SA Journal of Industrial Psychology

ISSN: (Online) 2071-0763, (Print) 0258-5200

Page 1 of 9 Original Research

The influence of ethical leadership and climate on

employee work engagement

Authors: Orientation: Ethical leadership is crucial in fostering work engagement among employees in
Nelson Gwamanda1 organisations.
Bright Mahembe1
Research purpose: This study aimed to empirically validate a theoretical model explicating the
Affiliation:
structural relationships between ethical leadership, ethical climate and work engagement.
1
Department of Industrial
Psychology, Faculty of Motivation for the study: The central role of work engagement in sustaining competitive
Economic Management
advantage calls for an analysis of the role of ethical leadership and climate in enhancing an
Sciences, University of the
Western Cape, Bellville, engaged workforce.
South Africa
Research approach/design and method: A non-probability convenience sample consisting of
Corresponding author: 304 participants was drawn from 10 selected private security companies.
Bright Mahembe,
[email protected] Main findings: High levels of reliability were found, and the unidimensionality of the subscales
was confirmed through exploratory factor analyses. A good fit with the data was found for the
Dates: measurement models through confirmatory factor analysis. Structural equation modelling
Received: 09 May 2023 showed a reasonable fit for the structural model. Positive relationships were found between
Accepted: 06 Nov. 2023
Published: 21 Dec. 2023
ethical leadership, climate and work engagement.
Practical/managerial implications: The findings emphasise the role of ethical leadership and
How to cite this article:
Gwamanda, N., & Mahembe, climate in work engagement. Ethical leadership fosters work engagement if employees perceive
B. (2023). The influence of their leaders as ethical and if there is provision of favourable, transparent policies and procedures.
ethical leadership and
climate on employee work Contribution/value-add: Ethical leadership alone may not be a sufficient condition for employee
engagement. SA Journal of work engagement; other variables such as a positive ethical climate also play a role. The study
Industrial Psychology/SA suggests specific variables that may also combine with leadership to positively influence work
Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, engagement.
49(0), a2108. https://doi.
org/10.4102/sajip.v49i0.2108 Keywords: Ethical leadership; work engagement; ethical climate; reliability; measurement
model; goodness of fit; structural model; exploratory factor analysis; confirmatory factor analysis.
Copyright:
© 2023. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Introduction
Attribution License. In the new global economy, work engagement has become one of the central components that
enhances the competitive advantage of organisations (Pandita & Ray, 2018; Van Der Walt, 2018).
Work engagement plays a significant role in several organisational outcomes including perceived
service delivery, employees’ innovative work behaviours, better work performance and personal
initiative (Lisbona et al., 2018; Milliman et al., 2018; Nazir & Islam, 2020). Moreover, work
engagement is indispensable in the Zimbabwean context because of the prolonged economic
turbulence over the last two decades, resulting in many companies operating below capacity and
with low levels of engagement (Long & Ascent, 2020). The fostering of work engagement within
organisations may therefore advance the development of workplaces that value employees’ needs
and enhance commitment and employee satisfaction. Organisations with highly engaged
employees would promote the dignity and ethical conduct of their members, thereby enhancing
competitiveness.

Organisations ought to maintain a positive ethical climate to cultivate high levels of work
engagement among employees (Pagliaro et al., 2018). A positive ethical climate serves as a crucial
organisational resource, with elements that can impact work engagement (Mitonga-Monga,
Read online: 2018). When employees sense that their organisation values and rewards ethical behaviour, their
Scan this QR sense of purpose is elevated and there is a likelihood of an improved meaning in their work, as
code with your
smart phone or they believe that their contributions are important and aligned with their personal values. This
mobile device can lead to increased work engagement as individuals feel more motivated and committed to
to read online.
their work.

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 Page 2 of 9 Original Research

An ethical climate signifies the degree to which employees influence of ethical leadership and ethical climate? The
are conscious of their moral responsibilities within an purpose of the study was to design and conduct an analysis
organisation (Wang & Hsieh, 2012). In an ethical climate, of the relationship between ethical leadership, ethical climate
employees adhere to rules and standards regarding fairness and work engagement. The secondary goal was to validate a
and responsibility, thereby enhancing their performance theoretical model explicating the structural relationships
(Luria & Yagil, 2008). Ethical climates stem from the policies between these variables in selected security organisations in
and practices established by leaders, which significantly Zimbabwe. There is a need for such research, as no such
impact ethical decision-making and foster positive work study has been conducted in Zimbabwe to address this
attitudes and behaviour (Aryati et al., 2018; Lemoine et al., problem. The relevance of this study is justified by the
2019; Schminke et al., 2007; Simha & Cullen, 2012). Ethical influence of work engagement on positive organisational
climate is, to a greater extent, shaped by the perceived outcomes, such as individual well-being, job performance
consequences of ethical behaviour. When employees perceive and ultimately organisational success. Moreover, the study
that engagement in ethical behaviour leads to positive suggests interventions to nurture higher levels of work
rewards, they are likely to display actions that lead to positive engagement in organisations.
reinforcement.
Literature review
Leaders play a significant role in ensuring that an enabling
environment exists for organisations to flourish. Ethical Conceptualising work engagement
leaders can nurture an environment that enhances the Work engagement is a construct that falls under the realm of
development of a positive ethical climate through supporting positive psychology. The widely accepted definition of work
behaviours towards their followers (Kuenzi et al., 2020). engagement is anchored in one’s ability to experience a
They have the capacity to make decisions that reflect their positive and mentally fulfilling feeling of absorption,
moral values and principles even in challenging or complex dedication and vigour (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Work engagement
situations (O’Keefe et al., 2020). According to Aryati et al. has been linked to several positive work outcomes such as
(2018), the context under which the organisation operates is organisational commitment (Kul, 2017), reduced absenteeism
critical for leaders because they can regulate that environment (Neuber et al., 2022), low turnover intention (Holm et al., 2023)
rather than transform the moral development of individuals and enhanced job performance (Gruman & Saks, 2011; Lisbona
or their values. et al., 2018), among several other positive outcomes. Harter et
al. (2002, as cited in Simpson, 2009, p. 45) found the following
conditions to be vital for the development of work engagement
Ethical leaders motivate their followers to embrace a shared
among employees:
vision, make challenging choices rooted in strong ethical
principles, and actively cultivate a community founded on • a sense of contributing to the organisation
the principles of social justice (Demirtas & Akdogan, 2015). • clear expectations and access to essential resources
Ethical leaders understand and empathise with the varying • opportunities for growth and progress discussions
perspectives and experiences of others, are compassionate, • a sense of belonging to something larger. The effectiveness
treat others fairly and equitably, and work to create a culture of an ethical leader significantly influences the fulfilment
of inclusivity and diversity. Ethical leadership is of conditions (2) and (3).
demonstrated through normatively appropriate conduct in
the form of individual actions and interpersonal relationships, In terms of theoretical development, Saks (2006) viewed
and the advancement of such conduct to followers through work engagement through the lens of social exchange theory
effective communication, performance feedback and (SET). This model of work engagement suggests that, within
principled decision-making (Brown et al., 2005; Özsungur, the employer-employee relationship, particular guidelines
2020). Ethical leaders assist their followers in recognising the should develop into trust and dedicated interactions as time
significance of their roles, leading to enhanced dedication progresses. These rules encompass individual behaviours
and increased productivity (Habiba et al., 2019). that elicit reactions from others (Saks, 2006).

Although the body of literature on work engagement and The three-dimensional conceptualisation of work engagement
ethical leadership is expanding, no research has been by Schaufeli et al. (2002) is a widely accepted definition of
conducted on the correlation between ethical leadership, work engagement. This is evidenced by its use in several
climate and work engagement within the security sector in studies that have used work engagement as a construct
Zimbabwe. Understanding work engagement in the security (Adnan et al., 2020; Habiba et al., 2019; Özsungur, 2020;
sector is crucial, as it is likely to diminish the inclination Pagliaro et al., 2018). This conceptualisation defines work
towards engaging in destructive behaviour, which could engagement as manifested by vigour, dedication and
result in substantial financial costs. absorption (Bakker et al., 2007). Work engagement is defined
as a positive motivational and work-related state characterised
by vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli & Bakker,
Purpose of the study 2004). Vigour pertains to a state in which employees experience
The question that sets the study in motion is, therefore, why high levels of exuberance and mental strength when doing
does variance exist in work engagement regarding the their work and have the desire to exert extra effort and

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 Page 3 of 9 Original Research

determination in the face of challenges. Dedication relates to TABLE 1: Conceptualisation of ethical leadership.
experiencing a sense of meaning, pride, excitement and Author Conceptualisation
Treviño et al (2000) Honesty, good character, trustworthiness,
challenge. Absorption refers to engrossment in work (Bakker approachability and empathy for employee welfare
et al., 2007). The current study adopted this three-factor Khuntia and Suar (2004) Motivating, empowering, and building the character of
structure of work engagement because it is widely used. followers
Brown et al. (2005) Suggested six dimensions of ethical leadership, including
treating employees fairly, communication response, trust
and a behaviour model concerning and listening to
Conceptualising ethical climate employees
Arnaud (2010) defined an ethical climate as ‘a moral concept Mayer et al. (2012) Emphasise on three building blocks of ethical leadership:
(1) being an ethical example, (2) treating people fairly
reflecting the content and strength of the prevalent ethical and (3) actively managing morality
values, norms, attitudes, feelings, and behaviours of the
members of a social system’. Arnaud expanded the theoretical
conduct by embodying fairness, trustworthiness, empathy
framework of ethical work climate by encompassing elements
and a genuine concern for others (Brown & Treviño, 2006).
of ethical decision-making, incorporating moral character,
Hence, highly ethical organisations are likely to result in the
moral sensitivity, collective moral motivation and the
development of more ethical leaders. Brown and Treviño
dimension of moral reasoning. Nevertheless, further
(2006) opine that ethical leaders tend to establish guidelines
empirical research is required within the confines of this
and standards that encourage ethical behaviour and actively
conceptual framework. The lack of empirical research in this
support its practice.
area might be due to the widespread acceptance of Victor
and Cullen’s conceptual framework.
The relationship between ethical leadership and
Different viewpoints exist with regards to the
work engagement
conceptualisation of ethical climate. For example, Victor When followers view their leaders as ethical, they tend to
and Cullen (1988) argued that the ethical climate exists in develop greater trust, work engagement and respect for
different forms which can be categorised as benevolence, them, leading to a stronger perception of meaningful and
egoism and principles. These three ethical climate models purposeful work (Özsungur, 2020). Ethical leaders foster
are linked to the cosmopolitan, the individual and the local employee engagement by granting them the independence
referents (Victor & Cullen, 1987). The three ethical climate to make significant decisions within the workplace
forms namely benevolence, egoism and principles were (Mitonga-Monga, 2018). Ethical leaders constantly
later revised due to a lack of empirical evidence to communicate with their followers, thereby promoting the
instrumental, caring, independence, law and codes, and clarity of goals and expectations (Adnan et al., 2020;
rules. This occurs because favourable climates guarantee Özsungur, 2020). Organisations with ethical leadership
adherence to procedures, laws, or organisational policies promote fairness and equal treatment of employees, which
and alignment with one’s individual ethical principles creates a conducive environment that nourishes employees’
(Leung, 2008; Martin & Cullen, 2006; Wimbush et al., 1997). work engagement (Engelbrecht et al., 2017; Habiba et al.,
Despite the revision of the original conceptualisation of 2019; Zeng & Xu, 2020). When employees feel they are
ethical climates by Victor and Cullen, literature shows that treated justly and respectfully, they tend to experience
both conceptualisations are still used to study ethical psychological safety and a sense of belonging, factors that
climates in organisations (e.g. Parboteeah & Kapp, 2008; can enhance their work engagement (Habiba et al., 2019).
Putranta & Kingshott, 2011). Thus, ethical leaders are recognised for their capacity to
show compassion and thoughtfulness when addressing
the needs of their employees, resulting in feelings of
Conceptualising ethical leadership
dedication (Tims et al., 2011). Ng and Feldman (2015)
Brown et al. (2005) define ethical leadership as the
confirmed that positive organisational performance is
‘demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through
enhanced by a strong association between ethical
personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the
leadership and employee work engagement. When
promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way
employees observe ethical behaviour in their leaders, they
communication, reinforcement and decision-making’. There
tend to demonstrate increased levels of engagement.
is no one universally accepted definition of ethical leadership.
Hence it can be hypothesised that:
This is evidenced by the differences in the manifest
Hypothesis 1: Ethical leadership has a significantly positive effect on
behaviours that different authors have proposed in their
work engagement.
quest for a uniform definition (see Table 1). In the present
study, the conceptualisation offered by Brown et al. (2005)
was adopted. The authors delineated the manifest variables The relationship between ethical leadership and
of ethical leadership, encompassing fair treatment of ethical climate
employees, communication responsiveness, trust, and a The presence of ethical leadership in an organisation
behavioural model centred around caring for and actively cultivates an environment conducive to the growth of an
listening to employees. This model has been influenced by ethical climate (Naeem et al., 2020; O’Keefe et al., 2020).
the social learning theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986) in that ethical Leaders establish policies and devise practices, values and
leaders serve as exemplars, offering guidance and ethical procedures that encourage the perception of an ethical

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 Page 4 of 9 Original Research

climate. They are more inclined to enforce policies and H01: RMSEA < 0.05
practices in line with these values, fostering a culture that Ha1: RMSEA > 0.05
sustains ethical behaviour (Aryati et al., 2018; Kuenzi et al.,
2020). Ethical leaders model their followers to behave within To test the validity of the proposed relationships in the
the confines of ethical norms and processes and in ways that structural model, the following specific hypotheses were
demonstrate ethical consciousness, which create a positive tested:
ethical climate where ethical behaviour is valued and
Hypothesis 2: Ethical leadership (ξ1) has a significant positive
rewarded (Al Halbusi et al., 2021; Kuenzi et al., 2020). Ethical
effect on work engagement (η2) (H02: γ21 = 0; H02: γ21 > 0).
policies, rules and reward systems also enhance the
construction of an ethical climate and substantially impact Hypothesis 3: Ethical leadership (ξ1) has a significant positive
employees’ ethical behaviour and adjustment (Kul, 2017; effect on ethical climate (η1) (H03: γ11 = 0; H03: γ11 > 0).
Naiyananont & Smuthranond, 2017). Thus, it can be Hypothesis 4: Ethical climate (η1) has a significant positive effect
postulated that: on work engagement (η2) (H04: β21 = 0; H04: β21 > 0).
Hypothesis 2: Ethical leadership has a significant positive effect on an
organisation’s ethical climate.
Research design
The relationship between ethical climate and Sample
work engagement This study used a non-probability convenience sampling
Organisations that nurture positive ethical climates have technique. The sample consists of 318 employees from selected
highly engaged employees (Ghani et al., 2017). This is made security companies in Zimbabwe. The sample comprised 222
possible when there is a provision of favourable, transparent males (69.9%) and 91 females (28.9%). All participants were
policies and procedures that propel employees’ ability to be black Africans, most of whom were non-managerial
engaged in their work (Demirtas et al., 2017). Positive ethical employees. Most participants (64.5%) were permanent
climates within an organisation signify resources in the form employees, while 24.7% were on contract. Hardcopy
of practices and processes that prompt moral behaviours questionnaires were printed and distributed to the participants.
(Mitonga-Monga, 2018). A link has been found between a A few online questionnaires were distributed to those who
positive ethical climate and psychological presence and flow, were not physically available and had access to the internet.
as individuals feel fully absorbed and present in their work
(Potipiroon & Wongpreedee, 2021). Elevated levels of caring,
rules, law and codes are associated with higher levels of Measurement instruments
work engagement, implying that creating a positive ethical Three measurement scales were employed to assess the
climate influences the extent to which employees engage (Bai variables of work engagement, ethical climate and ethical
et al., 2019): leadership.
Hypothesis 3: Ethical climate has a significant positive effect on work
engagement in an organisation. Work engagement
The study utilised the 17-item Utrecht Work Engagement
Conceptual model Scale (UWES) developed by Schaufeli et al. (2002) to gauge
Figure 1 depicts the theoretical model developed from an in- work engagement, employing a six-point Likert scale. The
depth study of the literature. In addition, Figure 1 shows the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (α) for the three dimensions of
specific causal relationships (hypotheses) among the three UWES are above 0.70 (Rothmann, 2003; Schaufeli & Bakker,
latent variables used in the study. In this model, ethical 2003). Example items for the vigour subscale include ‘At my
leadership is modelled as an independent or exogenous work, I feel bursting with energy’. Example items for the
variable, whereas ethical climate and work engagement are absorption subscale include ‘Time flies when I am working’.
presented as endogenous variables. Example items for the dedication subscale include ‘To me,
my job is challenging’.
Hypotheses
Ethical climate
Hypothesis 1: The overarching research hypothesis for the close
fit null hypothesis. The 26-item ethical climate questionnaire (ECQ) by Victor
and Cullen (1988) was used to measure the ethical climate.
The questionnaire has five subscales: caring with seven
γ21
items, law and code with four items, rules with four items,
instrumental with seven items, and independence with four
Ethical γ11 Ethical β21 Work items measured on a six-point Likert scale. The internal
leadership climate engagement consistency reliability of the five subscales of the ECQ ranges
(ξ1) (η1) (η2)
from Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of α = 0.69 to α = 0.92
(Wolmarans, 2014) – caring: ‘What is best for everyone in the
FIGURE 1: A theoretical model of the relationships between ethical leadership,
ethical climate and work engagement. company is a major consideration here’; law and code:

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‘People are expected to comply with the law and professional the reliability analysis. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability
standards over and above other considerations’; rules: ‘It is coefficients for all the scales were above the minimum
very important to follow the company’s rules and procedures requirement of α = 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978; Wimbush et al.,
here’; instrumental: ‘In this organisation, people protect their 1997). The factor loadings for all the scales were substantially
own interests above all else’, and independence: ‘In this above the minimum requirement of 0.30 except for the
company, people are expected to follow their own personal independence subscale with 0.21 (Nunnally & Bernstein,
and moral beliefs’. 1994; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Consequently, no items
were deleted as none posed any threat to the soundness of
Ethical leadership reliability.
The measurement of ethical leadership utilised Engelbrecht
et al.’s (2017) 17-item Leadership of Ethics Scale (LES). The Evaluating the measurement models
LES used a 6-point Likert scale, gauging responses from
Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using LISREL
‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. It demonstrated an
8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2006) and the robust maximum
excellent level of reliability, reporting a Cronbach’s alpha (α)
likelihood estimation method was used to produce the
of 0.97 (Engelbrecht et al., 2017; Nunnally, 1978). Example
required estimates. The following indices were used to
items include: ‘My supervisor or manager listens to what his
evaluate the measurement models: the root mean square
or her subordinates have to say’ and ‘My supervisor or
error of approximation (RMSEA), root mean squared
manager can be trusted by his or her subordinates’. The
residual (RMR), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit
findings from the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit
highlighted the sufficient construct validity of the LES
index (CFI), incremental fit index (IFI) and relative fit index
(Engelbrecht et al., 2017).
(RFI). Root mean square error of approximation values
below 0.05 are suggestive of a good fit, those between 0.05
Results and under 0.08 are indicative of reasonable fit, values
Missing values between 0.08 and 0.10 represent mediocre fit, while values
> 0.10 indicate poor fit (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000).
The multiple imputation method was used to address
The values of the GFI greater than 0.90 are usually
missing values which usually plague self-report measures.
considered as indicating an acceptable fit (Diamantopoulos
Data were measured on a scale with five or more values
& Siguaw, 2000).
(Mels, 2003).

Goodness of fit: Work engagement scale

Reliability analysis
The goodness-of-fit indices for the measurement model (see
Item analysis was conducted on all three measurement scales Table 3) of the UWES indicate a reasonable fit in terms of the
using SPSS version 28 to ascertain consistency in the RMSEA (0.0754) and the p-value test of close fit (0.000) is
measurement of the variables. Table 2 presents the results of below the minimum cut-off. The model did not show an
exact fit (Sattora-Bentler χ2: p < 0.05). The standardised RMR
TABLE 2: Refined measurement scales: Factor loadings and reliability. value of 0.060 was above 0.05, which is indicative of a good
Scale Number of items CFA factor loadings Cronbach’s alpha fit. The GFI does not exceed 0.90, which is required for a good
ELQ 17 - 0.94 fit (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). All incremental fit
ECQ
indices (NFI, NNFI, IFI, RFI and CFI) exceeded the minimum
Caring 7 0.75 0.79
of 0.90, which suggests a good fit. Thus, the model successfully
Law 4 0.85 0.86
reproduced the observed covariance matrix.
Rules 4 0.77 0.85
Instrumental 7 0.73 0.86
Independence 4 0.21 0.87 Goodness of fit: Ethical climate scale
UWES
A reasonable fit was achieved in terms of RMSEA (0.0771).
Vigour 6 0.92 0.78
Absorption 6 0.90 0.80
The GFI failed to reach a 0.90 level, which indicates a good fit.
Dedication 5 0.88 0.79 Nevertheless, the model did not show an exact fit (Sattora-
CFA, confirmatory factor analysis; ELQ, Ethical Leadership Questionnaire; ECQ, Ethical Bentler χ2: p < 0.05). The standardised RMR value of 0.070 fell
Climate Questionnaire; UWES, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale. above 0.05, which is indicative of a good fit. In terms of

TABLE 3: The goodness-of-fit indices obtained for the refined measurement and structural models.
Model S-Bx2/df RMSEA P close fit SRMR GFI NFI NNFI CFI IFI RFI
Ethical leadership 2.83 0.0776 0.000 0.053 0.84 0.956 0.976 0.979 0.979 0.963
Ethical climate 2.80 0.0771 0.000 0.070 0.87 0.966 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.94
Work engagement 2.72 0.0754 0.000 0.060 0.84 0.967 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.96
Measurement model 2.14 0.0614 0.194 0.0332 0.96 0.976 0.983 0.989 0.989 0.969
Structural model 2.14 0.0614 0.194 0.0332 0.96 0.976 0.983 0.989 0.989 0.969
S-Bx2, Satora-Bentler scaled Chi-square; df, degrees of freedom; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; Pclose fit, p-value of close fit (RMSEA < 0.05); SRMR, standard root mean residual;
GFI, goodness-of-fit index; NFI, normed fit index; NNFI, non-normed fit index; CFI, comparative fit index; IFI, incremental fit index; RFI, relative fit index.

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incremental fit measures, the measurement model returned TABLE 4: The gamma and beta matrix of path coefficients for the structural
model.
NFI, NNFI, RFI and CFI indices above 0.90.
Latent variable Ethical climate Work engagement
Ethical leadership 0.768 0.191
Goodness of fit: Ethical leadership scale (0.074) (0.111)
10.324* 1.724*
The inspection of the fit indices indicated that the Work engagement 0.449 -
measurement model of the LES fell within a reasonable fit (0.115) -
(RMSEA = 0.0776). The standardised RMR value of 0.053 is 3.921* -
slightly above the cut-off value of 0.05, which is indicative of Note: Completely standardised path coefficients in bold; standard error estimates in
a good fit. The GFI failed to exceed the 0.90 level required for brackets; t-values ≥ │1.96│indicate significant parameter estimates.
*, p < 0.05.
a good fit (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). All incremental
fit indices (NFI, NNFI, RFI and CFI) exceeded the critical
variables as postulated, and supported the theoretical model
value of 0.95 and thus demonstrated a good fit (Hooper et al.,
underlying the proposed relationships between the latent
2008). The model, therefore, indicated a good comparative fit
variables. It was postulated that ethical leadership and work
relative to the independence model.
engagement have a significant positive relationship. The
proposed relationship was supported (t = 1.724; p < 0.05), and
Goodness-of-fit indices for the structural model therefore the null hypothesis was rejected (H02: γ21 = 0) (see
The overall measurement model reasonably fits the data Table 3). To assess the t-values, a cut-off value of 1.645 was
(RMSEA = 0.0614; standardised RMR = 0.0332; NFI = 0.97). A used, as all the hypotheses were one-tailed (Tabachnick &
closer look at all the fit indices showed that the structural Fidel, 2013). This result was consistent with that reported by
model fit the data well. The results are presented in Table 3. Asif et al. (2019), Adnan et al. (2020) and Özsungur (2020)
Root mean square error of approximation (0.0614) for the who found significant positive relationship between ethical
structural model indicated a reasonable fit. A standardised leadership and work engagement. They documented that
RMR value of 0.0332 is indicative of a good fit. The p-value when employees perceive their leaders to be ethical, they are
for the test of close fit (0.194) indicates that the null hypothesis more likely to view their work as meaningful and purposeful.
of close fit (Hypothesis 1) cannot be rejected; therefore, the
structural model shows a close fit. The GFI value of 0.96 is As hypothesised, a positive relationship was found between
above the minimum cut-off of 0.90. Regarding the fit indices, ethical leadership and ethical climate. These results were
NFI, NNFI, RFI and CFI for the structural model were good. consistent with those reported by Al Halbusi et al. (2021),
The gamma matrix is shown in Table 4. Kuenzi et al. (2020), Naeem et al. (2020) and O’Keefe et al.
(2020). These researchers agree that the existence of ethical
leadership is essential for the development of an ethical
Ethical considerations
climate. Ethical leaders model their followers to behave
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the within the confines of ethical norms and processes and in
Humanities and Social Science Research Ethics Committee of ways that demonstrate ethical consciousness, which can
the University of the Western Cape (No. HS18/8/9). Informed create a positive ethical climate.
consent was obtained before the commencement of the study.
In this regard, participants were asked to acknowledge the Ethical climate was found to have a positive effect on work
terms outlined in the questionnaire by signing a consent engagement. These results confirm the findings of Bai et al.
form. The participants were guaranteed confidentiality and (2019), Ghani et al. (2017) and Mitonga-Monga (2018) who
anonymity, with no names disclosed during or after the reported that organisations that nurture positive ethical
study. climates have employees who are highly engaged. This is
possible when favourable, transparent policies and
Discussion procedures are provided within the workplace. The results of
the current study suggest that when organisations nurture
The purpose of the current study was to design and conduct
ethical leaders, they create a conducive environment for
an analysis of the relationship between ethical leadership,
employee work engagement.
ethical climate and work engagement. The specific objectives
were to validate a theoretical model explaining the structural
relationships between these variables, test the model’s fit
Limitations and suggestions for future research
with data and evaluate the significance of the hypothesised The study explored the connections among work engagement,
paths in the model. The potential contribution of this study ethical leadership and ethical climate, yielding valuable
pertains to the role of ethical leadership in influencing insights. Nevertheless, it faced limitations that should be
employee engagement in the workplace. acknowledged in future research endeavours. This study
utilised an ex post facto correlational research design,
With regard to the model fit, the RMSEA, GFI and standard employing convenience sampling. The sample specifically
root mean residual (SRMR) indices indicate that both the focused on the security sector within three cities in Zimbabwe.
measurement and structural models produced a reasonable These factors affect how broadly the findings can be applied
fit. The results imply that the items measured the latent or generalised. Data collected at a single point in time pose a

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 Page 7 of 9 Original Research

threat to internal validity, as they hinder making direct have important implications for interventions that can be
causal inferences. Longitudinal designs are superior and used to foster employee work engagement.
effective in determining causality.
Acknowledgements
An additional constraint was the removal of poor items from
the scale measuring work engagement, ethical leadership Sections of this manuscript (27%) are published in a thesis
and ethical climate. The deletion of items has the potential to submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
compromise the construct validity of these scales. Employing degree of PhD in the University of the Western Cape, South
self-report measures containing closed-ended questions Africa, entitled ‘The development and empirical evaluation
raises uncertainty about whether the outcomes accurately of a counterproductive work behaviour structural model
represent the participants’ thoughts. However, it remains in selected organisations in Zimbabwe’. Supervisor: B.
uncertain if the criterion scores have been influenced or Mahembe, 2020. Refer: https://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/
contaminated. Another threat came from the sensitivity of handle/11394/8120.
the constructs, such as ethical leadership, which is susceptible
to social desirability bias. Participants were tasked with Competing interests
rating their supervisors, potentially leading to responses
The authors declared that they have no financial or personal
aimed at portraying a favourable impression to gain
relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced
acceptance and approval.
them in writing this article.

It is essential to highlight that the measurement scales

employed in this study lack extensive validation specifically Authors’ contributions
in the context of Zimbabwe. Subsequent research endeavours N.G. (University of Western Cape) was the project leader
should aim to verify the psychometric properties of these responsible for the data collection and article write-up; the
instruments through validation studies. Moreover, achieving project is based on his PhD thesis. B.M. was responsible for
a good fit in a structural equation model does not imply the article write-up and statistical analyses.
causality. The causal relationships between latent variables
and path coefficients do not alone offer enough evidence to
confirm the validation of causal hypotheses.
Funding information
The authors received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Managerial implications
The current study reported significant positive
relationships between ethical leadership and work
Data availability
engagement, ethical climate and work engagement, and Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data
ethical leadership and ethical climate. Based on these were created or analysed in this study.
results, management in organisations should work
towards increasing the work engagement of employees by Disclaimer
nurturing ethical leadership. Ethical leaders play a
significant role in creating a positive ethical climate that The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of
significantly influences employees’ level of vigour, the authors and are the product of professional research. It
dedication and absorption. The findings imply that does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of
organisations need to impart the ethical values in their any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the
employees in order to promote the work engagement publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results,
needed for positive important outcomes that include job findings, and content.
attitudes and job performance as these have been found to
correlate with work engagement in a number of studies. References
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