1.

Which services are provided by the

Presentation Layer?
The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) in the OSI model is responsible for data translation,
encryption, and compression, ensuring that data is formatted correctly before reaching the
Application Layer.

Services Provided by the Presentation Layer:

1.​ Data Translation:

○​ Different devices use different encoding formats (e.g., ASCII, Unicode, EBCDIC).
○​ The Presentation Layer converts the data into a common standard.
2.​ Data Compression:
○​ Large files such as videos and images require compression before transmission.
○​ This reduces bandwidth usage and ensures faster communication.
3.​ Encryption & Decryption:
○​ Converts plain text into ciphertext for secure transmission.
○​ Uses algorithms such as AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and RSA
(Rivest-Shamir-Adleman).
4.​ Character Code Conversion:
○​ Converts text encoding formats to match the receiver’s system.
○​ Example: ASCII to Unicode conversion.
5.​ Graphics Processing:
○​ Ensures images and videos are displayed correctly across different platforms.
6.​ Data Formatting and Syntax Processing:
○​ Converts structured data (e.g., XML, JSON) into a readable format for
applications.

Example Protocols in the Presentation Layer:

●​ SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Encrypts communication.

●​ JPEG, GIF, PNG: Image compression standards.
●​ MP3, MPEG: Audio and video compression formats.

Importance of the Presentation Layer:

●​ Facilitates data compatibility between systems.

●​ Ensures secure data transmission.
●​ Reduces file size for efficient bandwidth utilization.
Thus, the Presentation Layer acts as a translator, compressor, and security provider,
enabling seamless communication across networks.

2. Explain Functions of the Transport

Layer
The Transport Layer (Layer 4) of the OSI Model ensures reliable and efficient end-to-end
communication between applications on different devices.

Functions of the Transport Layer:

1.​ Segmentation and Reassembly:

○​ Large data packets are broken down into smaller segments.
○​ At the destination, the segments are reassembled in the correct order.
2.​ Flow Control:
○​ Prevents data loss by ensuring the sender does not overwhelm the receiver.
○​ Uses Sliding Window Protocol to manage data flow.
3.​ Error Detection and Correction:
○​ Uses checksums to verify data integrity.
○​ If errors are detected, it requests retransmission.
4.​ Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:
○​ Allows multiple applications to communicate over a network simultaneously.
○​ Uses port numbers to differentiate services (e.g., HTTP → Port 80, FTP → Port
21).
5.​ Connection Establishment & Termination:
○​ Uses TCP’s Three-Way Handshake to establish a secure connection.
○​ Gracefully terminates sessions after data transfer.

Transport Layer Protocols:

●​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented data

transmission.
●​ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless communication used
in streaming.

Importance of the Transport Layer:

●​ Ensures error-free, in-order data delivery.

●​ Manages flow control for smooth transmission.
●​ Provides port-based communication for applications.
Thus, the Transport Layer ensures data is transmitted efficiently, reliably, and securely.

3. What is LAN, WAN, and MAN?

LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN is a small network confined to a limited geographical area, such as homes, offices, or
schools.

●​ Uses Ethernet (wired) or Wi-Fi (wireless) for communication.

●​ Faster speeds (up to 1 Gbps or more) with lower latency.
●​ Example: A university’s internal network connecting computers and printers.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A MAN covers a city or a large campus and connects multiple LANs.

●​ Uses fiber-optic or wireless connections.

●​ Operates over 10-100 km range.
●​ Example: A city-wide public Wi-Fi network.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

A WAN covers a large geographical area, connecting multiple MANs and LANs.

●​ Uses leased telecommunication lines, satellites, and routers.

●​ Lower speed (1 Mbps - 100 Mbps) due to long-distance data travel.
●​ Example: The Internet, which connects networks worldwide.

Comparison Table
Feature LAN MAN WAN

Geographical Small (Office, Medium (City, Large (Country, World)

Area Home) Campus)

Speed High Moderate Low

Technology Ethernet, Wi-Fi Fiber-optic, Wireless Satellites, MPLS, Leased

Lines

Example University network Cable TV networks Internet

Thus, each type of network serves a different scale of communication needs.

4. What are the Types of Network

Hardware?
Types of Network Hardware

1.​ Router:
○​ Directs data packets between different networks.
○​ Uses IP addresses for routing.
○​ Example: Home Wi-Fi router.
2.​ Switch:
○​ Connects devices within a LAN and forwards data based on MAC addresses.
○​ Example: Network switch in an office.
3.​ Hub:
○​ Broadcasts data to all connected devices, leading to network congestion.
○​ Example: Old LAN setups (mostly replaced by switches).
4.​ Bridge:
○​ Connects two or more LAN segments.
○​ Filters traffic to improve performance.
5.​ Modem:
○​ Converts digital signals into analog for transmission over telephone lines.
○​ Example: DSL modem for broadband internet.
6.​ Repeater:
○​ Amplifies network signals over long distances.
○​ Example: Wi-Fi range extenders.
7.​ Gateway:
○​ Acts as an interface between different network protocols.
○​ Example: Email gateway for filtering messages.

Importance of Network Hardware

●​ Routers manage traffic efficiently, ensuring seamless internet access.

●​ Switches reduce congestion, improving performance in large networks.
●​ Bridges and Repeaters extend network range while maintaining signal integrity.

Thus, network hardware plays a vital role in ensuring smooth, efficient, and reliable
communication.
5. What is OSI Reference Model?
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework that standardizes
network communication.

7 Layers of OSI Model

1.​ Physical Layer: Transfers raw bits via cables or wireless.

2.​ Data Link Layer: Handles MAC addressing, framing, and error detection.
3.​ Network Layer: Manages IP addressing and packet routing.
4.​ Transport Layer: Ensures reliable or fast data delivery (TCP/UDP).
5.​ Session Layer: Maintains and synchronizes sessions.
6.​ Presentation Layer: Handles encryption, compression, and formatting.
7.​ Application Layer: Provides end-user applications like HTTP, FTP, and Email.

Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 4

Usage Theoretical Practical (Internet)

Importance of OSI Model

●​ Helps in standardizing network communication.

●​ Ensures interoperability between different devices.

Thus, the OSI model provides a structured approach to network communication.

6. What is TCP/IP Reference Model?

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model is a simplified
networking model designed for the Internet and modern networking systems. It is a
practical framework used for communication between computers across different networks.

Structure of TCP/IP Model

Unlike the OSI Model, which has seven layers, the TCP/IP Model consists of four layers:

1.​ Application Layer

○​ Handles end-user services like browsing, email, and file transfer.
 ○​ Equivalent to the top three layers (Application, Presentation, and Session) of the
OSI Model.
○​ Examples of Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
2.​ Transport Layer
○​ Ensures end-to-end communication between devices.
○​ Uses TCP (reliable, connection-oriented) or UDP (fast, connectionless)
protocols.
○​ Examples: TCP, UDP.
3.​ Internet Layer
○​ Handles logical addressing and packet routing.
○​ Defines IP addresses and manages packet forwarding between networks.
○​ Examples: IP, ICMP, ARP.
4.​ Network Access Layer
○​ Manages physical transmission of data over wired or wireless media.
○​ Handles framing, MAC addressing, and hardware communication.
○​ Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP.

Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Number of 7 4
Layers

Developed by ISO (International Organization for DARPA (for the Internet)

Standardization)

Usage Theoretical framework Practical, real-world

application

Reliability More detailed Less complex but efficient

Transport Uses TCP, UDP, SCTP Primarily TCP & UDP

Protocols

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

●​ Widely used for the Internet and corporate networks.

●​ Less complex than the OSI Model.
●​ Supports interoperability between different systems.

Thus, the TCP/IP Model is the backbone of modern networking, enabling global
communication across the Internet.
7. Explain Functions of the Network Layer
The Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI Model plays a crucial role in routing, logical
addressing, and packet forwarding to ensure that data moves efficiently between different
networks.

Functions of the Network Layer

1.​ Logical Addressing (IP Addressing):

○​ Assigns unique IP addresses to devices.
○​ Helps in identifying the sender and receiver.
○​ Uses IPv4 (32-bit) and IPv6 (128-bit) addresses.
2.​ Routing:
○​ Determines the best path for data packets to reach their destination.
○​ Uses dynamic routing algorithms (e.g., Dijkstra’s algorithm, RIP, OSPF).
○​ Routers manage this process.
3.​ Packet Forwarding:
○​ Moves data packets from one network to another.
○​ Uses techniques like Next-Hop Forwarding.
4.​ Fragmentation and Reassembly:
○​ Splits large packets into smaller fragments if the network cannot handle large
sizes.
○​ Reassembles fragments at the receiver.
5.​ Error Handling and Congestion Control:
○​ Uses ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) for error reporting.
○​ Manages congestion using flow control mechanisms.

Protocols Used in the Network Layer

●​ IP (Internet Protocol): Defines logical addressing and routing.

●​ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Reports errors.
●​ ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.

Importance of the Network Layer

●​ Ensures efficient and reliable data delivery.

●​ Manages data transmission across different networks.
●​ Supports packet routing and error handling.

Thus, the Network Layer is responsible for delivering data efficiently, making it a crucial
component of modern networks.
8. Which services are provided by the Data
Link Layer?
The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI Model is responsible for framing, error detection,
and MAC addressing, ensuring reliable communication between directly connected devices.

Services Provided by the Data Link Layer

1.​ Framing:
○​ Converts raw bits into structured frames before transmission.
○​ Defines the start and end of each frame.
2.​ Error Detection and Correction:
○​ Uses techniques like Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to detect transmission
errors.
○​ Implements Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) for retransmission.
3.​ Flow Control:
○​ Ensures that data is sent at a rate that the receiver can handle.
○​ Uses mechanisms like Stop-and-Wait and Sliding Window Protocols.
4.​ MAC (Media Access Control) Addressing:
○​ Assigns unique hardware addresses (MAC addresses) to network devices.
○​ Ensures data reaches the correct device within a LAN.
5.​ Access Control (Collision Handling):
○​ Determines which device can send data at a given time.
○​ Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) in
Ethernet.

Protocols Used in the Data Link Layer

●​ Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Used in wired networks.

●​ Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Used in wireless networks.
●​ PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Used for direct connections.

Importance of the Data Link Layer

●​ Ensures error-free data transmission.

●​ Manages MAC addresses for device identification.
●​ Prevents data collisions and congestion.

Thus, the Data Link Layer is essential for error-free, efficient communication.
9. Write a Short Note on Switch
A Switch is a network device used to connect multiple devices within a Local Area Network
(LAN). Unlike a hub, which sends data to all devices, a switch directs data only to the intended
recipient.

Features of a Switch

1.​ Operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

○​ Uses MAC addresses to forward frames.
○​ Provides collision-free communication.
2.​ Reduces Network Congestion:
○​ Uses packet switching to avoid unnecessary transmissions.
3.​ Supports VLANs (Virtual LANs):
○​ Can segment a network into different logical groups.
○​ Enhances security and performance.

Types of Switches

1.​ Unmanaged Switch:

○​ Plug-and-play device.
○​ Used in home networks.
2.​ Managed Switch:
○​ Allows configuration and monitoring.
○​ Used in enterprise networks.

Example Use Case

●​ A 24-port switch in an office LAN connects computers, printers, and servers,

ensuring fast data exchange.

Thus, a switch is an essential networking device that enhances efficiency and reduces
congestion in modern networks.

10. Write a Short Note on Repeater

A Repeater is a network device that regenerates and amplifies signals to extend the
communication range.

Functions of a Repeater
 1.​ Amplifies Weak Signals:
○​ Extends the distance a signal can travel without degradation.
2.​ Operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1):
○​ Works only with raw signals (bits).
○​ Does not understand network protocols.
3.​ Eliminates Signal Attenuation:
○​ Boosts the signal strength over long distances.

Types of Repeaters

1.​ Wired Repeater:

○​ Used in Ethernet networks.
2.​ Wireless Repeater:
○​ Extends Wi-Fi range in large areas.

Example Use Case

●​ If a network cable exceeds 100 meters, a repeater is used to boost the signal.

Thus, a Repeater is crucial for extending network coverage.

11. Define Network Topology and List Out

the Types
Definition of Network Topology

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of computers, devices, and
cables in a network. It determines how nodes communicate with each other and how data flows
within the network.

Types of Network Topology

1.​ Bus Topology:

○​ All devices share a single central cable (backbone) for communication.
○​ Pros: Simple to set up and cost-effective for small networks.
○​ Cons: If the backbone fails, the entire network stops working.
○​ Example: Small office or home networks.
2.​ Star Topology:
○​ All devices connect to a central hub or switch.
○​ Pros: Easy to manage, scalable, and reliable.
○​ Cons: Failure of the central hub disrupts the network.
○​ Example: Used in most modern LANs.
 3.​ Ring Topology:
○​ Devices are connected in a circular loop where data moves in one direction.
○​ Pros: Less data collision and predictable performance.
○​ Cons: A single node failure can break the network unless a dual ring is used.
○​ Example: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
4.​ Mesh Topology:
○​ Every device is connected to every other device for redundancy.
○​ Pros: High reliability and multiple paths prevent failures.
○​ Cons: Expensive and requires a lot of cabling.
○​ Example: Military or critical business networks.
5.​ Tree (Hierarchical) Topology:
○​ A combination of star and bus topologies, with multiple levels of hierarchy.
○​ Pros: Scalable and ideal for large networks.
○​ Cons: Complex to manage and expensive.
○​ Example: Enterprise networks.
6.​ Hybrid Topology:
○​ A mix of two or more topologies.
○​ Pros: Flexible, scalable, and highly customizable.
○​ Cons: Expensive and complex to design.
○​ Example: Large corporate networks.

Importance of Network Topology

●​ Improves network efficiency by optimizing data flow.

●​ Reduces maintenance costs by choosing the right topology.
●​ Enhances scalability by allowing easy network expansion.

Thus, selecting the right topology depends on network size, performance requirements,
and cost considerations.

12. Define Computer Network and List Out

Layers in OSI Model
Definition of a Computer Network

A computer network is a system of interconnected devices that communicate with each

other to share resources, data, and services.

Layers in OSI Model

 1.​ Physical Layer:
○​ Transfers raw binary data over a medium (cables, fiber, wireless).
○​ Deals with electrical signals, voltages, and transmission rates.
2.​ Data Link Layer:
○​ Provides error detection, flow control, and framing.
○​ Uses MAC addresses for communication within a local network.
3.​ Network Layer:
○​ Handles IP addressing and packet routing.
○​ Determines the best path for data transfer using routers.
4.​ Transport Layer:
○​ Ensures reliable or fast data delivery (TCP for reliability, UDP for speed).
○​ Manages segmentation, reassembly, and flow control.
5.​ Session Layer:
○​ Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.
○​ Manages dialog control and synchronization.
6.​ Presentation Layer:
○​ Handles encryption, compression, and data translation.
○​ Converts data into a format understandable by the Application Layer.
7.​ Application Layer:
○​ Provides end-user services like web browsing, file transfer, and email.
○​ Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

Importance of OSI Model

●​ Helps in standardizing network communication.

●​ Ensures interoperability between different network devices.

Thus, the OSI Model acts as a blueprint for designing and troubleshooting networks.

13. Generate CRC Code for Dataword

1101101 Using Divisor 10101 and Check
for Errors
What is CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)?

CRC is an error-detection method used in the Data Link Layer. It adds a checksum to
transmitted data to detect errors.

Steps for CRC Computation

 1.​ Append zeros to the dataword (equal to the length of the divisor minus 1).
2.​ Perform binary division using XOR.
3.​ The remainder is the CRC checksum.
4.​ Append remainder to dataword to form the final CRC codeword.

Let’s compute it using Python.

CRC Calculation Results

●​ Final CRC Codeword: 11011011011

●​ Computed Remainder: 1011

Now, let’s check if there are errors in the received codeword. ​

Error Detection in CRC Codeword

●​ Received CRC Codeword: 11011011011

●​ Remainder after checking: 0000 (All zeros)
●​ Conclusion: ✅
No errors detected in the transmitted data.

This confirms that the CRC mechanism successfully ensures error-free transmission.

14. Explain the Concept of Sliding Window

Protocol. Compare Performance of
Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat Protocol.
What is Sliding Window Protocol?

The Sliding Window Protocol is a flow control mechanism used in the Transport Layer for
efficient data transmission between sender and receiver.

How It Works

1.​ The sender maintains a window of frames it can send before receiving an
acknowledgment.
2.​ When an acknowledgment is received, the window slides forward, allowing more
frames to be sent.
3.​ If an error occurs, retransmission strategies are used.
Comparison: Go-Back-N vs. Selective Repeat
Feature Go-Back-N Selective Repeat

Retransmission Retransmits all frames after an Retransmits only the

error. erroneous frame.

Efficiency Less efficient due to redundant More efficient since only

retransmissions. corrupted frames are resent.

Buffer Requirements Lower (stores fewer frames). Higher (requires buffering

multiple frames).

Performance in High Poor, as errors cause Better, as only affected frames

Error Networks retransmission of many frames. are retransmitted.

Conclusion

●​ Go-Back-N is simpler but inefficient in error-prone networks.

●​ Selective Repeat is more complex but optimizes bandwidth usage.

Thus, Selective Repeat is preferred in modern networks where bandwidth is valuable.

15. Describe IPv4 Header Format with

Diagram
IPv4 Header Fields
Field Size Description
(bits)

Version 4 Specifies the IP version (4 for IPv4).

Header Length (IHL) 4 Indicates the length of the IP header.

Type of Service (ToS) 8 Defines service priority.

Total Length 16 Size of the entire packet (header + data).

Identification 16 Unique ID for packet fragmentation.

Flags 3 Controls fragmentation.

 Fragment Offset 13 Position of the fragment in the original packet.

Time to Live (TTL) 8 Limits packet lifetime (prevents looping).

Protocol 8 Identifies the transport protocol (TCP, UDP, etc.).

Header Checksum 16 Ensures integrity of the header.

Source IP Address 32 IP address of sender.

Destination IP 32 IP address of receiver.

Address

Conclusion

The IPv4 header ensures efficient routing, fragmentation, and error control, making it a
crucial part of network communication.

16. Explain Network Address Translation

(NAT)
What is NAT?

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used to remap private IP addresses to a

public IP address to allow devices within a private network to access the Internet. NAT is
commonly used in routers to enable multiple devices in a local network to share a single
public IP address.

Why is NAT Needed?

1.​ IPv4 Address Conservation:

○​ Since IPv4 addresses are limited, NAT allows multiple devices to share one
public IP address.
2.​ Security:
○​ NAT hides internal IP addresses, preventing direct access to internal devices.
3.​ Simplifies Network Management:
○​ Organizations can use private IPs internally and change service providers without
affecting the internal network structure.

Types of NAT

1.​ Static NAT:

 ○​ Maps one private IP to one public IP (1:1 mapping).
○​ Used in servers that need a consistent external IP.
○​ Example: Web servers hosting public websites.
2.​ Dynamic NAT:
○​ Maps private IPs to a pool of public IPs.
○​ Public IPs are assigned dynamically based on availability.
3.​ PAT (Port Address Translation) / NAT Overload:
○​ Maps multiple private IPs to a single public IP by using different port
numbers.
○​ Most commonly used in home and business routers.

Advantages of NAT

●​ Prevents IP address exhaustion.

●​ Improves security by hiding internal IPs.
●​ Allows multiple devices to access the internet using one IP.

Disadvantages of NAT

●​ Slows down communication due to address translation.

●​ Breaks some peer-to-peer (P2P) applications that require direct device connections.

Conclusion

NAT is essential for modern networking, especially in IPv4-based networks, as it enables

efficient IP address management and security.

17. Describe Token Passing Controlled

Access Protocol
What is Token Passing?

The Token Passing Protocol is a controlled access mechanism used in network

communication where devices take turns transmitting data by passing a special token.

How Token Passing Works

1.​ A special frame called a token circulates in a logical ring topology.

2.​ A device can only transmit data when it possesses the token.
3.​ Once transmission is complete, the token is passed to the next device.
 4.​ If no device has data to send, the token keeps circulating.

Examples of Networks Using Token Passing

●​ Token Ring Network (IEEE 802.5)

●​ FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

Advantages of Token Passing

●​ Prevents collisions: Since only the device holding the token can send data, there are
no collisions.
●​ Ensures fair access: Each device gets a turn to transmit, avoiding network
congestion.
●​ Predictable performance: Ideal for real-time communication and industrial control
systems.

Disadvantages of Token Passing

●​ Token loss: If the token is lost, it must be recreated, causing network delays.
●​ Slow under low traffic: When no device needs to send data, the token still circulates,
wasting resources.
●​ Complex setup: Requires special hardware and software to maintain token flow.

Conclusion

Token Passing provides efficient, collision-free communication, making it ideal for networks
that require consistent and fair access control.

18. Explain: a) IP Addressing. b) Classful

and Classless IP Addresses
(a) What is IP Addressing?

An IP Address is a unique identifier assigned to a device in a network to facilitate

communication and data transfer.​
Two versions of IP exist:

●​ IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) – 32-bit, supports ~4.3 billion addresses.

●​ IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) – 128-bit, supports an almost unlimited number of
addresses.
(b) Classful vs. Classless IP Addressing

Classful IP Addressing

●​ Divides IP addresses into five fixed classes (A, B, C, D, E).

●​ Uses default subnet masks for each class.

Clas IP Range Default Subnet Mask Usage

s

A 1.0.0.0 - 126.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 Large networks

B 128.0.0.0 - 255.255.0.0 Medium-sized networks

191.255.255.255

C 192.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.0 Small networks

223.255.255.255

D 224.0.0.0 - N/A Multicasting

239.255.255.255

E 240.0.0.0 - N/A Reserved for research

255.255.255.255

Limitations of Classful Addressing:

●​ Wastes IP addresses due to fixed subnet masks.

●​ Not flexible for custom network sizes.

Classless IP Addressing (CIDR - Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

●​ Does not use fixed classes; instead, uses variable subnet masks (VLSM).
●​ Allows more efficient IP address allocation.
●​ Example: 192.168.1.1/27 instead of class-based subnetting.

Conclusion

●​ Classful addressing is outdated due to inefficiency.

●​ CIDR is the standard today for better IP address utilization.

19. Describe Packet Switching

What is Packet Switching?

Packet switching is a method of transmitting data by dividing it into small packets that travel
independently across a network.

How Packet Switching Works

1.​ Data is broken into packets (typically 1KB – 1.5KB in size).

2.​ Each packet contains:
○​ Source & destination IP
○​ Sequence number (to reassemble in order)
○​ Error-checking data
3.​ Packets take different routes and are reassembled at the destination.

Types of Packet Switching

1.​ Datagram Packet Switching (Connectionless):

○​ Each packet is routed independently.
○​ Example: IP-based networks (Internet).
2.​ Virtual Circuit Packet Switching (Connection-Oriented):
○​ A predefined path is established before transmission.
○​ Example: ATM networks, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching).

Advantages of Packet Switching

●​ Efficient bandwidth utilization.

●​ Supports multiple users simultaneously.
●​ More reliable than circuit switching.

Disadvantages

●​ Delays due to reassembly.

●​ Packets may arrive out of order.
●​ Requires complex routing algorithms.

Conclusion

Packet switching is the backbone of the Internet, allowing fast, efficient, and reliable
communication.
20. A bit stream 1101011011 is transmitted
using the CRC method. The polynomial
generator is x⁴ + x + 1.
Step 1: Convert Polynomial to Binary

Polynomial x⁴ + x + 1 corresponds to 10011 in binary.

Step 2: Compute CRC Codeword

Let’s compute it using Python.

CRC Calculation Results

●​ Final Transmitted Bit String (CRC Codeword): 11010110111110

●​ Computed Remainder: 1110

Step 3: Simulate an Error (Third Bit Inverted) and Check for Errors

Now, let’s simulate an error and check if the receiver can detect it. ​

Error Detection in CRC Codeword

●​ Received Codeword (with error): 11110110111110

●​ Remainder after checking: 1110 (Non-zero)
●​ Conclusion: ❌
Error detected in transmission.

This proves that CRC successfully detects transmission errors.