LEARNING AND HUMAN MEMORY

Learning is a key process in human behaviour.

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or behaviour potential
produced by experience is defined as learning.
Behavioural changes due to use of drug or fatigue, are temporary. They are not
considered learning.
Changes due to experience and practice, which are relatively permanent, are
illustrative of learning.
The behavioural change due to continuous exposure to stimuli is known as
habituation.
Orienting reflexes: These reflexes become weaker and weaker and eventually
become undetectable. This is one kind of behavioural change.
Features of learning:
 Learning always involves some kinds of experience.
 Behavioural changes that occur due to learning are relatively permanent.
 Learning involves a sequence of psychological events.
 Learning is an inferred process and is different from performance (a
person’s observed behaviour or responses or actions)
Paradigms of learning:
 The simplest kind of learning is called conditioning. Two types:
classical and operant/ instrumental conditioning.
 Skil learning How does classical conditioning demonstrate
 Verbal learning learning by association?
 Cognitive learning
 Observational learning
Classical conditioning: Investigated by Ivan.P.Pavlov.

S-S learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal for another

stimulus.
Determinants of classical conditioning:
 1. Time relations between stimuli: The time relation between the
unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus.

Forward conditioning: Backward

 Simultaneous conditioning: When CS and US are conditioning:
presented together. The US precedes
 Delayed conditioning: The onset of CS precedes the onset the onset of CS.
of US. The CS ends before the end of the US. The most Acquisition of
effective method of acquiring a CR. learning is very
 Trace conditioning: The onset and end of the CS precedes rare.
the onset of US with some time gap between two.
Trace and simultaneous conditioning require greater number of
acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning.

2. Types of unconditioned stimuli:

Appetitive Aversive
Ex: eating, drinking etc. Ex: noise, electric shocks etc.
Responses: satisfaction, pleasurable Responses: painful, harmful, elicit
and automatically elicits. avoidance and escape
Slower and require greater number of Established in one, two or three trials
acquisition trials depending on the intensity of the
aversive US.

3. Intensity of CS: More intense CS = fewer are the number of acquisition

trials needed for conditioning = More effective in accelerating the no of
acquisition of conditioned responses.
Operant conditioning: Investigate by B.F.Skinner.

Lever pressing: operant response

Getting food: consequence

The response is instrumental in

getting the food – Instrumental
conditioning.

Here is a summary of Skinner's experiment with rats and instrumental

conditioning:
Skinner's Experiment (Skinner Box)
  Setup: A hungry rat was placed in a Skinner Box, a specially designed
chamber with a lever connected to a food container.
 Process:
o The rat moved around the chamber, engaging in exploratory
behavior.
o Accidentally pressing the lever caused a food pellet to drop onto a
plate, which the rat ate.
o Over time, the rat learned to press the lever more quickly to receive
food.
 Conclusion: The rat's pressing of the lever was an operant response
(voluntary behavior), and the food it received acted as a reinforcer,
increasing the likelihood of the rat pressing the lever again.
 Learning Type: The type of learning is instrumental conditioning, as
the rat’s response (lever pressing) is instrumental in receiving the food.
Examples of Instrumental Conditioning in Everyday Life
 Children learning to get sweets: Children learn where their parents
hide sweets and how to access them.
 Politeness to get favors: Saying "please" to get a desired outcome (like
receiving a treat or a favor).
 Operating gadgets: Learning how to use devices like a radio, TV, or
camera based on cause and effect (pressing a button leads to a result).
Key Points
 Operant Response: A voluntary action (like pressing the lever).
 Reinforcer: The consequence (food) that encourages the repeated
behavior (lever pressing).
 Instrumental Conditioning: Learning where behavior is shaped by its
consequences.

Determinants of operant conditioning:

The operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which
behaviour is learned, maintained or changed through its consequences.
Such consequences are called reinforcers.
A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the
probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response.
A reinforcer has numerous features, which affect the course and
strength of a response.
They include its types – positive or negative, number or frequency,
quality – superior or inferior, and schedule – continuous or intermittent
(partial).

Types of reinforcement:

Positive reinforcers Negative reinforcers

Pleasant stimuli Unpleasant and painful stimuli
Include food, water, medals etc. Burn firewood or use electric heaters
to avoid the unpleasant cold weather.
They strengthen and maintain the It leads to learning of avoidance and
responses that have caused them to escape responses.
occur. Negative reinforcement is not
punishment. Use of punishment
reduces or suppresses the response
while a negative reinforcer increases
the probability of avoidance or escape
response.

Number of reinforcement: The number of trials on which an organism has

been reinforced or rewarded.
Amount of reinforcement: How much of reinforcing stimulus one receives on
each trial.
Quality of reinforcement refers to the kind of reinforcer.
Schedules of reinforcement: The arrangement of the delivery of
reinforcement during conditioning trials.
Reinforcement may be continuous or intermittent.
When a desired response is reinforced every time it occur we call it continuous
reinforcement.
In contrast, in intermittent schedules responses are sometimes reinforced,
sometimes not.
It is known as partial reinforcement and has been found to produce greater
resistance to extinction – than is found with continuous reinforcement.
Delayed Reinforcement: The effectiveness of reinforcement is dramatically
altered by delay in the occurrence of reinforcement.
It is found that delay in the delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level of
performance.

Key Learning Processes

1. Reinforcement
 Definition: Reinforcement is the process of administering a reinforcer that
increases the likelihood of a response occurring again.
 o Positive Reinforcement: Increases response rate by presenting a
pleasant stimulus.
o Negative Reinforcement: Increases response rate by removing
an unpleasant stimulus.
 Types of Reinforcers:
o Primary Reinforcers: Biologically significant, like food (essential
for survival).
o Secondary Reinforcers: Acquired value through experience, like
money, praise, and grades.
 Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response.

2. Extinction
 Definition: The gradual disappearance of a learned response when
reinforcement is no longer provided.
o Example: In classical conditioning, if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is
not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US), or in operant
conditioning, if pressing a lever no longer results in food, the
learned behavior weakens and fades.
 Resistance to Extinction:
o Learned responses resist extinction for a time, especially if they
were reinforced many times.
o Factors Affecting Resistance:

 More reinforcement during acquisition leads to higher

resistance to extinction.
 Delayed reinforcement during acquisition increases
resistance.
 Intermittent reinforcement (partial reinforcement) makes
extinction more difficult compared to continuous
reinforcement.

3. Generalisation and Discrimination

 Generalisation: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the original
conditioned stimulus (CS).
o Example: A dog conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell may
also salivate to a similar sound, like a ringing telephone.
o Example in operant learning: A child learns to find sweets in a jar
and may generalise this skill to finding sweets in another similar jar.
  Discrimination: Responding differently to stimuli that are distinctly
different from the conditioned stimulus.
o Example: A child may fear a person with a long moustache but not
fear a clean-shaven person dressed in different clothes.
o Discrimination occurs when the organism learns to respond only to
a specific stimulus and not to others that are similar.

4. Spontaneous Recovery
 Definition: The reappearance of a learned response after a period of
extinction, even without reinforcement.
o After a learned behavior fades, if time passes and the CS is
presented again, the response can spontaneously reappear.
o The likelihood of spontaneous recovery increases the longer the
period of time that has passed since the extinction.
Learned Helplessness
 Definition: A psychological condition where an individual learns to believe
that their actions have no effect on their environment, leading to passivity
and lack of effort in changing situations.
 Seligman and Maier’s Experiment with Dogs:
o Phase 1 (Classical Conditioning): Dogs were exposed to a sound
(CS) paired with an electric shock (US), and they had no way to
escape the shock.
o Phase 2 (Operant Conditioning): Dogs were placed in a new
environment where they could escape the shock by pressing their
heads against a wall.
o Outcome: Dogs that experienced inescapable shock in Phase 1 did
not attempt to escape in Phase 2, showing learned helplessness.
 Learned Helplessness in Humans:
o Experimental Evidence: Humans subjected to continuous failure
in one task showed low persistence and poor performance in
subsequent tasks.
o Outcome: Individuals who learned helplessness from failure
displayed little effort or motivation to succeed, leading to poor task
performance.
 Connection to Depression:
o Persistent Helplessness: Chronic failure and a sense of
uncontrollability can lead to depression, where individuals feel that
their efforts are ineffective, leading to passivity and low motivation.
 Implications:
 o Psychological Impact: Learned helplessness explains how
repeated exposure to uncontrollable situations can lead to a lack of
motivation and persistence, which is central to understanding
depression and certain types of psychological distress.

differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning:

Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Type of Reflexive and automatic (e.g., Voluntary and active (e.g.,

Response salivation, blinking) pressing a lever, speaking)

Control of Responses are elicited by Responses are controlled by the

Responses stimuli (passive organism) organism (active organism)

Stimulus Clear and well-defined (CS

CS is inferred, not directly defined
Definition and US)

Control of Experimenter controls the Organism controls the occurrence

Stimuli occurrence of the US of reinforcement

US elicits and reinforces Reinforcer increases the likelihood

Terminology
response of a behavior

Learning Passive learning based on Active learning based on

Process stimulus associations consequences (reinforcers)

Definition of Observational Learning

 Observational learning occurs by observing others' behavior.
 Earlier, this type of learning was called imitation.
 Social learning: People observe and emulate behavior in social contexts.
 Another term used is modeling.
Importance and Examples of Observational Learning
 Common in social life:
o Fashion designers influence people through televised shows,
magazines, and advertisements.
o Children imitate role models and people they admire.

 Real-life application:
o Observing superiors or role models helps individuals learn behavior
in novel situations.

Bandura’s Experiment: The 'Bobo Doll' Study

 Conducted by Albert Bandura.
  Key elements of the experiment:
o A film was shown to children in which a grown-up displayed
aggressive behavior towards a ‘Bobo doll’ (hitting, kicking, etc.).
o The study had three versions of the film:

1. Version 1: The aggressive adult was rewarded.

2. Version 2: The aggressive adult was punished.
3. Version 3: No consequences for aggressive behavior.
 Findings:
o Children who observed the adult being rewarded for aggression
were more likely to behave aggressively.
o Children who observed the adult being punished were less likely to
show aggression.
 Conclusion: Performance of learned behavior depends on whether the
model’s actions are rewarded or punished.
Influence of Observational Learning in Daily Life
 Children observe adults’ behavior at:
o Home and during social ceremonies.

o They enact these behaviors during their own games and activities
(e.g., playing weddings, house-keeping, etc.).
 Observational learning helps children develop personality traits like:
o Aggressiveness, social behavior, courtesy, politeness, and
diligence.

Key Points on Cognitive Learning

1. Definition: Cognitive learning focuses on internal mental processes
involved in learning, rather than just the connection between stimuli and
responses (as seen in classical and operant conditioning). It emphasizes
changes in what the learner knows.
2. Types of Cognitive Learning:
o Insight Learning

o Latent Learning

Insight Learning
 Kohler’s Experiment with Chimpanzees:
 o Kohler's research involved chimpanzees trying to solve complex
problems, such as using tools (boxes and poles) to obtain food out
of their reach.
o Key Observation: The chimpanzees did not learn by trial and error
but rather experienced sudden "flashes of insight" where the
solution to the problem became clear.
o Characteristics:

 Learning occurs suddenly after a period of contemplation (no

apparent progress at first).
 Once the solution is found, it can be immediately applied
again in similar situations.
 Insight learning involves understanding the cognitive
relationship between a means and an end, not just a
conditioned response.

Latent Learning
 Tolman’s Maze Experiment with Rats:
o Experiment Setup: Two groups of rats were placed in a maze. One
group was rewarded with food at the end of the maze, while the
other group was not.
o Key Finding: The rats that were not initially rewarded did not show
improvement in their maze performance until they were later given
a reward. When reinforced, they ran through the maze as efficiently
as the rewarded group.
o Cognitive Map: The rats had formed a mental representation
(cognitive map) of the maze during their initial explorations, but
they did not demonstrate their learning until reinforcement was
provided.
o Implication: Latent learning shows that behavior can be learned
but not expressed until there is an incentive or reinforcement.

Key Differences Between Insight and Latent Learning:

 Insight Learning: Involves sudden realization and understanding of a
solution to a problem without prior trial and error.
 Latent Learning: Involves acquiring knowledge or a skill that is not
immediately demonstrated until a reward or reinforcement is given.

Key Points on Verbal Learning

  Definition: Verbal learning involves acquiring knowledge through words.
It is unique to humans and focuses on how words and their meanings are
learned and associated.

Methods Used in Studying Verbal Learning:

1. Paired-Associates Learning:
o Used to learn foreign language words or word associations.

o Involves pairing stimulus words (e.g., nonsense syllables) with

response words (e.g., English nouns).
o Participants recall the response word after seeing the stimulus.

o Learning continues until all pairs are correctly recalled without

errors.
2. Serial Learning:
o Participants learn a list of items (e.g., words or nonsense syllables)
and recall them in the exact order.
o If a participant fails to recall an item, they are given the correct
answer and continue learning the next item.
o This process is repeated until all items are recalled correctly in
sequence.
3. Free Recall:
o Participants are shown a list of words and asked to recall them in
any order.
o Words can be interrelated or unrelated.

o Often used to study how participants organize words in memory

(e.g., recalling words from the beginning or end of the list is easier
than those in the middle).

Determinants of Verbal Learning:

1. Length of the List:
o Longer lists take more time to learn, increasing the strength of the
learning.
2. Meaningfulness of Material:
o More meaningful material is easier to learn (e.g., familiar words vs.
nonsense syllables).
o Factors such as the number of associations and the familiarity of
words affect how easily they are learned.
3. The Total Time Principle:
 o The amount of time spent learning directly affects how well
something is learned.
o A fixed amount of time is necessary to learn a fixed amount of
material, regardless of the number of trials.

Verbal Learning Organization:

 Category Clustering:
o In free recall, participants tend to recall words in categories (e.g.,
animals, professions) rather than in the order they were presented.
o Demonstrated by Bousfield’s experiment where participants
recalled words from the same category together.
 Subjective Organization:
o Each participant organizes and recalls words based on their
individual mental structures.
o This results in personal, subjective ways of organizing and recalling
verbal material.

Intentional and Incidental Learning:

 Intentional: Verbal learning is typically intentional (e.g., studying words
or phrases).
 Incidental: Learners may also absorb incidental features (e.g., rhyming,
first letters, or vowels) without actively focusing on them.

Key Points on Skill Learning

 Definition of Skill:
o A skill is the ability to perform complex tasks smoothly and
efficiently (e.g., driving, piloting, shorthand writing).
o Skills are learned through practice and exercise.

o A skill involves a chain of perceptual motor responses or a sequence

of stimulus-response (S-R) associations.

Phases of Skill Acquisition:

1. Cognitive Phase:
o The learner understands and memorizes the task instructions.

o Focus is on how the task should be performed.

 o External cues and response outcomes need to be consciously
attended to.
2. Associative Phase:
o Different sensory inputs are linked to appropriate responses.

o As practice continues, errors decrease, performance improves, and

time taken to perform decreases.
o The learner needs to remain attentive, but errors are reduced
significantly.
3. Autonomous Phase:
o The task becomes automatic, requiring minimal conscious effort.

o Attentional demands decrease, and performance becomes smooth

with minimal external interference.
o At this stage, performance becomes errorless and automatic with
less focus needed.

Key Concepts:
 Performance Plateau:
o A temporary stage in skill learning where performance improvement
seems to stagnate before the next phase begins.
 Practice and Improvement:
o Continuous practice is essential for progressing through these
phases.
o The more practice, the more automatic and errorless the skill
becomes.
o "Practice makes perfect" emphasizes the importance of practice in
skill development.

Key Points on Factors Facilitating Learning

1. Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement

 Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement is given after every target
response.
o Leads to a high rate of responding.

o Responses extinguish quickly once reinforcement is stopped.

o Reinforcer effectiveness reduces over time.

  Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Some responses are not
reinforced.
o Produces high rates of responding, especially with ratio schedules.

o More difficult to determine when reinforcement is discontinued.

o Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses acquired under partial

reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those from
continuous reinforcement.

2. Motivation
 Definition: Motivation is a physiological and mental state that drives an
organism to act toward fulfilling a need or goal.
o Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation comes from within, such as
enjoying the activity.
o Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation comes from external rewards,
like grades or recognition.
 Motivation is essential for learning, as it encourages persistence until a
goal is achieved.
o Example: A child searches for sweets (intrinsic) or studies to pass
exams (extrinsic).

3. Preparedness for Learning

 Biological Constraints: Different species have varying capacities for
learning based on their sensory and response mechanisms.
o Some associations are easier for certain species due to their genetic
predispositions.
o Preparedness Continuum:

 Easy Learning: Some associations are easily acquired by

certain species (e.g., apes and humans).
 Difficult Learning: Some species (e.g., cats, rats) may find
certain types of learning difficult or impossible.
 Moderate Difficulty: Some tasks can be learned but with
significant effort and persistence.

Key Points on Learning Disabilities

1. Definition and Nature of Learning Disabilities

  Learning disability: A general term for a group of disorders causing
difficulty in acquiring skills like reading, writing, speaking, reasoning, and
mathematics.
 Cause: Likely due to problems with the central nervous system, but can
occur without physical disabilities or intellectual impairments.
 Impact: Children may have average to superior intelligence but struggle
with learning, affecting self-esteem and daily life.

2. Symptoms of Learning Disabilities

1. Difficulty in Basic Skills:
o Problems with writing, reading, speaking, and listening.

o Trouble with learning strategies and planning.

2. Attention Disorders:
o Easily distracted and unable to sustain attention.

o Often exhibit hyperactivity and constant movement.

3. Spatial and Time Orientation Issues:

o Difficulty in adapting to new surroundings and misjudging directions
(e.g., left vs. right).
o Poor sense of time, often being too early or too late.

4. Poor Motor Coordination:

o Difficulty with tasks like balancing, holding objects, or riding a
bicycle.
o Struggles with fine motor tasks (e.g., sharpening a pencil).

5. Difficulty Following Directions:

o Struggles to understand or follow oral instructions.

6. Social Perception Issues:

o Difficulty in interpreting body language and identifying friendships
or indifference from peers.
7. Perceptual Disorders:
o Misperception of sensory inputs (e.g., failing to distinguish between
different sounds or visual cues).
8. Dyslexia:
o Difficulty distinguishing similar letters or words (e.g., b/d, p/q) and
organizing verbal material.
3. Remedies and Treatment
 Not incurable: Learning disabilities can be managed with appropriate
interventions.
 Remedial teaching: Educational psychologists have developed methods
to help children overcome their learning difficulties and reach their
potential.