value of the minor stress.
6. Determine the value of the normal stress acting along plane AB.
7. Determine the value of the shear stress acting along plane AB.

III. A point load of 100 kN is acting at the ground surface.

8. What is the value of the increase in vertical stress 2 m below the ground?
9. What is the value of the increase in vertical stress 4 m below the ground?

IV. A 4 - meter square- sectional load of 100 kPa is distributed evenly on ground surface.
10. Determine the increase in stress 2m below the center.
11. Determine the increase in stress 4m below the center.

12. A rigid foundation is subjected to a vertical column load. If the value of the flexible
foundation settlement at the center of the foundation is 20 mm. Estimate the elastic
settlement of this foundation.

V. A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly distributed load is applied at the ground
surface, determine the following:

13. Effective overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer.

14. Estimate the value of the compression index at the clay layer.
15. The value of the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if it is
normally consolidated.
16. Estimate the value of the void ratio at the end of the primary consolidation which
will be used for the analysis of the secondary consolidation.

VI. A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay with
a chamber pressure, 𝜎3 = 276 kN/m2. The deviator stress at failure, (∆𝜎𝑑)f = 276 kN/m2.
Determine:
17. The angle of friction
18. The angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane
19. The normal stress on the failure plane.

20. In an unconfined compression test, the maximum unconfined compression

strength that the soil sustained was 200 kPa. Determine the undrained shear
strength.

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 REFERENCE

Das B.M., and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th ed. United
States: Cengage Learning

ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

I. Output
For units of the module, in which you are given a problem to be solved, detailed
calculations and solutions are to be submitted.

II. Rationale
These assignments aim to evaluate your ability to analyze and determine the stresses
through different loading conditions, settlement, and shear strength of soil.

III. Materials
The students will have to go through the weekly module in their packets. For additional
insights students may also refer to the course textbook.

IV. Specific Guidelines

You are required to show your detailed calculations, solutions and answers to the
given problems. Your answers may be handwritten or computerized following the given
format below.

CLASS CODE: SCHEDULE:

ID NUMBER:
NAME: LASTNAME, FIRST NAME MIDDLE INITIAL
ASSIGNED QUESTION/PROBLEM: (Copy the question/problem assigned to you)

ANSWER/SOLUTION:
[Please note that you have to answer only what is being asked in the
question/problem assigned to you. Use equation methods only (no tables). Do not
round computed values during the process (use stored data), and final answers must
be rounded to three decimal places. Unnecessary
equations/formula/answers/statements will mean deductions in your scores.]

(BOX/HIGHLIGHT FINAL ANSWERS FOR PROBLEMS AND IMPORTANT CONCEPTS FOR

ESSAY QUESTIONS)

I, pledge on my honor, that I have not given or received any assistance on this
assignment.
Student’s Signature

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 You will need to save these files in the USB sticks provided in your course packets. Print
and compile all your classwork and send the printed compilation, together with your
midterm/final examination on or before the given deadlines through courier.
You may also submit your outputs, if you are able to, to the google classroom assigned
to this course.

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