CE-205 SURVEYING – I

DR. KHAN SHAHZADA

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering UET Peshawar
 Topics:
• Introduction to Contouring
• Method and application of Contouring
 Introduction To Contouring

Contour:
An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is
known as contour.
In other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a level
surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. For example, the line of
intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with the surrounding ground
represents a contour line.
This line on the map represents a contour and is called contour line.
 Introduction To Contouring

Contour Map:
• A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map.
•A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their
relative positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan and a section.
Contouring:
The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called Contouring.
 Introduction To Contouring
Contouring:
 Introduction To Contouring

Purpose of Contouring:
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a
road, a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.
a) For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable
site.
b) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge (elevation) line.
c) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork
both in cutting and filling should be minimum.
d) It facilitates representation of the terrain (land) in a two dimensional plan or
map.
 Introduction To Contouring

Contour Interval:
• The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval.
• The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed.
 Introduction To Contouring

Horizontal Equivalent:
• The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as
horizontal equivalent.
• The horizontal equivalent in a slope of 1 in 5 (fig b)would be 50 m. Thus,
horizontal equivalent depends upon the slope of the ground and required
grade for construction of a road, canal and contour interval.
• The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the
horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
 Introduction To Contouring
Factors on which contour -interval depends:
The contour interval depends upon the following factors:
i. The Nature of the Ground
ii. The Purpose and extent of the survey
iii. The Scale of the Map
iv. Time and Expense of Field and Office work
 Introduction To Contouring
i. The Nature of the Ground:
In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour interval is small , but in broken and
mountainous region the contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will
come too close to each other.
ii. The Purpose and extent of the survey:
Contour interval is small if the area to be surveyed is small and the maps are required
to be used for the design work or for determining the quantities of earth work etc.
While wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and comparatively less
important works.
 Introduction To Contouring

iii. The Scale of the Map:

The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the map i.e. the
smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.
iv. Time and Expense of Field and Office work:
The smaller the interval, the greater is the amount of field-work and plotting work.
 Introduction To Contouring
Common values of the contour –interval
The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for various
purposes:
• For large scale maps of flat country, 0.2 to 0.5 m
For building sites, for detailed design work and
for calculation of quantities of earth work;
• For reservoirs and town planning schemes; 0.5 to 2m.
• For location surveys. 2 to 3m
• For small scale maps of broken 3m,5m,10m,or 25m
country and general topographic work;
 Introduction To Contouring
Characteristics of Contours:
1) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
2) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and steep slope
where they run close together.
3) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
4) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
5) A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill , if the higher values
are inside.
 Introduction To Contouring
Characteristics of Contours:
 Introduction To Contouring
6) A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the higher
values are outside.
 Introduction To Contouring
7) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. If the higher values are inside
the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge.
 Introduction To Contouring
8) Contour line cross ridge (‫ )ناہموار چوٹی‬or valley line at right angles. If the higher
values are outside the bend, it represents a Valley.

9) Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within or outside the
limits of the map.
 Introduction To Contouring
10) Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the case of an
overhanging rock face (cliff).
 Introduction To Contouring
11) Contour lines never run into one another except in the case of a vertical cliff. In
this case ,several contours overlap and the horizontal equivalent becomes zero.
 Introduction To Contouring
12) Depressions between peaks is called a saddle. It is represented by four sets of contours
as shown.
• It represents a depression in a ridge or the junction of two ridges. And in the case of a
mountain range ,it takes the form of a pass .
•Line passing through the saddles and peaks gives water shed line.
 Methods of Contouring
Methods of contouring:
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:

1) Direct Method
2) Indirect Method
 Methods of Contouring
1) Direct Method:
• In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by
locating and marking a number of points on each contour. These points are then
surveyed and plotted on plan and the contours drawn through them.
 Methods of Contouring
1) Direct Method:
• This method is most accurate but very slow and tedious as a lot of time is wasted in
searching points of the same elevation for a contour.
•This is suitable for small area and where great accuracy is required
Procedure:
• To start with, a temporary B.M is established near the area to be surveyed with
reference to a permanent B.M by fly leveling.
• The level is then set up in such a position so that the maximum number of points can
be commanded from the instrument station.
• The height of instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the B.M. and
adding it to the R.L. of the bench mark.
• The staff reading required to fix points on the various contours is determined by
subtracting the R.L. of each of the contours from the height of instrument.
 Methods of Contouring
Direct Method: Procedure: Contd. ..
• If the height of instrument is 82.48m., then the staff readings required to locate 82, 81
and 80m contours are 0.48, 1.48 and 2.48m respectively.
• The staff is held on an approximate position of point and then moved up and down the
slope until the desired reading is obtained. The point is marked with a peg.
• Similarly various other points are marked on each contour. The line joining all these
points give the required contour.
• It may be noted that one contour is located at a time.
• Having fixed the contours within the range of the instrument, the level is shifted and set
up in a new position.
 Methods of Contouring

Direct Method By Radial Lines:

• This method is suitable for small areas, where a single point in the center can
command the whole area.
• Radial lines are laid out from the common center by theodolite or compass and their
positions are fixed up by horizontal angles and bearings.
• Temporary bench marks are first established at the center and near the ends of the
radial lines .
• The contour points are then located and marked on these lines and their positions
are determined by measuring their distances along the radial lines.
• They are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by joining all the
corresponding points with the help of a plane table instrument
 Methods of Contouring
Direct Method By Radial Lines:
 Methods of Contouring
2) Indirect Method:
• In this method the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the contour
lines but the spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area .
• The spot levels of the several representative points representing hills, depressions,
ridge and valley lines and the changes in the slope all over the area to be contoured
are also observed.
• Their positions are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by
interpolation.
• This method of contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels.
• This method is commonly employed in all kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker
and less tedious as compared to direct method.
 Methods of Contouring
2. Indirect Method:
1) By Squares.
• In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the side of which
may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground and the contour
interval. The square need not be of the same size throughout.
• The corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points are
determined with a level.
 Methods of Contouring

2. Indirect Method:
1) By Squares.
• Levels are taken at all the corners of the square and the intersection of the diagonal.
• Levels taken on the intersection of diagonals is used for verification of the
interpolation.
• Contour map is plotted in the office by interpolating points of equal elevation based
on the levels taken on the corners of the square.
 Methods of Contouring
2. Indirect Method:
2) By Tacheometric method:
• A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires,
one above and other below the central wire.
• The horizontal distance between the instrument and staff station may be determined
by multiplying the difference of the staff readings of the upper and lower stadia wires
with the stadia constant of the instrument, which is usually 100.
• Thus the techeometer is used for both the vertical as well as horizontal measurements.
 Methods of Contouring

2. Indirect Method:
2) By Tacheometric method: (contd . ..)
• This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations which can be
commanded by a techeometer is far more than those by a level and thus the number
of instrument settings are considerably reduced.
• A number of radial lines are laid out at a known angular interval and representative
points are marked by pegs along these radial lines.
• Their elevations and distances are then calculated and plotted on the plan and the
contour lines are then interpolated
 Interpolation of Contours
Interpolation of contours
The process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground –
points is termed as interpolation of contours .
• This becomes necessary in the case of indirect contouring as only the spot levels are
taken in this method.
• While interpolation of contours the ground between any two points is assumed to be
uniformly sloping.
 Interpolation of Contours
There are three main methods of interpolation:

1) By Estimation
2) By Arithmetical calculation
3) By Graphical method
 Interpolation of Contours

1) By Estimation:
The position of the contour points on ground - points are estimated roughly and the
contours are then drawn through these points. This is a rough method and is suitable
for small scale maps.
 Interpolation of Contours
2) By Arithmetical calculation:
• This is very tedious but accurate method and is used for small areas where accurate
results are necessary. The contours are interpolated as under:
• Suppose A and B are two points at a distance of 30 m and the reduced level of A and
B are 25.45m and 27.54m respectively.
• Taking the contour interval as 1m, 26 and 27 m contours may be interpolated in
between A and B.
• The difference of level between A and B is 2.09m.
• The difference of level between A and 26m,and A and 27m is 0.55m and 1.55 m
respectively.
• Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m and
Between A and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m.
• These distances are then plotted to scale on the map.
 Interpolation of Contours
3) By Graphical method:
Graphical method of interpolation is simpler as compared to arithmetical method and
also the results obtained are accurate.
• As shown in the fig. suppose the contour interval is 5m, then on a piece of tracing
cloth, a number of parallel lines spaced at 0.5 m (usually 1/10th of the contour
interval) are drawn. Every tenth line being made thick.
• Suppose it is required to interpolate contours between two points A and B of elevation
51.5m and 62.5m respectively.
 Interpolation of Contours

3) By Graphical method: (Contd. ..)

• If the bottom line represents an elevation of 50m. Then the successive thick lines will
represent 55m, 60m and 65m, etc.
• Place the tracing cloth so that the point A is on the third line from the bottom, now
move the tracing cloth until B is on the fifth line above the 60m thick line.
• The intersection of the thick lines 1 and 2 representing elevations of 55m and 60 m
and the line AB give the position of the points on the 55m and 60m contours
respectively and are pricked (make a hole) through on the plan with a pin.
 Drawing of Contour Lines
Drawing The Contour Lines:
• Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free hand curved lines.
• Sometimes they are represented by broken lines .
• They are inked in either in black or brown color.
• A drawing pen gives a better line than a writing pen and French curves should be
used as much as possible.
• Every fifth contour is made thicker than the rest.
• The elevation of contours must be written in a uniform manner, either on the higher
side or in a gap left in the line .
• When the contour lines are very long, their elevations are written at two or three
places along the contour .In the case of small scale maps, it is sufficient to figure
every fifth contour.
 Uses of Contour Map
Uses of contour map:
a) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the ground ,
whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
b) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any direction
c) Inter-visibility between two ground points plotted on map can be ascertained
d) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or suitable site
for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
e) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
f) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the contour
map.
g) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.