Department of Mathematics

RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BASIC RESULTS & FORMULAE

Some standard Identities:

𝑐+𝑑 𝑐−𝑑 𝑐+𝑑 𝑐−𝑑
1. sin 𝑐 + sin 𝑑 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) 2. sin 𝑐 − sin 𝑑 = 2 cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2 2 2
𝑐+𝑑 𝑐−𝑑 𝑐+𝑑 𝑐−𝑑
3. cos c + cos d = 2 cos ( ) cos ( ) 4. cos c − cos d = −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1
5. sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)] 6. cos A sin 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2 2
1 −1
7. cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)] 8. sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2 2
9. sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 10. sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
11. cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 12. cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
tan 𝐴 +tan 𝐵 tan 𝐴 −tan 𝐵
13. tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 14. tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
2 tan 𝐴 16. cos 2𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1
15. sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 =
1 + tan2 𝐴
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
17. 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 so that sin 𝑥 = and cos 𝑥 =
2𝑖 2

Hyperbolic functions:
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1
1. sinh 𝑥 = 2. cosech 𝑥 =
2 sinh 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 1
3. cosh 𝑥 = 4. sech 𝑥 =
2 cosh 𝑥
sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
5. tanh 𝑥 = 6. coth 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
7. cosh 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
2
8. 1 − tanh 𝑥 = sech2 𝑥
2

9. coth2 𝑥 − 1 = cosech2 𝑥

Inverse Hyperbolic functions:

1. sinh−1 𝑥 = log [𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1] 2. cosh−1 𝑥 = log [𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1]

1 1+𝑥
3. tanh−1 𝑥 = log ( )
2 1−𝑥

Standard limits:
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑥
1. lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 2. lim =1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 𝑥 1 𝑛
3. lim =1 4. lim (1 + ) = 𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1⁄ 1⁄
5. lim(1 + 𝑥) 𝑥 =𝑒 6. lim (𝑥) 𝑥 =1
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞

𝑎𝑥 − 1 𝑒𝑥 − 1
7. lim = log 𝑒 𝑎 8. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥)
9. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

B. Azghar Pasha Page 1

 Basic Results & Formulae

Derivatives of some standard functions:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑑 1
1. (𝑥 ) = 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛−1 2. (√𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2√ 𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
3. (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 . log 𝑒 𝑎 4. (𝑒 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
5. (log 𝑎 𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑒 6. (log 𝑒 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
7. 𝑑 𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 8. (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
9. (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 10. (cot 𝑥) = −cosec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
11. (cosec 𝑥) = −cosec 𝑥. cot 𝑥 12. (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 . tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
13. (sinh 𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 14. (cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
15. (tanh 𝑥) = sech2 𝑥 16. (coth 𝑥) = −cosech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
17. (cosech 𝑥) = −cosech 𝑥. coth 𝑥 18. (sech 𝑥) = −sech 𝑥 . tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
19. 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
(sin−1 𝑥) = 20. (cos −1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
21. (tan−1 𝑥) = 22. (cot −1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
23. (sec −1 𝑥) = 24. (cosec −1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
25. (sinh−1 𝑥) = 26. (cosh−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
√𝑥 − 1
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
27. (tanh−1 𝑥) = 28. (coth−1 𝑥) = 2
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −1
𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1
29. (sech−1 𝑥) = 30. (cosech−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2

Some standard integrals:

𝑥 𝑛+1 1
1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1 2. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑛+1 𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 4. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎 𝑒 + 𝑐

5. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 6. ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐

7. ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log(sec 𝑥) + 𝑐 8. ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log(sin 𝑥) + 𝑐

9. ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥) + 𝑐 10. ∫ cosec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log(cosec 𝑥 + cot 𝑥) + 𝑐

11. ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐 12. ∫ cosec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐

13. ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐 14. ∫ cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
15. ∫ = tan−1 ( ) + 𝑐 16. ∫ = log ( )+𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
17. ∫ 2 = log ( )+𝑐 18. ∫ = sin−1 ( ) + 𝑐
𝑥 − 𝑎2 2𝑎 𝑥+𝑎 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
19. ∫ = cosh−1 ( ) + 𝑐 20. ∫ = sinh−1 ( )
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
21. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 ( ) 22. ∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 + sinh−1 ( )
2 2 𝑎 2 2 𝑎
2
𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 / 𝑥
23. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − cosh−1 ( ) 24. ∫ 𝑒 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
𝑒𝑥
25. ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 {𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑏 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)} + 𝑘
𝑎 + 𝑏2
𝑒𝑥
26. ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 {𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑏 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)} + 𝑘
𝑎 + 𝑏2

Properties of Definite Integrals:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎

1. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 2. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

3. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 4. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

0 0 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏

5. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎<𝑐<𝑏

𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
6. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0
−𝑎
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
𝑎
2𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
7. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0
0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Vector Algebra:
1. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ then |𝑎⃗ | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑎⃗⃗
2. The unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ is 𝑎̂ = |𝑎⃗⃗ |

3. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ then dot product (scalar product) of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ denoted by
𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ is defined as 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.
4. The dot product of two vectors is commutative i.e. 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑎⃗
5. Two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other if 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0
𝑎⃗⃗.𝑏⃗⃗
6. Projection of 𝑎⃗ on 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by 𝑎⃗. 𝑏̂ = ⃗⃗
|𝑏 |

7. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ then cross product (vector product) of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ denoted by
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ is defined as 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |=𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑛̂ where 𝜃 is angle between 𝑎⃗ & 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑛̂ is the unit
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
8. The cross product of two vectors is not commutative i.e. 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ ≠ 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗
However 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = − 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗
9. Two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel to each other if 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0
10. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ , 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑐1 𝑖̂ + 𝑐2 𝑗̂ + 𝑐3 𝑘̂ then scalar triple product (Box
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
product) of 𝑎⃗ , 𝑏 and 𝑐⃗ denoted by 𝑎⃗. (𝑏 × 𝑐⃗) or [ 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑐⃗ ] is defined as 𝑎⃗. (𝑏 × 𝑐⃗) = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
11. If two any two vectors are identical in a scalar triple product then the value of scalar triple product is zero.

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 Basic Results & Formulae

LIST OF FORMULAE – Differential Calculus-I

𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝒔
𝑷(𝒓, 𝜽) 𝒅𝒚 𝒓𝒅𝜽
𝒓 𝝍 𝝓
𝝓
𝜽 𝝍 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒓

𝒑 Hypothetical triangle used to Hypothetical triangle used to

remember trigonometric remember trigonometric
ratios of 𝜓 ratios of ∅

1. If 𝜙 is the angle between radius vector and tangent to the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) at a point
𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) on it then
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
a) tan 𝜙 = 𝑟 b) sin 𝜙 = 𝑟 c) cos 𝜙 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
2. If 𝑝 is the length of the perpendicular from pole to the tangent, then
1 1
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 = (1 + cot 2 𝜙)
𝑝2 𝑟 2
3. If 𝜓 is the angle made by the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on it, then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
a) sin 𝜓 = b) cos 𝜓 = c) tan 𝜓 =
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
4. Derivative of arc length:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
a) Cartesian form : 𝑑𝑥 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) ; = √1 + (𝑑𝑦)
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
b) Parametric form : 𝑑𝑡 = √( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 )

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟 2
c) Polar form : 𝑑𝑟 = √1 + 𝑟 2 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) ; = √𝑟 2 + (𝑑𝜃 )
𝑑𝜃

5. Curvature:
𝑸 𝜹𝝍
𝛿𝜓 is the angle through which tangent turns
𝜹𝒔
when the point of contact moves from 𝑃 to 𝑄.
𝑑𝜓 𝛿𝜓
𝑷
𝜹𝝍
a) 𝜅= = lim 𝑨 𝒔
𝑑𝑠 𝛿𝑠→0 𝛿𝑠
where 𝜅 = curvature of the curve at 𝑃 𝒓
𝜽 𝝍 𝝍 + 𝜹𝝍
𝑑𝑠 𝑶
b) 𝜌 = 𝑑𝜓 where 𝜌 = radius of curvature

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

6. Radius of curvature:
3⁄
2 2
(1+(𝑦′ ) )
a) Cartesian form :𝜌= 𝑦 ′′
⁄ 3
((𝑥̇ )2 +(𝑦̇ )2 ) 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
b) Parametric form : 𝜌 = where 𝑥̇ = , 𝑦̇ =
𝑥̇ 𝑦̈−𝑦̇ 𝑥̈ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
3
(𝑟 2 +𝑟 2 ) ⁄2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑2 𝑟
c) Polar form : 𝜌 = 2𝑟 12 +𝑟 2 −𝑟𝑟 where 𝑟1 = 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑟2 = 𝑑𝜃2
1 2
𝑑𝑟
d) Pedal form : 𝜌 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑝

7. Partial Differentiation:

Geometrical meaning of partial derivatives:

We know that, a function with one Z Variation of z w.r.t

independent variable can be represented y when x is fixed.
by a plane curve. However, if a E
dependent variable (say z) depends on C
two independent variables ( say x & y) P(x,y,z)
then z can be represented by a surface as
shown in figure.
B
O
Y
For every combination of x and y we
get a value of z which corresponds to A
Q(x,y,0) D
point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) on the surface 𝑧 =
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). F
Variation of z w.r.t
X x when y is fixed.

Case(i): When y is constant

The curve EPF represent the variation of z with respect to x when y is fixed. Thus the
𝜕𝑧
partial derivative 𝜕𝑥 represent the slope of the tangent to the curve EPF corresponding to
any assigned value of x.

Case(ii): When x is constant

The curve CPD represent the variation of z with respect to y when x is fixed. Thus the
𝜕𝑧
partial derivative 𝜕𝑦 represent the slope of the tangent to the curve CPD corresponding to
any assigned value of y.

8. Euler’s theorem:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
If 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦 ) is a homogeneous function of degree n then 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑛𝑢

9. Euler’s extension theorem:

If 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogeneous function of degree n then
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑢

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10. Composite functions:

𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
a) If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) then = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 and
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
b) If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣) then 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 and

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑢

c) If 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦

= 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

11. Implicit functions:

𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐 then =0 ⇒ + =0 ∴ = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦

12. Jacobians:
a) If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of two independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 then Jacobian of 𝑢 , 𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
with respect to 𝑥 , 𝑦 denoted by 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 is defined as 𝐽 = |𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
|
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Similarly Jacobian of 𝑢 , 𝑣, 𝑤 with respect to 𝑥 , 𝑦, 𝑧 is defined as

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 |
𝐽 = 𝜕𝑥
| 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
b) If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 & 𝑥 and 𝑦 are functions of 𝑟 and 𝑠, then
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣)
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
. 𝜕(𝑟,𝑠) = 𝜕(𝑟,𝑠)
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣) 𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
c) If 𝐽 = then 𝐽′ = provided 𝐽 ≠ 0 and
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣)
𝜕(𝑢,𝑣)
d) If 𝐽 = = 0 then 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functionally dependent.
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
e) 𝐽𝐽′ = 1

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF FORMULAE – Differential Calculus-II

1. Rolle’s theorem:
If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that, it is
a) continuous in [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝒇𝒚
′ (𝒄 )=0
𝟑
𝟏

b) differentiable in (𝑎, 𝑏) and

𝒇′ (𝒄𝟐 )=0
c) 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
then, there exists at least one value
𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. 𝒄𝒂𝒐𝟑 𝒃 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒙

2. Alternate form of Rolle’s theorem:

If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that, it is
a) continuous in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ]
b) differentiable in (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ) and
c) 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ)
then, there exists at least one value 𝜃 ∈ (0,1) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ) = 0.
3. Lagrange’s Mean value theorem:
If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that, it is
a) continuous in [𝑎, 𝑏]
b) differentiable in (𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
then, there exists at least one value 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎

4. Geometrical interpretation of Lagrange’s Mean value theorem:

If the curve AB{where A=(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) B=(𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏))} 𝒚
satisfies the conditions of Lagrange’s mean value
theorem then there exists at least one point on the B
curve at which tangent is parallel to the line joining
(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)).
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎) A
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎

Slope of the tangent at (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) 𝒐 𝒂 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒃 𝒙

Slope of the line AB

5. Alternate form of Lagrange’s Mean value theorem:

If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is such that, it is
a) continuous in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ]
b) differentiable in (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
then, there exists at least one value 𝜃 ∈ (0,1) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ) = ℎ

6. Cauchy’s Mean value theorem:

If two functions 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) are such that,
a) both are continuous in [𝑎, 𝑏]
b) both are differentiable in (𝑎, 𝑏) and
c) 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
then, there exists at least one value 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑔′ (𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑏)−𝑔(𝑎)

7. Taylor’s theorem:

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If 𝑓(𝑥) and its first (n-1) derivatives are continuous in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ] and 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) exists for all
𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) then there exists at least one value 𝜃 ∈ (0,1) such that
ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛−1 ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯ + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ)
2! (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛!
This is known as Taylor’s theorem with Lagrange’s form of remainder.

8. Taylor’s series:
ℎ𝑛
If the remainder term 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑛! 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ)of the Taylor’s theorem tends to zero as 𝑛 → ∞
then we get an infinite series
′ (𝑎)
ℎ2 ′′ ℎ3 ′′′ ℎ4 ′𝑣
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯ … … … … …
2! 3! 4!
This series is known as Taylor’s series.
9. Taylor’s series about 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 :
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )3 ′′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + ⋯ … …
2! 3!
10. Maclaurin’s series:
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯ … …
2! 3!
11. Maclaurin’s series expansion of Some standard functions:
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
a) sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
b) cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − + ⋯
2! 4! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
c) e𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + + ⋯
2! 3! 4!
−𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
d) e =1−𝑥+ − + −⋯
2! 3! 4!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
e) sinh 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + + ⋯
3! 5! 7!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
f) cosh 𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯
2! 4! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
g) log(1 + x) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯
2 3 4
2 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥4
h) log(1 − x) = − [𝑥 + + + + ⋯ ]
2 3 4
12. Taylor’s theorem for functions of two variables:
If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) possess finite partial derivatives of all orders, then
1 2
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑏 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) + [ℎ𝑓𝑥 + 𝑘𝑓𝑦 ] + [ℎ 𝑓𝑥𝑥 + 2ℎ𝑘𝑓𝑥𝑦 + 𝑘 2 𝑓𝑦𝑦 ] + ⋯
2!

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

13. Taylor’s series expansion of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) about (𝒂, 𝒃):

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) + [(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑦 − 𝑏)𝑓𝑦 (𝑎, 𝑏)]
1
+ [(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏) + 2(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑦 − 𝑏)𝑓𝑥𝑦 (𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (𝑎, 𝑏)] + ⋯
2!

14. Maclaurin’s series expansion of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚):

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(0,0) + [𝑥𝑓𝑥 (0,0) + 𝑦𝑓𝑦 (0,0)]
1
+ [𝑥 2 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (0,0) + 2𝑥𝑦𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) + 𝑦 2 𝑓𝑦𝑦 (0,0)] + ⋯
2!

15. L’ Hospital’s rule:

Consider two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) such that
a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
b) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ′ (𝑥)
and 𝑔 exist, then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim = lim ′ provided 𝑔′ (𝑎) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)

Note: (1) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑔′ (𝑎) = 0 then the L’ Hospital’s rule can be extended as
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)
lim = lim ′′ and so on.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)

Note: (2) The above rule of differentiating numerator and denominator separately can
∞
be applied even in (∞) case.

16. Maxima and Minima of functions of two variables:

Maxima:
A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to have a maximum at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) if
𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) > 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑏 + 𝑘) for small values of ℎ & 𝑘.
Minima:
A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to have a minimum at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) if
𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) < 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑏 + 𝑘) for small values of ℎ & 𝑘.
Stationary points:
The points at which maxima or minima occur are called stationary points or extremum
points.
Saddle points:
A point at which the function has neither a maximum nor a minimum is known as saddle
point.

17. Working rule to determine stationary points and stationary values:

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Step-1 : Find 𝜕𝑥
and 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Step-2 : Put 𝜕𝑥 = 0 and 𝜕𝑦
= 0 to get the stationary points.

Step-3 : Solve the equations obtained in step-2 to get the stationary points (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ),
(𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ), (𝑎3 , 𝑏3 ),……….. (𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 ).

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𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
Step-4 : Find 𝑟 = 𝜕𝑥 2 , 𝑠 = 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 , 𝑡 = 𝜕𝑦 2 at one of the stationary point (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 )
Step-5 : Find 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 at (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) and determine the nature using the following rule.
a) 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 > 0 & 𝑟 < 0 then the point (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) is a point of maximum.
b) 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 > 0 & 𝑟 > 0 then the point (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) is a point of minimum.
c) 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 < 0 then the point (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) is a saddle point.
d) 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑠 2 = 0 then further investigation is necessary to determine the nature.

18. Lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers:

This method is used to determine the stationary points (and hence stationary values) of a
function of several variables under a specified condition.

Procedure to determine stationary points using Lagrange’s method:

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a given function whose stationary points are to be determined under the
condition 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐.
Step-1 : Form the Lagrange’s Auxillary equation
𝐻 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝜆 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
Step-2 : Form the equations = 0, = 0 and =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Step-3 : Solve for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝜆 from the equations obtained in step-2 along with
𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐.

Note: Lagrange’s method is used to determine the stationary points and stationary values
but no conclusion can be drawn about the nature of the critical point unless it is
specified in the problem itself or further analysis is done.

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF FORMULAE – Integral Calculus

1. Reduction Formulae:
a) If ‘n’ is a positive integer, then

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦

𝜋⁄ (𝑛−1)(𝑛−3)(𝑛−5)………( )
2 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
∫0 2 sinn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 . 𝑘
𝑛(𝑛−2)(𝑛−4)…………. ( )
2 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝜋
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
where 𝑘 = { 2
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

b) If ‘n’ is a positive integer, then

𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦

𝜋⁄ (𝑛−1)(𝑛−3)(𝑛−5)………( )
2 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
∫0 2 cosn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑦 . 𝑘
𝑛(𝑛−2)(𝑛−4)………… ( )
2 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝜋
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
where 𝑘 = { 2
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

c) If ‘m’ and ‘n’ are positive integers then

𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡

𝜋⁄ [(𝑚−1)(𝑚−3)………(+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟)][(𝑛−1)(𝑛−3)………(+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟)]
∫0 2 sinm 𝑥 n
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 .𝑘
(𝑚+𝑛)(𝑚+𝑛−2)(𝑚+𝑛−4)………. (+𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 )

𝜋
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
where 𝑘 = { 2
1, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

2. Arc Lengths:
a) Cartesian : The length of the arc ‘s’ of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑥1 to
form 𝑥 = 𝑥2 is given by

𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫𝑥 2 √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
1

Similarly, the length of the arc ‘s’ of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) from
𝑦 = 𝑦1 to 𝑦 = 𝑦2 is given by

𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑠 = ∫𝑦 2 √1 + (𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
1

b) Polar form : The length of the arc ‘s’ of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) is

𝜃 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2
𝑠 = ∫𝜃 2 √𝑟 2 + (𝑑𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 or 𝑠 = ∫𝑟 2 √1 + 𝑟 2 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑟
1 1

c) Parametric : The length of the arc ‘s’ of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) is
form
𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫𝑡 2 √( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
1

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 Basic Results & Formulae

3. Area:
a) Cartesian :The area A bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the x-axis between 𝑥 = 𝑎
form 𝑏
and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑦𝑑𝑥

Similarly, The area A bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), the y-axis

𝑑
between 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑 is 𝐴 = ∫𝑐 𝑥𝑑𝑦

b) Polar form : The area A bounded by the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) between the lines 𝜃 = 𝜃1
1 𝜃
and 𝜃 = 𝜃2 is 𝐴 = 2 ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
1

c) Parametric : The area A bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) is

form 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 or 𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 1

4. Surface area of revolution:

a) Cartesian :The surface area of revolution (𝑆. 𝐴) obtained by revolving the curve
form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 about x-axis is
𝑏 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆. 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 where = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

Similarly, surface area of revolution about the y-axis between 𝑦 = 𝑐 and

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑑 is 𝑆. 𝐴 = ∫𝑐 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑐 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 where = √1 + (𝑑𝑦)
𝑑𝑦

b) Polar form : The surface area of revolution of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) about the initial
𝜃 𝜃 𝑑𝑠
line is 𝑆. 𝐴 = ∫𝜃 2 2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝜃 2 2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 1

c) Parametric : The surface area of revolution of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) about
form the x-axis is
𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1

The surface area of revolution of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) about

𝑡 𝑑𝑠
the y-axis is 𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑡

5. Volume of revolution:
a) Cartesian :The volume of revolution 𝑉 obtained by revolving the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
form between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 about x-axis is
𝑏
𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

Similarly, the volume of revolution about the y-axis between 𝑦 = 𝑐 and

𝑑
𝑦 = 𝑑 is 𝑉 = ∫𝑐 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

b) Polar form : The volume of revolution of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) about the initial line is
𝜃 2𝜋
𝑉 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 3 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 3

Similarly, volume of revolution of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) about the line

𝜋 𝜃 2𝜋
𝜃= is 𝑉 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑟 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 1 3

c) Parametric : The volume of revolution of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) about the x-
form axis is
𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝜋𝑦 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1

Similarly, the surface area of revolution of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 =

𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑦(𝑡) about the y-axis is 𝐴 = ∫𝑡 2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1

6. Curve tracing:
Procedure for tracing Cartesian curves
A. Symmetry:
i. A curve is symmetrical about the x-axis, if powers of y occur in even degree
only.
ii. A curve is symmetrical about the y-axis, if powers of x occur in even degree
only.
iii. A curve is symmetrical about the line y = x, if the equation of the curve remains
unaltered on interchanging x and y.
B. Origin:
A curve passes through the origin if there is no constant term in its equation.
C. Equation of tangent at the origin:
If a curve passes through the origin, then the equation of tangent at the origin can
be obtained by equating the lowest degree term to zero.
D. Asymptotes:
Asymptote is a straight line touching the curve at infinity.
i. Equate the coefficient of highest degree terms in x to zero to get the asymptotes
parallel to x-axis provided the coefficient is not a constant.
ii. Equate the coefficient of highest degree terms in y to zero to get the asymptotes
parallel to y-axis provided the coefficient is not a constant.
iii. Find the oblique asymptotes if required.
Procedure to find oblique asymptotes
a) Find 𝜑𝑛 (𝑚) by putting x=1 and y = m in the highest degree term.
b) Find the roots of the equation 𝜑𝑛 (𝑚) = 0. Let the roots be 𝑚 = 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , ……
c) Find 𝜑𝑛−1 (𝑚) by putting x=1 and y = m in the (n-1)th degree term.
−𝜑𝑛−1 (𝑚) 0
d) Find the values of c corresponding to different values of 𝑚 using the formula 𝑐 = ′ (𝑚) . If 𝑐 takes ( ) form then
𝜑𝑛 0
𝑐2
find 𝑐 using the formula 𝜑𝑛′′ (𝑚) + 𝑐𝜑𝑛−1
′ (𝑚) + 𝜑𝑛−2 (𝑚) = 0
2!
e) Required oblique asymptote is obtained by substituting the values of 𝑚 and 𝑐 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

E. Points:
Find the points where a) the curve crosses the axes
b) the tangent is parallel or perpendicular to the x-axis
F. Region:
Find the region in which no portion of the curve lies.
Procedure for tracing polar curves

B. Azghar Pasha Page 13

 Basic Results & Formulae

A. Symmetry:
i. A curve is symmetrical about the initial line, if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑓(𝑟, −𝜃).
ii. A curve is symmetrical about the line 𝜃 = 𝜋⁄2 if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃).
iii. A curve is symmetrical about the line 𝜃 = 𝜋⁄4, if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜋/2 − 𝜃).
iv. A curve is symmetrical about the pole, if 𝑓(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑓(−𝑟, 𝜃).
B. Pole:
A curve passes through the pole if there exists a value 𝜃 at which 𝑟 = 0. If suppose
𝑟 = 0 when 𝜃 = 𝛼, then the tangent to the curve at the pole is given by 𝜃 = 𝛼.
C. Region:
Find the interval (𝛼, 𝛽) in which 𝑟 is imaginary, then no portion curve lies between
𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽.
D. Table of values:
Find the values of 𝑟 by giving successive values to 𝜃.

4. Some standard curves:

Strophoid: 𝒚𝟐 ( 𝒂 − 𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒙)
Symmetry Curve is symmetrical about the x-axis
It passes through the origin and
Origin equations of tangent at the origin are
𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = −𝑥
Asymptotes 𝑥=𝑎
The curve crosses axes at (0,0) and
Points
(-a,0)
No portion of the curve lies to the left
Region of the line 𝑥 = −𝑎 and to the right of
the line 𝑥 = 𝑎
Other
Origin is a NODE
information

𝟐⁄ 𝟐⁄ 𝟐
Astroid: 𝒙 𝟑 + 𝒚 𝟑 = 𝒂 ⁄𝟑
The curve is symmetrical about both
Symmetry
x and y axis
Origin It does not pass through origin
The curve passes through the points
Points
(a,0), (0,a), (-a,0), (0,-a)
The curve lies entirely inside the
Region
circle of radius ‘a’ centered at origin.
Other The points (a,0), (0,a), (-a,0), (0,-a)
information are all CUSP

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Cissoid: 𝒚𝟐 (𝟐𝒂 − 𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 , 𝒂 > 0

Symmetry Curve is symmetrical about the x-axis
It passes through the origin and
Origin equation of tangent at origin is 𝑦 = 0
(x-axis)
Asymptotes 𝑥 = 2𝑎
The curve lies in the region
Region
0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝑎
Other
Origin is a CUSP
information

Folium of Descartes: 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟑𝒂𝒙𝒚

Curve is symmetrical about the line
Symmetry
𝑦=𝑥
It passes through the origin and
Origin equations of tangent at the origin are
𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0
Asymptotes 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑎 = 0
The curve passes through the points
Points
(0,0) and (3a/2, 3a/2)
No portion of the curve lies in fourth
Region
quadrant
Other
Origin is a NODE
information

Cycloid: 𝒙 = 𝒂( 𝜽 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽), 𝒚 = 𝒂( 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)

Symmetry Curve is symmetrical about the y-axis
Origin It passes through the origin
Equation(s)
of tangent at 𝑥 = 0
origin
The curve intersects x-axis at (0,0)
Points
and (2𝜋a,0) when 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
The curve lies entirely between the
Region
lines 𝑦 = 0 & 𝑦 = 2𝑎
Other The points (0,0), (2𝜋a,0), (4𝜋a,0)…..
information are all CUSP

Cardioid: 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)

Symmetry Symmetrical about the initial line
The curve passes through the pole and
Origin equation of tangent at the pole is 𝜃 =
𝜋
It passes through (0,0), (2a,0), (0,a)
Points
and (0,-a)
The curve lies entirely within the
Region
circle of radius 2a with centre at pole
Other Tangent at (2a,0) is a line parallel to
information y-axis

B. Azghar Pasha Page 15

 Basic Results & Formulae

Three leaved rose: 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑𝜽, 𝒂 > 0

The curve is symmetrical about the
Symmetry
line 𝜃 = 𝜋/2
The curve passes through the pole at
Origin 𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃=0, 3 , 3 , 𝜋 , 3 , 3 , 2𝜋
The curve lies inside the circle of
Region
radius a having its centre at the origin
Other information
𝜃 variation 𝑟 variation Portion traced
0 to 𝜋/6 0 to a O to A
𝜋/6 to 𝜋/3 a to 0 A to O
𝜋/3 to 𝜋/2 0 to -a O to B

5. Gamma function:
a) If ‘n’ is any real number other than zero and negative integer, then gamma function of
∞
‘n’ denoted by Γ(𝑛) is defined as Γ(𝑛) = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
∞ 2
b) Γ(𝑛) = 2 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
c) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛Γ(𝑛)
d) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛! if n is a non-negative
integer
e) Γ(1/2) = √𝜋
f) Γ(1/4)Γ(3/4) = 𝜋√2
g) Γ(𝑛)Γ(1 − 𝑛) = 𝜋 for 0 < 𝑛 < 1
sin 𝑛𝜋

h) Γ(𝑛)Γ (𝑛 + 1) = √𝜋
Γ(2𝑛)
2 22𝑛−1

6. Beta function:
1
a) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫0 𝑥 𝑚−1 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑚, 𝑛 are positive
𝜋
2
b) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = 2 ∫ sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos 2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

c) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝛽(𝑛, 𝑚)
Γ(𝑚)Γ(𝑛)
d) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) =
Γ(𝑚+𝑛)

e) 𝛽(𝑚, 1/2) = 22𝑚−1 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑚)

∞
𝑥 𝑚−1
f) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 𝑥)𝑚+𝑛
𝜋
2 1 𝑝+1 𝑞+1
g) ∫ sinp 𝜃 cosq 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽( , )
0 2 2 2

Page 16
 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

7. Double integral:
a) Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be any function defined over a region 𝛿𝐴𝑖 -Area of
R in x-y plane. Let this region be divided into a
ith sub region
network of ‘n’ rectangles of area 𝛿𝐴𝑖 . Let (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )
be any arbitrary point inside the ith sub region.
Then, the double integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) over R
denoted by ∫ ∫𝑅 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝐴 is defined as
𝑛

lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 )𝛿𝐴𝑟

∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑛→∞
𝑅 𝛿𝐴𝑟 →0 𝑟=1
(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )
b) If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1, then
𝑛
sum of areas
∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ ∫ (1)𝑑𝐴 = 𝑛→∞
lim ∑(1)𝛿𝐴𝑟 = ( )
𝑅 𝑅
of all sub regions
𝛿𝐴→0 𝑟=1
total area of
∴ ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ( )
𝑅
region R

8. Triple integral:
a)
𝛿𝑉𝑖
R

(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 )

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any function defined over a region R containing volume V. Let this
volume be divided into elementary volumes 𝛿𝑉𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2 … … . 𝑛). Let (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑧𝑖 ) be
any arbitrary point inside the ith sub region. Then, the triple integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) over
R denoted by ∫ ∫ ∫𝑅 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 is defined as

lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑟 , 𝑦𝑟 , 𝑧𝑟 )𝛿𝑉𝑟

∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛→∞
𝑅 𝛿𝑉𝑟 →0 𝑟=1

b) If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1, then

𝑛
sum of volumes total volume of
∫ ∫ ∫ (1) 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛→∞
lim ∑(1)𝛿𝑉𝑟 = ( )=( )
𝑅
of all sub regions the region R
𝛿𝑉𝑟 →0 𝑟=1

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 Basic Results & Formulae

9. Cylindrical polar coordinates:

a) 𝑥 = 𝑅 cos 𝜑
𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝜑
𝑧=𝑧

𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
b) 𝐽= =𝑅
𝜕(𝑅, 𝜑, 𝑧)

c) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧

4. Spherical Polar coordinates:

a) 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin θ cos 𝜑
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin θ sin 𝜑
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
b) 𝐽= = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
𝜕(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑)

c) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑

Page 18
 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF FORMULAE – Vector Calculus

1. Vector Differentiation:
a) Let P and Q be two neighboring points on
the curve at time 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡
respectively. Let A be any fixed point on
the curve from which arc lengths are
measured.
Let Arc AP = 𝑠, Arc AQ = 𝑠 + 𝛿𝑠
then Arc PQ = 𝛿𝑠
Let 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂ be the
position vector of the point P then the
position vector of point Q is 𝑟⃗(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡).

𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑟⃗(𝑡)

∴ = lim
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡
b) Geometrical meaning:
When 𝛿𝑡 → 0, Q → P and hence the chord PQ approaches the tangent to the curve at
𝑑𝑟⃗
P. Thus, 𝑑𝑡 is a vector along the tangent to the curve at P and hence it is known as
tangent vector denoted by 𝑇 ⃗⃗.
c) Physical meaning:
If 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂ represents the position vector of a particle moving
along a curve then the velocity(𝑣⃗) and acceleration(𝑎⃗) of the particle at time t is
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑2 𝑟⃗
given by 𝑣⃗ = & 𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

d) 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠 |𝛿𝑟⃗| arc PQ 𝛿𝑟⃗

= = | |
𝛿𝑡 |𝛿𝑟⃗| 𝛿𝑡 chord PQ 𝛿𝑡
𝛿𝑠 arc PQ 𝛿𝑟⃗
∴ lim = lim | |
𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0 chord PQ 𝛿𝑡

arc PQ
As Q → P, chord PQ → 1

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟⃗
∴ = | 𝑑𝑡 | →this is speed of the particle at time t
𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑟⃗
e) Tangent vector: 𝑇
𝑑𝑡
𝑇 ⃗⃗
f) Unit Tangent vector: 𝑇̂ = |𝑇⃗⃗|
̂
𝑑𝑇 ̂
𝑑𝑇
̂ ( ) ( )
⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑇 =
g) Normal vector: 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 =
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑠 ( ) (| |)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗
̂= 𝑁
h) Unit Normal vector: 𝑁 ⃗⃗|
|𝑁

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 Basic Results & Formulae

2. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑓1 𝑖̂ + 𝑓2 𝑗̂ + 𝑓3 𝑘̂ is any vector function and 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is any scalar function then

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
a) 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑 = ∇φ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓2 𝜕𝑓3
b) 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝐹⃗ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
c) 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐹⃗ = || |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3

3. a) If ∇ ∙ 𝐹⃗ = 0 , then 𝐹⃗ is called a solenoidal vector.

b) If ∇ × 𝐹⃗ = 0 , then 𝐹⃗ is called an irrotational vector.

4. Vector identities:
a) ∇ × (∇φ) = ⃗⃗
0
⃗⃗) = 0
b) ∇. (∇ × A
c) ∇ × (∇ × ⃗A⃗) = ∇(∇. ⃗A⃗) − ∇2 ⃗A⃗

⃗⃗) = φ(∇. ⃗A⃗) + (∇φ). ⃗A⃗

d) ∇. (φA

⃗⃗) = φ(∇ × A
e) ∇ × (φA ⃗⃗) + (∇φ × A
⃗⃗)

⃗⃗ × B
f) ∇. (A ⃗⃗) = B ⃗⃗) − A
⃗⃗. (∇ × A ⃗⃗. (∇ × B
⃗⃗)

5. Green’s theorem:
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∫(𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

6. Stoke’s theorem:

∫ 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(∇ × 𝐹⃗ ) ⋅ 𝑛̂𝑑𝑆

𝑐 𝑆

7. Gauss Divergence theorem:

∫𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑛̂𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∇ ∙ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF FORMULAE – Differential Equations

1. Linear Differential Equation:

A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable and its differential
coefficients occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied together.
𝑑𝑦
The general form of order linear differential equation is 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) which is known
as Leibnitz linear equation.
Solution of Leibnitz linear equation is 𝑦 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
2. Bernoulli’s equation. 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
3. The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equation 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 +
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 to be exact is = and its solution is given by
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Terms of 𝑁
∫𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (not containing 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
4. Integrating factor: (I.F.)
A differential equation which is not exact can be made exact on multiplication by a
suitable factor called an integrating factor.

Rules for finding integrating factors of the equation 𝑴𝒅𝒙 + 𝑵𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎 are as follows:
a. I.F. can be found after regrouping the terms of the equation and recognizing each
group as being a part of an exact differential equation.
𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝑎) 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑(𝑥𝑦) b) = 𝑑(𝑥⁄𝑦) 𝑐) = 𝑑( ⁄𝑥 )
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑑) 𝑑 [𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )] 𝑒) = 𝑑(tan−1 ⁄𝑥 ) 𝑓)
𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2
1 𝑥+𝑦
= 𝑑 [ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )]
2 𝑥−𝑦
b. 1
If 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 be a homogenous equation and 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦 ≠ 0, then 𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 is an
I.F.
1
c. If 𝑀 is of the form 𝑀 = 𝑦𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑁 is of the form 𝑁 = 𝑥𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦), then 𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦
is an I.F.
5. Kirchhoff’s Law:
(a)The algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any closed circuit is equal to the
resultant
electromotive force in the circuit.
(b)The algebraic sum of the currents flowing into (or from) any node is zero.

6. a) Differential Equation of LCR Circuit c) Differential Equation of RL Circuit

with/without applied Emf with/without applied Emf
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐 = 𝐸 ; 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐸 ; 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0

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 Basic Results & Formulae

b) Differential Equation of LC Circuit d) Differential Equation of RC Circuit

with/without applied Emf with/without applied Emf
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑐 = 𝐸 ; 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐 = 𝐸 ; 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0

7. Orthogonal Trajectories:
Two families of curves such that every member of one family intersects every member of
the other family at right angles then they are said to be Orthogonal Trajectories of each
other.

8. A differential equation of first order & higher degree is of the form 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 where
𝑝 = 𝑦′.

9. Equations solvable for p:

A differential equation which is an nth degree polynomial in 𝑝, can be resolved into n linear
real factors (𝑝 − 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦))(𝑝 − 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦)) … … … … (𝑝 − 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 0
equating each factor to zero, we get
𝑝 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑝 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦), …… , 𝑝 = 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦).
We obtain the solution for each of these differential equations and then the general
solution is written as product of these solutions.
10. Equations solvable for y:
Suppose the given DE 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 takes the form 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑝) ---- (1)
Step (1): Differentiate (1) with respect to x to get 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑥) = 0. -----(2)
Step (2): Solve Eqn(2) to get G(x, p, c) = 0 ------(3)
Step (3): Eliminate p from (1) and (3) to get the required solution.

Note: In case elimination is not possible, then we may solve (1) and (3) for x and y and
obtain
x = H1(p,c), y = H2(p,c) as the required solution.
11. Equations solvable for x:
Suppose the given DE 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 takes the form 𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑦, 𝑝) ---- (1)
Step (1): Differentiate (1) with respect to y to get 𝜙(𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑦) = 0. -----(2)
Step (2): Solve Eqn(2) to get G(y, p, c) = 0 ------(3)
Step (3): Eliminate p from (1) and (3) to get the required solution.
Note: In case elimination is not possible, then we may solve (1) and (3) for x and y and
obtain
x = H1(p,c), y = H2(p,c) as the required solution.

12. Clairaut’s Equation

An equation of the form y = px+f(p) is known as Clairaut’s equation.
Solution to Clairaut’s equation is obtained by replacing p by c.

13. Singular solution

A solution of a differential equation which cannot be obtained from its general solution by
giving any particular value is called a Singular solution.

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RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

14. Procedure to find Singular Solution

Step (1): Find the general solution of the given DE in the form 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑝) = 0 -----
(1)
𝜕𝜙
Step (2): Differentiate this with respect to c to get 𝜕𝑐 = 0 ------ (2)
Step (3): Eliminate c from (1) and (2) which will be the singular solution.

15. Symbolical representation of nth order linear differential equation with constant coefficients:
𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑋(𝑥) ------(1)
𝑑
Where𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓(𝐷) = 𝑘0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑘1 𝐷𝑛−1 + 𝑘2 𝐷𝑛−3 + ⋯ 𝑘𝑛 and 𝑘𝑖 ′𝑠 are constants.

If 𝑋(𝑥) = 0 then Eqn(1) is known as homogeneous differential equation, otherwise it is said

to be non homogeneous.

16. Fundamental theorem of differential equation:

If 𝑦1 (𝑥) and 𝑦2 (𝑥) are any two solutions of the nth order homogeneous LDE with constant
coefficients then the linear combination 𝑐1 𝑦1 (𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑦2 (𝑥) is also its solution.
In general, since the general solution of nth order homogeneous LDE with constant
coefficients has
n arbitrary constants ,it follows, from above, that if 𝑦1, 𝑦2 , 𝑦3, … … . 𝑦𝑛, are n independent
solutions, then 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 + ⋯ 𝑐𝑛 𝑦𝑛 is its complete solution.

17. Complete general solution of nth order non homogeneous equation 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑋(𝑥) is
𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼, where C.F is the Complementary Function, which is also called complete
general solution of the homogeneous equation and P.I is the Particular Integral.

18. Rules to find C.F of the LDE with constant coefficients 𝒇(𝑫)𝒚 = 𝑿(𝒙):
Let the roots of the auxiliary equation 𝑓(𝑚) = 0 be 𝑚1, 𝑚2 , 𝑚3, … … . 𝑚𝑛,
Sl.No. Types of roots Part of C.F
1. Real and distinct 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 +𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 + ⋯ … 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑛 𝑥
‘r’ roots are real and identical
2. 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 = ⋯ … . = 𝑚𝑟 (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 … … +𝑐𝑟 𝑥 𝑟−1 )𝑒 𝑚𝑥
=𝑚
Complex roots
3. 𝑚1 =∝ +𝑖𝛽, 𝑚2 =∝ −𝑖𝛽 𝑒 ∝𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑥)

Complex repeated roots

𝑒 ∝𝑥 [(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥) cos 𝛽𝑥
4. 𝑚1 =∝ +𝑖𝛽, 𝑚2 =∝ +𝑖𝛽
+ (𝑐3 + 𝑐4 𝑥) sin 𝛽𝑥]
𝑚3 =∝ −𝑖𝛽, 𝑚4 =∝ −𝑖𝛽

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 Basic Results & Formulae

19. Rules to find P I of the LDE with constant coefficients 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝐗(𝐱)
1
Sl.No. X(x) PI = {X(x)}
f(D)
1
a) 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑓(𝑎) {𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 } provided 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 0
otherwise
1
b) 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑓′ (𝑎) {𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 } provided 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 & 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0
1. 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 otherwise
1
c) 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 2 𝑓′′ (𝑎) {𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 } provided 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 &
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) ≠ 0 and so on..

a) Replace D2 by -a2 provided 𝑓(𝐷) ≠ 0 when D2 changes

to -a2
otherwise
1
b) 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥. 𝑓′ (𝐷) {𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)}

cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) Replace D2 by -a2 provided 𝑓 ′ (𝐷) ≠ 0 when D2 changes

2. or to -a2
sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) otherwise
1
c) 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑓′′ (𝐷) {Cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)}

Replace D2 by -a2 provided 𝑓 ′′ (𝐷) ≠ 0 when D2 changes

to -a2
and so on..
1 1
𝑃𝐼 = {𝑥 𝑚 } = {𝑥 𝑚 } = (1 + ∅(𝐷))−1 {𝑥 𝑚 }
𝑓(𝐷) 1 + ∅(𝐷)
3. 𝑥𝑚 Expand (1 + ∅(𝐷))−1 by binomial theorem and operate on
𝑥𝑚

𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉(𝑥) 1 1
4. where 𝑉(𝑥) is 𝑃𝐼 = {𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉(𝑥)} = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 {𝑉(𝑥)}
𝑓(𝐷) 𝑓(𝐷 + 𝑎)
any function of 𝑥
𝑥 𝑉(𝑥) 1 1 𝑓′ (𝐷)
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑓(𝐷) {𝑥 𝑉(𝑥)} = 𝑥 𝑓(𝐷) { 𝑉(𝑥)} − [[𝑓(𝐷)]2 ] 𝑉(𝑥)
5. where 𝑉(𝑥) is
any function of 𝑥

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

20. Method of variation of parameters:

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solution of + 𝑝1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝2 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥), where 𝑝𝑖 ′𝑠 are constants is 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼 where
𝑑𝑥 2

C.F = 𝑐1 𝑦1 (𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑦2 (𝑥)

𝑦2 (𝑥)𝑄(𝑥) 𝑦1 (𝑥)𝑄(𝑥)
P.I=−𝑦1 (𝑥) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦2 (𝑥) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑊

𝑦1 (𝑥) 𝑦2 (𝑥)
Note: 𝑊 = | | is called the Wronskian of the two functions 𝑦1 (𝑥) and
𝑦1 ′ (𝑥) 𝑦2 ′ (𝑥)
𝑦2 (𝑥).

21. Legendre’s LDE:

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 + +𝑝1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … . . +𝑝𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋(𝑥) where 𝑝𝑖 ′𝑠 are constants.

Use the substitution (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑒 𝑡 to reduce the above equation to LDE with constant
coefficients.
22. Cauchy’s LDE:
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦
𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 + +𝑝1 . 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … . . +𝑝𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋(𝑥) where 𝑝𝑖 ′𝑠 are constants.

Use the substitution 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 to reduce the above equation to LDE with constant co-
efficients.

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 Basic Results & Formulae

LIST OF FORMULAE – Improper integrals & Laplace transform

1. Gamma function:
a) If ‘n’ is any real number other than zero and negative integer, then gamma function of ‘n’
∞
denoted by Γ(𝑛) is defined as Γ(𝑛) = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
∞ 2
b) Γ(𝑛) = 2 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
c) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛Γ(𝑛)
d) Γ(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛! if n is a non-negative
integer
e) Γ(1/2) = √𝜋
f) Γ(1/4)Γ(3/4) = 𝜋√2
g) Γ(𝑛)Γ(1 − 𝑛) = 𝜋 for 0 < 𝑛 < 1
sin 𝑛𝜋
h) Γ(𝑛)Γ (𝑛 + 1) = √𝜋
Γ(2𝑛)
2 22𝑛−1

2. Beta function:
1
a) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫0 𝑥 𝑚−1 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑚, 𝑛 are positive
𝜋
2
b) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = 2 ∫ sin2𝑚−1 𝜃 cos2𝑛−1 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

c) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝛽(𝑛, 𝑚)
Γ(𝑚)Γ(𝑛)
d) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) =
Γ(𝑚+𝑛)

e) 𝛽(𝑚, 1/2) = 22𝑚−1 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑚)

∞
𝑥 𝑚−1
f) 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫ 𝑚+𝑛
𝑑𝑥
0 (1 + 𝑥)
𝜋
2 1 𝑝+1 𝑞+1
g) ∫ sinp 𝜃 cos q 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝛽( , )
0 2 2 2

3. Function of exponential order:

A function 𝑓(𝑡) is said to of exponential order if lim 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 = 0.
𝑡→∞
4. Laplace transform:
Let 𝑓(𝑡) be a function of 𝑡 defined for all 𝑡 ≥ 0, then the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡) is defined as
∞
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (provided that the integral exists) where 𝑠 is a parameter which may be
real or complex.
5. Laplace transform of standard functions
Γ(𝑛+1)
1 𝑛+1 , in general provided 𝑛 is not negative integer
a) 𝐿(1) = 𝑠 , 𝑠 > 0 b) 𝐿(𝑡 𝑛)
= { 𝑠𝑛!
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, ⋯
𝑠𝑛+1
1 1
c) 𝐿(𝑡) = d) 𝐿 { 1 } = √𝜋 e) 𝐿(𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ) = 𝑠−𝑎 , 𝑠 > 𝑎
𝑠2 𝑡√ 𝑠

1
𝑎 𝑠
f) 𝐿(𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 ) = 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠 > −𝑎 g) 𝐿(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡) = h) 𝐿(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡) =
𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 +𝑎2

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 Department of Mathematics
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

𝑎 𝑠
i) 𝐿(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑡) = j) 𝐿(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑡) =
𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2

6. Properties of Laplace transforms

If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐹(𝑠) then
𝑑
a) 𝐿(𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎) b) 𝐿(𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)) = − 𝑑𝑠 (𝐹(𝑠))
𝑓(𝑡) ∞ 𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
c) 𝐿( ) = ∫𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 d) 𝐿(∫0 𝑓(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑡 𝑠

e) If 𝑓(𝑡) and its (𝑛 − 1) derivatives are continuous then

𝐿 (𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑡)) = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡)) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ (0) − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ − 𝑓 𝑛−𝚤 (0)

7. The Unit Step function:

The Unit step function or Heaviside's function is defined as
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 𝑎
𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
In particular if 𝑎 = 0, then 𝑈(𝑡) = 𝐻(𝑡) = {
1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
]

8. The Unit impulse function or Dirac delta function:

The Unit impulse function 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) is defined as 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) = lim 𝛿𝜀 (𝑡 − 𝑎) ; 𝑎 ≥ 0
𝜀→0
1⁄
where 𝛿𝜀 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = { 𝜖 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎 + 𝜖
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 b) 𝐿{𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠

9. a) 𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} =
𝑠
1 d) 𝐿{𝛿(𝑡)} = 1
c) 𝐿{𝑈(𝑡)} = 𝑠

1 𝑇
10. If 𝑓(𝑡) is a periodic function of period 𝑇 then 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠𝑇 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
11. Inverse Laplace transform of standard functions
1 1
𝐿−1 ( ) = 1, 𝑠>0 𝐿−1 ( 2 ) = 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
𝑡𝑛
1 , in general provided 𝑛 is not negative integer
−1 Γ(𝑛 + 1)
𝐿 ( 𝑛+1 ) =
𝑠 𝑡𝑛
{ 𝑛! , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, ⋯
𝜋 1 1
𝐿−1 {√ } = 𝐿−1 ( ) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑠>𝑎
𝑠 √𝑡 𝑠 − 𝑎
1 1
𝐿−1 ((𝑠−𝑎)2 ) = 𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝐿−1 ( ) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 , 𝑠 > −𝑎
𝑠+𝑎
1 1
𝐿−1 ( ) = 𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2

B. Azghar Pasha Page 27

 Basic Results & Formulae

1 1 1
𝐿−1 ( ) = 𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡
(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛+1 𝑠2 +𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑠 𝑠 1
𝐿−1 { 2 2 } = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 { }= 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡
𝑠 +𝑎 (𝑠 22
+𝑎 ) 2 2𝑎
1 1 𝑠
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 { 2 } = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑠2 −𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑎2
𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 𝑏
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2
𝑠 𝑏
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2 (𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2
𝑠 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 𝐿−1
{ } = 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏 2 𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 } = 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝐿−1 {1} = 𝛿(𝑡)

12. Convolution:
Convolution of two functions 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑡) denoted by 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) is defined as
𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑢
0

13. Convolution Theorem:

If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝑓 (̅ 𝑠) and 𝐿(𝑔(𝑡)) = 𝑔̅ (𝑠), then
𝐿−1 {𝑓(̅ 𝑠). 𝑔̅ (𝑠)} = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)

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