Term Paper

Nuclear And Particle Physics

History of Science

04/09/2024
Submitted by: Instructor:
Pooja Chugh - MP23003 Dr. Satyajit Jena

Department of Physical Science, IISER Mohali, Mohali

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Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 Astronomy-The First Science (Heliocentric model) 4

3 17th century - Newtonian Physics 5

4 18th Century - Electrodynamics: Maxwell Equations 7

5 19th Century - Discovery of Atoms 8

6 20th Century- Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity 9

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1 Introduction
Some important timelines to be mindful of

• 13.5 Billion Years Ago- Beginning of Universe

• 4.5 Billion Years Ago - Formation of Earth
• 2.5 Billion Years Ago-Emergence of humans and usage of tools

• 300000 Years Ago-Use of fire

• 32000 Years Ago- Astronomic Observations Started
• 12000 Years Ago -Agricultural evolution
• 10000 Years Ago-Used astronomical Observations to plant crops

• 200S- Geocentric Model of Earth

• 1500s- Heliocentric Model of Earth
• 1600s- Newtonnian Physics

• 1700s-Electromagnetism
• 1800s-Discovery of Atoms
• 2000s-Modern Science

Science, as a pursuit of knowledge and understanding, has existed since the inception of the universe. It is
not a human invention but rather a systematic methodology grounded in evidence. Initially, discoveries often
occurred by chance or accident. Over time, as our understanding deepened, the pursuit of knowledge became
more structured and precise, driven by the need for specificity and accuracy.The recognition of regularities
and patterns in nature has been crucial for human survival since the emergence of Homo sapiens. However,
identifying patterns does not constitute full scientific understanding, as these patterns might be constructs
of the human mind rather than inherent truths.To generalize scientific ideas effectively, a comprehensive
framework is necessary. Such frameworks are developed through the rigorous process of testing and refining
theories to ensure they hold true across various situations. From the earliest days, humans have been
driven by an innate curiosity and a desire to understand the world around them. This curiosity, coupled
with the survival imperative, prompted early Homo sapiens to seek explanations for natural phenomena.The
recognition of regularities and patterns in nature—such as the cycles of seasons, the movements of celestial
bodies, and the behavior of animals—played a crucial role in ensuring their survival. These early observations
laid the foundation for more systematic exploration and inquiry.
As human societies evolved around 10000 years ago , so did their methods of understanding. What
began as accidental discoveries and observations gradually gave way to more deliberate and methodical
approaches. The development of tools, the rise of agriculture, and the establishment of written language were
pivotal in enhancing the capacity for scientific inquiry. These advancements allowed for the documentation
of knowledge, the formulation of hypotheses, and the testing of ideas in a more structured manner.The
transition from mere pattern recognition to the formulation of comprehensive scientific frameworks marked
a significant shift in human thought. While early discoveries were often serendipitous, the growing need for
accuracy and consistency led to the development of rigorous methodologies. This evolution was driven by
the realization that a more systematic approach was necessary to build a reliable body of knowledge that
could be applied across diverse contexts.
This paper explores why significant scientific discoveries occurred, the transition from accidental findings to
systematic inquiry, and the factors that influenced the development of precise scientific methodologies. Five
major discoveries as mentioned in the contents page have been chosen due to their large impact in development
of science (Physical science mainly). These discoveries clearly show the foundation of all existential science
in modern times and paved the way for modern technology. Without these we would be nowhere in terms of
information and progress today.

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2 Astronomy-The First Science (Heliocentric model)
Astronomy, the study of celestial objects, is considered to be the oldest of all the natural science whose
origin was mythologies, various cosmological philosophies and astrological beleifs.

Since Sun was the main source of energy and everything becomes visible by virtue of it, hence all luminous
or non-luminous objects present in the sky were a big question of what they are but many centuries passed
by and no answers led the early man to deify the sky and all celestial objects. In many ancient cultures,
the sky was perceived as a realm of gods and spirits, and celestial objects like the Sun, Moon, stars, and
planets were worshiped by humans under the preaches of priests. The movements of these objects were
believed to be divine messages or omens, guiding human activities and predicting natural events. With time,
humans discovered things unknowingly and without even thinking what’s happening and why something is
happening. The early man used to live as animals hunting for food and eat them raw. But with accidental
discovery of fire and many other things, they started being more mindful of what is happening around
them and how to control things. From the time of the early man many questions were like mysteries.

• How can we predict the weather?

• When will it next rain?

• Why do seasons change?

• How can the positions of stars be used to navigate?

• What is the relationship between the stars and the seasons?

• Why sun and moon rises and set?

• What causes the stars to move across the sky? Figure 1: Classical Ele-
ments: Aristotle

Different philosophers came into picture to answer these sort of questions and to satisfy human curiosities.
The ancient Greeks believed that there were four elements that everything was made up of: earth, water, air,
and fire. This theory was suggested around 450 BC, and it was later supported and added by Aristotle, whose
disciple Claudius Ptolemy (in the second century CE) gave the model of Geocentric System. According to
which where all objects in the sky sit on moving spheres, with the Earth at the centre as shown in the figure
This model was initially satisfying, as it placed hu-
mans at the center of the universe. However, ob-
servations revealed inconsistencies. For example,
the outer planets appeared to stop, move backward
in ‘retrograde’ motion, and then continue forward,
contradicting the predictions of the model. As-
tronomers attempted to explain these irregularities
by introducing concepts like epicycles and deferents,
but these adjustments still failed to fully account for
the observed phenomena.
The limitations of the geocentric model high- Figure 2: Ptolemy’s Geocentric MOdel
lighted the need for new thinking and a more accu-
rate model. Enter the Copernican revolution, which displaced Ptolemy’s geocentric model with a heliocentric
system, positioning the Sun at the center of the universe

The Copernican model displaced the geocentric model of Ptolemy that had prevailed for centuries, which
had placed Earth at the center of the Universe. Copernicus’s heliocentric model retained some elements of
the Ptolemaic system, such as circular orbits and epicycles, but it offered several revolutionary ideas:

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 • There is no one center in the Universe.
• The Earth’s center is not the center of the Universe.
• The center of the universe is near the Sun.
• The Earth is one of several planets revolving around a stationary Sun in a determined order.
• The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and the tilting of its axis.
• The distance from the Earth to the Sun is imperceptible compared with the distance to the stars.
• The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
• The apparent annual cycle of movements of the Sun is caused by the Earth revolving around it, and,
• the apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the motion of the Earth from which one
observes.

The Copernican model represented a significant

shift in scientific thought, challenging long-held be-
liefs, and paving the way for modern astronomy.
In astronomy, the view that Earth rotates around
the Sun, not the other way around, ran afoul of es-
tablished religious doctrine. The Catholic Church,
which taught that Earth is stationary, declared in
1616 that heliocentrism was “false and altogether
contrary to Scripture.”In 1633 the elderly Galileo
was brought before the Inquisition and found guilty [H]
of heresy (preaching incorrect belief) and shown the
instruments of torture that would be used on him Figure 3: Heliocentric Model:By Copernicus
if he did not retract his statements. Under duress,
Galileo publicly retracted his belief in heliocentrism, and blind and disappointed, he died in 1642, the same
year Isaac Newton was born. Because of Galileo’s conviction, scientists were fearful of speaking truthfully
in Southern Europe for decades afterward, and most of the work in the Scientific Revolution was thereafter
done in England and northern Europe.
The church eventually acknowledged its error, but not until many years later. In 1822, it lifted the ban
on books promoting the heliocentric model, which posits that Earth orbits the sun. The evolution of this
model, from Copernicus onwards, illustrates how science develops within a framework. The Copernicus model
addressed key questions, leading to more informed debates on how the universe functions. It also enabled
predictions with probabilistic accuracy, aiding rulers and scholars in further refining the theory of astronomy.

3 17th century - Newtonian Physics

Before the advent of Newtonian physics, observational astronomy was the only science with mathematically
precise knowledge or predictive power. From at least the fourth century BC until Newton’s time, European
scientific thought was modeled largely on the theories of ancient Greek thinkers such as Plato (c.428–348
BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC). So great was Aristotle’s influence, in fact, that the world-view held by most
European scholars until the seventeenth century is termed Aristotelian. This did not rule out the investiga-
tion of events using experiment and mathematics, which are now the heart of the scientific method, but it
did not particularly encourage them either. This is because Aristotelians saw the universe and everything
in it primarily in terms of their meaning, rather than cause and effect. Aristotelians also inherited flawed
assumptions about specific physical questions. For example, if an object were in motion, they assumed some-
thing must keep it in motion, whether a mysterious quality in the object called impetus, the surrounding
air, or something else. For many centuries this mindset confounded efforts to unravel the physics of motio.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian physicist who perfected the modern scientific method. His
work on accelerated motion was essential groundwork for Newtonian physics. Unfortunately, Galileo’s defense
of Copernican (or heliocen-tric) made him spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Kepler was the first to describe the motions of the planets in terms of mathematical laws. He stated three,

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two of which involved time as a variable. Using time to describe the world mathematically was a significant
advance for physics; the European scientific tradition inherited from the Greeks was primarily static (motion-
less) and geometrical. Its attention went primarily to the shapes of curves and rarely used mathematics to
describe dynamic (time-dependent) processes. Kepler published two of his laws in 1609 and the third in 1619.
They were purely descriptive, that is, they offered no explanation of why the planets acted as speci-fied, nor
did they describe how any other objects (such as falling apples) might move. After Brahe and Kepler, Galileo
laid crucial groundwork for Newtonian physics. He mistakenly rejected Kepler’s proof that the planets moved
in elliptical orbits, but conducted precise experiments in the laboratory to characterize the movements of
accelerating bodies—objects that are changing the direction or rapidity of their motion. Like Kepler, he
searched for mathematical laws to describe the way physical systems change over time. Galileo concluded
that the distance covered by a steadily accelerating object is proportional to the square of the time it has
been accelerating. He also discovered that objects accelerate steadily under the influence of gravity, which
he treated as a constant force unaffected by distance (which it is, approximately, near Earth’s surface). He
found that objects accelerate with equal speed regardless of their weight—that is, a heavier ball does not fall
faster than a light ball of the same size. Perhaps most fundamentally, he found that objects tend to maintain
their straight-line motion unless acted upon by a force. This overthrew the Aristotelian view that a force is
needed to maintain an object’s state of motion.

With Galileo’s physics and Kepler’s astronomy in place, the stage was set for Newton’s tri-
umph.

Newton’s Physics
Newton’s influence is due mostly to his major work,
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in
1687 and best known by the shortened form of its Latin title,
Principia. This work was produced partly at the urging of New-
ton’s friend, English astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742),
who also financed the project, helping to produce one of the
most important works in the history of science. Of all the sci-
entists working in his day, only Newton conceived that there
could be a single universal system of mechanics—that is, a
physics that would describe both earthly and celestial motions
at the same time.In the Principia, Newton established such a
physics with his three laws of motion and his law of gravitation.
Elaborating these laws and unifying them with a rigorous idea
of “energy” in the late eighteenth century produced a system, Figure 4: Isaac Newton
Newtonian (or mechanical) physics, that is still used today for
everything from engineering design to the analysis of galactic motion.

Newton’s three laws of motion are as follows:

1. An object remains at rest or moves in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by a nonzero
total force.
2. A force acting on a body causes it to accelerate (change its state of motion) to a degree that is
proportional to the body’s mass. Stated as an equation, writing F for force, m for mass, and a for
acceleration, we have F = ma.
3. Forces occur in pairs pointing in opposite directions.
Universal Law of Gravitation
Newton’s law of universal gravitation says that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe
with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between their centers. Accordingly, F = Gmr12m2 Here F is gravitational pull, G is the universal
gravitational constant (a fixed number, G = 6.6742Ö10− 11m3 kg − 1s− 2), m 1 is the mass of one object, m 2
is the mass of the other object, and r is the distance between the centers of the two objects.

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4 18th Century - Electrodynamics: Maxwell Equations
The Age of Enlightenment was influenced by the growth in scientific knowledge that began in the mid-17th
century. People looked for reasons why things happened the way they did.The Chinese scientist Shen Kuo
(1031–1095) was the first person known to write about the magnetic needle compass and by the 12th century
Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. While preparing for a lecture, Oersted
noticed that a compass needle deflected when he brought it close to a live electrical wire. He realized that
the needle would normally realign itself with the Earth’s magnetic field if moved, but the compass had
been stationary when the needle swung. Oersted experimented further and published his results in July
1820, demonstrating that an electric current creates a magnetic field and that electricity and magnetism are
connected. Oersted’s discovery is known as Oersted’s law, and it was the first of two laws that link electricity
and magnetism, along with Faraday’s law of induction. These laws are part of Maxwell’s equations, which
govern electromagnetism.
Oersted discovery leads to more and more scientists exploring the deep connection of Electricity and
magnetism. The first of these was French physicist André-Marie Ampère. He saw a demonstration of
Oersted’s experiments in which a magnetic needle was moved by a nearby electric current. This excited
Ampère and he began a series of his own experiments that soon led to a mathematical law relating a
magnetic field to the electric current that produced it. Meanwhile, Michael Faraday discovered the oppo-
site effect. He showed that a magnetic field can cause an electric current to flow in a wire. By moving
a magnet closer or farther away from a circuit he could induce a current – an effect now called elec-
tromagnetic induction. From this and other insights into electricity and magnetism, Faraday invented
the first electric motor, the first electrical transformer, the first electric generator and the first dynamo.
By the time Maxwell joined the scene in 1855, Fara-
day, Ampere and their predecessors had developed
various laws and theories to explain links between
electricity and magnetism. But nothing connected
these ideas together. So, over the course of 10 years,
Maxwell set about mathematically describing Fara-
day’s lines of force to account for all the electric and
magnetic effects that had been observed. Or to put it
a different way, he built a theory of electromagnetic
fields. Maxwell’s contribution to science in produc-
ing these equations lies in the correction he made to
Ampère’s circuital law in his 1861 paper On Physical
Lines of Force. He added the displacement current
term to Ampère’s circuital law and this enabled him
to derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his Figure 5: James Clerk Maxwell
later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Elec-
tromagnetic Field and to demonstrate the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave.Maxwell’s equations
were an essential inspiration for the development of special relativity. Possibly the most important aspect
was their denial of instantaneous action at a distance. Rather, according to them, forces are propagated at
the velocity of light through the electromagnetic field.
Maxwell’s original equations are based on the idea that light travels through a sea of molecular vortices
known as the ”luminiferous aether”, and that the speed of light has to be respective to the reference frame
of this aether. Measurements designed to measure the speed of the Earth through the aether conflicted with
this notion, though. Although these further helped Einstein’s to gave his theory of relativity.

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5 19th Century - Discovery of Atoms
What one sentence we might pass on if all scientific knowledge were lost/ Feynman suggested
the sentence: ”All things are made of atoms—little particles that move around in perpetual
motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being
squeezed together.””-Feynmann
The earliest records of humans speculating about the
fundamental makeup of the world come from An-
cient Greece, where the philosopher Democritus de-
veloped the basis for the atomic theory around 430
BCE. He hypothesized that repeatedly cutting an
object in half will eventually lead to a fundamental,
indivisible fragment of said object. This final piece
was given the name of atomos, which translates to
“indivisible”, and later down the line was adapted
into the “atom” we know today.
Democritus description of the atom was very
specific, emphasizing its constant, stable structure.
He believed atoms to be unchanging, solid, and in-
divisible. In addition, the atom possessed the same Figure 6: John Dalton
properties as the material it was creating. For in-
stance, sour things were made up of spiky atoms, while sweet things were associated with smooth atoms.
Although in many respects his theory was abstract and based on pure speculation, it turned out to be
partially correct, and eventually lead to the discovery of the real atom. Based on Democritus’ ideas and
Antoine Lavoisier’s law of conservation of mass, at the beginning of the 19th century a British chemist named
John Dalton further developed the atomic theory. The law of conservation of mass states that in chem-
ical reactions, the mass is neither created nor destroyed. Dalton claimed that atoms differ in mass and
size, depending on the chemical element. His main research focus became determining the relative masses
of different atoms. The presence of electrons in particular was proven by J. J. Thompson, stemming from
his experiments with cathode ray tubes. When measuring the mass of the cathode ray, he realized that it
weighed 1000 times less than the lightest particle known to exist - a hydrogen atom. As a result, he came
up with the plum pudding model. This model was later tested by Ernest Rutherford, who performed the
gold foil experiment. In this experiment, Rutherford aimed a ray of radioactive alpha particles at a thin gold
foil. Most of the particles went straight through the foil, as predicted by the plum pudding model. However,
some particles were reflected or scattered, which goes directly against Thompson’s theory, resulting in a new
atomic theory - the Rutherford model.

He stated the following postulates (not all of them are true) about his atomic theory.
1. Matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible structures, which can neither be created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction
(based on the law of conservation of mass).
3. All atoms of a particular element are similar in all respects, be it their physical or chemical properties.
4. Inversely, atoms of different elements show different properties, and they have different masses and
different chemical properties.
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form stable compounds, which is how they exist
in nature.
6. The relative number and the kinds of atoms in a given compound are always in a fixed ratio (based on
the law of constant proportions).
It was only after J. J. Thompson proposed his model that the true concepts had come into existence.
Later, Rutherford worked on Dalton’s and Thompson’s models and brought out a roughly correct shape of
the concept. Finally, Bohr’s model and the quantum mechanical model gave a complete model which we
know of today. His ideas paved the way for later discoveries, including the development of the periodic table,
quantum mechanics, and modern atomic models.

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6 20th Century- Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity
In 1905, Einstein laid the foundation of Special
Theory of Relativity, He published two articles on
the Special Theory of Relativity. One on the prop-
erties of light and time Another on E=mc2. The
secret the equation revealed—that mass and energy
are different forms of the same thing—had eluded
scientists for centuries.At that time he was not even
on a proper job of a Scientist ( Doesn’t mean he
lacked physics in him ) instead he was working as a
clerk in some patent office. Einstein was a trained
physicist and followed the recent developments in
electrodynamics. In particular he knew about the
Lorentz transformations which were found to leave
Maxwell’s equations invariant. It was believed that
Galilean transformation were the correct ones, but
Maxwell’s equations weren’t Galilean invariant. So
it was already bothering scientists by then, not only
Einstein. Either the equations were wrong or the
transformation laws, but the equations, they agreed
so well with experiments that evidence was point-
ing towards the Galilean transformations not being
the correct ones. He realized that by thinking hard
about the definition of simultaneity and discovered Figure 7: Albert Einstein
that the Lorentz transformations could actually re-
place the Galilean transformations as the defining symmetry transformations of space and time. This led to
his landmark paper, It was not a case of just imagining what it would be like to look at a beam of light when
traveling at the speed of light it. It was “According to Maxwell’s equations for describing electromagnetic
waves, what does the math say would happen if I did that?

Some intuitions he had might be based on these ideas:

• Physical laws must be the same everywhere

• The speed of light depends solely on Maxwell equations

• Maxwell equations are Lorentz invariant but not Galilean invariant
• Hence the speed of light must be the same in every inertial frame of reference OR Maxwell Laws are
wrong.

He believed that Maxwell was right... and indeed it was the case. Einstein expected both of these
revolutionary 1905 papers to arouse a lively debate among physicists. But for months, the often conservative
scientific community was silent, and Einstein was disappointed by the lack of response. His isolation did not
last long, however: by 1906, physicists from around Europe were journeying to Switzerland to discuss this
intriguing new theory with the 27-year-old patent clerk.

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 Postulates of special relativity

1. First postulate (principle of relativity)

• The laws of physics take the same form in all inertial frames of reference.

2. Second postulate (invariance of c)

• As measured in any inertial frame of reference, light is always propagated in empty space with a
definite velocity c that is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. Or: the speed
of light in free space has the same value c in all inertial frames of reference.

Einstein was driven by a visionary goal: to unify all physical phenomena—from subatomic particles to
the entire universe—under a ”Grand Unified Theory,” a quest that remains a forefront pursuit in physics
today. Although Einstein did not achieve this ultimate synthesis, his legacy endures through foundational
contributions to the understanding of the universe’s evolution and advancements in technologies such as lasers
and computer chips. Despite its acclaim, Einstein’s theory, particularly general relativity built upon special
relativity, encounters limitations, notably its applicability on cosmic scales versus the quantum realm, where
it struggles to describe interactions at the atomic and subatomic levels. This distinction underscores ongoing
inquiries into the quantum world, a realm beyond the scope of Einstein’s theories which is being developed
in 21st century and a latest research topic for many Amazing Scientists but out of scope for discussions for
this current Term paper.

References
[1] https://www.britannica.com/science/heliocentrism
[2] https://www.britannica.com/video/187021/discovery-atoms-instruments-scientists-particles
[3] https://www.nmspacemuseum.org/inductee/nicolaus-copernicus/
[4] https://www.iop.org/explore-physics/big-ideas-physics/maxwells-equations

[5] https://www.thenewsminute.com/features/hundred-years-einsteins-theory-relativity-all-you-need-know
[6] https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/nicolaus-copernicus

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