Experiment name: Strain Gauge

Group 7
 Table Of Content

Abstract 2
1.0 Introduction 3
2.0 Experimental Design 9
2.1 Material and Apparatus 9
2.2 Variables 11
2.3 Methodology 11
2.4 Procedure 12
3.0 Result and Discussion 13
3.1 Results 13
3.2 Discussion 15
4.0 Error Analysis 17
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations 18
REFERENCE & APPENDIX 19

1
Abstract
Strain is happened when the applied force on a material exceeds its yield point and
leads to deformation. This experiment is to verify the accuracy of the HSM18 Electrical
Resistance Strain Gauge. This experiment was conducted in two parts where first experiment
is increasing the applied load with a increment of 2N from 0N to 10N, while the second part
is decreasing the applied load from 10N to 0N. The strain meter readings were recorded for
each increment and decrement of the loads. The change in the measuring resistance of the
apparatus was then calculated and used to compared with theoretical result. The percentage
error found out in this experiment is 24.63%. The error might be contributed by the vibration
caused by human during the experiment.

2
1.0 Introduction
Background

In engineering design. The balance between safety and economics is one variable in
the equation of creating a successful product. For instance, every year a new car, airplane of
other vehicle is introduced, and the structure of them is designed to be lighter in order to
attain faster running speeds and less fuel consumption. By doing this, the light-weight
material is a prerequisite. However, if a structural material is made thinner and lighter, the
safety of the vehicle is compromised unless the minimum strength has maintained. Om the
other side, if only the strength is taken in consideration, then the vehicle’s weight will
increase, and its economic feasibility is compromised. [1] With this in mind, it is crucial to
understand the stress borne by the various parts under different condition when attempting to
design a vehicle or component that provides the appropriate strength. However, with the test
tool and technology nowadays, a direct measurement of stress seems still unable to be
achieved. Thus, one of the alternative solutions is to measure the strain on the surface in order
to determine the internal stress. Strain gauge is the most common instrument used to measure
the surface strain.

In this experiment, HSM18 electrical resistance strain gauge is utilized, and the
objective of the experiment is to investigate the performance of its and to verity its accuracy
by comparing the actual result with theoretical results.

Figure 1. HSM18 electrical resistance strain gauge. [2]

3
Theory

Strain gauge:

There are various types of strain gauges. The most common one is a strain gauge
consists of a grid-shaped sensing element of thin resistive foil (3 to 6 microns thick), thin film
laminate and a base of thin plastic film (12-16micron thick), as shown as Figure 2.

Figure 2. Strain gauge construction. [1]

Strain gauge operation:

To measure the strain on a surface, strain gauge is mounted to the test specimen.
When the force is applied to the test specimen (in this case aluminium alloy cantilever), the
beam will undergo deformation so that the sensing element may elongate or contract. During
these elongation and construction, the dimension of metal wire changes and indirectly
causing the electrical resistance of its changes as well. Depending the strain on the plate, the
resistance changes at a fix rate:

∆𝑅
= 𝐾𝑠. 𝜀 … 1
𝑅

Where,

𝑅 = The initial resistance of the strain gauge, Ω

∆𝑅 = The change of the resistance, Ω

𝐾𝑠 = Gauge Factor

𝜀 = Strain

The gauge factor of the strain gauge used in this experiment is 2.12, while the nominal
resistance of the gauge is 120 Ω.

4
Since it is not possible to use an ohmmeter to measure a small resistance. Thus, a
Wheatstone bridge electric circuit is brought in to measure the instantaneous change in
resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge and its operation

A Wheatstone bridge is first invented by Samuel H. Christie in 1833, and further

improved and popularized by Wheatstone later. [3] It is a device used to measure a
small and unknown electrical resistance by balancing the legs of circuit.

In a typical Wheatstone configuration, there are 4 resistors included in the

circuit which are R1, R2, R3 and Rx. R1 and R3 is the resistor that have fixed resistance,
R2 is the adjustable resistor while R3 is the resistance that needed to be measured. The
voltage between two midpoints will be zero when the ratio of the resistance in the
known leg (R2/R1) is equal to the ratio of the two resistances in the unknown leg
(Rx/R3).

Figure 3. Typical Wheatstone Bridge diagram. [1]

5
With the theory mentioned above, the instantaneous change in the instant resistance
can then be determined.

Figure 4. Wheatstone Bridge. [1]

When applying voltage to input, the output of the system would shown zero to indicate
that the bridge is in balance. When the stain gauge is loaded, the value of resistance will
change. Hence the output will be different than zero and it can be determined by
equation below:

1 ∆𝑅1
𝑒= . .𝐸…2
4 𝑅1

1
𝑒 = . 𝐾𝑠. 𝜀. 𝐸 … 3
4

Figure 5. Quarter Wheatstone Bridge.

6
Cantilever beam

The schematical diagram of cantilever beam is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Beam with strain gauge. [1]

A beam under bending can be characterized by equation below:

1 𝑀
= …4
𝜌 𝐸𝐼

The radius of curvature is given by equation:

1 𝑑 2 𝑦/𝑑𝑥 2
= …5
𝜌 (1 + (𝑑𝑦)2 )3/2
𝑑𝑥

Where y is the deflection in the y direction at any given point X along the beam. In most
of the cases (including the case in the experiment), the deflection is very small (y’ <<
1). Therefore, the denominator can be neglected in most cases.

1 𝑑2𝑦
≈ …6
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2

Then, combining equation 4 and 6 yields:

𝑀 𝑑2𝑦
= …7
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2

The equation 7 is further reduced to a convenient form for stress in the cantilever beam.

𝑀𝑐
𝜎= …8
𝐼

7
Where,
𝑀 = bending moment, N.m
𝑐 = vertical distance between surface of the beam and the centroid, m
𝐼 = Moment of inertia, m4

The formulas for bending moment, vertical distance and moment of inertia are placed in
Appendix.

8
2.0 Experimental Design
2.1 Materials and Apparatus

Figure 2.1.1 Experimental setup of the strain gauge

9
Figure 2.2.2 Features of the strain gauge

Figure 3 Stack of 2kg weights used

10
2.2 Experimental variables
Manipulated variables: Load applied to the load hanger
Responding variables: Length of the cantilever
Constant variable: The length of the vatiable

2.3 Methodology
The strain gauge used in this experiment measures the strain by using a Wheastone bridge, also
known as quarter bridge circuit which is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown
electrical resistance needed to balance out the circuit when there is an external load applied to
the cantilever beam which causes it to extend which causes an imbalance in the electrical
circuit. The quarter bridge refers to the fact that only one of the four resistors is variable (Rx)
and the other three resistors are fixed [4]. The circuit then determines the value of the variable
resistor so that the circuit is balanced and no current passes between point B and C as shown
in Figure 2.3.1[4]. The sensitivity of this circuit is high and therefore as the device is switched
on it must be allowed to reach a balanced condition before conduction the experiment. The
reset control knob as seen in Figure 2.2.2 is also utilized to minimize the zero error that occurs
if the gauge does not start from zero.

Figure 2.3.1 Wheatstone quarter bridge circuit

11
2.4 Procedure
1. The experiment was set up accordingly as shown in Figure 2.1.1
2. The power source of the strain gauge device is switched on and allowed to achieve
stability for 2 minutes.
3. The weight hanger is hooked onto the loading point at the end of the cantilever.
4. The reading on the strain gauge scale is reset to zero using the reset control knob.
5. A 2 N load is placed carefully on the weight hanger.
6. The reading from the strain gauge scale is recorded.
7. A 2 N increment is then continued to be added and step 6 repeated until the total load
applied is 10 N.
8. A 2 N weight is then removed from the hanger.
9. The reading shown on the strain gauge is then recorded.
10. Step 8 and 9 are repeated until there are no more weights on the hanger.

12
3.0 Result and Discussion
3.1 Result

3.1.1 Tabulated Data

• Gauge factor : 2.12
• Strain gauge resistance : 120 Ω
• Beam length : 150 𝑚𝑚
• Beam height : 3.2 𝑚𝑚
• Beam centroid height : 3.2/2 = 1.6 𝑚𝑚
• Beam width : 25.4 mm
• Beam moment of inertia :
1 1
𝐼=( ) 𝑏ℎ3 = ( ) (25.4)(3.22 ) = 69.36 𝑚𝑚4
12 12

• Beam elastic modulus : 69 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Table 3.1.1: Data comparison of experimental and theoretical result

Load 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 Δ𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑀𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 ΔR 𝑡ℎ𝑒
Orientation
(𝑁) (× 10−6 ) (Ω) (𝑁 𝑚𝑚) (𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ) (× 10−6 ) (Ω)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 125 0.032 300 6.92 100.30 0.026
Increasing 4 250 0.064 600 13.84 200.59 0.051
load 6 375 0.095 900 20.76 300.89 0.077
8 500 0.127 1200 27.68 401.18 0.102
10 625 0.159 1500 34.60 501.48 0.128
10 625 0.159 1500 34.60 501.48 0.128
8 500 0.127 1200 27.68 401.18 0.102
Decreasing 6 375 0.095 900 20.76 300.89 0.077
load 4 250 0.064 600 13.84 200.59 0.051
2 125 0.032 300 6.92 100.30 0.026
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

13
3.1.2 Sample Calculation
These calculations are done for 2 N load, measured when the load is being increased.

Change in resistance:
Δ𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (𝐺𝐹)(𝑅)(𝜀)
Δ𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (2.12)(120)(125 × 10−6 )
Δ𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.0318 Ω

Moment:
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑
𝑀 = (2)(150)
𝑀 = 300 𝑁 𝑚𝑚

Maximum beam stress:

𝑀𝐶
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡ℎ𝑒 =
𝐼
(300)(1.6)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡ℎ𝑒 =
69.36
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡ℎ𝑒 = 6.92 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Theoretical strain:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 =
𝐸
6.92
𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 =
69000
𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 = 100.3 𝜇𝜀

Percentage error:
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
100.29 − 125
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
100.29
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 24.64 %

14
3.2 Discussion

700

600

500
Strain (×10-6)

400

Experimental
300
Theoretical

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load (N)

Figure 3.2.1: Experimental and theoretical strain against load

0.18

0.16

0.14
Change in resistance (Ω)

0.12

0.1

0.08 Experimental
Theoretical
0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load (N)

Figure 3.2.2: Resistance change against load

15
According to Figure 3.2.1, the strain experienced by the strain gauge increases with load. This is
due to the stress-strain relationship, where strain is directly proportional with the stress. Stress is
defined to be the force exerted on an area, and if the area is constant then the strain of an object is
directly proportional to the force exerted upon it. This is proven in the graph above.

According to Figure 3.2.2, the strain change in resistance in the strain gauge increases with load.
This is a result of increasing strain with the load. According to Equation 1, the change in the
resistance of the strain gauge is directly proportional to its strain. As discussed earlier, the strain
is directly proportional to the force exerted to the surface. Therefore, the change in resistance is
directly proportional to the force exerted on the surface.

The experiment is conducted by first increasing the load on the strain gauge, then decreasing it.
However, there are only two graphs each plotted in both Figures 3.2.1 and 3.2.2. This is because
the strain and change in resistance, both theoretical and experimental, are the same when increasing
the load and decreasing the load. Therefore, the graphs that would be plotted for decreasing loads
would be superimposed on the graphs for increasing load, producing only two graphs in the two
figures. Moreover, this demonstrates the reliability of the strain gauge as the strain is constant for
a fixed load, even after the strain gauge experienced a larger load before unloading it.

16
4.0 Error Analysis
Table 4.1 Tabulated Error analysis comparison
Percentage error (%)
Load
𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 against 𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 against 𝜀𝑡ℎ𝑒 Increasing load against
(N)
(Increasing load) (Decreasing load) decreasing load of 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
0 - - -
2 24.63 24.63 0
4 24.63 24.63 0
6 24.63 24.63 0
8 24.63 24.63 0
10 24.63 24.63 0

According to Table 4.1, the percentage errors are all constant, which is 24.63%. As discussed
earlier, as the results obtained when loading and unloading the strain gauge is the same, there is
zero percentage error between both results.

The error may be due to parallax error. Since the reading of the strain meter is in between two
markings of the meter, the result recorded is considered an estimate of the reading. This may
cause discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental result.

Moreover, the theoretical strain may not have taken into account the strain experienced by the
load hanger on the strain gauge. The theoretical strain may have considered that the load hanger
has negligible mass and hence negligible strain, when in reality the load hanger may have
sufficient mass to cause strain on the strain gauge. This may have caused the experimental strain
to be higher than the theoretical strain.

17
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion the experiment designed has been effective in utilizing the apparatus to measure the
strain in the cantilever beam by using the electrical resistance circuit. The wheatstone bridge circuit
was successful in providing results that were consistent although inaccurate which proves that
there might be errors that are purely systematic. This can be due to faulty equipment or because
the equipment has not been calibrated properly. However, it was determined that the Wheatstone
bridge circuit is functioning properly as it showed results progressing in a similar trend as the
theoretical results that was calculated as load was added to the device. Another conclusion that can
be made is that as the load applied on the system increases the strain in the cantilever beam
increases also. This means that the strain in the cantilever beam is directly proportional to the load
applied as it the graph produced is linear. As for the accuracy of the electrical resistance circuit to
calculate strain, it is not very accurate. On way to increase the accuracy of the results is to obtain
multiple readings and determine the average so as to minimize random errors. Another way to
reduce the effect of systematic errors is to use an electrical scale to provide a more accurate reading
instead of a mechanical scale that prevents the reader from obtaining the accurate reading of the
minor scale.

18
References and Appendix

[1] Strain measurement measurement experiment - ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt ... (n.d.). Retrieved
October 25, 2022, from
https://aybu.edu.tr/bolumroot/contents/muhendislik_makina/files/MCE%20403-
Strain%20measurement%20experiment.pdf

[2] Redirecting. (n.d.). Retrieved October 25, 2022, from https://answers.microsoft.com/en-

us/windows/forum/all/error-cusersusernamedownloads-is-not-accessible/92404b9b-a9a1-
4a4a-ac75-3a52647ee976

[3] Wheatstone Bridge – 1843. MagLab. (n.d.). Retrieved October 25, 2022, from
https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-
magnetism/museum/wheatstone-bridge-1843

[4] Hollings, G. (n.d.). Strain gauges: How they work, applications, and types. enDAQ Blog for
Data Sensing and Analyzing. Retrieved October 24, 2022, from
https://blog.endaq.com/strain-gauges-how-they-work-applications-and-types

Appendix
Bending moment
𝑀 =𝐹×𝑑

Vertical distance between surface of the beam and the centroid

ℎ
𝑐=
2
Moment of inertia
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼=
12

Theoretical strain
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜀=
𝐸

19