Photosphere – The photosphere is the deepest layer of the

Sun that we can observe directly. It reaches from the

surface visible at the center of the solar disk to about 250
miles (400 km) above that. The temperature in the
photosphere varies between about 6500 K at the bottom
and 4000 K at the top (11,000 and 6700 degrees F, 6200
and 3700 degrees C). Most of the photosphere is covered
by granulation.Chromosphere – The chromosphere is a
layer in the Sun between about 250 miles (400 km) and
1300 miles (2100 km) above the solar surface (the
photosphere). The temperature in the chromosphere
varies between about 4000 K at the bottom (the so-called
temperature minimum) and 8000 K at the top (6700 and
14,000 degrees F, 3700 and 7700 degrees C), so in this
layer (and higher layers) it actually gets hotter if you go
further away from the Sun, unlike in the lower layers,
where it gets hotter if you go closer to the center of the
Sun.Transition Region – The transition region is a very
narrow (60 miles / 100 km) layer between the
chromosphere and the corona where the temperature rises
abruptly from about 8000 to about 500,000 K (14,000 to
900,000 degrees F, 7700 to 500,000 degrees C).Corona –
The corona is the outermost layer of the Sun, starting at
about 1300 miles (2100 km) above the solar surface (the
photosphere). The temperature in the corona is 500,000
K (900,000 degrees F, 500,000 degrees C) or more, up to a
few million K. The corona cannot be seen with the naked
eye except during a total solar eclipse, or with the use of a
coronagraph. The corona does not have an upper limit.
Credit: National Solar Observatory
Internal Structure and Atmosphere of the Sun

The atmosphere of the Sun is formed by its outer layers. There are primarily three layers that make up the atmosphere which is
named as the core, the radiative zone, and the convective zone. These are the internal parts of the Sun.

Internal structure of sun

1. Core

The centremost region of the Sun is known as the core; this is the region where Hydrogen turns into Helium through the nuclear
fusion reaction. With temperatures believed to be reaching more than 15 million degrees Celsius, the core is considered to be
the hottest region of the Sun. When we move towards the outward layers, the density and temperature decrease, and at the
centre of the core, it is about 150 g/cm3.

2. Radiative Zone

Between the core and the convection zone, there lies the radiative zone; by means of radiative diffusion and thermal
conduction, the energy in this layer transports outside, which travels in the form of electromagnetic radiation by photons.
Bouncing from particle to particle, photons transfer energy. At the edge of the radiative zone, the density of this layer reduces
from 20 g/cm3 to 0.2 g/cm3.

3. Convection Zone

The outermost layer of the Sun’s interior is known as the convection zone. This zone uses convection mode to transfer energy.
The temperature at its base is about 2 million degrees Celsius. The temperature in this zone is low enough for the heavier ions
like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron and calcium to hold on to some of their electrons.

Layers of the Atmosphere of the Sun

The atmosphere of the Sun is made up of six layers; let us discuss them, one by one:

layers of sun

1. Photosphere

The Photosphere has a thickness of about 500 KM, and all the visible light from the Sun comes from this layer.
With temperature coming down to approximately 5500 degrees Celsius, it is said to be the coolest part of the Sun because with
an increase in height, the temperature drops.
The phenomenon of Sunspots happens in the Photosphere.
2. Sunspots

The dark spots on the surface of the Sun are known as Sunspots; this happens because the region becomes darker and cooler
than the surroundings due to intense magnetic fields on the surface.
The lifetime of Sunspots is generally less; it fluctuates from a few days to a few months.
Umbra is named as the centre of a sunspot, and penumbra is known as the lighter region of the surrounding.
The absence of Sunspots might affect the Earth’s climate because it is supposed that the Sun becomes 1% cooler in the
absence of Sunspots.
3. Chromosphere

The Chromosphere is visible as a dim red ring, and it lies just above the Photosphere.
Only during the Solar Eclipses, when the Photosphere is hidden, visible light from the Chromosphere can be seen.
With the increase in height, its temperature increases.
4. Corona

The Corona layer is the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, and it lies above the Chromosphere.
During a total Solar Eclipse, it can be seen as a white glowing Corona.
Up to 2 million degrees Celsius, the temperature on the Corona spreads, and the reason for it is still unknown.
Coronal mass ejection, Solar winds, and Solar flares are the phenomenon related to Corona.
Introduction to Relativity
Relativity is a theorem formulated by Albert Einstein, which states that space and time are relative, and all
motion must be relative to a frame of reference. It is a notion that states’ laws of physics are the same
everywhere. This theory is simple but hard to understand.

It states:

There is no absolute reference frame. One can measure velocity if the object or momentum is only in
relation to other objects.
The speed of light is constant irrespective of who measures it or how fast the person measuring it is
moving.
Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity encompasses two theories: Special Relativity Theory and General
Relativity Theory.

The laws of physics are the same for all, irrespective of the observer’s velocity.
The speed of light is always constant regardless of the motion of the light source or the motion of the
observer.

Special Theory Of Relativity

This is the theory which laid the foundation of time travel. According to Einstein, the rate at which time tics
decreases with the increase of the person’s velocity. But this is hard to notice as the decrease in time is
relatively very low compared to the increase in time. So, it can be assumed that if you can equal the
velocity of light, you will be in a situation where time is still. This phenomenon is called Time Dilation.
There are other surprising consequences of this theory, such as –

Relativity of simultaneity – two actions, simultaneous for one person, may not be simultaneous for another
person in relative motion.
Length Shrinking: Objects are measured and appear shorter in the direction they are moving with respect
to the observer.
Mass – Energy Equivalence: Study of relativity led to one of the greatest inventions, i.e., E = mc2 where E
is Energy, m stands for mass and c for the velocity of light. Many scientists observed that the object’s
mass increases with the velocity but never knew how to calculate it. This equation is the answer to their
problem, which explains that the increased relativistic weight of the object is equal to the kinetic energy
divided by the square of the speed of light.

General Theory of Relativity

General Relativity theory, developed by Einstein in 1907-1915, states that being at rest in the gravitational
field and accelerating are identical physically. For example, an observer can see the ball fall the same way
on the rocket and on Earth. This is due to the rocket’s acceleration, which equals 9.8 m/s2. This theory
relates to Newton’s gravitational theory and special relativity.

Relativity

Some Consequences of General Relativity are :

Gravitational Time Dilation: Gravity influences the passage of time. Clocks in the deeper gravitational
wells run slower than in general gravitational levels.
Light rays will bend in the gravitational field.
The universe is expanding, and parts of it are moving away from Earth faster than the speed of light.
String theory is a concept in physics that states the universe is constructed by
tiny vibrating strings, smaller than the smallest subatomic particles.

As these fundamental strings twist, fold and vibrate, they create matter, energy
and all sorts of phenomena like electromagnetism, gravity, etc.

What is String Theory?

String theory is a theoretical framework that tries to tackle the problems of how
and why the universe is like what it is now. In string theory, point-like particles
are replaced by one-dimensional entities called strings. String theory explains
how these infinitesimal strings travel and interact with each other. In normal
classical distance scales (larger than the string scale), a string is very similar to
a normal particle with its charge, mass and other characteristics. The
characteristics of strings are directly controlled by their vibrational states.

String Theory

One of the vibrational conditions of the strings matches the states of the
graviton. It is a quantum particle that regulates gravitational force. In this
regard, string theory is also called the theory of quantum gravity.

String Theory as Theory of Everything

The unification of quantum physics and relativity has been the biggest hurdle
since the dawn of modern physics. Many famous physicists regarded the String
theory as the Theory of Everything. It is considered the ultimate framework that
could merge general relativity and quantum physics. We cannot go beyond
without a unified theory, because both mechanics control almost everything
modern physics deals with.

Quantum mechanics regulates all phenomena at the subatomic level, and

general relativity controls gigantic interstellar activities in the universe. The
weird part is both of them do not merge well together. Flag bearers of the string
theory propose that string theory could solve the disparities between the two
physical realms.
A sun-synchronous polar orbit (SSO) is a type of
orbit where satellites travel over the polar regions
while remaining in the same position relative to the
sun. This means that the satellite will always pass
over the same location on Earth at the same local
time.
Here are some characteristics of a sun-synchronous
polar orbit:
Orbit
The orbital plane precesses with a period that's
similar to the planet's solar orbit period.
Altitude
Satellites in an SSO typically orbit at an altitude of
600–800 km.
Speed
At an altitude of 800 km, a satellite in an SSO travels
at a speed of about 7.5 km per second.
Consistency
The consistency of an SSO allows for the accurate
monitoring of changes over time.
Adjustments
The orbit may need to be adjusted occasionally with
propulsive maneuvers to maintain the desired timing.
Scientists use SSOs to:
Investigate how weather patterns emerge
Predict extreme weather events
Monitor emergencies like forest fires or flooding
Accumulate data on long-term problems like
deforestation or rising sea levels
 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is
launch vehicle developed by India, to
the third generation launch vehicle of
India. It is the first Indian launch vehicle launch communication satellites in geo
to be equipped with liquid stages. After transfer orbit using cryogenic third stage.
its first successful launch in October Initially Russian GK supplied cryogenic
1994, PSLV emerged as a reliable and stages were used. Later cryogenic stage
versatile workhorse launch vehicle of
was indigenously developed and
India. The vehicle has launched
inducted in Jan 2014 from GSLV D5
numerous Indian and foreign customer
satellites. Besides, the vehicle onwards. This operational fourth
successfully launched two spacecraft generation launch vehicle is a three
"Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars stage vehicle with four liquid strap-ons.
Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013"that later The flight proven indigenously developed
travelled to Moon and Mars Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), forms the
respectively. Chandrayaan-1 and MOM
third stage of GSLV Mk II. From January
were feathers in the hat of PSLV. The
2014, the vehicle has achieved six
launch of PSLV-C48 marks the 50th
Launch of PSLV. Besides, the vehicle consecutive successes
successfully launched two spacecraft "
Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars
Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3)
Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013"that later
was India's first experimental
traveled to Moon and Mars respectively
satellite launch vehicle, which was
an all solid, four stage vehicle
PSLV earned its title 'the workhorse of
weighing 17 tonnes with a height of
ISRO' through consistently delivering
22m and capable of placing 40 kg
various satellites into low earth orbits,
class payloads in Low Earth Orbit
particularly the IRS Series of satellites (LEO (Low Earth Orbit) ).

Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV SLV-3 was successfully launched on July 18, 1980
has also been used to launch various from Sriharikota Range (SHAR), when Rohini
satellites into Geosynchronous and satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit, thereby making
Geostationary orbits, like satellites from India the sixth member of an exclusive club of
the IRNSS Constellation space-faring nations . SLV-3 employed an open
loop guidance (with stored pitch programme) to
The PSLV is capable of placing multiple steer the vehicle in flight along a pre-determined
payloads into orbit, thus multi-payload trajectory. The first experimental flight of SLV-3, in
adaptors are used in the payload August 1979, was only partially successful. Apart
fairing. The payload performance of the from the July 1980 launch, there were two more
vehicle and mission flexibility is evident launches held in May 1981 and April 1983, orbiting
from the challenging missions where Rohini satellites carrying remote sensing sensors.
multi-orbit and multi-satellite missions
are accomplished. The long string of The successful culmination of the SLV-3 project
consecutive successes and multi- showed the way to advanced launch vehicle
satellite launch capability has reinforced projects such as the Augmented Satellite Launch
the status of PSLV as a reliable, Vehicle (ASLV), Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
versatile and affordable launcher in the (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous satellite Launch
global market Vehicle (GSLV).
LVM3 is configured as a three stage vehicle with two solid strap-on motors
(S200), one liquid core stage (L110) and a high thrust cryogenic upper stage
(C25). The S200 solid motor is among the largest solid boosters in the world
with 204 tonnes of solid propellant. The liquid L110 stage uses a twin liquid
engine configuration with 115 tonnes of liquid propellant, while the C25
Cryogenic upper stage is configured with the fully indigenous high thrust
cryogenic engine (CE20) with a propellant loading of 28 tons. The overall
length of the vehicle is 43.5 m with a gross lift-off weight of 640 tonnes and a
5m-diameter payload fairing. .

LVM3 is the new heavy lift launch vehicle of ISRO for achieving a 4000 kg
spacecraft launching capability to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit) in a
cost effective manner. LVM3 is a three stage launch vehicle consisting of two
solid propellant S200 strap-ons and core stages comprising of L110 liquid
stage, C25 cryogenic stage, the equipment bay (EB) and the Encapsulated
assembly (EA). EA comprises of the spacecraft, Payload Adaptor (PLA) and
the Payload fairing (PF). With a lift-off mass of 640 tons, this 43.5 m tall three-
stage launch vehicle gives ISRO full self-reliance in launching heavier
communication satellites that weigh up to 4000 kg in GTO. The vehicle takes
off with the simultaneous ignition of the two S200 boosters. The core stage
(L110) is ignited at about 113s through the flight, during the firing of the S200
stages. Both S200 motors burn for about 134s and the separation occur at
137s. The payload fairing is separated at an altitude of 115 km and at about
217s during L110 firing. The L110 burnout and separation and C25 ignition
occur at 313s. The spacecraft is injected into a GTO (Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit) orbit of 180x36000 km at a nominal time of 974s.

With a lift off weight of 40 tonnes, the 24 m tall ASLV was configured as
a five stage, all-solid propellant vehicle, with a mission of orbiting 150
kg class satellites into 400 km circular orbits.

The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Programme was designed to

augment the payload capacity to 150 kg, thrice that of SLV-3, for Low Earth
Orbits (LEO). While building upon the experience gained from the SLV-3
missions, ASLV proved to be a low cost intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and
validate critical technologies, that would be needed for the future launch vehicles
like strap-on technology, inertial navigation, bulbous heat shield, vertical
integration and closed loop guidance.

Under the ASLV programme four developmental flights were conducted. The
first developmental flight took place on March 24, 1987 and the second on July
13, 1988. The third developmental flight, ASLV-D3 was successfully launched on
May 20, 1992, when SROSS-C (106 kg) was put into an orbit of 255 x 430 km.
ASLV-D4, launched on May 4, 1994, orbited SROSS-C2 weighing 106 kg. It had
two payloads, Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) Experiment and Retarding Potentio
Analyser (RPA) and functioned for seven years.
 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology
(SSLV) is a 3 stage Launch Vehicle Demonstrator (RLV-TD) is one of the
configured with three Solid most technologically challenging
Propulsion Stages and liquid endeavors of ISRO towards developing
propulsion based Velocity essential technologies for a fully
Trimming Module (VTM) as a reusable launch vehicle to enable low
terminal stage. SSLV is 2m in cost access to space. The configuration
diameter and 34m in length with lift of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft
off weight of ~120 tonnes. SSLV is and combines the complexity of both
capable of launching ~500kg launch vehicles and aircraft. The winged
satellite in 500km planar orbit from RLV-TD has been configured to act as a
SDSC/SHAR. The key features of flying test bed to evaluate various
SSLV are Low cost, with low turn- technologies, namely, hypersonic flight,
around time, flexibility in autonomous landing and powered
accommodating multiple satellites, cruise flight. In future, this vehicle will be
Launch on demand feasibility, scaled up to become the first stage of
minimal launch infrastructure India’s reusable two stage orbital launch
requirements, etc. vehicle.

RLV-TD consists of a fuselage (body), a nose cap,

double delta wings and twin vertical tails. It also
features symmetrically placed active control surfaces
called Elevons and Rudder. This technology
demonstrator was boosted to Mach no: 5 by a
conventional solid booster (HS9) designed for low
burn rate. The selection of materials like special
alloys, composites and insulation materials for
developing an RLV-TD and the crafting of its parts is
very complex and demands highly skilled manpower.
Many high technology machinery and test equipment
were utilised for building this vehicle.

The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine towards the realisation of an Air Breathing
Propulsion System was successfully conducted on August 28, 2016 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR,
Sriharikota.

After a flight of about 300 seconds, the vehicle touched down in the Bay of Bengal, approximately 320 km from
Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully tracked during its flight from the ground stations at Sriharikota. With
this flight, critical technologies such as ignition of air breathing engines at supersonic speed, holding the flame
at supersonic speed, air intake mechanism and fuel injection systems have been successfully demonstrated.

The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air as
the oxidiser. This test was the maiden short duration experimental test of ISRO’s Scramjet engine with a
hypersonic flight at Mach 6. ISRO’s Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), which is an advanced sounding
rocket, was the solid rocket booster used for the test of Scramjet engines at supersonic conditions. ATV
carrying Scramjet engines weighed 3277 kg at lift-off.
Voyager 1 is a NASA spacecraft that's explored the
outer solar system and interstellar space since 1977:
Mission
Voyager 1 was launched to explore the outer solar
system and interstellar space. Its objectives included:
Investigating the composition, structure, dynamics, and
circulation of a planet's atmosphere
Characterizing the physical state, geology, and
morphology of a planet's satellites
Determining the mass, size, and shape of a planet, its
satellites, and any rings
Characterizing the composition and distribution of
energetic trapped particles and plasma in a planet's
magnetic field structure
Discovery
Voyager 1 discovered:
New moons, including Thebe and Metis around Jupiter,
and five new moons around Saturn
A new ring around Jupiter, and the G-ring around
Saturn
Active volcanoes
Voyager 2 is a NASA spacecraft that has been
exploring the solar system and interstellar space
since 1977:
Launch
Voyager 2 launched on August 20, 1977 from Cape
Canaveral, Florida.
Exploration
Voyager 2 visited all four gas giant planets in our
solar system, discovering and photographing many
of their moons. It was the first human-made object
to fly past Uranus and Neptune.
Interstellar space
Voyager 2 reached interstellar space on November
5, 2018, becoming the second human-made object
to do so.
Instruments
Voyager 2 has several instruments, including:
Computer Command Subsystem (CCS): Stores
commanding for the other two computers and
issues commands at set times
Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem
(AACS): Controls spacecraft attitude and motions of https://www.nextias.com/ca/editorial-analysis/
the scan platform 26-07-2024/indias-space-economy-2
Flight Data Subsystem (FDS): Controls the
instruments, including changes in configuration or
telemetry rates
https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/india-s-tech-trajectory
Broadband Highways– This covers three
sub components, namely Broadband for All
– Rural, Broadband for All – Urban and
National Information Infrastructure (NII).
Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity-
This initiative focuses on network
penetration and filling the gaps in
connectivity in the country.
Public Internet Access Programme- The
two sub components of Public Internet
Access Programme are Common Services
Centres (CSCs) and Post Offices as multi-
service centres.
e-Governance: Reforming Government
through Technology- Government Process
Re-engineering using IT to simplify and
make the government processes more
efficient is critical for transformation to
make the delivery of government services
more effective across various government
domains and therefore needs to be
implemented by all Ministries/
Departments.
e-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services-
To improve the delivery of public services
and simplify the process of accessing
them. In this regard, several e-governance
initiatives have been undertaken by
various State Governments and Central
Ministries to usher in an era of e-
Government. e-Governance in India has
steadily evolved from the computerization
of Government Departments to initiatives
that encapsulate the finer points of
Governance, such as citizen centricity,
service orientation and transparency.
Information for All- This pillar aims to
ensure transparency and availability of
reliable data generated by the line
ministries for use, reuse and redistribution
for the people of India.
Electronics Manufacturing- This pillar
focuses on promoting electronics
manufacturing in the country.
IT for Jobs- This pillar focuses on providing
training to the youth in the skills required
for availing employment opportunities in
the IT/ITES sector.
Early Harvest Programmes- This pillar
consists of a group of different short-term
projects which have immediate effect on
the Indian digital ecosystem like IT
platform for mass messaging, crowd
Sourcing of eGreetings, biometric
attendance in the government offices, WI-
FI in all universities etc.
Why in News
Recently, the Department of Telecommunications
(DoT) has announced that India's major metros
will
have 5G services next year.
Like other global players, India had, in 2018,
planned to start 5G services as soon as possible,
with an aim to capitalise on the better network
speeds and strength that the technology
promised.
Key Points
About 5G Technology:
5G is the 5th generation mobile network. It is a
new global wireless standard after 1G, 2G, 3G,
and 4G networks.
It enables a new kind of network that is designed
to connect virtually everyone and everything
together including machines, objects, and
devices.
Internet speeds in the high-band spectrum of 5G
has been tested to be as high as 20 Gbps
(gigabits per second), while, in most cases, the
maximum internet data speed in 4G has been
recorded at 1 Gbps.
Evolution from First Generation to Fifth
Generation
1G was launched in the 1980s and worked on
analog radio signals and supported only voice
calls. 2G was launched in the 1990s which uses
digital radio signals and supports both voice and
data transmission with a bandwidth of 64 Kbps.
3G was launched in the 2000s with a speed of 1
Mbps to 2 Mbps and it has the ability to transmit
telephone signals including digitised voice, video
calls and conferencing.
4G was launched in 2009 with a peak speed of
100 Mbps to 1 Gbps and it also enables 3D
virtual reality.
https://www.drishtiias.com/pdf/1640694163.pdf

https://edukemy.com/blog/telecommunication-
technology-evolution1g2g-5g6g-spectrum-
band-concept-and-issues-upsc-science-
technology-notes/
 Zigbee: It is a low-power, low-data-rate
wireless communication protocol commonly
used for short-range communication between
devices in applications like home automation,
Wireless communication technologies have revolutionized
industrial control, and sensor networks.
the way we connect and interact with devices, offering
Infrared (IR): It involves the use of infrared light
convenience and efficiency in various aspects of our lives.
for wireless data transfer.
From Bluetooth for seamless data transfer to Wi-Fi for
It’s commonly found in TV remote controls and
internet connectivity, these technologies enable
some short-range communication applications.
communication without the constraints of wires. In this
NFC (Near Field Communication): It is a short-
comprehensive overview, we explore the diverse range of
range wireless communication technology that
wireless communication technologies and their
enables data exchange between devices when
applications in our daily lives.
they are in close proximity (typically within a
few centimeters).
An Overview of Modern Wireless Communication
It’s often used for contactless payments, file
Technologies
sharing, and access control.[UPSC 2015].
Bluetooth: Short-range wireless technology for connecting
Example: cardless payments through Samsung
devices, commonly used for data transfer between devices
Pay, Google Pay
like smartphones, headphones, and speakers.
RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification): It uses
Wi-Fi Direct: Allows devices to connect to each other
radio waves to identify and track objects.
directly without the need for a traditional Wi-Fi network.
It is used in logistics, inventory management,
It’s useful for peer-to-peer communication between
and access control systems.
devices.
Cordless Phone: Typically uses Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications (DECT) technology for short-range
wireless communication between a phone and its base
station.
Hotspot: A physical location where people can access the
internet, typically using Wi-Fi, through a wireless local area
network (WLAN) with a router connected to an internet
service provider.
Wi-Fi: Wireless local area networking technology that
allows devices to connect to the internet and communicate
with each other within a certain range of a Wi-Fi router or
access point.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access):
A wireless communication standard that provides high-
speed, long-range broadband connections.
It’s designed for wireless metropolitan area networks
(WMANs).
Li-Fi: A wireless communication technology that uses light
to transmit data.
It is a form of visible light communication (VLC) and can
provide high-speed, bi-directional communication.
Overview:

Recently, scientists have detected a lost Mayan city, hidden

for centuries by the dense Mexican jungle, using LiDAR.
About LiDAR:

The Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a remote

sensing technology that uses light in the form of a pulsed
laser to measure ranges (or variable distances) of a sensor,
usually mounted aboard an aircraft, to Earth’s surface.
LiDAR data can be used to create high-resolution 3-D
models of ground elevation with a vertical accuracy of upto
10 cm.
Working
LiDAR instrumentation comprises a laser, a scanner, and a
GPS receiver.
The rapidly firing laser travels to the ground where it hits
vegetation, building, and various topographic features. This
light is reflected or scattered, and recorded by the LiDAR
sensor.
The system calculates the light pulses’ two-way travel time
to arrive at the distance between the terrain and the sensor.
It processes this information with Global Positioning System
(GPS) and Inertial Measurement System (IMS) data, to
create an elevation map of Earth.
LiDAR data is initially collected as a “point cloud” of all
individual points reflected from everything on the surface,
including structures and vegetation.
The specific of how much light energy was returned to the
sensor allows further identification of different features, such
as vegetation, buildings, etc. For example, tree canopies,
however dense they may be, allow some light to pass
through and hit the ground.
Its data can be further refined to produce what scientists call
a “bare earth” Digital Elevation Model, in which structures
and vegetation are stripped away.
Applications
It is used to generate precise, three-dimensional information
about the shape of the Earth and its surface characteristics.
This is obviously very useful information for geographers,
policy makers, conservationists, and engineers.
It has also shown potential as a tool of archaeological
discovery.
The Agni missile is a family of ballistic missiles
developed by India that are capable of
carrying nuclear weapons and have a range
from medium to intercontinental. The name
Agni comes from the Sanskrit word for "fire".
The Agni missile group includes the following
missiles:
Agni-I
A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) that
was developed after the Kargil war with
Pakistan. It has a range of 700–1,200 km and
can carry conventional or nuclear warheads.
Agni-III
A two-stage solid-fuel missile with a range of
4,500 km. It has advanced navigation,
guidance, and control systems.
Agni-IV
A longer range missile with intercontinental
range.
Agni-V
A longer range missile with intercontinental
range. It has a length of 17.5 m and a
diameter of 2 meters. The Agni-V's weight has
been reduced by 20%, allowing it to travel a
claimed range of 7,000 kilometers.
Agni-P
An upgraded successor of Agni-I and Agni-II
that was tested in 2021. It has improved
propellant, navigation, and guided systems.
Agni-VI
An intercontinental ballistic missile that is
reportedly in rudimentary stages of
development. It could be launched from
submarines or land and strike a target of over
10,000 km.
The Agni missile program was separated from
the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP) after the success of the
first missile in the series, Agni-I. The program
was designated as a special program in
India's defense budget.
Nag missile
A third-generation anti-tank missile that uses
a lock-on before launch system. It was first
tested in 1990.
Akash missile
A surface-to-air (SAM) missile system. It has
been exported to other countries, including
Armenia, Brazil, and Egypt.
The Indian Navy’s present force level comprises about 150 ships and submarines.
The Indian Navy’s perspective-planning in terms of ‘force-levels’ is now driven by a
conceptual shift from ‘numbers’ of platforms - that is, from the old ‘bean-counting’
philosophy—to one that concentrates upon ‘capabilities’. In terms of force accretions
in the immediate future, we are acquiring ships in accordance with the Navy’s current
Maritime Capability Perspective Plan. ONGOING PROJECTS There are presently
more than 50 ships and submarines under construction. Our preferred choice of
inducting ships has been through the indigenous route. For instance, the GRSE has
already delivered all three of the large amphibious ships and ten water-jet Fast Attack
Craft. The yard is presently constructing advanced Anti-submarine Corvettes and has
been recently awarded a contract to build LCUs. In the South, Cochin Shipyard
Limited (CSL) is progressing the construction of our most ambitious ship yet – the
Indigenous Aircraft Carrier. At Mumbai, our premier warship-building yard Mazagon
Docks Ltd, is engaged in the construction of Kolkata Class and P-15B destroyers
besides stealth frigate of the Shivalik Class. Submarines of the Scorpene Class are
also under construction at MDL. Goa Shipyard Limited, which has built a number of
Offshore Patrol Vessels for the Navy and the Coast Guard, has advanced versions of
this type under construction. ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR Over the years,
the Indian Navy has taken a conscious decision to encourage other shipyards,
including private yards, to enter the specialised field of warship-construction. The
response has been encouraging. Contracts have been concluded with M/s Pipavav
Shipyard Ltd and ABG Shipyard for construction of a few NOPVs and a couple of
Cadet Training Ships, respectively. BRIDGING THE GAP The indigenous warships
construction has come a long way since the commissioning of INS Nilgiri on 03 Jun
72. There are not many countries in the world having capability to produce such a
wide variety of warships ranging from Fast Attack Craft to Aircraft Carrier. However,
few ships are being inducted from abroad also to bridge the gap in the capabilities
envisaged in the Master Plan of Navy. These include the carrier Vikramaditya, and
follow-on ships of the Talwar Class from Russia. MID-LIFE UPGRADES In addition,
Mid-Life Upgrades (MLUs) of ships are also being progressed. After their MLU, ships
of the Rajput Class as also those of the Brahmaputra Class will emerge as potent
21st Century combatants with significant residual life.
Submarines in India

India deploys a spectrum of conventional and nuclear-powered submarines equipped with suitable sensor
suites, armaments and engines fulfilling niche maritime operations.

India has three classes of submarines - the Shishumar class, the Sindhughosh class, and the indigenously
developed Kalvari class.

Shishumar class: These 4 submarines were commissioned under technology transfer from Germany.
They carry advanced sensory capabilities optimised for anti-sub and anti-ship warfare to dominate the
Arabian Sea.
The commissioned Sishumar class submarines are INS Shishumar, INS Shankush, INS Shalki and INS
Shankul.
Sindhughosh class - It includes 7 active Russian-origin Kilo-class submarines.
A total of 10 submarines were commissioned, 3 of them have been decommissioned.
They contain satellite sensors, radar, sonar and electronic surveillance as well as anti-ship and anti-
submarine weaponry.
The commissioned Sindhughosh class submarines are INS Sindhughosh, INS Sindhudhvaj, INS Sindhuraj,
INS Sindhuvir, INS Sindhuratna and INS Sindhukesari.
Kalvari class - These are the indigenously built six diesel-electric submarines of Contemporary Barracuda
designs under technology transfer from France’s Scorpene class submarines, built at Mazagon Dock.
Names of the Kalvari class submarines (commissioned only) are INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS
Vela and INS Vagir.
These submarines have been built under the name of Project 75.
The sixth and final submarine under Project 75, INS Vagsheer, will be delivered to the Indian Navy in 2024.
Further, these submarines are to be loaded with the Air Independent Propulsion under Project 75 (I). All the
submarines under Project 75I are under development.
Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarines (SSN)

India presently does not have any nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs) in service. The Akula class
submarine INS Chakra II, leased from Russia, has been decommissioned in 2021.

However, India has reinforced its SSN lineup by ordering another Akula class submarine (INS Chakra III),
planned for induction in 2025.
Moreover, there are plans for indigenous Project 75 Alpha SSNs in the future.
Nuclear ballistic missile submarines (SSBN)

India presently has one SSBN - INS Arihant, an Arihant Class SSBNwhich has been developed indigenously
under the Advanced Technology Vessel program.

INS Arihant (S2): Launched in 2009 and commissioned in 2016, it features a double-hull with advanced
sensors, periscopes, and weapon systems, including strategic SLBMs.
It can carry either 12 K-15 (Sagarika) missiles with 750 Kms range or 4 K-4 missiles with 3500 Kms range.
INS Arighat (S3): It is India’s second SSBN, being built as an upgraded version of INS Arihant.
Further, S4 and S5 SSBNs are in the planning phase.
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https://www.drishtiias.com/printpdf/
multilateral-export-control-regimes
 Applications of Robotics

Robotics finds applications in various fields, and

its versatility allows it to be used in numerous
industries.

Manufacturing and assembly: Robots are widely

used in automotive assembly lines for welding,
painting, pick-and-place tasks, and quality
https:// control.
vajiramandravi.com/ Healthcare: Robots aid surgeons in surgeries,
quest-upsc-notes/ ensuring faster recovery. Robotic exoskeletons
nanotechnology/ assist rehabilitation and help patients regain
mobility post-injury. Telemedicine robots enable
remote consultations, crucial in areas with limited
medical access.
For example: Toyota's healthcare assistants are
Robotics is the application of science, an example of robots aiding in walking
engineering, and technology to the design, rehabilitation.
Logistics: Warehouse robots manage inventory,
build and usage of machines that are sorting, and packaging, optimising efficiency.
programmed to mimic, replace and help Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) navigate
humans. Robots are becoming increasingly warehouses, enhancing productivity.
Agriculture: Agricultural robots assist in planting,
prevalent in various industries, including harvesting, and monitoring crops, promoting
manufacturing, healthcare, agriculture, and precision farming. Autonomous tractors aid in
logistics. planting and harvesting, while agricultural drones
survey fields for crop health assessment.
Retail and hospitality: Robotics enhance
In the 21st century, the field of robotics and customer experience by automating inventory
research into the potential uses and processes, providing wayfinding services, and
assisting with baggage or parking valet services
functionality of robots has grown significantly. in the retail and hospitality sectors.
Robotics in India is in nascent stages and to Education: Robots facilitate hands-on learning
create large-scale socio-economic impact, it experiences and engage students in STEM
subjects.
requires concerted as well as collaborative For example:Softbank Robotics developed the
interventions. Nao model for the L2TOR European research
project, teaching young children a second
language.
Robotics Space exploration: Robotics technology is
essential to space exploration because it allows
Robotics is the design, construction, and for the exploration of asteroids, moons, and other
planets.
application of machines (robots) to perform Rovers like NASA's Curiosity explore planetary
tasks traditionally performed by humans. surfaces, collecting data and samples.
Defence and security: Military and security
applications feature bomb disposal robots,
Robots are widely used in industries such as surveillance drones, and unmanned vehicles for
automobile manufacturing to perform simple reconnaissance in hazardous zones.
repetitive tasks and in industries where work Smart cities: Robotics enhance urban safety and
efficiency.
must be performed in environments Humanoid robots offer navigation and
hazardous to humans. information services.
Many aspects of robotics involve artificial AMRs deliver goods and conduct routine security
patrols.
intelligence; robots may be equipped with
Robotics expedite building construction by
human-like senses, such as vision, touch, conducting site surveys and collecting building
and temperature sensing. modelling data.
Status of Robotics in India

India has made multiple strides towards strengthening its industrial base with the adoption of advanced
manufacturing technologies such as robotics, enabling productivity gains, in the last decade.

In the span of five years, i.e., 2016-2021, the operational stock of industrial robots doubled.
India was globally ranked 10 in terms of annual industrial installations, as per the World Robotics Report,
2022.
The growth of the robotics ecosystem in India has been slower in comparison to certain developed
economies.
Initiatives by the Government

The government of India has established the following research centres regarding the development of
robotics in India.

Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Technology Park (ARTPARK) Technology Innovation Hub under the
National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) has been established to leverage
AI and robotics.
Center for Advanced Manufacturing for Robotics and Autonomous Systems (CAMRAS) has been
established to reduce the import of robotics and autonomous systems.
I-HUB Foundation for Cobotics (IHFC), IIT Delhi has launched 8 grand projects in the area of Medical
Simulators, Healthcare Robotics, Rehabilitation Robotics, Drone Applications, etc.
National Strategy for Robotics: The draft strategy aims to position India as a global leader in robotics by
2030 to actualize its transformative potential.
ISRO and Robotics: For manned missions, ISRO is in the process of developing humanoid robots that can
assist and eventually even replace human beings.
Vyommitra: India is set to launch Vyommitra, a female robot astronaut, into space as part of the ambitious
Gaganyaan project in 2024.
Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO)
Research & Development Establishment (Engineers) is working on the development of robotic platforms
for defence applications.
Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE) and VRDE are involved in the
development of unmanned tracked and wheeled vehicles.
The Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR) is working in the field of autonomous navigation,
computer vision processing, and artificial intelligence, for the realisation of autonomous robotic and
unmanned systems.
Capacity Building Initiatives
FutureSkills Prime (MeitY): Under this, a robust online platform has been created that aims to offer
subsidised access to certified courses to interested participants in AI, Blockchain, Robotics, Cybersecurity,
etc.
Atal Innovation Mission: ATLs have dedicated innovation workspaces where Do-It-Yourself (DIY) kits on
emerging technologies like robotics, IoT, etc. have been installed.
e-YANTRA: Robotics outreach program funded by the Ministry of Education to harness the talent of young
engineers to solve problems in agriculture, manufacturing, defence, etc.
Make-in-India Robots

DAKSHA: An automated mobile platform for multi-purpose payloads.

It has stair-climbing capabilities and can be deployed for handling IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices).
Vyommitra: A spacefaring humanoid robot is being developed by the ISRO to function onboard the
Gaganyaan.
MANAV: India’s first 3D-printed humanoid robot with inbuilt vision and sound processing capability which
allows it to walk, talk and dance just in response to human commands.
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magazine/2024-06-22/science-and-technology/
agritech
The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) is a strategy that outlines India's policies and
programs to address climate change. The plan was released by then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on
June 30, 2008. It includes eight national missions, including:
National Solar Mission
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
National Water Mission
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-system
National Mission for a Green India
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
The NAPCC aims to:
Enhance India's ecological sustainability
Reduce the vulnerability of the Indian population to climate change
Promote development objectives while addressing climate change
Advance India's development and climate change objectives simultaneously
Some of the actions taken under the NAPCC include:
Energy efficiency
The government mandated the retirement of inefficient coal-fired power plants. The UJALA scheme was
implemented to distribute LED bulbs instead of CFL bulbs.
Renewable energy
The central and state electricity regulatory commissions are required to purchase a certain percentage of
grid-based power from renewable sources.
Water
The government is promoting water purification and desalination techniques. It has also enacted a bill to
regulate groundwater sources.
Local communities
The plan calls for empowering local communities to play a greater role in managing ecological resources.
 VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

Energy Scenario in India

1 Introduction
India is 4th largest consumer of energy after USA, China, and Russia, but it is not endowed with abundant
energy resources. It must, therefore, meet its development needs by using all available domestic resources of
coal, uranium, oil, hydro, and other renewable resources.

Meeting energy needs of achieving 8% economic growth, while also meeting energy requirements of the
population at affordable prices, therefore, presents a major challenge. It calls for a sustained effort at increasing
energy efficiency, while increasing domestic production as much as possible.

For Renewable Energy Source

 Wind=67%
 Small Hydro= 13%
 Biomass= 13%
 Others= 7%

2 Energy Security: Concerns and Reforms

The energy and the electricity sector arguably presents the most critical infrastructure bottleneck, indeed
supply-side constraint, facing the Indian economy. Standard solutions to the problem have revolved around
deregulation and private participation in fuel exploration, power generation and distribution, coupled with
efficiency improvements in public utilities. But such technocratic assessments simplify the issue and do little to
meaningfully address the problem.

Any serious attempt to reform the energy sector has to revolve around four objectives — increasing fuel
availability by narrowing demand-supply gap; addressing energy pricing through periodic tariff revision,
reforming free and unmetered agriculture supply etc.; bringing policy reforms; and ensuring power sector
reforms such as reducing distribution losses etc. However, if we are to make progress with any of them, we need
to go beyond policy reforms and efficiency improvements and resolve the political "collective action problem".
Let‘s now take the concerns and the reforms needed for each of these objectives separately in the table below:

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 Concerns Reforms

1 Energy Demand and Supply Gap  Bring reform in NELP and amend Coal Mines
Act 1973 to allow private parties take up the
 Even though domestic production of mining.
energy resources is projected to  A coal bank can be created that will manage the
increase, import dependence will demand-supply gap.
continue. By the end of 12th plan,
import dependence on crude oil and  Agriculture power reforms assume great
coal is estimated to be 78% and 22% urgency. Free farm supply adversely affects the
of the demand respectively. quality of rural electricity supply and
 It is estimated that up to a third of indiscriminate use of motors depletes
India's power generation capacity, groundwater levels. The Gujarat model of
both thermal and gas generators, is laying dedicated agriculture feeders incurs
lying idle due to fuel scarcity. While massive capital investments. A more cost-
the state-owned coal mining effective and efficient approach would be to
monopoly, CIL should shoulder its assure farmers equivalent (or higher) units of
share of the blame for the current free supply instead of restricting supply
crisis, the major problems lie beyond timings. Farm connections would be metered
mining per se. Land acquisition and and agriculture tariffs fixed. Each farmer would
environmental clearances are pay his monthly electricity bill, whereupon he
essential for both new mining would be reimbursed the previous month's bill
projects and capacity-expansion in to the extent of the free units consumable.
old mines, as well as for laying rail
transport lines. We therefore have a
situation where even the mined coal
is stuck at the pithead for lack of
adequate transportation facilities and
capacity-addition projects are
delayed inordinately. It is no wonder
that the coal blocks allocated for
captive power generation remained
mostly unexploited.
2 Energy Pricing Issues  Tariff policy needs to be depoliticised.
 There are currently a plethora of regulatory
 An economically important but also bodies. Some, like CERC and PNGRB, fall under
politically sensitive issue. It was the umbrella of the Central government; some
precisely to depoliticize the tariff like the state regulatory commissions report to
increase that regulatory authorities the state governments, and others like the
were established. Unfortunately, Indian Energy Exchange (IEX), and the National
they have become handmaidens of Power Exchange (NEP) fall between several
governments. stools and have an indirect dotted-line linkage
with Central and state governments. There is
 Misalignment of energy prices poses overlap, and on occasion, contention over
both microeconomic (underpricing matters like the setting of prices and tariffs. A
energy to consumers reduces the department of energy resources and security
incentive to be energy efficient and in PMO should be created to act as energy
promotes leakage of subsidized regulators ombudsman in striking the right
products for sale in open market) and balance between the Centrally appointed
macroeconomic (hits either regulators and their state and local
producers or leads to excessive counterparts.
import dependence with implications
for Balance of Payment) challenges.

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 3 Policy neglect of Energy  A bill should be introduced in Parliament
defining the inter linkages between energy,
There is no National Policy On Energy food, water, environment, technology,
endorsed or supported by Parliament. Nor is infrastructure, conservation and efficiency, and
there an official body authorised and lay out the roadmap to energy independence,
accountable for overseeing the country’s energy security and energy sustainability. It
energy policy. should define measurable metrics for progress
towards these objectives, and make explicit
India’s global obligations and commitments.

4 Transmission and Distribution Problems  Discom reforms as suggested by Shunglu

Committee should be done.
 Transmission and Distribution losses  Restructuring of APDRP
account for 27% of electricity  Underground cabling to improve safety and
generated. theft.
 At least two-thirds of the national  Smart grid.
average distribution losses(which is  Integration of renewable into the grid.
23 %) are commercial losses, mostly  Strengthening of NLDC/RLDC/SLDC is vital for
in the form of billing deficiencies or grid management.
pilferage.  Prepaid metres for those consumers with
chronic defaults.

3 Renewable Energy
3.1 Introduction
Gone are the days when renewable energy meant dim solar lanterns. Small-scale renewable energy power plants
are now cheaper, more reliable and more efficient. In Durbuk, in Ladakh, a solar power plant is powering 347
households, a clinic, a school and some government offices. In Tamil Nadu, a panchayat purchased a windmill
that is not only providing electricity to the entire village but is also selling the surplus to State utilities and
earning profit. In Bihar, a company named Husk Power Systems is using rice husk to generate electricity and
supplying it to 250 villages.

3.2 Essentiality of Renewable Energy

 India is currently the world’s third largest carbon emitter. According to the Copenhagen Accord, which
India signed along with 167 other countries in 2009, 80 % of the world’s proven coal, oil and natural gas

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 reserves must remain in the ground in order to avoid warming the planet beyond the internationally
agreed limit of 2°C rise in average temperature. So, from an ecological point of view, renewable energy
must come up on a large scale and not as isolated stories of miracles.
 From an economic point of view also, no one needs proof that India is facing a power crisis. Coal
reserves are depleting and getting expensive. Many major plants in the country are facing severe coal
shortages. In the last fiscal, India imported over 150 million tonnes of the fossil fuel, widening the
country’s fiscal deficit to further dangerous levels. Renewable energy will address power shortage
challenges, which cost Rs 4.2 lakh crore a year.
 From a social point of view, the government had promised to deliver electricity to the entire population.
But considering that providing electricity to all means providing it for 24 hours of 365 days and not four
hours in a day, the government has missed the target by a long shot. Renewable energy is the need of
the hour and it is capable of delivering what India needs. But the question is will we realise it in time?

3.3 Key Issues With Renewable Power Generation

1. Regional Concentration of Renewable Energy Potential
Because Renewable Energy is location-specific and not evenly distributed, there are problems on scaling
up grid connected renewable power.
2. Insufficiency and High cost of Evacuation Infrastructure
Utilisation of variable Renewable Energy requires a robust transmission infrastructure from remotely
located generating plants to the load centers. This requires infrastructure such as roads etc as well as land
for installation.
3. Financial Barriers
Renewable Energy technologies require large initial capital investment. These technologies need to be
supported until technology breakthroughs and market volumes generated are able to bring the tariff
down at the grid parity level.
4. Low Penetration of Renewables for Urban and Industrial Applications
5. Policy Interventions to Incentivize Creation of Financeable Business Models for Off-grid Renewable
Sector
 Off-grid renewable sector is much more competitive with conventional power as it avoids investment
in transmission to remote location.
 E.g. Rice Husk gasifiers based electricity generation is one such model.

3.4 12th Plan Strategy for Renewable Energy

1. Off-grid Renewable Energy for rural applications
2. Grid interaction and grid parity to be achieved.
3. National Bioenergy Mission(NBM)
 Successful model in Bihar: Off grid renewable models based on biomass.
 Attract investment to make the mission sustainable.
4. National Biomass Cook Stove programme(NBCSP)
Leveraging PPP in exploring a range of technology deployments, biomass processing, and delivery models.
5. National Bioenergy Corp of India
It should be established to implement NBM and NBCSP.
6. Renewable Energy Development Fund
To address financing constraints for grid connected as well as the off-grid applications of renewable, REDF
should be set aside.

After looking at the general issues and strategies associated with renewable energy as a whole, let’s delve into
two important sources of renewable energy, viz. hydel and solar power.

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3.5 Hydel Power

India is blessed with immense amount of hydroelectric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-
potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable
hydropower potential to the tune of 148 GW of installed capacity.

Hydropower projects are generally categorized in two segments i.e. small and large hydro. In India, hydro
projects up to 25 MW station capacities have been categorized as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects. While
Ministry of Power, Government of India is responsible for large hydro projects, the mandate for small hydro
power projects (up to 25 MW) is given to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Small hydropower projects are
further classified as:

Class Station Capacity in kW

Micro Hydro Up to 100
Mini Hydro 101 to 2000
Small Hydro 2001 to 25000

3.5.1 Barriers To Hydropower Development

1. Hydropower Planning:
 Planning for hydropower development in India has generally been oriented toward individual
projects. However, this approach has several limitations for sustainable development of an entire
river basin.
 Inter-state disputes are another aspect, which hinder integrated river basin development for
hydropower projects. A large number of hydropower projects with common river systems between
adjoining states are held up due to a lack of inter-state agreements and disputes on
water-sharing.
2. Land Acquisition and Safeguard Issues: Land availability and acquisition are among the core structural
issues that impact almost all infrastructure sectors. Problems arising in the acquisition of land for
hydropower projects are causing suspension and delay in construction activities.
 The problem areas include compensation amount for acquisition, the Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
processes, Legal defiitions which increase complexity and cost for developers without adequately
benefiting the affected population etc.
 Construction and operation of hydropower dams can significantly affect natural river systems as well
as fish and wildlife populations.
 Furthermore, hydropower projects involve submergence causing the displacement of project area
people. The rehabilitation of project-affected people is also a major issue, which is more pronounced
in the case of storage-based hydropower projects, as was evident during the development of the
Tehri dam. The project met with mass protests on the issue of safety, environment and
rehabilitation, resulting in unusual delays and cost over-runs.
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 3. Finance: Hydropower projects are capital-intensive and financing them, by finding an optimum balance
between bankability and affordability, is often a challenge. Although the operating cost of hydro projects
are minimal and the project life longer than thermal, there are multiple other factors that make
hydropower difficult to finance.
 Hydro projects require higher upfront costs to address greater complexities in design, engineering,
environmental and social impact mitigation, etc.
 Most hydro projects takes at least five to six years to construct which increases the interest during
construction.
 Delay in cash inflows increase uncertainty and risks, resulting in higher risk premium on financing
charges.
4. Technical Challenges: Techno-economic viability of hydropower projects depends on the geology,
topography, hydrology and accessibility of the project site. Even if extensive investigations using state of
the-art investigation and construction techniques are adopted, an element of uncertainty remains in the
sub-surface geology. Geological surprises during actual construction cannot be ruled out. This
unpredictable geology is more pronounced in the young fold Himalayas where most of the Indian
hydropower potential resides. Such technical challenges add to construction risks.
5. Lack of Enabling Infrastructure:
 A number of hydropower projects are located in remote sites in states, which do not have adequate
demand for electricity. This creates the requirement for developing enabling infrastructure for
power evacuation. The ’chicken neck’ presents geographical constraints in developing requisite
transmission infrastructure for hydropower evacuation from the northeast.
 Furthermore, the Plant Load Factor (PLF) for hydropower projects is typically less than 50%, as a
result of which significant transmission capacity is under-utilized. All these result in higher
transmission costs.
 Hydropower projects also require the presence of associated infrastructure such as roads, bridges,
schools, hospitals etc. in the area. Lack of these infrastructural assets and difficult terrain of the sites
often creates major road blocks in moving skilled manpower to project sites.

3.5.2 Suggestions

1. Governance Framework: Strengthening of governance in the natural resource sector is a key

determinant for sustainable and inclusive growth. Thus, a nation needs to have an overarching policy
framework, specific sector strategies, and clear and transparent processes for accelerating hydropower
development. Standardised processes and efficient inter agency governmental coordination reduces
unpredictability and creates a better climate for potential investors.
2. Benefit-Sharing Framework: Mitigation of social and environmental risks also plays a critical role in the
development of hydropower projects. Since the benefits and negative effects of natural resource
development are often unevenly distributed, benefit-sharing mechanisms and mitigation measures are
crucial for sustainability and stability in development. Benefit-sharing is a commitment by the
government and the developer to share the monetary and nonmonetary returns with stakeholders. An
appropriate benefit-sharing mechanism ensures social stability and also aligns a country’s national
strategy with the local needs.
3. Facilitating Investments And Finance: In order to attract investments for capital-intensive hydro power
projects, it is necessary to address the concerns of developers as well as consumers. To broaden
investment avenues, the government needs to facilitate optimum risk allocation and often, on a case
specific basis, better upside to developers. Furthermore, the PPP framework needs to be designed
considering key factors needed to develop commercial hydropower projects such as capital, capability
and credibility. All modalities related to clearance processes, land acquisition, building evacuation
infrastructure, fiscal incentives and innovations etc should be streamlined.
4. Facilitate Market Development: Policies targeted at market development play a crucial role in
channelizing investments and private sector participation in hydropower development like any other
sector. The private sector recognises the enormous potential of the hydropower sector in India. Yet,
more substantive and enabling changes by the government in the policy and regulatory framework are
needed to expedite the initiative. Steps like hydropower purchase obligations, differential tariff structure
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 for peak and off load season, developing market for ancillary services, support across the national grid
etc could be taken.
5. Technical Capacity Development: Hydropower development involves significant challenges on account
of terrain and geology. The solution to such challenges requires capacity-building of the agencies
involved as well as the introduction of modern techniques and technologies. The capacity building
initiative will need to appreciate the technical challenges specific to hydropower and equip the
concerned institutions with tools, training and systems to help address them.

3.6 Solar Power

In India, the solar power industry is a 5-year-old baby. On the solar power generation side, the total installed
solar power capacity in India in 2010 was 18 MW. In Sept’ 2014, it was 2.76 GW. India receives sunlight for 300
days in a year at 5KW/Cm2. It is 7% more effective than coal and 10% more effective than nuclear plants. On the
solar power equipment side, Indian manufacturers have capacity to produce about 1,900 MW of modules that
will generate electricity when the sun’s rays fall on them. Both these segments need to be nurtured. Solar power
has the potential to meet 7% of our power needs by 2022, mitigate 2.6% of carbon emission, and reduce coal
imports by 71 million tones per annum saving Rs 33,000 crore.

3.6.1 Initiatives

 JN National Solar Mission: A part of NAPCC, it aims to generate 20 GW solar electricity by 2022 in 3
phases. The new government at the centre has revised the target to 100 GW from 20 GW.
 Ultra Mega Green Solar Power Project: Plan to install world’s largest solar plant with 4 GW capacity near
Sambhar lake, Rajasthan by 2010.
 Clean Energy Fund: To encourage private solar companies by reducing custom duty on solar panels by 5%
and exempting excise duty on SPV.
 Renewable Energy Certificate Some Examples
 70% Subsidy on installation of SPV power plant in NE
States and 30% in other regions.  Durbuk, ladakh
 100% FDI allowed for renewable energy generation,  Salijeepali in Andhra: 1st village
distribution, and manufacturing projects. where entire electrification was
 Desert Power India done with solar power.
 Solar Pond at Bhuj in Kutchh.
3.6.2 Challenges Ahead

1. Domestic Content Requirement Issues: The National Solar Mission (NSM) is being rolled out in phases,
and for the first batch of the first phase, the government said that those project developers who opt for
the crystalline silicon modules, shall buy only those made in India. For the second batch, it went a step
down in the value chain and said that even the cells will have to be made in India. However, this rule did
not apply to thin film, simply because there is no thin film module manufacturer in India to buy from. As a
consequence of this, most of the project developers went in for imported thin film modules. Also, this
Domestic Content Requirement was only for projects awarded under the NSM and not for those set up
under the various states’ programmes. Notably, of the 1,200 MW of capacity in India today, about 850
MW has come under Gujarat’s programme. Most of those putting up projects under the states’
programmes are therefore importing their modules.

Thus, the NSM projects are importing thin films (mainly from the U.S.), those under states’ programmes
are importing crystalline silicon modules (mainly from China) and nobody is buying from Indian
manufacturers. Indian manufacturers want protection against the much cheaper products from abroad,
especially from the Chinese crystalline silicon manufacturers and the American ‘thin film’ manufacturers,
both of whom often bring in cheap funding for their buyers.

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 Against this backdrop, India initiated anti-dumping investigations in Nov 2012 against manufacturers in
China, USA, Taiwan and Malaysia, deferring to the pleas of the domestic manufacturing industry. The
solar power generators were promptly up in arms, pleading that the duty would make their upcoming
projects unviable, given that most of them were won under thin-margin tariffs determined through
competitive bidding processes. The project developers stress that it is only smart to let them buy their
equipment from the cheapest sources in the world, so that a culture of setting up solar plants develops
first. Force them to buy locally, the costs will stunt the growth of the fledgling industry and neither the
power producers nor the module makers will be in business.

In trying to tread the fine line between these two positions, the government of India has triggered off
what some people are calling ‘solar wars’. Now, the U.S. has taken India to WTO over the ‘domestic
content requirement’ (DCR) under the NSM. India is likely to argue that the NSM is in the nature of
government procurement — because the power is bought by a government-owned company. India is not
a signatory to the Agreement on Government Procurement, hence, no violation. Secondly, India will
argue that the DCR rules have truly caused no damage to any overseas manufacturers, because it is
applied on a very small portion of the country’s goals, the rules do not cover states’ programmes.
Regardless of which way these moves go, the fundamental question remains — how to balance the
conflicting interests of manufacturers and project developers?

2. Land scarcity
Per capita land availability is a scarce resource in India. Dedication of land area for exclusive installation of
solar cells might have to compete with other necessities that require land. The amount of land required
for utility-scale solar power plants — currently approximately 1 km² for every 20–60 MW generated could
pose a strain on India’s available land resource. The architecture more suitable for most of India would be
a highly distributed, individual rooftop power generation systems, all connected via a local grid.
However, erecting such an infrastructure, which doesn’t enjoy the economies of scale possible in mass
utility-scale solar panel deployment, needs the market price of solar technology deployment to
substantially decline so that it attracts the individual and average family size household consumer. That
might be possible in the future, since Photovoltaic (PV) is projected to continue its current cost reductions
for the next decades and be able to compete with fossil fuel.
3. Slow Progress
While the world has progressed substantially in production of basic silicon mono-crystalline photovoltaic
cells, India has fallen short to achieve the worldwide momentum. India is now in 7th place worldwide in
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cell production and 9th place in Solar Thermal Systems with nations like Japan,
China, and the US currently ranked far ahead. Globally, solar is the fastest growing source of energy
(though from a very small base) with an annual average growth of 35%, as seen during the past few years.
4. High Maintenance Cost of Solar panels, equipments etc.

4 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act

4.1 International Conventions on Liability
After World War II, European governments were keen to adopt nuclear power but lacked the necessary technical
expertise. On the other hand, American companies were keen to sell their nuclear plants but were unwilling to
accept responsibility for accidents. So, the U.S. companies recommended legislative intervention to make it
impossible for anyone to file a liability claim against atomic suppliers. These suggestions were made in a report
called the “Harvard report”. In a few years, this annex went on to become the Paris Convention insulating
nuclear suppliers internationally.

Ironically, the U.S. under its own Price-Anderson Act does allow victims to sue suppliers. In fact, this is the
reason that it did not accede either to the Paris convention or even to later agreements like the Vienna
Convention. When it finally engineered the Convention on Supplementary Compensation in 1997, it included a
“grandfather clause” that would allow it to keep this aspect of its tort law unchanged while forcing newer

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signatories like India to renounce their right to take action against suppliers. India signed the Convention on
Supplementary Compensation thereby delivering on the last of its commitments stemming from the landmark
2005 nuclear agreement with the United States.

The Convention on Supplementary Compensation will enter into force only when at least five countries with a
minimum of 4,00,000 units of installed nuclear capacity ratify the treaty. The Convention on Supplementary
Compensation is a treaty that requires signatories to pass a domestic liability law in conformity with a model
text. It provides no forum for signatories to challenge each other's national laws. Article XVI of the Convention
allows for arbitration as well as adjudication by the International Court of Justice, in the event of a dispute. But
the U.S. entered a reservation while ratifying the Convention in 2008 declaring, “that it does not consider itself
bound by these dispute settlement procedures.” When it eventually ratifies the treaty, India is likely to make a
similar declaration. That would leave the Supreme Court of India as the only forum competent to rule on the
compatibility of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damages Act, 2010 with India's international obligations stemming
from its accession to the CSC.

India's decision to join the CSC is not only a surrender to a manifestly unfair international regime but will also
have an impact on the safety of nuclear installations in India.

4.2 India and the Liability Act

The flaws of international convention are also being reflected in our domestic Liability Act. Let’s look at some of
the issues:

1. Compensation Amount (Clause 6 &7): Clause 7 states the “Central Government shall be liable for
nuclear damage in respect of a nuclear incident” when such liability exceeds the Rs. 1000-crore liability
limit of the operator (i.e. NPCIL). However, NPCIL can make the foreign builder legally responsible to pay
for compensation for an accident through a construction contract. But again amount payable can’t
exceed operator’s liability (i.e. Rs 1000 crore).

Under Clause 6, the maximum liability of the operator and the government combined has been set at
“the rupee equivalent of $300 million of SDRs, or Rs. 2,610 crore — 23 times lower than what is
provided under the equivalent U.S. law, the controversial Price-Anderson Act.

2. Rights of Recourse (Clause 17): The law blocks the victims from suing foreign suppliers in an Indian court
or in a court in its home country. Only the “operator shall have a right of recourse,” according to Clause
17. But such a right of recourse can only be to meet the operators’ own liability of Rs 1000 crore. The
state operator can sue the foreign supplier if

a) “such right is expressly provided for in a contract in writing.”

b) “the nuclear incident has resulted as a consequence of latent and patent defect supply of sub-
standard material, defective equipment or services , or from the wilful act or gross negligence
on the part of the supplier.” ……. (not under the international law)
c) “accident has resulted from the act of commission or omission of a person done with the
intent to cause nuclear damage.

Of these three provisions, only (a) and (c) are mentioned in model law specified by CSC.

3. Timeframe for Claim (Clause 18): The law also limits liability in time, with Clause 18 stating: “The right to
claim compensation for any nuclear damage caused by a nuclear incident shall extinguish if such claim is
not made within a period of 20 years from the date of incident…” The 20-year time limit was untenable
because damage to human health from a serious radioactive release “involves changes in DNAs,
resulting in mutagenic and teratogenic changes, which take a long time to manifest.”

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4.3 Criticism of Liability Act
1. Amount Of Liability Will Be Capped and Paid for from Insurance Pool

The MEA speaks of the liability in case there is a nuclear incident, which will be capped at $300 million
SDRs or Rs. 2610 crores. In addition, the operator NPCIL is only liable up to Rs.1500 crores, and the
Union government would pay the balance RS 1110 crores. Any damages above this would come from an
international fund, once India ratifies the international Convention on Supplementary Compensation for
Nuclear Liability or Convention on Supplementary Compensation. This effectively means that the
supplier will not be liable, and even the operator will be liable only for a small fraction of what victims
will need, given the recent example of $200 billion for the Fukushima disaster. The insurance pool in this
regard will in any case be paid by the government and government-owned insurers from public taxes in
a 50:50 ratio.

2. Supplier’s Liability Is Not Necessary

On section 17(b) which gives the operator a “right to recourse” i.e. suing the supplier, the MEA says this
will be possible only if under section 6a, it is written in the contract between NPCIL and the supplier. The
explanation goes on to say that while the “right to recourse” is permitted, it is not required or necessary.
Section 17 states that the operator shall have a right of recourse. While it provides a substantive right to
the operator, it is not a mandatory but an enabling provision.

3. The Tort Law Or Civil Damages Suit Clause For Victims Does Not Apply To Suppliers

About section 46, which refers to the right of victims to sue in case of a nuclear accident according to
‘tort’ law, the MEA says that the supplier cannot be liable under this kind of “class-action suit”.

5 Coal Related Issues

5.1 Coal Demand-Supply Gap
Despite such large reserves of coal, we have to import nearly 170 million tonnes of coal. Also, there are questions
over the unfair allocation of coal and the bidding processes.

5.2 The Coal Block Allocation

 The Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act 1973 does not allow private companies to mine coal for sale to third
parties, though captive mining is allowed for specified end use sectors. There are political sensitivities in
opening up coal sector to private investment, but it is simply not logical to keep private investment out of
coal when it is allowed in petroleum and Natural gas.
 The apex court has also questioned the government on how coal block allocation was decided by
screening committee as alleged in the affidavit filed by coal secretary. The allocation of coal blocks is
done through mechanism of an inter-ministerial inter-governmental body called screening committee
which is chaired by Coal Secretary. It includes secretary of nine ministries having interests in coal, besides
heads of various PSUs, and Chief Secretaries of coal supplying states are also part of it.
 In the above light of many identified flaws, there is a demand to amend Coal Mines Act 1973. Recently,
many flaws were found in captive coal allocation leading to cancellation of all but four of 218 allocated
coal blocks. The CAG remarked that coal blocks were given free and company with political links got
multiple blocks, leading to notional loss of about Rs 1,86,000 crore.
 After cancellation of coal blocks by SC, the GoI brought Coal ordinance for e-auctioning of coal blocks that
opened the gates of coal mining to private parties even for third party sale through reverse auctioning
process. The government has so far added around 1.43 lakh crore to its kitty after the end of second
tranche of coal block auctions.

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5.3 Underground Mining

 Only 15% of India’s coal production is from underground mines. The industry aims to reach a total coal
production of 30% from underground mines by 2030.
 There is a clear trend towards underground mines as this has positive implications for the environment.
 Considering emerging hurdles in forest clearance and land acquisition in future, serious efforts need to
be made to increase the share of underground production by focussing on long wall technology and
productivity in underground mines.

5.4 Coal Regulation and Pricing

India has fifth-largest coal reserves in the world. There are huge power expansions plans, which need to be
fuelled by coal. However, there has been no coal regulator. The idea of a Coal Regulatory Authority was
mooted in 2008, but it could not be established for unknown reasons. Setting up a regulator for monitoring
coal resource development was first recommended by the Integrated Energy Policy (IEP) framed by former
Planning Commission member Kirit Parikh and the T L Shankar Committee on coal sector reforms. The Energy
Coordination Committee, headed by ex-PM Manmohan Singh, had then asked the Planning Commission to
prepare a paper on the issue. However, so far, the Coal Regulatory Authority could not see the light of the day.

5.4.1 Independent Coal Regulatory Authority Bill, 2013

After the recent CAG observations on the coal sector and the Coalgate controversy, the previous Government
had come up with a draft Independent Coal Regulatory Authority Bill, 2013 to establish an independent
regulator for the coal sector. The Government said that the independent regulator was needed considering the
near-monopoly the producers in the coal industry enjoy and the fact that regulation was currently done by
agencies closely associated with the government as well as the same producers. Its salient features were:

1. Coal Regulatory Authority would comprise a chairperson and four members, one each for the legal,
technical, finance and administration wings. The chairperson and the members would be appointed
by a selection committee headed by the cabinet secretary.
2. The bill seeks to empower the proposed regulator to decide the fuel’s prices and to suspend or
cancel authorisations of errant coal producers. Coal pricing was administered by govt under Collaries
Control Order(CCO) 1945 till that order was amended in 2000, and the PSUs were given freedom to fix
prices on a normative basis. This brought no change in PSU monopoly over coal pricing.
3. Centre’s role would be restricted to policy-making while the regulator would ensure implementation of
the policy.
4. The regulator’s functions would include specifying the quality and performance parameters,
ensuring adherence to the mining plan, recovering penalties, monitoring the utilisation of funds for
coal conservation and promoting clean coal technologies.
5. To ensure independent functioning of the regulator, a Coal Regulatory Authority Fund has also been
proposed.

However, critics pointed out many limitations of CRAI Bill as mentioned below:

1. The CRAI bill is a half-hearted measure, as it would not empower the regulator to determine the grade-
wise price of coal or enable it to enforce that contracts for captive coal blocks be auctioned — two crucial
areas of major concern for consumers.
2. The CRAI’s role would be limited to coal conservation, enforcement of mine development plans, coal
sampling and testing, suggesting principles of pricing, norms of operational efficiency and resolution of
disputes between producers and consumers.
3. Its composition and the method of selecting its members are similar to the provisions in the case of other
regulatory authorities, leaving scope for the government to use the CRAI as a parking place for retiring
civil servants, thereby eroding its autonomy.
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 Not quite confident of piloting the bill through the usual legislative process, the government has now set up a
toothless regulator through an executive order. This implies a total dilution of the concept of independent
statutory regulation — a long overdue reform — and would simply create yet another layer of red tapism and
infructuous public expenditure arising from it! We need independent, umbrella regulation for pricing not only
electricity but also the two fuels, coal and natural gas, as well as nuclear power, with a single authority to
hear appeals against its orders.

5.4.2 Pricing Power of Coal Regulator

In India, the prices of coal currently being realised at e-auctions, the majority of which is supplied by CIL, are
about 80 % higher than the notified price. It is said that there is no commercial mining in India by companies
other than (state-run) CIL. Coal India decides price of the fuel without any formal directive from the coal
ministry, but the government has a say because it holds majority equity. Some Ministries have said that the
bill would take the country back to the pre-1991 era of licence raj and there must be a difference between
regulation and licensing.

6 Smart Grid
For a century, utility companies have had to send workers out to gather much of the data needed to provide
electricity. The workers read meters, look for broken equipment and measure voltage, for example. Most of the
devices utilities use to deliver electricity have yet to be automated and computerized. Now, many options and
products are being made available to the electricity industry to modernize it.

The “grid” amounts to the networks that carry electricity from the plants where it is generated to consumers.
The grid includes wires, substations, transformers, switches and much more. Much in the way that a “smart”
phone these days means a phone with a computer in it, smart grid means “computerizing” the electric utility
grid. It includes adding two-way digital communication technology to devices associated with the grid. Each
device on the network can be given sensors to gather data (power meters, voltage sensors, fault detectors, etc.),
plus two-way digital communication between the device in the field and the utility’s network operations center.
A key feature of the smart grid is automation technology that lets the utility adjust and control each individual
device or millions of devices from a central location.

6.1 Benefits

 Efficient, reliable, end-to-end intelligent two way delivery system leading to smart demand side
management, more efficient transmission of electricity, reduction in AT&C losses etc.
 Real time monitoring and control of power system, saving up to 15-20% of energy.
 Quicker restoration of electricity after power disturbances.
 Reduced operations and management costs for utilities, and ultimately lower power costs for
consumers.
 Reduced peak demand, which will also help lower electricity rates.
 Increased integration of large-scale renewable energy systems
 Better integration of customer-owner power generation systems, including renewable energy systems
 Improved security

6.2 Identified Challenges and Strategies for Smart Grid Operations

1. Smart Grid Demonstration and Deployment Activities : These activities leverage efforts under way in
the research and development activity area and will help develop critical performance and proof-of-
concept data. This activity area will help in developing a framework for analyzing smart grid metrics and
benefits, which is necessary to help build the business case for cost-effective smart grid technologies.
2. Research and Development Activities advance smart grid functionality by developing innovative, next-
generation technologies and tools in the areas of transmission, distribution, energy storage, power

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 electronics, cybersecurity and the advancement of precise time-synchronized measures of certain
parameters of the electric grid.
3. Interoperability and Standards Activities ensure that new devices will interoperate in a secure
environment as innovative digital technologies are implemented throughout the electricity delivery
system, advancing the economic and energy security of the country. The smart grid interoperability
process promises to lead to flexible, uniform, and technology-neutral standards that enable innovation,
improve consumer choice, and yield economies of scale.
4. Workforce Development intends to address the impending workforce shortage by developing a greater
number of well-trained, highly skilled electric power sector personnel knowledgeable in smart grid
operations.
5. Monitoring National Progress Activities establish metrics to show progress with respect to overcoming
challenges and achieving smart grid characteristics.

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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UNIT 13 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Structure
13.1 Introduction
Aims and Objectives
13.2 Science and Technology in Ancient and Medieval India
13.3 Science and Technology in Colonial India
13.4 Science and Technology in Post-Independence India
13.5 Status of Science and Technology in India in 21st Century
13.6 Gandhian Vision of Science and Technology
13.7 Summary
13.8 Terminal Questions
Suggested Readings

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Science and technology have played a pivotal role in the development of

human society. The human beings from prehistoric times had curiosity to
observe and understand nature so that they could control and manipulate
nature for their benefit and welfare. As a result of collective involvement of
large number of people in scientific and technological enterprise all over
the world, the twentieth century witnessed a tremendous progress and
development, which has brought enormous benefits to humankind. Long
and healthy lives, economic prosperity, faster and newer modes of transport
and communication, pleasant and convenient life-styles, reduction in
human drudgery due to large-scale use of machinery have resulted from
technological progress based on advances in scientific knowledge. However,
at the same time, these advances in science have also given rise to
development of tools such as biological and nuclear weapons, which have
brought the world to the precipice of destruction. In this unit, we will
briefly discuss the developments in science and technology in India from the
ancient to the present times and try to examine them in the light of Gandhian
perspective of science and technology.

Aims and Objectives

This Unit enables you to understand
· The scenario of science and technology in ancient and medieval India
· Its development in the modern India and
· Gandhi’s views on science and technology.
13.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
INDIA
India has a glorious culture of education, science and technology from
ancient times and had made significant contributions in the field of
astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, metallurgy, Ayurvedic system of medicine
and surgery. The Indian scholars had developed geometrical theorems much
before Pythagoras did in sixth century BC. A detailed description of these
theorems and axioms is found in an ancient text called Sulvasutra, which
dates back to around 600-300BC.These sutras were used for making intricate
devotional altars in Vedic times. Apart from this, Sulvasutra describes
construction of geometrical figures, combination and transformation of
areas, measurement of areas and volumes, squaring the circles and vice
versa, making of similar figures with different areas, and a host of other
related problems. Sulvasutras contain several examples of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and squaring of fractions. Quadratic
equations, indeterminate equations, permutations and combinations also
appear in Sulvasutras. The concept of zero and the place value concept in
the decimal system of numbers reached Europe from India through the Arab
world. Starting from Rig Vedic period, great strides were made in the field
of astronomy by tracking the motion of heavenly bodies. The priests gave
division of time in days, months and years and drew up calendars which
were required for sacrificial ceremonies. Aryabhatta, a great astronomer
born in 476 AD, believed that earth revolved around the Sun. He also gave
an explanation for the occurrence of eclipses and constructed trigonometric
tables. He developed formulas for the sum of arithmetic and geometrical
series. Carak Samhita, considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine
and the surgical text, Susruta Samhita are generally estimated to have been
originated around 600BC. By the 500 - 400BC the Indian metalworkers had
attained a high degree of perfection in iron and steel making. The 4th century
AD famous iron pillar near Qutab Minar in Delhi, known as the rustless
wonder, is testimony to the art and science of steel making in ancient India.
The Indian technology of extraction of zinc predates by a couple of centuries
that developed in Europe.

By 6th century BC, the Taxila university gained prominence and several
foreign scholars from different parts of the known world visited and studied
there. Nalanda, Kanchi and Vikramshila came into existence in 5th and 6th
century AD. Up to about the middle of the 16th century, Indian science was
at the same level as science anywhere else in the world, particularly
European science. But then prevailing social conditions in India could not
sustain it. There was considerable economic prosperity and social stability in
which religion and caste system had a hold in the society, which contributed
to reconciliation with fate and social hierarchy. Therefore, science and
technology in India declined. On the other hand Renaissance, Scientific and
Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of modern science in Europe,
which made big strides forward and left Indian science way behind in the
period that followed. The British, who came as traders to India, subjugated
and colonised the country on the strength of their superior science,
technology and industry. India’s scientific culture and educational system
suffered considerably.

13.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN COLONIAL INDIA

The British were primarily interested in strengthening their political and

economic domination over India. They exploited India’s resources to the full
and developed only a nominal scientific infrastructure which met for this
purpose. They gathered maximum possible information about India, its
people and resources thorough knowledge of geography, geology and botany
of the area under their control. They invested in these areas and hoped to get
direct economic benefit. Education and research in chemistry, physics,
medical and other sciences were thus ignored.

With the creation of the Supreme Court in Calcutta in 1774, Hindus of

Bengal became eager to learn the English language. With the support of Sir
Edward Hyde East, Chief Justice, Supreme Court, Hindu College, Kolkata
was started on January 20, 1817 for giving liberal education to the children
of the members of the Hindu Community. Increasing realisation of the value
of English education made Hindu College a coveted destination of scholars
from all over India. In October, 1853, the Governor of Bengal suggested
that a new general college should be established at Calcutta by the
government and designated ‘The Presidency College’ which should be open
to all youth of every caste, class or creed . On June 15, 1855 the Presidency
College was formally established. In 1855, The Presidency College, Madras
was also started, followed by setting up of St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai,
Fergusson College, Pune, St. Stephens College, Delhi etc.

With the demand for higher English education gathering momentum, in

1857 the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up on the
pattern of London University. Initially these universities supervised
education at undergraduate level; post-graduate courses were started much
later but research in these fields was almost impossible.

The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science was established in July
1876 at Bowbazar Street, Kolkata by Dr. Mahendra Lal Sircar, a
philanthropist, and Fr. Eugene Lafont, Rector and Science Professor at St.
Xavier’s College, the activities at the Association in the very early years
were supported by generous public contributions. The Association came up
in the backdrop of the great cultural and intellectual awakening of the 19th
century Bengal and was intended to be an institution ‘solely of the native
and purely national’ to cultivate science advancement by original research
and apply to the arts and comforts of life. Many distinguished scientists of
modern India had carried out research there, for example, Sir C V Raman
did his work on Physical Optics leading to the discovery of the Raman
Effect, which won for him and India the first Nobel Prize in Physics. Several
eminent Indian scientists including K S Krishnan, S Bhagavantam, and M N
Saha also worked here and enriched the research culture of the Association
in the early decades.

The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore was conceived as a

‘Research Institute’ by Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata in 1896 with the aim of
advancing the scientific capabilities of the country. The constitution of the
Institute was approved by the Viceroy Lord Minto and the land and other
facilities for the institution were provided by Shri. Krishnaraj Wodeyar IV,
the Maharaja of Mysore, Government of India, and Tata himself. IISc is
considered as the premier institute for scientific research and study in India,
and is ranked higher than any other Indian university in world university
rankings. Shri.Homi Bhabha conceived the idea of the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR) and an Atomic Energy Programme while
working in the Department of Physics. Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of
India's space program was an alumnus. Following his premature death, the
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was built by the farsighted
leadership of Satish Dhawan, who simultaneously held the position of the
Director of the Institute with the greatest distinction. The first Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT) at Kharagpur was established by J.C.Ghosh,
who was the Director of IISc in the period 1939-48. Notable scientists
include G.N. Ramachandran, Harish Chandra, S. Ramaseshan, A.
Ramachandran and C.N.R. Rao.
Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha realized the importance of atomic energy in the
development of the country and requested financial assistance from Sir
Dorabji Tata Trust for setting up a scientific research institute. With the
support of J R D Tata, then Chairman, of the Tata Group, Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai was founded in 1945 and Homi
Bhabh was appointed its first director. After independence, in 1949, the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) designated TIFR as a
centre for all large scale projects in nuclear research.

To meet the requirements of colonial India in agricultural research, the

Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in 1929, with
emphasis on plantation research, experimental farms for introduction of new
varieties and problems related to cash crops – cotton, indigo, tobacco and tea
which were exported to England.

With the first stirrings for freedom from colonial rule and demand for self-
rule, the Swadeshi Movement provided further impetus for promotion of
education with special reference to science and technology and for
industrialisation of the country. The outbreak of the Second World War and
the interruption of direct sea route between India and England made it
necessary for the colonial government to allow development of greater
industrial capability in India. Therefore a Central Research Organisation
began, which eventually led to the establishment of Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi in 1942. Its objectives were:

· promotion, guidance and coordination of Scientific and Industrial

research in India,
· establishment or development of institutions and assistance to
departments of existing institutions for specific study of problems
affecting particular industries and trades,
· establishment and award of research fellowships,
· establishment, maintenance and management of laboratories,
workshops, institutes and organisations to further scientific and
industrial research,
· collection and dissemination of information in regard not only to
research but also to general industrial matters, and
· Publication of scientific papers and journals.

CSIR has been striving to achieve generation of new knowledge and new
products, processes and technologies in diverse areas ranging from
chemicals and drugs to materials and electronics; from safe drinking water
and food technology to aerospace; and from environment protection and
toxicology to petroleum processing. It has grown to span a very wide S & T
base and has emerged as a national organization with its 40 laboratories
spread all over. CSIR has always strived for the development of indigenous
technologies and optimum utilisation of indigenous resources.

13.4 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN POST-INDEPENDENCE

INDIA

During the course of freedom struggle, Gandhi campaigned for an economic

development based on cottage and village industries. He was against heavy
industries. While luminaries like P C Ray held the view that general progress
was through elementary education and traditional industries, people like
M.N. Shah and others criticised Gandhi. Pandit Nehru had a great faith in
the power of science and technology as tools for solving the problems being
faced by the country. Addressing the Indian Science Congress held in
Kolkata in 1937, he observed:

“It is science alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of
insanitation and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening of custom and
tradition, of vast resources running to waste, of a rich country inhabited by
starving poor…Who indeed could afford to ignore science today? At every
turn we have to seek its aid, and the whole fabric of the world today is of its
making….the future belongs to science and those friends with science.”

When India achieved Independence in 1947, the national consensus was in

favour of rapid industrialisation based on foundations of modern science and
technology, and a planned socialist model of development of the country.
Pandit Nehru’s initiated a strong and diversified industrial base. He set out
the goal of rapid agricultural and industrial development of the country,
expansion of opportunities for gainful employment, progressive reduction of
social and economic disparities, removal of poverty and attainment of self-
reliance. This led to the passage of Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948
followed by Industrial Policy Resolutions / Statements of 1956, 1973, 1977,
1980 and 1991.

The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 emphasised the importance of

securing a continuous increase in production and its equitable distribution,
and pointed out that the State must play a progressively active role in the
development of Industries. Besides arms and ammunition, atomic energy
and railway transport, which would be the monopoly of the Central
Government, the State would be exclusively responsible for the
establishment of new undertakings in six basic industries-except where, in
the national interest, the State itself found it necessary to secure the
cooperation of private enterprise. It emphasised the expansion of production,
both agricultural and industrial; and in particular on the production of capital
equipment and goods satisfying the basic needs of the people, and of
commodities the export of which would increase earnings of foreign
exchange. The rest of the industrial field was left open to private enterprise
though it was made clear that the State would also progressively participate
in this field. Specific priorities for industrial development were also laid
down in the successive Five Year Plans.

The first five-year plan of 1951addressed the issues of agrarian sector,

including investments in dams and irrigation. The total planned budget was
allocated to irrigation and energy, agriculture and community development,
transport and communications, industry social services, land rehabilitation,
and other sectors and services. The state’s role was justified at that time
because post-independence, India was facing basic problems like- deficiency
of capital and low capacity to save.

The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) established in 1905 as the

Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was recognised as a 'deemed
university' in 1958 by an act of Parliament. It is financed and administered
by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which is an apex
body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in
agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire
country. The first state agriculture university was established in 1960 at
Pantnagar. With 45 agricultural universities and over 90 ICAR institutes
across the country, it is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the
world. The ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution
in 1970s and subsequent developments in agriculture in India through its
research and technology development that has enabled the country to
increase the production of food grains by 4 times, horticultural crops by 6
times, fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland 17 times), milk 6 times and
eggs 27 times since 1950-51, thus making a visible impact on the national
food and nutritional security. It has played a major role in promoting
excellence in higher education in agriculture.
The 1956 Industrial Policy Resolution gave primacy to the role of the State
which was directly responsible for industrial development and classified
industries into three categories. The first category comprised 17 industries
(included in Schedule A of the Resolution) exclusively under the domain of
the Government. These included railways, air transport, arms and
ammunition, iron and steel and atomic energy. The second category
comprised 12 industries (included in Schedule B of the Resolution), which
were envisaged to be progressively State-owned but private sector was
expected to supplement the efforts of the State. The third category contained
all the remaining industries and it was expected that private sector would
initiate development of these industries but they would remain open for the
State as well. Consequently the planning process was initiated taking into
account the needs of the country. The second five-year plan focused on
heavy industry. The Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined in the
Constitution of India state that

“The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and
protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice, social
economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of the national life.”

The adoption of the socialist pattern of society as the national objective

required that all industries of basic, large-scale and strategic importance and
public utility services should be in the public sector. The State had to assume
direct responsibility for the future development of industries over a wide
area. Therefore, the Public Sector got a great push.The plan followed the
Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the
Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan
attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between
productive sectors in order to maximise long-run economic growth.

The success of industry depends upon its access to technology and skilled
manpower. At the time of independence opportunities of education in
science and technology education were very limited. The higher education
system inherited by us in 1947 had only 18 universities, 5 post-graduate
engineering colleges, 22 medical colleges and 496 colleges catering to about
1,50,000 students with enrolment of 5,996, 905, 1076 and 959 in B.Sc.,
M.Sc., B.E. and M.B.B.S. degrees., respectively. A 22 member committee
headed by Sri N.R.Sarkar, in its report in 1946, recommended the
establishment of four Higher Technical Institutions in the Eastern, Western,
Northern and Southern regions, possibly on the lines of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, USA, with a number of secondary institutions
affiliated to it. These institutes were intended to produce undergraduates and
those engaged in research, producing research workers and technical
teachers as well. As a result of the recommendations of the Sarkar
committee, the first Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) was established in
1950 in Kharagpur. Subsequently IIT, Mumbai was started in 1958,
followed by IIT Kanpur and Chennai in 1959 and Delhi in 1961.The number
of IITs has now increased to 14. The importance of science and technology
in national developed was emphasized in the “Scientific Policy Resolution”
by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and adopted by Indian Parliament in
1958:

“The key to national prosperity, apart from the spirit of the people, lies in the
modern age in the effective combination of three factors: technology, raw
materials and capital, of which the first is perhaps, the most important, since
the creation and adoption of new scientific techniques can, in fact, make up
for a deficiency in natural resources, and reduce the demands on capital. But
technology can only grow out of the study of science and its applications.”

The Government of India decided that the aims of the scientific policy
resolution would be to

· foster, promote, and sustain, by all appropriate means, the cultivation

of science, and scientific research in all its aspects – pure, applied, and
educational;
· ensure an adequate supply, within the country, of research scientists of
the highest quality, and to recognise their work as an important
component of the strength of the nation;
· encourage, and initiate, with all possible speed, programmes for the
training of scientific and technical personnel, on a scale adequate to
fulfill country’s needs in science and education, agriculture and
industry, and defence;
· ensure that the creative talent of men and women is encouraged and
finds full scope in scientific activity;
· encourage individual initiative for the acquisition and dissemination
of knowledge, in an atmosphere of academic freedom; and
· Secure for the people of the country all the benefits that can accrue
from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge.
A chain of research laboratories were established under the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to promote development of
indigenous technology to help industry. The Indian Council for Agricultural
Research (ICAR) and also the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) have been established. The Atomic Energy Act was
enacted in 1948 and Atomic Energy Commission was established. Similarly
to organize research and development in the field of space, Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) was established and the Space Research Act
was enacted in 1956.

The University Grants Commission was set up in 1956 by an act of

Parliament to take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the
higher education in the country. The Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) laid
emphasis on the development of education.

Twenty-five years after adoption of Science Policy Resolution of 1958, the

Government of India Issued a Technology Policy Statement with the
objectives to

a) attain technological competence and self-reliance, to reduce vulnerability,

particularly in strategic and critical areas, making the maximum use of
indigenous resources;

b) provide the maximum gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of

society, with emphasis on the employment of women and weaker sections of
society;

c) use traditional skills and capabilities, making them commercially

competitive;

d) ensure the correct mix between mass production technologies and

production by the masses;

e) ensure maximum development with minimum capital outlay;

f) identify obsolescence of technology in use and arrange for modernisation

of both equipment and technology;

g) develop technologies which are internationally competitive, particularly

those with export potential;
h) improve production speedily through greater efficiency and fuller
utilization of existing capabilities, and enhance the quality and reliability of
performance and output;

i) reduce demands on energy, particularly energy from non-renewable

sources;

j) ensure harmony with the environment, preserve the ecological balance and
improve the quality of the habitat; and

k) recycle waste material and make full utilisation of by-products.

13.5 STATUS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA IN 21ST

CENTURY

The Government of India encourages higher education system that has

grown into one of the largest in the world. In comparision to just 18
universities and less than 500 colleges catering to only 1,50,000 with
enrolment of 5,996, 905, 1076 and 959 in B.Sc., M.Sc., B.E. and M.B.B.S.
degrees., respectively. in 1947, India now has a network of more than 500
universities – 42 central universities, 259 state universities, 130 deemed
universities and 70 private universities, 21000 colleges, 14 Indian Institutes
of Technology, 13 Indian Institutes of Management, 20 National Institutes
of Technology, 6 Indian Institutes of Information Technology, 6 Indian
Institutes of Science Education and Research and 3000 private engineering
and management institutes and 314 medical colleges located in different
parts of the country. The Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute
of Science, The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and some of the
central universities are among the finest institutions in the world and made a
name for themselves. Facilities for higher education in all fields of
knowledge are available in the country and the Indian higher education
system is the third largest in the world. India also has the second largest pool
of scientists in the world. India excels in software development. Excellent
Healthcare facilities for treatment of all kinds of ailments and diseases are
available in the country at highly competitive rates and a large number of
foreign nationals travel to India every year. All this is in spite of the fact
that only 11% of 18-24 year age group has access to higher education, which
is to be enhanced to 15% by the year 2012 and to 30% by the year 2020 so
as to meet the requirements of a growing knowledge economy. According to
Mr Amod Kanth, Chairman, ‘Delhi Commission for Protection of Child
Rights’ six crore children in the 6-14 age group are out school in the
country. To provide them free and compulsory elementary education,
Government of India had enacted Right to Education Act in 2009.

India has made tremendous progress in science and technology coupled with
economic policies pursued by the Government, more so after economic
liberalisation in 1991. It is also an emerging nuclear power but harnesses its
nuclear energy for peaceful purpose and to use it as a deterrent. India
produces 4% of its total electricity requirement from nuclear power plants,
which is to be increased to 10% in near future so as to reduce its dependence
on scarce fossil fuels. It has developed a one hundred tonne annual capacity
spent fuel reprocessing plant essential for the country’s closed–fuel-cycle
three stage nuclear programme. It is amongst a select group of nations,
which can place satellites in space, and is the fourth country after USA,
USSR and China, to place its flag on Moon through its unmanned lunar
probe named Chandrayan-1.

With a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $3.75 trillion (by purchasing

power parity), India is the fourth largest economy after the United States,
China and Japan. By 2020, assuming current annual growth rate, it is
expected that the Indian GDP at $8.00 trillion will be the third largest. In
2009, India’s 100 richest persons had a combined net worth of $276 billion,
almost 25% of the country’s GDP. In 2010, the top 40 Indian’s collective
worth stood at $243 billion, up from $229 billion in 2009. At the same time
a staggering 800 million Indians live on Rs 40.00 a day. According to
Human Development Report for 2010, India ranks at 119th of 169 countries
measured on Human Development Index (HDI), which is a composite index
measuring progress towards a healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent
standard of living. According to a forecast released on January 07, 2011 by
the consultancy group, Price-Waterhouse Coopers, the Indian economy will
register the second fastest growth between now and 2050 and emerge as the
second biggest economy in the world by the middle of the century.

Research and developments in the field of agriculture have made a visible

impact on the national food and nutritional security. India is producing more
food grains than it can store properly. In 2010, India had a record foodgrains
production 218 million tonnes, some of which had to be stored in open
yards, leading to its rotting. However, the per head food availability (152
kg in 1950 per head per year) has not improved much despite all this
development (155kg per head per year 2010). It is not surprising that
according to Global Hunger Index for 2010, India ranks at 67th among 84
developing countries, and out of 925 million hungry in the world, about 50%
live in India alone. Also according to this report, India is home to about 42%
of the world’s underweight and undernourished children. At the same time,
according to a report of Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
(SIPRI), expenditure on arms purchase between 2001and 2009 by India
doubled from $1.04 billion to $2.10 billion. As both China and Pakistan are
both stockpiling arms, according to corporate analyst KPMG, India would
spend $112 billion on capital defence expenditure between 2010-2016, one
of the largest (possibly second largest) in the world.

13.6 GANDHIAN VISION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Gandhi was not against science and technology per se as is commonly
perceived; he had strong views against their misuse- be it weapons,
vivisection or machines. He observed:

“Modern civilisation, far from having done the greatest good to humanity,
has forgotten that its greatest achievements are weapons of mass destruction,
the awful growth of anarchism, the frightful disputes between capital and
labour and the wanton and diabolical cruelty inflicted on innocent, dumb,
living animals in the name of science, falsely so called (CWMG, vol.1,
pp.189-91). The boast about the wonderful discoveries and the marvellous
inventions of science, good as they undoubtedly are in themselves, is, after
all, an empty boast (CWMG, Vol.3, p.414).”

When asked by a scientist who wished to know what men of science were to
do if they were asked by the Indian government to engage in researches in
furtherance of war and the atom bomb, Gandhi replied categorically:
“Scientists to be worth the name should resist such a state unto death.”

Gandhi strongly opposed practices like vivisection practiced by modern

scientists. He wrote; “vivisection in my opinion is the blackest of all crimes
that man is at present committing against god and his fair creation. We
should be able to refuse to live if the price of living be the torture of sentient
beings.” According to Gandhi, vivisection had not added an inch to our
moral height, he said:

“I abhor vivisection with my whole soul. I detest the unpardonable slaughter

of innocent life in the name of science and humanity so-called, and all the
scientists' discoveries stained with innocent blood I count as of no
consequence. If the circulation of blood theory could not have been
discovered with out vivisection the human kind could well have done
without it. And I see the day clearly dawning when the honest scientist of the
west will put limitations upon the present methods of pursuing knowledge.
Future measurements will take note not only of the human family, but of all
that lives and even as we are slowly but surely discovering that it is an error
to suppose that Hindus can thrive upon the degradation of a fifth of them-
selves or that peoples of the west can rise or live upon the exploitation and
degradation of the eastern and African nations, so shall we realise in the
fullness of time, that our dominion over the lower order of creation is not for
their slaughter, but for their benefit equally with ours. For I am as certain
that they are endowed with a soul as that I am (CWMG, Vol.29, pp.25-26)”.

Gandhi felt that Ayurveda and Unani had maintained a relation between
science and religion, body and soul, but had not inculcated the spirit of
research that fired modern science. In 1921, inaugu- rating the Tibbia
College at Delhi, Gandhi expounded his views on modern and traditional
medicine:

“I would like to pay my humble tribute to the spirit of research that fires the
modern scientists. My quarrel is not against that spirit. My complaint is
against the direction that the spirit had taken. It has chiefly concerned itself
with the exploration of laws and methods conducing to the merely material
advancement of its clientele. But I have nothing but praise for the zeal,
industry and sacrifice that have animated the modern scientists in the pursuit
after truth. I regret to have to record my opinion based on considerable
experience that our hakims and vaids not exhibit that spirit in any
mentionable degree. They follow without question formulas. They carry on
little investigation. The condition of indigenous medicine is truly deplorable.
Not having kept abreast of modern research, their profession has fallen
largely into disrepute. I am hoping that this college will try to remedy this
grave defect and restore Ayurvedic and Unani medical science to its pristine
glory. I am glad, therefore, that this institution has its western wing
(CWMG, vol.19, pp.357-58).”

Gandhi was against indiscriminate use of machinery to save labour and

maximize profit. He said in Hind Swaraj, first published in 1908:

“It is machinery which has impoverished India. It is difficult to measure the

harm that Manchester has done to us. It is due to Manchester that Indian
handicraft has all but disappeared…..Machinery is chief symbol of modern
civilization; it represents a great sin….If the machinery craze grows in our
country, it will become an unhappy land. It may be considered a heresy, but
I am bound to say that it were better for us to send money to Manchester and
to use flimsy Manchester cloth than to multiply mills in India. By using
Manchester cloth we only waste our money; but by using by reproducing
Manchester in India, we shall keep our money at the price of our blood,
because our very moral being will be sapped, and I call in support of my
statement the very mill-hands as witnesses. And those who have amassed
wealth out of factories are not likely to be better than other rich men. It
would be folly to assume that an Indian Rockfeller would be better than an
American Rockfeller. Impoverished India can become free, but it will be
hard for any India made rich through immorality to regain its freedom.”

He further wrote:

“Machinery is like a snake-hole which may contain from one to a hundred

snakes. Where there is machinery there are large cities, there are tram cars
and railways; and there only one see electric light. English villages do not
boast of any of these things. Honest physicians will tell you that where
means of artificial locomotion have increased, the health of people has
suffered...He further opined that “the mind is a restless bird; the more it gets
the more it wants, and still remains unsatisfied. The more we indulge our
passions the more unbridled they become. Our ancestors, therefore, set a
limit to our indulgence. They saw that happiness was largely a mental
condition. A man is not necessarily happy because he is rich and unhappy
because he is poor. The rich are often seen to be unhappy, the poor to be
happy…. It was not that we did not know how to invent machinery, but our
forefathers knew that, if we set our hearts after such things, we would
become slaves and lose our moral fibre. They, therefore, after due
deliberation decided that we should only do what we could with our hands
and feet. They saw that our real happiness and health consisted in a proper
use of our hands and feet. They further reasoned that large cities were a
snare and a useless encumbrance and that people would not be happy in
them, that there would be gangs of thieves and robbers, prostitution and vice
flourishing in them and that poor men would be robed by rich men. They
were therefore, satisfied with small villages.”

Replying to a question whether he was against all machinery, he said:

“How can I be when I know that even this body is most delicate machinery?
The spinning wheel is a machine: a little toothpick is a machine. What I
object to is the craze for machinery, not machinery as such. The craze is for
what they call labour saving machinery. Men go on ‘saving labour’ till
thousands are without work and thrown on the open streets to die of
starvation. I want to save time and labour not for a fraction of mankind but
for all. I want the concentration of wealth, not in the hands of a few, but in
the hands of all. Today machinery merely helps a few to ride on the backs of
millions. The impetus behind it all is not the philanthropy to save labour, but
greed. It is against this constitution of things that I am fighting with all my
might….The supreme consideration is man. The machine should not tend to
atrophy the limbs of man. For instance, I would make intelligent exceptions.
Take the case of the Singer’s Sewing Machine. It is one of the useful things
ever invented, and there is a romance about the device itself.”

According to Gandhi machinery existed for man, and not vice-versa, and
must be made subservient to the well being of the people and should not be
allowed to become their master. Gandhi opined that the use of machinery
should not result in unemployment or exploitation of the poor. He said: “I
have no objection if all things required by my country could be produced
with the labour of 30,000 instead of three crores. But those three crores must
not be rendered idle or unemployed.”

Gandhi was against the rapid industrialisation, but he was for village
industries: “it is industry that has caused the development of large cities with
their smoke, dirt, noise, bad air, lack of sunshine, and outdoor life, slums,
disease, prostitution, and unnatural living.” Based on such view Gandhi
argued- “if future of industrialism is dark for the west, would it not be darker
still for India.” He further said, “Industrialism is, I am afraid, going to be a
curse for mankind.”

Industrialisation is a means to achieve mass production which means

production by fewest possible numbers through the aid of highly
complicated machinery. By mass production, Gandhi meant production by
masses. He asked “if you multiply individual production to million times,
would it not give you mass production on a tremendous scale?” Gandhi
asserted that he was against large-scale production only of those things that
villagers could produce without difficulty. He held that machine is harmful
when the same thing can be done easily by millions of hands not otherwise
occupied. He wrote, “Mechanisation is good when the hands are too few for
the work intended to be accomplished. It is an evil when there are more
hands than required for the work, as in the case of India.”

13.7 SUMMARY

In this unit a brief survey of status of science and technology in India since
the earliest times to the present day was given. India had made great
contributions in the past in the field of astronomy, geometry, mathematics,
metallurgy, Ayurveda and surgery. Till the mid sixteenth century, science
and technology in India was at the same level as any where else in the world.
There was economic prosperity and social stability in which religion and
caste system had a hold in the society, science and technology declined in
India and the country was colonised. After independence, India adopted a
socialist and planned model of development based on modern science and
technology and has made great progress emerging into a great economic and
industrial superpower. In the end we have presented in brief Gandhian vision
of science and technology, his views on machines and industrialisation that
hold relevance in this 21st century.

13.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the contribution of ancient Indians in the field of metallurgy?

2. Describe the developments in the field of education in colonial India.
3. India has made a great progress in the field of science, technology and
industry after Independence. Comment.
4. Gandhi was justified in his opposition to the use of machinery in mass
production. Comment.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. M.K.Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1938
2. D.M.Bose, S.N.Sen, B.V. Subbarayappa,(Ed)., A Concise History of
Science in India, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi,
1971.
3. Rais Ahmed, (Ed), Foundation Course in Science and Technology,
New Delhi, Indira Gandhi National Open University, 1988.
4. Ramjee Singh, Gandhi and the Modern World, New Delhi, Classical
Publishing Company, 1988.