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Z-Transforms
1 Introduction
In certain physical systems, the functions which describe the system are discrete. A Digital
System is one such example.
For discrete functions, both the domain and range consist of discrete values.
The z-transform, transforms sequences of discrete values and is the analogous discrete transform
to the Laplace Transform of piecewise continuous functions.

1.1 Some preliminaries

Let yk = y(k); k ∈ Z be a discrete function, then the sequence of discrete values formed by
successive terms of yk is represented as
{yk } = {yk }∞
−∞ = {· · · , y−3 , y−2 , y−1 , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 , · · · }

1.1.1 Addition and Multiplication

a) Addition
{xk } + {yk } = {xk + yk }
b) Scalar Multiplication
c{xk } = {cxk } for some scalar c
c) Multiplication of sequences
{xk } · {yk } = {xk · yk }
Example

1. If xk = 3k , k ∈ Z, then
{xk } = {· · · , 3−3 , 3−2 , 3−1 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , · · · }

= {· · · , 312 , 312 , 31 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , · · · }
1 1 1
= {· · · , 27 , 9 , 3 , 1, 3, 9, 27, · · · }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 1

 
0 k<0
2. The discrete unit step function is uk =
1 k≥0
Thus
{uk } = {· · · , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , |{z}
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , · · · },
k=0

and
{xk · uk } = {· · · , 0, 0, 0, 0, x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , · · · }

1.2 Causal sequences

A Causal Sequence, {xk } is a sequence in which xk = 0 for k < 0. This implies that any
term with a negative subscript will have a value of 0. Thus, for causal sequences x−1 = x−2 =
x−3 = x−4 = · · · = 0. The sequence {xk · uk } above is therefore a causal sequence.
We will only be considering causal sequences in these notes from this point on and these
sequences will be expressed by listing only the terms for which k ≥ 0. The first term listed in
the sequence will always be the term for which k = 0, i.e

{xk } = {x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , · · · }

with the understanding that xk = 0 for k < 0

Also, note that for c a constant integer,

{xk+c } = {xc , xc+1 , xc+2 , xc+3 , · · · }

is the sequence consisting of the elements of the causal sequence {xk }, shifted c places to the
left , and
0 , 0 , · · · , 0 , x0 , x1 , x2 , · · · }
{xk−c } = {|{z}
x−c
k=0

consistes of the elements of the causal sequence {xk } shifted c places to the right.
Example
If xk = 2−k then
{xk } = {1 , 2−1 , 2−2 , 2−3 , 2−4 , 2−5 , · · · }
{xk+3 } = {2−3 , 2−4 , 2−5 , · · · }
{xk−3 } = {0, 0, 0, 1, 2−1 , 2−2 , 2−3 , · · · }

2 Definition and Method of First Principles

The z-Transform of a sequence {xk } is
∞
X xk x1 x2 x3
Z {xk } = X(z) = k
= · · · + x −2 z 2
+ x −1 z + x 0 + + 2 + 3 + ···
k=−∞
z z z z

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 2

where z is a complex variable.
It follows from this definition that the z-Transform of an infinite sequence is an infinite series.
Since we will be considering only z-transforms of causal sequences in which xk = 0 for k < 0,
it follows that the z-transform of a causal sequence is defined as
∞
X xk x1 x2 x3
Z {xk } = X(z) = = x0 + + 2 + 3 + ···
k=0
zk z z z

Using our knowledge of the sum of a geometric series, the z-transforms of most sequences can
be expressed in a closed form F (z), i.e

Z {xk } = X(z) where |z| > c or |z| < c for some constant c ∈ R

The inequality |z| > c or |z| < c for some constant c ∈ R, is referred to as the Radius of
Convergence (ROC).
∞
X xk
The radius of convergence is the region in the complex plane in which the infinite sum
k=0
zk
converges to the sum X(z).
Recall that
∞
X 1 − rk 1
rk = 1 + r + r2 + r3 + · · · = lim = = (1 − r)−1 provided |r| < 1
k→∞ 1 − r 1−r
k=0

The table on page 4, shows a list of Standard Forms of z-transforms which can be derived
from First Principles.
We will now use first principles to prove some of the above standard forms;

1. Z {δk } = 1

0 0 0
Z {δk } = 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z z
=1 for all z

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 3

 {xk } X(z) = Z {xk }

{δk } = {1, 0, 0, 0, · · · } 1 for all z

z
{uk } = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1 · · · } |z| > 1
z−1
cz
{c} = {c, c, c, · · · } (c is a constant) |z| > 1
z−1
z
{k} = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · } |z| > 1
(z − 1)2
z(z + 1)
{k 2 } = {0, 12 , 22 , 32 , · · · } |z| > 1
(z − 1)3
z(z 2 + 4z + 1)
{k 3 } = {0, 13 , 23 , 33 , · · · } |z| > 1
(z − 1)4
z
{ck } = {1, c, c2 , c3 , · · · } (c is a con- |z| > |c|
z−c
stant)

cz
{kck } = {0, c, 2c2 , 3c3 , · · · } (c is a con- |z| > |c|
(z − c)2
stant)

z
{e−ck } = {1, e−c , e−2c , e−3c , · · · } |z| > e−c
z − e−c
z(z − cos ω)
{cos ωk} = {1, cos ω, cos 2ω, · · · } |z| > 1
z 2 − 2z cos ω + 1
z sin ω
{sin ωk} = {0, sin ω, sin 2ω, · · · } |z| > 1
z 2 − 2z cos ω + 1
z(z − cosh ω)
{cosh ωk} = {1, cosh ω, cosh 2ω, · · · } |z| > e|ω|
z2 − 2z cosh ω + 1
z sinh ω
{sinh ωk} = {0, sinh ω, sinh 2ω, · · · } |z| > e|ω|
z 2 − 2z cosh ω + 1

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 4

 z
2. Z {uk } = where |z| > 1
z−1
∞ ∞
X uk X 1 1 1 1
Z {uk } = k
= k
= 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
k=0
z k=0
z z z z
 1  2  3
1 1 1
=1+ + + + ···
z z z
1
= (sum of infinite geometric series)
1 − z1

z 1
= provided < 1 ⇒ |z| > 1
z−1 z

z
3. Z {k} = where |z| > 1
(z − 1)2

∞
X k 1 2 3
Z {k} = k
= 0 + + 2 + 3 + ···
k=0
z z z z
   2  3 !
1 1 1 1
= 1+2 +3 +4 + ···
z z z z
" #
1 1 1
= where < 1 (see (*) in the note below)
z 1 2 z


1− z

z
= where |z| > 1
(z − 1)2

Note: Differentiating both sides of the identity of the sum of the infinite geometric series
yields;

 
d 1 d
= (1 + r + r2 + r3 + · · · ) where |r| < 1
dr 1−r dr
1
2
= 1 + 2r + 3r2 + 4r3 + · · · where |r| < 1 (∗)
(1 − r)

z
4. Z {ck } = where |z| > |c|
z−c

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 5

 ∞  
X c k  c 1  c 2  c 3  c 4
Z {c } =
k
=1+ + + + + ···
k=0
z z z z z

1 c
= c where <1
1− z
z
z
= where |z| > |c|
z−c

z
5. Z {e−ck } = , where |z| > e−c
z − e−c
∞  −ck 
X e e−c e−2c e−3c
Z {e −ck
}= =1+ + 2 + 3 + ···
k=0
zk z z z
1 2 3
e−c e−c e−c
  
=1+ + + + ···
z z z

1 e−c
= −c where <1
1 − ez z
z
= where |z| > e−c
z − e−c

z(z − cos ω)
6. Z {cos ωk} = , where |z| > 1
z 2 − 2z cos ω + 1
∞  ∞ 
Re{ejωk }
 X 
X cos ωk
Z {cos ωk} = =
k=0
zk k=0
zk

ejω ej2ω ej3ω

 
= Re 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
z z z
1 2 3 !
ejω ejω ejω
  
= Re 1 + + + + ···
z z z
!
1 ejω
= Re jω where <1
1 − ez z
 
z
= Re where |z| > |ejω | = 1
z − ejω
p
since |ejω | = | cos ω + j sin ω| = cos2 ω + sin2 ω = 1

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 6

  
z
= Re
z − (cos ω + j sin ω)
 
z (z − cos ω) + j sin ω
= Re ·
(z − cos ω) − j sin ω (z − cos ω) + j sin ω
 
z(z − cos ω) + jz sin ω
= Re
(z − cos ω)2 + sin2 ω
 
z(z − cos ω) + jz sin ω
= Re
z 2 − 2z cos ω + cos2 ω + sin2 ω

z(z − cos ω)
= where |z| > 1
z2 − 2z cos ω + 1

Exercises
Use the definition of the z transform to find
z sin 5
1. Z {sin 5k} ans: , 1 < |z|
z2 − 2z cos 5 + 1
z
2. Z {e4k } ans: 4
, e4 < |z|
z−e

2.1 Properties of z Transforms

2.1.1 Linearity
Z {a{xk } + b{yk }} = aZ {xk } + bZ {yk }
where a and b are constants.
Example

z sinh ω
1. Use the linearity property to show that; Z {sinh ωk} =
z2 − 2z cosh ω + 1
where |z| > e|ω|

eωk − e−ωk
 
Z {sinh ωk} = Z 1
Z {eωk } − Z {e−ωk }


= 2
Linearity property
2
 
z z
= 1
2
− where |z| > |eω | and |z| > |e−ω |
z−e ω z − e−ω

z(z − e−ω ) − z(z − eω )

 
= 1
2
where |z| > e|w|
z 2 − ze−ω − zeω + 1

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 7

 z(eω − e−ω )
 
= 1
2
where |z| > e|ω|
z 2 − z(eω + e−ω ) + 1

z sinh ω
= where |z| > e|ω|
z2 − 2z cosh ω + 1

 
2. Find Z {3 · 4 } + {2 · k}
k

   
Z {3 · 4 } + {2 · k}
k
= Z 3{4 } + 2{k}
k

= 3Z {4k } + 2Z {k}
   
z z
=3 +2
z−4 (z − 1)2

where |z| > |4| = 4 and |z| > 1 ⇒ |z| > 4

Exercises
ejx −e−jx ejx +e−jx
1. Use the identities j sin x = sinh jx = 2
and cos x = cosh jx = 2
, and the
linearity property to find

(a) Z {cos ωk}

(b) Z {sin ωk}

2. Use the definition of cosh ωk, and the linearity property to find Z {cosh ωk}

2.1.2 First Shift Theorem (Advance)

If Z {xk } = X(z), then;

Z {xk+m } = z m X(z) − [z m x0 + z m−1 x1 + z m−2 x2 + · · · + z 2 xm−2 + z xm−1 ]

Proof:
∞
X xk+m
Z {xk+m } =
k=0
zk

xm xm+1 xm+2 xm+3

= + 1 + 2 + 3 + ···
z0 z z z
x xm+1 xm+2 xm+3 
m
= z m m + m+1 + m+2 + m+3 + · · ·
z z z z

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 8

 x xm+1 xm+2 xm+3   x1 x2 x3 xm−1 
m
= zm m
+ + + + · · · + z m
x 0 + + + + · · · +
z z m+1 z m+2 z m+3 z z2 z3 z m−1
m
 x1 x2 x3 xm−1 
− z x0 + + 2 + 3 + · · · + m−1
z z z z
 x1 x2 x3 xm−1 xm xm+1 xm+2 xm+3 
= z m x0 + + 2 + 3 + · · · + m+3 + m + m+1 + m+2 + m+3 + · · ·
z z z z z z z z
m
 x1 x2 x3 xm−1 
− z x0 + + 2 + 3 + · · · + m−1
z z z z
= z m X(z) − z m x0 + z m−1 x1 + z m−2 x2 + · · · + z xm−1
 

Example
If {xk } = {k} = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }, then X(z) = Z {k} = z
(z−1)2

{xk+4 } = {k + 4} = {4, 5, 6, 7, · · · }, i.e the sequence, {xk } = {k} shifted 4 places to the left
(advanced 4 places). Therefore, using the First Shift Theorem,

Z {k + 4} = Z {xk+4 } = z 4 X(z) − [z 4 x0 + z 3 x1 + z 2 x2 + z x3 ]
z
= z4 2
− [z 4 (0) + z 3 (1) + z 2 (2) + z(3)]
(z − 1)

z5
= − z 3 − 2z 2 − 3z
(z − 1)2

4z 2 − 3z
= |z| > 1
(z − 1)2

Exercises
Use the First Shift Theorem to find

1. Z {2k+3 } ans: 8z
z−2

z[z(2 cos2 ω−1)−cos ω]

2. Z {cos[ω(k + 2)]} ans: z 2 −2z cos ω+1

3. Z {sin[ π2 (k + 2)]} ans: − z2z+1

2.1.3 Second Shift Theorem (Delay)

If Z {xk } = X(z), then
Z {xk−m } = z −m X(z)

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 9

Proof
∞
X xk−m
Z {xk−m } =
k=0
zk

x−m x1−m x2−m x−1 x0 x1 x2

= 0
+ + 2 + · · · + m−1 + m + m+1 + m+2 + · · ·
z z z z z z z
0 0 0 0 x0 x1 x2
= 0
+ + 2 + · · · + m−1 + m + m+1 + m+2 + · · · ({xk−m }is a causal sequence)
z z z z z z z
1  x0 x1 x2 x3 
= m + + + + · · ·
z z0 z z2 z3
= z −m Z {xk }

= z −m X(z)

Example
z
1. If {xk } = {5k }, then X(z) = Z {5k } = where |z| > 5
z−5
Therefore,

Z {xk−3 } = z −3 X(z)
z
= z −3 ·
z−5
1
= where |z| > 5
z 2 (z− 5)

2. Find Z {xk−5 } where {xk } = sinh(3k)

Z {xk−5 } = z −5 X(z)

z sinh 3
= z −5 · where |z| > e3
z2 − 2z cosh 3 + 1
sinh 3
= where |z| > e3
z 4 (z 2 − 2z cosh 3 + 1)

Exercise

1. Find Z {xk−4 } where {xk } = {e−3k } 1

ans: z3 (z−e −3 ) where |z| > e−3

2. Find Z {xk−3 } where {xk } = {sin(4k)} ans: sin 4

z 2 (z 2 −2z cos 4+1)
where |z| > 1

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 10

2.1.4 Translation
If Z {xk } = X(z), then
Z {ck xk } = X z


c

Proof

∞
X ck x k
Z {c xk } =
k

k=0
zk

c0 x0 cx1 c2 x2 c3 x3
= + + 2 + 3 + ···
z0 z z z
x0 x1 x2 x3
=
0 +
1 +
2 +
3 + · · ·
z z z z
c c c c

z


=X c

Example
z
If Z {xk } = Z {k} = , then
(z − 1)2

Z {2k k} = X z


2

z
2
=
2
z
2
−1

2z z
= where > 1 ⇒ |z| > 2
(z − 2)2 2

Exercise
3z(z + 3)
1. Find Z {3k k 2 } ans: , |z| > 3
(z − 3)3
z 2 − 4z cos 2
2. Find Z {4k cos 2k} ans: , |z| > 4
z 2 − 8z cos 2 + 16

2.1.5 Multiplication by k (Derivative of the Transform)

If Z {xk } = X(z), then
d
Z {k xk } = −zX ′ (z) = −z (X(z))
dz

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 11

Proof
d d  x0 x1 x2 x3 
−z (X(z)) = −z + + + + · · ·
dz dz z 0 z z2 z3
 
x1 2x3 3x3 4x4
= −z 0 − 2 − 2 − 4 − 5 · · ·
z z z z
x1 2x2 3x3 4x4
=0+ + 2 + 3 + 4 + ···
z z z z
= Z {k xk }
Example
z
Z {ck } = |z| > |c|
z−c
 
d d z
Z {c } = −z
k


−z
dz dz z − c
 
(z − c)(1) − z(1)
= −z
(z − c)2
cz
=
(z − c)2

= Z {k ck }
Exercises
e2 z
1. Find Z {k e }2k
ans:
(z − e2 )2
z
2. Find Z {k cos(π k)} ans: −
(z + 1)2

2.1.6 Initial Value Theorem

If Z {xk } = X(z), then
x0 = lim X(z)
z→∞

Proof
lim X(z) = lim Z {xk }
z→∞ z→∞

∞
X xk
= lim
z→∞
k=0
zk
x x1 x2 x3 
0
= lim 0
+ + 2 + 3 + ···
z→∞ z z z z
= x0

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 12

Example
For {xk } = {cosh 3k}, x0 = cosh[3(0)] = cosh(0) = 1
 
z(z − cosh 3)
lim Z {cosh 3k} = lim
z→∞ z→∞ z 2 − 2z cosh 3 + 1
!
1 − cosh
z
3
= lim
z→∞ 1 − 2 cosh
z
3
+ z12

=1

Exercise
3z 2z 2
Find x0 if Z = + 2 ans: x0 = 5
z−4 z +1

2.1.7 Final Value Theorem

If Z {xk } = X(z), then
 
z−1
lim (xk ) = lim · X(z)
k→∞ z→1 z
provided limk→∞ (xk ) exists
Example h i
1 k 1 k



Consider {xk } = { 2
}, then lim 2
=0
k→∞

   
z−1 z z−1 2z
lim · 1 = lim ·
z→1 z z− 2
z→1 z 2z − 1
 
2(z − 1)
= lim
z→1 2z − 1
0
= =0
1
Exercise
3z 2z 2
Find x0 if Z {xk } = + 2 ans: x0 = 5
z−4 z +1

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 13

2.1.8 Convolution
The Convolution Product {xk } ∗ {yk } of two sequences {xk } and {yk } is defined as

( ∞
)
X
{xk } ∗ {yk } = xn yk−n
n=−∞
 

 

 
∞
 ! ∞
! ∞
! 
 X X X 
= xn y0−n , xn y1−n , xn y2−n , · · · · · ·
 

 n=−∞ n=−∞ n=−∞ 


| {z } | {z } | {z } 

k=0 k=1 k=2

= {(x0 y0 ) , (x0 y1 + x1 y0 ) , (x0 y2 + x1 y1 + x2 y0 ) , · · · }

since for causal sequences, xk = 0 for k < 0 and xk−n = 0 for n > k
Therefore, the convolution product can be re-stated as;

( k )
X
{xk } ∗ {yk } = xn yk−n
n=0
( 0
! 1
! 2
! k
!)
X X X X
= xn y0−n , xn y1−n , xn y2−n , ··· , xn yk−n
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0

= {(x0 y0 ) , (x0 y1 + x1 y0 ) , (x0 y2 + x1 y1 + x2 y0 ) , · · · , (x0 yk + x1 yn−1 + · · · + xk y0 )}

Example
If {vk } = {k} ∗ {2k }, then
(∞ ) ( k )
X X
{vk } = {k} ∗ {2k } = n 2k−n = n 2k−n
n=0 n=0

· 2}0 , 0| · 21 {z
= {0| {z + 1 · 2}0 , 0| · 22 + 1 {z
· 21 + 2 · 2}0 , · · · , 0| · 2k + 1 · 2k−1 0
{z + · · · + k · 2}}
u0 u1 u2 vk

= {0, 1, 4, 11, · · · , vk , 0, 0, 0, · · · }

Convolution Theorem
If {xk } and {yk } are sequences, then

Z ({xk } ∗ {yk }) = Z {xk } · Z {yk } = X(z) · Y (z)

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 14

Proof
∞
!
X
Z ({xk } ∗ {yk }) = Z xn yk−n
n=0

∞ ∞
!
X X
= xn yk−n z −k
k=0 n=0

∞
X ∞
X
= xn yk−n z −k
n=0 k=0

∞ ∞
!
X X
= xn z −n yk z −k (second shift theorem)
n=0 k=0

∞
! ∞
!
X X
= xn z −n yk z −k
n=0 k=0

= X(z) · Y (z)

Example

Z ({2k } ∗ {3k }) = Z {2k } · Z {3k }

z z
= · |z| > 3
z−2 z−3
z2
= |z| > 3
z 2 − 5z + 6
Exercises

1. Find the first 4 terms of the following sequences;

(a) {2k } ∗ {3k } ans: {1, 5, 19, 65, · · · }

(b) {k} ∗ {cos(πk)} ans: {0, 1, 1, 2, · · · }

2. Find the following z transforms using the convolution theorem

4z 2
(a) Z ({k4k } ∗ {uk }) ans:
z 3 − 9z 2 + 24z − 16
10.018z 2 (z − 3.762)
(b) Z ({cosh(2k)} ∗ {sinh(3k)}) ans: 4
z − 27.660z 3 + 153.506z 2 − 27.660z + 1

3 Inverse z Transform
If Z {xk } = X(x), then Z −1 (X(z)) = {xk }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 15

Example
   
1 1 z
Z −1
=Z −1
·
z+3 z z+3

= {xk−1 } where {xk } = {(−3)k } (second shift theorem)

We will consider three techniques for finding inverse z transforms; [Long Division
Partial Fractions and Convolution,].

3.1 Long Division

Example − z2 − 12
z2
− 56
z3
− 240
z4
− ···
Find the first 5 terms of; 2
z − 6z + 8 − 2z
  −2z + 12 − 16
−2z z
Z −1
− 12 + 16
z 2 − 6z + 8 z

  −12 + z − 96
72
z2
0 2 12 56 240 − z + 96
56
=Z −1
− − 2 − 3 − 4 − ··· z2
z0 z z z z − 56 + 336
− 448
z z2 z3
240 448
= {0, −2, −12, −56, −240, · · · } − z2
+ z3

The long division method produces numerical values of the sequence. However, it is not always
possible to establish the closed form of the sequence. In fact the sequence found above is the
sequence {2k − 4k } = {2k } − {4k }, but this is not obvious from the sequence.

Example   1 + z2 + z42 + 8
z3
+ 16
z4
+ ···
z z−2 z
Find Z −1 ;
z−2 z−2
  2
z
Z −1 2 − z4
z−2 4
  z
1 2 4 8 16 4
− 8
=Z −1
+ + + + + ··· z z2
z0 z z2 z3 z4 8
z2
8 16
= {20 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 25 , · · · } z2
− z3
16
z3
= {2k }

Exercises
Use long division to find the first 5 terms of the following inverse transforms
 3
z − 2z 2 − 3

1. Z −1
ans: {1, −2, −1, 1, −3 · · · }
z3 + z − 2
z2
 
2. Z −1
ans: {0, 1, 3, 9, 23, · · · }
z 3 − 3z 2 + 4

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 16

3.2 Partial Fractions
Where possible, breaking a function X(z) into its partial fractions and then using standard
forms of z transforms provides a method for finding Z −1 (X(z)).
Example  
−2z
Find Z −1
z 2 − 6z + 8
Note that this is the same problem as above in 3.1
   
−2z −2z
Z −1
=Z −1
z 2 − 6z + 8 (z − 2)(z − 4)
 
2 4
=Z −1
− (by partial fractions)
z−2 z−4
 
1 2z 1 4z
=Z −1
· − ·
z z−2 z z−4
   
1 2z 1 4z
=Z −1
· −Z −1
·
z z−2 z z−4

= 2{2k−1 } − 4{4k−1 } (second shift theorem)

= {2k } − {4k } ( or {2k − 4k })

In this example, the method of partial fractions was applied to X(z), and then each fraction
had to be multiplied by zz in order to get the fractions in standard form. However, a simpler
way of dealing with Z −1 (X(z)) is as follows;
−2z
Let X(z) =
z 2 − 6z + 8
X(z) −2
Then, = (divide through by z)
z (z − 2)(z − 4)
1 1
= − (by partial fractions)
z−2 z−4
z z
∴ X(z) = − , (multiply both sides by z), and then
z−2 z−4
 
−2z
Z (X(Z)) = Z
−1 −1
z 2 − 6z + 8
   
z z
=Z −1
−Z −1
z−2 z−4

= {2k } − {4k } ( or {2k − 4k })

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 17

In this second method the second shift theorem was not required.
Example 
z2

Find Z −1
z2 + 4

z2
Let X(z) = 2
z +4
X(z) z
=
z (z − j2)(z + j2)
1 1
X(z) 2
= + 2 (partial fractions)
z z − j2 z + j2
 
1 z z
X(z) = +
2 z − j2 z + j2

z2
    
1 z z
∴ Z −1
=Z −1
+
z2 + 4 2 z − j2 z + j2

[(j2)k + (−j2)k ]
1
= 2
π π π π
= { 12 [(2ej 2 )k + (2e−j 2 )k ]} (ja = aej 2 , and − ja = ae−j 2 )

= {2k cosh(j π2 k)}

= {2k cos( π2 k)} = {1, 0, −4, 0, 16, 0, −64, · · · }

Example  
z
Find Z −1
2
z + 6z + 6
 
z
Let X(z) = Z −1
2
z + 6z + 6

z 2 + 6z + 6
X(z) 1
= 2 =(z + 3)2 − √3 (diff. of squares)
√
z z + 6z + 6
=((z + 3) + 3)((z + 3) − 3)

X(z) 1
= √ √
z (z + (3 + 3))(z + (3 − 3))

X(z) − 2√1 3 1
√
2 3
= √ + √ (partial fractions)
z z + (3 + 3) z + (3 − 3)

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 18

  
1 z z
X(z) = √ √ + √
2 3 z + (3 + 3) z + (3 − 3)
   
z z z
Z −1
= 2√3 Z
1 −1
√ + √
z 2 + 6z + 6 z + (3 + 3) z + (3 − 3)
√ √
= 2√1 3 [−(3 + 3)]k + [−(3 − 3)]k


Example  
z
Find Z −1
√
z 2 − 3z + 1
z
Let X(z) = √
z2 − 3z + 1
√
z 2 − 3z
√ +1
X(z) 1 =(z − √23 )2 + 14
= √ √
=(z − 2√3 )2 − − 14 (diff.


z (z − ( 23 + j 21 ))(z − ( 23 − j 12 )) √
of squares)
3 3
=((z − 2 ) + j 2 )((z − 2 ) − j 12 )
1

!
X(z) 1 1 1
= √ − √ (partial fractions)
z j z− ( 23 + j 21 ) z−( 3
− j 12 )
2
!
1 z z
X(z) = √ − √
j z−( 3
+ j 21 ) z−( 3
− j 12 )
2 2

  " #!
z 1 z z
Z −1 √ = Z −1 √ − √
z2 − 3z + 1 j z−( 3
+ j 21 ) z−( 3
− j 12 )
2 2

√ √
 !k !k 
1  3 1 3 1 
= +j − −j
j  2 2 2 2 

1  jπ k π
= (e 6 ) − (e−j 6 )k
j
1
= · {2 sinh(j π6 k)}
j

= {2 sin( π6 k)}

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 19

Example 
z2

Find Z −1
(z + 1)(z − 2)2
z2
Let X(z) =
(z + 1)(z − 2)2

X(z) z
=
z (z + 1)(z − 2)2

− 19 1
9
2
3
= + + (partial fractions)
z + 1 z − 2 (z − 2)2
1 z 1 z 2 z
∴ X(z) = − · + · + ·
9 z + 1 9 z − 2 3 (z − 2)2

z2
   
1 z 1 z 2 z
Z −1
=Z −1
− · + · + ·
(z + 1)(z − 2)2 9 z + 1 9 z − 2 3 (z − 2)2

= − 19 (−1)k + 91 (2)k + 13 (k · 2k )


= 19 [−(−1)k + (2)k + 3(k · 2k )]



Exercises
Use partial fractions to find the following inverse z transforms
 
7z n
k o
1. Z −1
ans: 1 k
3
[2 − − 13 ]
9z 2 − 15z − 6
6z 2 − 15z
 
2. Z −1
1
ans: 2
[4k − uk + 3k]
2(z − 4)(z − 1)2
2z 2 − z
 
3. Z −1 π


ans: 2 cos 3
k
z2 − z + 1

3.3 Convolution
z2
 
Use the convolution theorem to find Z −1
z2 + z − 6
z2 z2
   
Z −1
=Z −1
z2 + z − 6 (z + 3)(z − 2)
 
z z
=Z −1
·
z+3 z−2

= {(−3)k } ∗ {(2)k }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 20

 ( k )
X
= (−3)n · (2k−n )
n=0
( k  n )
X −3
= 2k
n=0
2
( "  1  2  k #)
−3 −3 −3
= 2k 1 + + + ··· +
2 2 2

−3 k+1
( "
#)
−1
= 2k 2
−3

(sum of a finite geometric series (k + 1 terms))
2
−1
( " " k+1 ##)
2 −3
= 2k − −1
5 2
( " "  k+1 ##)
1 k+1 −3
= 2 1−
5 2
 1  k+1
− (−3)k+1

= 5
2

Verify this answer using partial fractions.

Example  
z
Find Z −1
(z − 4)(z − 5)

z2
   
z 1
Z −1
=Z −1
·
(z − 4)(z − 5) z (z − 4)(z − 5)
  
1 z z
=Z −1
· ·
z z−4 z−5

= {(4)k−1 } ∗ {(5)k } (second shift)

( k )
X
= (4)n−1 · (5)k−n
n=0
( k
)
X (4)n−1
= 5k
n=0
5n

40 41 4k−1
  
k 0
= 5 + + + ··· + k (see note below)
50 51 52 5

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 21

 ( "   k−1 #)
0  1  2
5k 4 4 4 4
= + + + ··· +
5 5 5 5 5

4 k
( "
#)
−1
= 5k−1 5

4
(k terms in the series)
5
−1

= {5k − 4k }

Note: By the second shift theorem, {xk−1 } = {4k−1 }. Since the sequence is causal, when
k = 0, x0−1 = x−1 = 0. Thus, {4k−1 } = {0, 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , · · · } and {5k } = {50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , · · · }
Exercises
Use the convolution theorem to find;
2z 2
 
1. Z −1
2
2
ans: 3
[(5)k+1 − (2)k+1 ]
z − 7z + 10
z2
 
2. Z −1
1 k 2
2
ans: 3
(2) + 3 (−4)k
z + 2z − 8

4 Recurrence Relations (Difference Equations)

Adjacent terms in most sequences are related to each other by a Recurrence Relation
(Difference Equation).
For example, the terms of the sequence {xk } = {0, 1, 4, 9, 14, 21, 30, · · · } are related by the
difference equation xk+2 − 2xk+1 − xk = 2, where x0 = 0 and x1 = 1.
To see this, the difference equation can be expressed as xk+2 = 2+2xk+1 −xk . Starting with the
initial values x0 = 0 and x1 = 1, we can generate the sequence using the difference equation.
Let k = 0 in the difference equation yields x2 = 2 + 2x1 − x0 = 2 + 2(1) − 0 = 4.
Now, let k = 1 in the difference equation, then x3 = 2 + 2x2 − x1 = 2 + 2(4) − 1 = 9
Next, let k = 2, then x4 = 2 + 2x3 − x2 = 14
Continuing in this manner generates the sequence {xk }. Also, it follows that any three
successive terms in the sequence satisfy the difference equation.
The Order of the difference equation is the largest difference between shifts (subscripts) in the
terms of the equation.
For example, the order of the above difference equation is order 2 (i.e (k + 2) − k = 2).
yk+5 − 3yk+4 = 0 has order 1 (i.e (k + 5) − (k + 4) = 1)
qk+7 − 2qk+3 + 4qk+5 = 3 sin( π2 k) has order 4 (i.e (k + 7) − (k + 3) = 4)

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 22

4.1 Solving Recurrence Relations
Solving a recurrence relation leads to finding the sequence which satisfies the recurrence relation.
The method of solution of a recurrence relation is similar to that of solving differential equations
using Laplace Transforms.
Example
Solve the difference equation xk+2 + 3xk+1 − 10xk = 2k , where x0 = 0 and x1 = 1.
Let {xk+2 + 3xk+1 − 10xk } = {2k }, then

1) Take z transforms of both sides, making use of the second shift theorem

Z {xk+2 + 3xk+1 − 10xk } = Z {2k }

Z {xk+2 } + 3Z {xk+1 } − 10Z {xk } = Z {2k }

z
[z 2 X(z) − z 2 x0 − zx1 ] + 3[zX(z) − zx0 ] − 10X(z) =
z−2
2) substitute initial values x0 and x1 and then solve for X(z)
z
[z 2 X(z) − z 2 (0) − z(1)] + 3[zX(z) − z(0)] − 10X(z) =
z−2
z
(z 2 + 3z − 10)X(z) = +z
z−2
z2 − z
(z 2 + 3z − 10)X(z) =
z−2
z2 − z
X(z) =
(z − 2)2 (z + 5)

X(z) z−1
=
z (z − 2)2 (z + 5)
6 1 6
X(z) 49 7 49
= + − (partial fractions)
z z − 2 (z − 2)2 z + 5
6 z 1 z 6 z
∴ X(z) = · + · 2
− ·
49 z − 2 7 (z − 2) 49 z + 5
6 z 1 1 2z 6 z
X(z) = · + · − ·
49 z − 2 7 2 (z − 2)2 49 z + 5

3) Inverse transform both sides to find {xk }

{xk } = Z −1 (X(z)) = { 49
6
· 2k + 1
14
· k 2k − 6
49
· (−5)k }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 23

Example
Solve yk+3 − 4yk+1 = uk , where y0 = 0, y1 = 2 and y2 = 1
Z {yk+3 } − 4Z {yk+1 } = Z {uk }
z
[z 3 Y (z) − z 3 y0 − z 2 y1 − zy2 ] − 4[zY (z) − zy0 ] =
z−1
z
[z 3 Y (z) − z 3 (0) − z 2 (2) − z(1)] − 4[zY (z) − z(0)] =
z−1
z
(z 3 − 4z)Y (z) = + 2z 2 + z
z−1
2z 3 − z 2
z(z 2 − 4)Y (z) =
z−1
2z 3 − z 2 2z 2 − z
Y (z) = =
z(z − 2)(z + 2)(z − 1) (z − 2)(z + 2)(z − 1)

Y (z) 2z − 1
= =
z (z − 2)(z + 2)(z − 1)
3
Y (z) −5 − 13
= 4 + 12 +
z z−2 z+2 z−1
3 z 5 z 1 z
Y (z) = · − · − ·
4 z − 2 12 z + 2 3 z − 1

∴ {yk } = 34 (2)k − 12
5
(−2)k − 31 uk


Exercises
1. Verify the answers in the above two examples by generating the sequences for each problem
using
(a) the given recurrence relation, and
(b) the closed form of the sequence.
− 29 (−2)k + 29 uk + 31 k

2. Solve xk+2 + xk+1 − 2xk = uk , where x0 = 0 and x1 = 1 ans:

3. Solve qk+1 + 2qk = 3 cos(π k), where q0 = 1 ans: 3(−1)k − 2(−2)k

5 Sampling of a continuous function

Let y = f (t) be a continuous function. Then, sampled values of this function can be attained
by evaluating f (t) for values t = kT , where t is a constant and k ∈ Z+ ∪ {0}.
These sampled values form a sequence of y = f (kT ) values
{f (kT )} = {f (0), f (T ), f (2T ), f (3T ), · · · }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 24

The sampled function can now be defined as
(
f (kT ) if t = kT,
fk (t) = k ∈ Z ∪ {0}, T a constant
0 if t ̸= kT

or alternatively, it can be expressed as

fk (t) = f (0)δ(t) + f (T )δ(t − T ) + f (2T )δ(t − 2T ) + f (3T )δ(t − 3T ) + · · ·

∞
X
= f (kT ) δ(t − kT )
k=0

We can now consider the Laplace Transform of this function, i.e

Z ∞
L {fk (t)} = Fk (s) = fk (t)e−st dt
0
Z ∞
= [f (0)δ(t) + f (T )δ(t − T ) + f (2T )δ(t − 2T ) + f (3T )δ(t − 3T ) + · · · ] e−st dt
0

= f (0) + f (T )e−sT + f (2T )e−2sT + f (3T )e−3sT + · · ·

∞
X
= f (kT )e−ksT (recall that L {f (t)}δ(t − a) = f (a)e−as )
k=0

This suggests that if we let z = esT , there is an obvious link between the Laplace Transform
and the z Transform of a sampled function as follows;
∞
X
L {fk (t)} = f (kT )e−ksT
k=0

∞
X
= f (kT )z −k
k=0

∞
X f (kT )
=
k=0
zk

= Z {f (kT )}

This shows that the Laplace Transform of a continuous time sampled function fk (t), is equal
to the z transform of the sequence of the sampled discrete function values.
Example
A continuous function f (t) = t2 is sampled every 3 seconds. Then, T = 3 and the sampled
function is;

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 25

 ∞
X ∞
X
fk (t) = f (3k) δ(t − 3k) = (3k)2 δ(t − 3k), and so,
k=0 k=0

∞
X
L {fk (t)} = fk (3k) e−3ks
k=0

∞
X
= f (3k) z −k ( where z = e−3s )
k=0

∞
X (3k)2
=
k=0
zk

∞
X k2
=9
k=0
zk

9z(z + 1)
=
(z − 1)3

= Z {9k 2 }

© 2019 Durban University of Technology: D Day Page 26