Wireless Communication

Instructor : Dr. Dil Nashin Anwar

UNIT- II : WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (WLAN) Introduction ; IEEE WLAN

standards -802.11 a/b/g/n/ac/ax, WLAN components – wireless NIC, Access
points; WLAN Modes – Ad Hoc Mode, Infrastructure Mode, ESS,
Physical Layer, IEEE 802.11 Infrared WLAN, , IEEE – 802.11, 802.11b standards,
DSSS PHY frame format; Medium Access Control Mechanism – DCF, PCF,
association and re-association, power management, MAC frame-formats.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Definition: A WLAN allows devices to connect wirelessly within a limited
area, such as a home, office, or campus.
• Key Technologies: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
• HiperLAN
• Characteristics: Coverage: Typically covers a few hundred meters.
• High Speed: Offers high data transfer rates, suitable for multimedia
applications.
• Infrastructure Required: Generally requires access points for connectivity.
• Applications: Internet access in homes and businesses
• Mobile device connectivity in public spaces
• WLAN Diagram
IEEE Wireless Standards
The Wi-Fi Alliance created a naming system to aid the general public in differentiating between
different versions of IEEE 802.11.

• IEEE 802.11: This is the original standard created in 1997 but currently defunct. The version
supports a maximum connection speed of 1Mbps. Unfortunately, devices using this version are no
longer produced and don’t work on today’s equipment.

• IEEE 802.11a: This second version was developed in 1999 and works on a 5GHz Wi-Fi band. The
version was released hoping that it will encounter less interference, especially since most devices
then used the 2.4GHz band. Nonetheless, IEEE 802.11a is faster, with maximum data rates of
1.5Mbps to 54Mbps.

• IEEE 802.11b: This version was also developed in 1999 but used the typical unregulated radio
signalling frequency of the 2.4GHz band. It comes with a maximum speed of 11Mbps, and it is the
version that increased Wi-Fi’s popularity. Most vendors preferred using these frequencies due to
low production costs. Unfortunately, its unregulated nature means that IEEE 802.11b can face
interference from cordless phones, ovens, and all other devices using the 2.4GHz range.
IEEE Wireless Standards
• IEEE 802.11g: This 2003 sequel improved the maximum data rates of 54Mbps
while maintaining the reliable 2.4GHz band usage, which explains its widespread
adoption. Also called Wi-Fi 3, this standard combines the good features of IEEE
802.11b and IEEE 802.11a. As such, it is compatible with backward technologies,
meaning that 802.11b APs can work with IEEE 802.11g adapters.

• IEEE 802.11n: The IEEE 802.11n, otherwise called Wireless N or Wi-Fi 4, was
developed to improve the bandwidth rates provided by IEEE 802.11g. This
standard uses several antennas and wireless signals, popularly known as MIMO
technology, contrary to the one used by IEEE 802.11g. 802.11n was ratified by
industry standards in 2009, enabling it to provide maximum network bandwidths
of 600Mbps. It also offers a better Wi-Fi range compared to previous standards
since it has a higher signal intensity. The only drawback of this standard is that it
is more expensive than IEEE 802.11g.
IEEE Wireless Standards
• IEEE 802.11ac: Also called Wi-Fi 5, this Wi-Fi standard was created in 2014 and
primarily supports the 5GHz frequency band. It offers increased bandwidth, with
potential speeds exceeding 1Gbps using multiple spatial streams and advanced
modulation techniques. While the standard operates on 5GHz for high speeds, it
also supports 2.4GHz frequencies to maintain compatibility with older devices. It
is backward compatible with previous Wi-Fi standards such as 802.11a/b/g/n. This
was the initial Wi-Fi standard that facilitated the utilization of multiple
input/multiple output (MIMO) technology, allowing the use of multiple antennas
on both transmitting and receiving devices to minimize errors and enhance speed.
• IEEE 802.11ax: The IEEE 802.11ax, also known as Wi-Fi 6, is the recent and
game-changing Wi-Fi standard that is up to 10 times faster than 802.11ac. It
features a maximum data rate of 1.3Gbs and operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz
frequencies.
IEEE Wireless Standards
IEEE Wireless Standards
While both 802.11ac and 802.11ax provide robust performance for modern
wireless networks, they differ significantly in their design goals and practical
applications. 802.11ac is popular for its high throughput and low latency,
especially when dealing with high-definition video streaming and online
gaming. It relies heavily on the 5GHz band for compatibility with older
devices. In contrast, 802.11ax not only more than doubles the speed of
802.11ac, but also introduces advanced technologies such as OFDMA and
MU-MIMO, which significantly increase the efficiency and capacity of the
network. 802.11ax not only supports the 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequency bands
but also has the ability to expand into the future 6GHz frequency band,
making it the ideal solution for future IoT devices and high-density network
environments.
802.11 ac vs 802.11 ax
Practical Applications of 802.11
Standards
1. Home Networking
• Wi-Fi Routers and Access Points: Routers use 802.11 standards (such as 802.11n, 802.11ac, 802.11ax) to provide
wireless internet access within homes.
• Smart Home Devices: Many smart home devices (like smart thermostats, bulbs, and security systems) rely on Wi-
Fi for communication.
2. Enterprise Networking
• Office WLANs: Businesses use enterprise-grade access points and routers to provide robust and scalable wireless
networking.
• VoIP and Video Conferencing: 802.11 networks support real-time communication applications like VoIP and
video conferencing.

3. Industrial Applications
• IoT Devices: 802.11 standards support Internet of Things (IoT) devices used in industrial automation and control
systems.
• Factory Automation: Wireless networks connect sensors, machines, and control systems in smart factories.
• Key 802.11 standards and their applications:
802.11
• 802.11b/g/n (2.4 GHz Band): Suitable for general home and small
business use due to decent range and good compatibility with older
devices.
• 802.11a/ac (5 GHz Band): Ideal for higher bandwidth applications
like HD streaming and gaming, though with a shorter range compared
to the 2.4 GHz band.
• 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Offers better performance, efficiency, and
capacity, well-suited for dense environments like stadiums, airports,
and large enterprise deployments.
The IEEE 802 family and its relation to the OSI model
The IEEE 802 family and its relation to
the OSI model
IEEE 802 specifications are focused on the two lowest layers of the OSI model because they incorporate both
physical and data link components. All 802 networks have both a MAC and a
Physical (PHY) component. The MAC is a set of rules to determine how to access the medium and send data,
but the details of transmission and reception are left to the PHY.
• The base 802.11 specification includes the 802.11 MAC and two physical layers: a frequency-hopping spread-
spectrum
• (FHSS) physical layer and a direct-sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) link layer. Later revisions to
• 802.11 added additional physical layers. 802.11b specifies a high-rate direct-sequence layer
• (HR/DSSS); products based on 802.11b hit the marketplace in 1999 and make up the bulk of the installed
base. 802.11a describes a physical layer based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
802.11 splits the PHY into two generic
components
• 802.11 splits the PHY into two generic components: the Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP), to
map the MAC frames onto the medium, and a Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) system to transmit those
frames. The PLCP straddles the boundary of the MAC and physical layers.
Components of 802.11 LANs

Distribution system
When several access points are connected to form a large coverage area, they must
communicate with each other to track the movements of mobile stations. The distribution
system is the logical component of 802.11 used to forward frames to their destination. 802.11
does not specify any particular technology for the distribution system. In most commercial
products, the distribution system is implemented as a combination of a bridging engine and a
distribution system medium, which is the backbone network used to relay frames between
access points; it is often called simply the backbone network. In nearly all commercially
successful products, Ethernet is used as the backbone network technology.
Components of 802.11 LANs
Access points
• Frames on an 802.11 network must be converted to another type of frame for delivery to the rest of the world.
Devices called access points perform the wireless-to-wired bridging function. (Access points perform a
number of other functions, but bridging is by far the most important.)
Wireless medium
• To move frames from station to station, the standard uses a wireless medium. Several different physical layers
are defined; the architecture allows multiple physical layers to be developed to support the 802.11 MAC.
Initially, two radio frequency (RF) physical layers and one infrared physical layer were standardized, though
the RF layers have proven far more popular.
Stations
• Networks are built to transfer data between stations. Stations are computing devices with wireless network
interfaces. Typically, stations are battery-operated laptop or handheld computers. In some environments,
wireless networking is used to avoid pulling new cable, and desktops are connected by wireless LANs.
Components of 802.11 LANs

A wireless network interface controller (WNIC) is a network

interface controller which connects to a wireless network, such
as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 5G rather than a wired network, such as
an Ethernet network. A WNIC, just like other NICs, works on the
layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model and uses an antenna to
communicate via radio waves.
Types of WLAN Networks
Independent networks
Independent networks
• On the left is an independent basic service set BSS (IBSS). Stations in an IBSS communicate directly with
each other and thus must be within direct communication range. The smallest possible 802.11 network is an
IBSS with two stations. Typically, IBSSs are composed of a small number of stations set up for a specific
purpose and for a short period of time.

• One common use is to create a short-lived network to support a single meeting in a conference room. As the
meeting begins, the participants create an IBSS to share data. When the meeting ends, the IBSS is dissolved.
Due to their short duration, small size, and focused purpose, IBSSs are sometimes referred to as ad hoc BSSs
or ad hoc networks.

Why Hotspot?
Infrastructure networks
Infrastructure BSS (never called an IBSS). Infrastructure networks are distinguished by the use of an access
point.
• Access points are used for all communications in infrastructure networks, including communication between
mobile nodes in the same service area. If one mobile station in an infrastructure BSS needs to communicate
with a second mobile station, the communication must take two hops. First, the originating mobile station
transfers the frame to the access point. Second, the access point transfers the frame to the destination station.
With all communications relayed through an access point, the basic service area corresponding to an
infrastructure BSS is defined by the points in which transmissions from the access point can be received.

• Although the multihop transmission takes more transmission capacity

than a directed frame from the sender to the receiver
It has two major advantages:
• An infrastructure BSS is defined by the distance from the access point. All
mobile stations are required to be within reach of the access point, but no
restriction is placed on the distance between mobile stations themselves.
Allowing direct communication between mobile stations would save
transmission capacity but at the cost of increased physical layer complexity
because mobile stations would need to maintain neighbor relationships with
all other mobile stations within the service area.

• Access points in infrastructure networks are in a position to assist with

stations attempting to save power. Access points can note when a station
enters a power-saving mode and buffer frames for it. Battery-operated
stations can turn the wireless transceiver off and power it up only to
transmit and retrieve buffered frames from the access point.
Extended service set

BSSs can create coverage in small offices and homes, but they
cannot provide network coverage to larger areas. 802.11 allows
wireless networks of arbitrarily large size to be created by
linking BSSs into an extended service set (ESS). An ESS is
created by chaining BSSs together with a backbone network.
802.11 does not specify a particular backbone technology; it
requires only that the backbone provide a specified set of
services. In Figure, the ESS is the union of the four BSSs
(provided that all the access points are configured to be part of
the same ESS). In real-world deployments, the degree
of overlap between the BSSs would probably be much greater
than the overlap.
Extended service set
• Stations within the same ESS may communicate with each other, even though these stations may be in
different basic service areas and may even be moving between basic service areas. For stations in an ESS to
communicate with each other, the wireless medium must act like a single layer 2 connection. Access points
act as bridges, so direct communication between stations in an ESS requires that the backbone network also
be a layer 2 connection. Any link-layer connection will suffice. Several access points in a single area may be
connected to a single hub or switch, or they can use virtual LANs if the link-layer connection must span a
large area.
Physical-Layer Architecture
The physical layer is divided into two sublayers: the Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP)
sublayer and the Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer. The PLCP is the glue
between the frames of the MAC and the radio transmissions in the air. It adds its own header.
Normally, frames include a preamble to help synchronize incoming transmissions. The requirements
of the preamble may depend on the modulation method, however, so the PLCP adds its own header to
any transmitted frames. The PMD is responsible for transmitting any bits it receives from the PLCP
into the air using the antenna. The physical layer also incorporates a clear channel assessment (CCA)
function to indicate to the MAC when a signal is detected.
Physical Layers
Three physical layers were standardized in the initial revision of 802.11, which was published in 1997:
• Frequency-hopping (FH) spread-spectrum radio PHY
• Direct-sequence (DS) spread-spectrum radio PHY
• Infrared light (IR) PHY

In 1999, two further physical layers based on radio technology were developed:
• 802.11a: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) PHY
• 802.11b: High-Rate Direct Sequence (HR/DS or HR/DSSS) PHY
IR WLAN
▪ 802.11 also includes a specification for a physical layer based on infrared (IR) light. Using infrared light instead of
radio waves seems to have several advantages. IR ports are less expensive than radio transceivers—in fact, the cost
is low enough that IR ports are standard on practically every laptop.

▪ IR is extremely tolerant of radio frequency (RF) interference because radio waves operate at a totally different
frequency. This leads to a second advantage: IR is unregulated. Product developers do not need to investigate and
comply with directives from several regulatory organizations throughout the world.

▪ Security concerns regarding 802.11 are largely based on the threat of unauthorized users connecting to a network.
Light can be confined to a conference room or office by simply closing the door. IR-based LANs can offer some of
the advantages of flexibility and mobility but with fewer security concerns. This comes at a price. IR LANs rely on
scattering light off the ceiling, so range is much shorter.

The big drivers to adopt 802.11 are flexibility and mobility, which are better achieved by radio’s longer
range and ability to penetrate solid objects.
50,000 nm -700 nm
Directed and Diffused
Directed and Diffused
Diffused:
Reflected rays to diffuse or transmit data & follows multiple paths
One Tx can be used for transmission to multiple receiver (broadcast)
Station can be stationary and mobile
1-4mbps

Directed:
stationary with LoS (TV and remote)
1-10 mbps
 Diffused Infrared WLAN
Characteristics
Coverage and Range: Diffused infrared systems do not require a direct line of sight, allowing them to operate
effectively in environments where obstacles might block the signal. They typically cover distances of about 15 to 60
meters, depending on the specific implementation and environmental conditions.

Data Rate: The data rates for diffused infrared WLANs generally range from 1 to 4 Mbps. Some implementations
can achieve higher rates under optimal conditions, but this is the common range observed in practical applications.
Mobility Support: These systems support both stationary and mobile devices, making them suitable for dynamic
environments like offices or temporary setups.

Applications
Diffused infrared is particularly useful in environments such as hospitals, offices, and schools where robust
connectivity is needed without the requirement for extensive cabling. It allows for easy setup and mobility among
devices within the coverage area.
Directed Infrared WLAN
Directed
Characteristics
Coverage and Range: Directed infrared systems require a clear line of sight between
the transmitter and receiver. They typically have a range of about 25 meters.
Data Rate: These systems can achieve higher data rates, generally ranging from 1 to
10 Mbps, depending on the specific technology used. Advanced configurations may
allow for even higher throughput under optimal conditions.
Mobility Support: Directed infrared is primarily suited for stationary applications
due to its line-of-sight requirement, making it less flexible than diffused systems.

Applications
Directed infrared is often used in personal area networks (PANs) or situations
where devices are fixed in position but require high-speed connections, such as
between a computer and a printer in close proximity.
IrDA vs IR WLAN
• IrDA: Generally operates in a point-to-point configuration where two
devices communicate directly without any intermediary devices.
• Infrared WLAN: Can support more complex network topologies
including peer-to-peer configurations and ad hoc networks, allowing
multiple devices to communicate simultaneously within the same
area
Spread-spectrum techniques:
The radio-based physical layers in 802.11 use three different spread-spectrum techniques:

Frequency hopping (FH or FHSS)

Frequency-hopping systems jump from one frequency to another in a random pattern,
transmitting a short burst at each subchannel. The 2-Mbps FH PHY is specified in clause 14.

Direct sequence (DS or DSSS)

Direct-sequence systems spread the power out over a wider frequency band using
mathematical coding functions. Two direct-sequence layers were specified. The initial
specification in clause 15 standardized a 2-Mbps PHY, and 802.11b added clause 18 for the
HR/DSSS PHY.
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM divides an available channel into several subchannels and
encodes a portion of the
signal across each subchannel in parallel. The technique is similar to
the Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT) technique used by some DSL modems.
FHSS
Frequency hopping depends on rapidly changing the transmission frequency
in a predetermined,
pseudorandom pattern, as illustrated in Figure 10-1. The vertical axis of the
graph divides the available
frequency into a number of slots. Likewise, time is divided into a series of
slots. A hopping pattern
controls how the slots are used. In the figure, the hopping pattern is
{2,8,4,7}. Timing the hops
accurately is the key to success; both the transmitter and receiver must be
synchronized so the receiver is always listening on the transmitter's
frequency.
 FHSS

Frequency hopping is similar to frequency

division multiple access (FDMA) but with an
important twist. In FDMA systems, each
device is allocated a fixed frequency. Multiple
devices share the available radio spectrum by
using different frequencies. In frequency-
hopping systems, the frequency is time-
dependent rather than fixed. Each frequency
is used for a small amount of time, called the
dwell time.
DSSS
Direct-Sequence Transmission:
Direct-sequence transmission is an alternative spread-spectrum technique that can be used to
transmit a signal over a much wider frequency band. The basic approach of direct-sequence
techniques is to smear the RF energy over a wide band in a carefully controlled way.
• The process of encoding a low bit rate signal at a high chip rate has the side effect of spreading the
• signal's power over a much wider bandwidth. One of the most important quantities in a direct sequence
• system is its spreading ratio, which is the number of chips used to transmit a single bit.
• Higher spreading ratios improve the ability to recover the transmitted signal but require a higher
• chipping rate and a larger frequency band.
DSSS
DS Physical-Layer Convergence (PLCP)
Frames must be processed by the PLCP before being transmitted into the wireless medium. The PLCP for the
DS PHY adds a six-field header to the frames it receives from the MAC. In keeping with ISO reference model
terminology, frames passed from the MAC are PLCP service data units (PSDUs). The PLCP framing is shown in

PPDU: PLCP Protocol Data Unit

DSSS Frame
Preamble
The Preamble synchronizes the transmitter and receiver and allows them to derive common
timing relationships. It is composed of the Sync field and the Start Frame Delimiter field.
Before transmission, the preamble is scrambled using the direct-sequence scrambling
function.
Sync
The Sync field is a 128-bit field composed entirely of 1s. Unlike the FH PHY, the Sync field
is scrambled before transmission.
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)
The SFD allows the receiver to find the start of the frame, even if some of the sync bits were
lost in transit. This field is set to 0000 0101 1100 1111, which is different from the SFD used
by the FH PHY.
DSSS Frame
Header
The PLCP header follows the preamble. The header has PHY-specific
parameters used by the PLCP. Five fields comprise the header: a
signaling field, a service identification field, a Length field, a Signal field
used to encode the speed, and a frame check sequence.
Signal
The Signal field is used by the receiver to identify the transmission rate
of the encapsulated MAC frame. It is set to either 0000 1010 (0x0A) for
1-Mbps operation (DBPSK) or 0001 0100 (0x14) for 2-Mbps operation
(DQPSK) .
DSSS Frame
Service
This field is reserved for future use and must be set to all 0s.
Length
This field is set to the number of microseconds required to transmit the
frame as an unsigned 16-bit integer, transmitted least significant bit to
most significant bit.
CRC
To protect the header against corruption on the radio link, the sender
calculates a 16-bit CRC over the contents of the four header fields.
Receivers verify the CRC before further frame processing.
CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check
Channel separation in 802.11 DS networks

Each Physical channel occupies 22 MHz BW

14 channels in 2.4GHz starting from 2.412 GHz increasing with 0.0054 Hz.
802.11 data link Layer overview (LLC+MAC)
MAC layer rides on every physical layer and controls the transmission of user data into the
wireless medium. It provides the core framing operations and the interaction with a wired
network backbone.
Unlike many other link layer protocols, 802.11 incorporates positive acknowledgments. All
transmitted frames must be acknowledged, If any part of the transfer fails, the frame is
considered lost.

Positive acknowledgment of data transmissions

MAC Access Modes
Access to the wireless medium is controlled by coordination
functions. CSMA/CA access is provided by the distributed
coordination function (DCF).
If contention-free service is required, it can be provided by the
point coordination function (PCF), which is built on top of the
DCF. Between the free-for-all of the DCF and the precision of the
PCF, networks can use the hybrid coordination function (HCF), a
middle ground for quality of service between the two extremes.
Contention-free services are provided only in infrastructure
networks, but quality of service may be provided in any network
that has HCF support in the stations.
Coordination Functions
DCF
• The DCF is the basis of the standard CSMA/CA access mechanism. Like Ethernet, it first checks to
see that the radio link is clear before transmitting. To avoid collisions, stations use a random backoff
after each frame, with the first transmitter seizing the channel. In some circumstances, the DCF
may use the CTS/RTS clearing technique to further reduce the possibility of collisions.
PCF
• The point coordination function provides contention-free services. Special stations called point
coordinators are used to ensure that the medium is provided without contention. Point coordinators
reside in access points, so the PCF is restricted to infrastructure networks. To gain priority over
standard contention-based services, the PCF allows stations to transmit frames after a shorter
interval.
HCF
• Some applications need to have service quality that is a step above best-effort delivery, but the
rigorous timing of the PCF is not required. The HCF allows stations to maintain multiple service
queues and balance access to the wireless medium in favor of applications that require better
service quality
802.11 MAC
Ethernet CSMA/CD: Prelude to 802.11
CSMA/CA (DCF) DCF
▪ Collision detection (near) impossible in wireless
▪ Tx power is relatively very high near the transmitter
CSMA/CD: Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with ▪ Conceptual name is CSMA/CA: Carrier-Sense Multiple
Collision Detection Access with
▪ Listen before transmit (CS) ▪ Collision Avoidance
▪ 802.11 calls it DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)
▪ Tx when (as soon as) medium is free (1-
persistent) ▪ Collision Avoidance:
▪ Backoff before tx (even when no collision)
▪ Collision Detection (CD) ▪ Contention Window (CW) in terms of number of slots
▪ Backoff (exponential) on collision
The Hidden Node Problem

The standard successfully adapts Ethernet-style networking to radio links. Like

Ethernet, 802.11 uses a carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) scheme to control
access to the transmission medium. However, collisions waste valuable transmission
capacity, so rather than the collision detection (CSMA/CD) employed by Ethernet,
802.11 uses collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
 RTS/CTS clearing
Collisions resulting from hidden nodes may be
hard to detect in wireless networks because
wireless transceivers are generally half-duplex;
they don't transmit and receive at the same time.
To prevent collisions, 802.11 allows stations to use
Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS)
signals to clear out an area.

Node 1 has a frame to send; it initiates the process by sending an RTS frame. The RTS frame serves several
purposes: in addition to reserving the radio link for transmission, it silences any stations that hear it. If the target
station receives an RTS, it responds with a CTS. Like the RTS frame, the CTS frame silences stations in the immediate
vicinity. Once the RTS/CTS exchange is complete, node 1 can transmit its frames without worry of interference from
any hidden nodes. Hidden nodes beyond the range of the sending station are silenced by the CTS from the receiver.
When the RTS/CTS clearing procedure is used, any frames must be positively acknowledged.
MAC coordination functions
Carrier-Sensing Functions and the
Network Allocation Vector
• Physical carrier-sensing functions are provided by the physical layer in
question and depend on the medium and modulation used. It is difficult (or, more
to the point, expensive) to build physical carrier-sensing hardware for RF-based
media, because transceivers can transmit and receive simultaneously only if they
incorporate expensive electronics. Furthermore, with hidden nodes potentially
lurking everywhere, physical carrier-sensing cannot provide all the necessary
information.
• Virtual carrier-sensing is provided by the Network Allocation Vector (NAV). Most
802.11 frames carry a duration field, which can be used to reserve the medium
for a fixed time period. The NAV is a timer that indicates the amount of time the
medium will be reserved, in microseconds. Stations set the NAV to the time for
which they expect to use the medium, including any frames necessary to
complete the current operation. Other stations count down from the NAV to 0.
When the NAV is nonzero, the virtual carrier-sensing function indicates that the
medium is busy; when the NAV reaches 0, the virtual carrier-sensing function
indicates that the medium is idle.
Features of DCF (Distributed Coordination
Function)
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
• Ensures data integrity by detecting errors in the transmitted packets.
• A CRC code is appended to the data before transmission, and at the receiver's
end, the CRC is recalculated to verify if the data has been altered during
transmission.
• Error detection, not correction: if an error is detected, the packet is discarded,
and the sender is notified to retransmit the packet.
Packet Fragmentation:
• Large data packets are broken down into smaller fragments before transmission.
• Each fragment is transmitted separately, reducing the chances of collisions and
improving reliability, especially in environments with high interference.
• If one fragment is lost, only that fragment needs to be retransmitted, instead of
the whole packet, improving efficiency.
Backoff Mechanism in Distributed
Coordination Function (DCF)
It helps manage channel access in a shared medium to avoid collisions
between multiple devices attempting to transmit data simultaneously.
Backoff Timer:
• When the medium is busy, a device enters the backoff phase.
• A random backoff timer is selected, which counts down during idle
periods of the channel. When the backoff timer expires, the device
transmits its data.
• This random timer helps distribute transmission attempts over time,
reducing the chance of multiple devices transmitting simultaneously
(collisions).
Backoff Counter Mechanism:
• The backoff counter is chosen randomly from a range called the
Contention Window (CW), which is initially small.
• When a device finds the medium busy, it waits for the DIFS (DCF
Interframe Space) time, then selects a backoff counter in the range
[0,𝐶𝑊−1] slots, and decrements the counter as the medium remains
idle.
• If the medium becomes busy (e.g., another device starts
transmitting), the device pauses its countdown and resumes when
the channel is free again.
Backoff Process - Step-by-Step:
1.Check Medium:
1. Device checks if the medium is idle or busy.
2.Busy Medium:
1. If the medium is busy, the device waits and sets a backoff timer.
3.Idle Medium:
1. Once the medium becomes idle, the device begins counting down the backoff timer
after waiting for a DIFS period.
4.Transmission:
1. When the backoff timer reaches zero, the device transmits its data.
5.Collision Handling:
1. If a collision occurs (no ACK received), the Contention Window (CW) size is doubled,
and the device selects a new backoff timer.
PCF
• PCF is an optional centralized access method in wireless networks.
• Operates in infrastructure mode, where a Point Coordinator (PC) (usually
the Access Point) manages the communication.
• Aims to provide collision-free communication and support for time-
sensitive services (e.g., voice or video).
• Polling Mechanism:
• The Access Point (AP) polls stations, giving them the opportunity to
transmit without competing for the medium.
• Stations only transmit when polled by the AP, ensuring collision-free
communication.
• Point Coordination Function (PCF) was never widely implemented in WLAN
networks.
PCF and DCF can coexist
In an IEEE 802.11 network, both PCF and DCF can coexist. While DCF is
used by most devices for normal operation, PCF can be employed by
the access point to manage traffic for applications that require more
stringent timing and bandwidth guarantees.

However, it's important to note that PCF is optional and not widely
implemented in many modern Wi-Fi networks, which primarily use DCF
due to its simpler implementation and effectiveness for general data
traffic.
HCF
Hybrid Coordination Function (HCF): The introduction of HCF in later
standards (such as 802.11e) provided enhanced capabilities that
combined features of both DCF and PCF while addressing their
limitations. HCF includes mechanisms for prioritizing traffic without the
need for the polling system inherent in PCF, making it more appealing
to manufacturers and users alike.
802.11 MAC frame format:
• 802.11 MAC frames do not include some of the classic Ethernet frame
features, most notably the type/length field and the preamble. The
preamble is part of the physical layer, and encapsulation details such as
type and length are present in the header on the data carried in the 802.11
frame.
Frame Control:
Contains control flags and frame type (management, control, or data).
Defines how the frame should be processed by the receiver.
Duration/ID:
Specifies the time for which the medium will be reserved for transmission (NAV:
Network Allocation Vector).
Used in power-saving modes for identification of stations.
 Generic 802.11 MAC frame
Address Fields (1-4):
Address 1: Typically, the destination address.
Address 2: The source address (originating device).
Address 3: The BSSID (MAC address of the Access Point) in infrastructure mode or the
destination address in ad-hoc mode.
Address 4: Only present in certain frames (e.g., when using wireless distribution
systems, WDS).

Sequence Control:
Ensures proper ordering of fragmented frames and helps in duplicate frame
detection.
Includes a fragment number and a sequence number.
802.11 MAC frame
Frame Body:
Contains the data payload in data frames or management/control
information in other types of frames.
Management Frames: Includes information like authentication or association
data.
Control Frames: Helps manage access to the medium.
Data Frames: Carry the actual user data.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS):
A Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) used for error detection.
Ensures data integrity by allowing the receiver to detect any errors that
occurred during transmission.
Frames vs Packets:
Both units of data used in communication networks, but they function at different layers and serve
different purposes.
Layer of Operation:
▪ Packet: Operates at the network layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model). It is the unit of data that is
routed through networks.
▪ Frame: Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 of the OSI model). It includes data encapsulated
with a header and trailer to be transmitted over a physical network medium.

Headers and Trailers:

▪ Packet: Contains headers (such as IP addresses) that are necessary for the network layer
protocols to route the data to its destination. It may include other control information needed for
the end-to-end transmission.
▪ Frame: Includes both a header (such as MAC addresses) and a trailer (for error detection, such as
a cyclic redundancy check (CRC)). The frame's header helps in physical addressing and error
handling at the data link layer.
Frames vs Packets:
Frames vs Packets:
Data Encapsulation:
▪ Packet: A packet is typically encapsulated within a frame when it is being
transmitted across a local network. A packet can traverse multiple
networks, while a frame is specific to the local network segment.
▪ Frame: Contains the payload (the packet data), which may include
fragments of the larger packet when fragmented for transmission across
different data links.
Scope:
• Packet: Relevant across multiple networks and is routed from the source to
the destination, potentially crossing many routers.
• Frame: Relevant only within a single network segment and is used for
communication between devices on the same network or LAN.
Association and Re-association
Association and Re-association are critical management processes in
IEEE 802.11 wireless networks that enable devices (stations) to
establish and maintain connectivity with an Access Point (AP). They
ensure that devices can join, leave, or switch between wireless
networks seamlessly.
Association Request:
A station (STA) that wishes to connect to a WLAN sends an Association Request frame to the AP.
•This frame includes:
•SSID (Service Set Identifier): The name of the network.
•Supported rates: Transmission rates the station can handle.
•MAC address of the station.

•Association Response:
•The AP replies with an Association Response frame.
•This frame informs the station whether it is accepted or rejected.
•If accepted, the AP assigns an Association ID (AID) to the station.

•Completion:
•Once associated, the station can exchange data frames with the AP.
•The AP tracks the station's association and maintains its status in the network.
Re-association Process:
When is Re-association Needed?
Roaming: When a station moves out of range of one AP and closer to another AP, it initiates re-association to
maintain connectivity.
Network Transition: To switch from one AP to another while staying connected to the network.
Re-association Request:
The station sends a Re-association Request frame to the new AP. The request contains information about the
previous AP, allowing the new AP to coordinate with it for seamless handoff.
Re-association Response:
The new AP sends a Re-association Response frame, similar to the Association Response. If accepted, the new
AP will take over the station's connection.
Seamless Transition:
The station's session and network parameters are transferred to the new AP, allowing for continuous network
access without interruption.
Power management in IEEE 802.11
Power management in IEEE 802.11 wireless networks is designed to conserve battery life
for wireless devices, particularly in mobile stations (laptops, smartphones, etc.). It allows
devices to alternate between active communication and low-power states without losing
their connection to the network.

Power Save Mode (PSM):

•Stations can enter a low-power state when they are not transmitting or receiving
data.
•In this mode, the station's radio is powered down most of the time, waking
periodically to check for traffic.
Access Point Role:
•The Access Point (AP) buffers frames destined for stations in power save mode.
•When the station wakes up, it polls the AP to check if there is buffered traffic to
receive.
Power management in IEEE 802.11
Entering Power Save Mode:
A station informs the AP that it is entering power save mode by setting the power management bit in the
Frame Control field of its data frame.
The AP then knows to buffer incoming frames for that station instead of sending them immediately.
Traffic Indication Map (TIM):
The AP periodically sends a Beacon frame, which contains a Traffic Indication Map (TIM).
TIM is a list that tells which stations have buffered traffic waiting at the AP.
Polling for Data:
If a station detects that it has traffic buffered at the AP (via the TIM), it sends a PS-Poll (Power Save Poll) frame
to request the buffered data.
The AP then delivers the buffered frames to the station.
Waking Up Periodically:
Stations in power save mode periodically wake up to listen to beacon frames and check the TIM.
After checking, they may either request buffered frames or return to sleep if no data is waiting.