wireless communication

By
Dr. Mrs. Shweta Shah

Email id:
[email protected]
Syllabus
Books to be Referred:
What you will get at the end of this
chapter?
Properties and problems associated with wireless
channel
AWGN
Multipath fading effects
Delay spread-small scale fading and large scale
fading
Coherence bandwidth-flat fading and frequency
selective fading
Doppler effect- Fast fading and slow fading
Basic Model of Wireless Digital Communication Link
Why wireless Communication
Freedom from wires
Global coverage
Communication is possible where wiring is not feasible
Stay connected
Roaming allows to stay connected anywhere, anytime
Flexibility
Service is available where ever we go in terms of mobility
No wires required
Challenges
Efficient hardware
Low power Transmitters, Receivers
Low power signal processing tools
Efficient use of finite radio spectrum
reuse,
Medium access protocols…
Integrated services
Voice, data, multimedia over a single network
Service differentiation, priorities, resource sharing…
Challenges
Business Challenges:
User mobility
Quality of Service
Connectivity and coverage
Cost
Technical Challenges:
Fading
Multipath
Higher probability of Data Corruption
Needs stronger channel codes
Stronger Security mechanisms
Privacy, authentication
Multimedia requirements
Voice Data Video
Delay < 100ms - <100ms
Packet Loss <1% 0 <1%
BER 10-3 10-6 10-6
Data Rate 8-32 Kbps 1-100Mbps 1-20Mbps
Traffic Continuous Bursty Continuous
Basics - Propagation
Radio waves are
Easy to generate
Can travel long distances
Can penetrate buildings
They are both used for indoor and outdoor communication
They are omni-directional: can travel in all directions
They can be narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than 100MHz)
using parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)
Properties of radio waves are frequency dependent
o At low frequencies, they pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off
sharply with distance from source
o At high frequencies, they tend to travel in straight lines and bounce of
obstacles (they can also be absorbed by rain)
o They are subject to interference from other radio wave sources
 Basics - PropagationAt VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio
waves follow the ground. AM radio
broadcasting uses MF band

reflection

At HF bands, the ground Ionosphere

waves tend to be absorbed by the
earth. The waves that reach ionosphere
(100-500km above earth surface),
are refracted and sent back to
earth.
absorption
 Basics - Propagation
VHF Transmission
LOS path

Reflected Wave

-Directional antennas are used

-Waves follow more direct paths
- LOS: Line-of-Sight Communication
- Reflected wave interfere with the
original signal
Basics - Propagation
Waves behave more like light at higher frequencies
Difficulty in passing obstacles
More direct paths
They behave more like radio at lower frequencies
Can pass obstacles
Propagation Models
We are interested in propagation characteristics and models
for waves with frequency in range: few MHz to a few GHz
Modeling radio channel is important for:
Determining the coverage area of a transmitter
o Determine the transmitter power requirement
o Determine the battery lifetime
Finding modulation and coding schemes to improve the channel/signal
quality
o Determine the maximum channel capacity
 Technical Challenges:
Multipath Propagation
For wireless communications, the transmission medium is the radio
channel between transmitter TX and receiver RX.
The signal can get from the TX to the RX via a number of different
propagation paths.
In some cases, a Line Of Sight (LOS) connection might exist betweenTX and RX.
Furthermore, the signal can get from the TX to the RX by being reflected at or diffracted
by different Interacting Objects in the environment: houses, mountains (for outdoor
environments), windows, walls, etc. The number of these possible propagation
paths is very large.
As shown in Figure, each of the paths has a distinct amplitude,
delay (runtime of the signal), direction of departure from
the TX, and direction of arrival; most importantly, the
components have different phase shifts with respect to each other.
Radio Propagation (T-R) Mechanisms
The physical mechanisms that govern radio propagation are
complex and diverse, but generally attributed to the
following three factors
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering

Reflection
Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is much
larger in size compared to the wavelength of the signal
Example: reflections from earth and buildings
These reflections may interfere with the original signal constructively
or destructively
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
Diffraction
Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is obstructed by an
impenetrable body and by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges)
Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments without a
line-of-sight path

Scattering
Occurs when the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are on the
order of the wavelength or less of the propagating wave
They are produced by small objects, rough surfaces and other irregularities on
the channel
Follows same principles with diffraction
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering
Radio Propagation Mechanisms

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D

R: Reflection receiver
D: Diffraction Building Blocks
S: Scattering
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these 3
mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous received
signal strength.
If a mobile does have a clear line of sight path to the base-station, than
diffraction and scattering will not dominate the propagation.
If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction and scattering
will probably dominate the propagation.
Wireless Channel is Very Different!
Wireless channel “feels” very different from wired channel.
Not a point-to-point link
Variable capacity, errors, delays
Capacity is shared with interferers
Characteristics of the channel appear to change randomly with time, which makes it difficult to
design reliable systems with guaranteed performance.
Cellular model vs reality:

Cellular system designs are interference-limited, i.e. the interference dominates the noise floor
 Basic Ideas: Path Loss, Shadowing, Fading
Variable decay of signal due to environment, multipaths, mobility
Free space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model is a model used to predict the strength of a
received signal when the transmitter and receiver are in a clear line of sight.
The model predicts that the received power decays as a function of the distance
between the transmitter and receiver.
The noise that disturbs the signal can consist of several
components, as follows:
Thermal noise:
The power spectral density of thermal noise depends on the environmental
temperature
Man-made noise:
(a) Spurious emissions (ex. electrical appliances a) and Other intentional
emission sources (unlicensed band application)
Receiver noise: amplifier and mixers are noisy at receiver.
AWGN
 AWGN
In reality, transmission is always corrupted by noise whatever may be
the type of channel assumed.
The usual mathematical model of the radio channel is the Additive
White Gaussian Noise channel.
It is a very good model for the physical reality as long as the thermal noise at the
receiver is the only source of disturbance.
Thermal noise is described by a zero mean white Gaussian random process
Its PSD (Power Spectral Desnity) is flat over all frequencies hence it is called
white
the average power of this noise is infinite

r(t) = s(t) + n(t)

• In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed
bandwidth at any center frequency. Hence, the autocorrelation of
the noise in time domain is zero for any non-zero time offset.
• The noise samples have a Gaussian distribution of amplitude.
 Basic Ideas: Path Loss, Shadowing, Fading
Variable decay of signal due to environment, multipaths, mobility
Showing the Difference between Large and
Small scale fading
Technical Challenge: Fading
A simple RX cannot distinguish between the different Multi Path
Components (MPCs); it just adds them up, so that they interfere with
each other.
The interference between them can be constructive or destructive
The phases depend on the run length of the MPC, position of the
Mobile Station and the Interacting Objects (IOs)
Hence the interference, and thus the amplitude of the total
signal, changes with time if either TX, RX, or IOs are moving.
This effect - the changing of the total signal amplitude due to
interference of the different MPCs – is called small-scale fading.
for nonfading communications links, the BER decreases approximately
exponentially with increasing Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
in a fading channel, the SNR is not constant; rather, the probability that
the link is in a fading dip (i.e., location with low SNR) dominates the behavior of the
BER.
For this reason, the average BER decreases only linearly with increasing
average SNR.
Consequently, improving the BER often cannot be achieved by simply
increasing the transmit power.
Due to fading, it is almost impossible to exactly predict the received signal
amplitude at specific locations. For many aspects of system development and
deployment, it is considered sufficient to predict the mean amplitude and the
statistics of fluctuations around that mean.
 These fluctuations occur on a larger scale – typically a few hundred
wavelengths. These variations can be seen most clearly when moving on a
circle around the transmitter.
the amplitudes of each separate MPC change with time (or
with location).
Obstacles can lead to a shadowing of one or several MPCs.
Of course, shadowing can occur not only for an LOS
component but also for any MPC. Note also that obstacles do not
throw “sharp” shadows: the transition from the “light” (i.e., LOS)
zone to the “dark” (shadowed) zone is gradual.
The MS has to move over large distances (from a few meters
up to several hundreds of meters) to move from the light to
the dark zone. For this reason, shadowing gives rise to large-
scale fading.
Large-scale and small-scale fading overlap, so that the
received signal amplitude can look like the one depicted
Small-Scale and Large-Scale Fading
Radio Propagation Models
As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger
distances, the local average received signal will
gradually decrease.This is called large-scale path loss.
Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging
signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40For PCS,
this means 1m-10m track)
The models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary-receiver transmitter (T-R) separation distance are
called large-scale propagation models
Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
The reason for these variations is shadowing by large objects
and is thus fundamentally different from the interference that
causes small-scale fading.
However, this large-scale fading can also be described by a
mean and the statistics of fluctuations around this mean.
The large-scale mean itself depends monotonically on the distance
between TX and receiver (RX). This effect is related to free space
path loss or some variation thereof. This effect is usually described in
a deterministic manner
 Received Power and Normal Distribution
PDF
Figure shows the PDF of a normal distribution for the received power Pr at
some fixed distance d (  = 10,  = 5)
(x-axis is received power, y-axis probability)

EXAMPLE:

Probability that Pr is
smaller than 3.3
(Prob(Pr <= 3.3))
is
given with value of
the stripped area under
the curve.
 Normal CDF
The figure shows the CDF plot of the normal distribution described previously.
Prob(Pr <= 3.3) can be found by finding first point where vertical line from 3.3
intersects the curve and then by finding the corresponding point on the y-axis.
This corresponds to a value of 0.09. Hence Prob(Pr <= 3.3) = 0.09

0.5

0.090123
 Wireless Communication Channels 100

1 0 0
90

9 0
80

Distance Pathloss 8 0

70
7 0
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 60
6 0
PL=137.744+
5 0 50

35.225log10(DKM)
4 0 40
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

3 0
0 1 0 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 d

1 5
0

Lognormal 1 0
-10
Rapid Changes in
Shadowing 5
-20
Signal Strength over a
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 0

small traveling
-30

ARMA Correlated -5
-40

Shadow Model -1 0
distances
-50
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

-1 5
0 1 0 10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
d

2 0
0

1 0

-10
0

Small-Scale Fading -1 0

-2 0
-20

Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr -3 0

-30

Jakes’s Rayleigh Fading -4 0

-40

Model -5 0 -50
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21
47
-6 0 d
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
 Multi-Path Propagation

From “Wireless Communications” Edfors, Molisch, Tufvesson

Multi-Path in the radio channel creates small-scale fading. The three most important effects are:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multi-path signals
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multi-path propagation delays

48
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off environment surroundings
Note: The figure above demonstrates the roles of reflection and scattering only on multi-path
49
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
50
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
51
Multipath Channel Model
Multipath
Channel
2nd MC

Base 1st MC
Mobile 2
Station

1st MC
4th MC
Multipath
Channel
2nd MC

3rd MC
Mobile 1
(Multipath Component)
 Power Delay Profile
The power delay profile depicts the spatial average of received power within the
multi-path channel over a radius that is comparable to the signal wavelength

From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

Multi-Path Profile from a 900 MHz cellular system in San Francisco

53
The mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess
delay spread are multipath channel parameters
(Time dispersion parameters) that can be determined
from a power delay profile.
The mean excess delay is the first moment of the
power delay profile and is defined to be.
Where P(τ) is the power measured at time τ.
• The total power received in a multipath wireless channel occurs
over a spread of time referred to as the Delay Spread.
• The spread of the
arriving power at the
wireless receiver can be
seen form the figure.
• How do you relate delay
spread for wireline
system?
• Totally different than
wireline channel where • The delay spread of a wireless
single path is available channel is a key parameter that
and single instant to characterizes the nature of the
receive the signal wireless environment and is
denoted by the parameter στ
Maximum Delay Spread σ τmax
• Consider a wireless channel with L multipath
components, with the first path arriving at a delay of τ0
and the last signal copy arriving at τL-1
• The maximum delay spread is simply defined as

• or, in other words, the time interval between the arrival of

the first and last signal copies at the receiver.
• This is a simple measure of the spread of the energy in the
wireless channel, while effectively capturing the multipath
signal arrival.
What do you think if σ τmax is large value?
• It can be readily seen that a larger value of σ τmax naturally
implies a richer scatter environment and larger differential
propagation delays between the paths.

Note the key property that the delay spread does NOT depend
on the absolute delays τ0, τL-1 but the difference τL-1 - τ0.
• Thus, the distance of the mobile receiver node from the
base station has no impact on the delay spread, which leads
to a larger propagation delay.
Consider a scenario where there is a single propagation path,
corresponding to a large delay τ0 for a mobile at a large
distance from the base station.
Since there is only a single path in this case, the first and last
components correspond to the single component arriving at
a delay of τ0.
Hence, the corresponding delay spread is τ0 - τ0 = 0.
Thus, the delay spread indeed depends critically on the
presence of multipath components and the richness of the
scatter environment, which basically affects the total number
of multipath scatter-signal components arriving at the
receiver.
 RMS Delay Spread σ τrms
In typical wireless channels, the paths which arrive later are significantly
lower in power due to the larger propagation distances and
weaker reflections.
This results in a large value of the maximum delay spread even though
several of the later paths comprise weak scatter components with negligible
power.
Thus, the maximum delay spread metric is not a reliable indicator of the true
power spread of the arriving multipath signal components.
In such scenarios, since it does not weight the delays in proportion to the signal
power in the multipath components.
For this purpose, the RMS delay spread is a more realistic indicator
of the spread of the signal power in the arriving components.
• since it weights the delays of the signal components
with respect to the power in the arriving paths, it is not
susceptible to distortion in scenarios with a large number of
trailing weak components, unlike the maximum delay
spread.
• Thus, the RMS metric to characterize the delay spread
defined above is not sensitive to spurious multipath
components of weak signal power since it weights
each delay in proportion to its power, thereby automatically
suppressing the contribution of weaker paths.
As the delay spread
στ increases, the
time spread of this
response increases
leading to
decreases in the
bandwidth of the
response H(f).
Finally the delay
spread στ becomes
∞, the channel
response becomes
an impulse.
The coherence bandwidth Bc is then defined as the bandwidth
of the response H (f). i.e., the frequency band over which the
response H (f) is flat as shown in Figure .
What is the significance of this quantity Bc?
Consider any signal x(t) transmitted over the wireless channel,
with corresponding Fourier transform X(f).
For linear signals and systems that the output response Y(f) of
the output signal y(t) is given as Y (f) = H (f) X (f)
Here, if the bandwidth Bs of the signal x(t) is less than Bc, then
X(f) spans the flat part of the channel response H(f).

Hence, the output corresponding

to the magnitude of the flat part.

Thus, the input signal spectrum

X(f) is undistorted at the output.

Such a wireless channel is termed

a flat-fading channel.
consider the case where the signal bandwidth Bs, is greater than
the coherence bandwidth Bc.
• In this scenario, different parts
of the signal spectrum X(f)
experience different attenuations,
i.e., the attenuation is frequency-
selective.

• Thus, the output spectrum Y(f) is

a distorted version of the input
spectrum X(f).

• Such a wireless channel is

termed a frequency-selective
channel due to the frequency-
dependent nature of the
attenuation of the signal.
In summary we can say that ,
Bs ≤ Bc  No distortion in received signal, i.e., flat fading
Bs ≥ Bc  Distortion in received signal, i.e., frequency-selective
fading
Relation Between ISI and
Coherence Bandwidth
Consider a Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal x
(t) of symbol time Ts transmitted by the base station.
Also consider the presence of a scatter component
at a delay of τ1 = Td in addition to the direct line-
of-sight component with a delay τ0 = 0.
The net signal sensed by the receiver is the sum of
the direct and scatter components, i.e., x (t) and x
(t - τ0).
if the delay spread στ = τ1- τ0 is comparable to the symbol time
Ts, when these two signals are superposed at the receiver, the
symbol so from x(t) adds to a different symbol from x(t - τ0). i.e.
the previous symbol.
it can be readily seen that as the delay spread increases, and the
number of interfering paths correspondingly increases, the
severity of ISI increases, with several symbols superposing at
the receiver
The question arises, what are the criterion for occurrence of ISI?
• It is inter related to the symbol time and delay spread.
• When the symbol time is much larger than the delay spread,
there is no ISI.
• As the delay spread becomes comparable to symbol time, it leads
to ISI.
• Hence we can say that the criterion of the ISI, στ≥ Ts
• Also, the symbol time Ts is =1/Bs.
• Similarly, the delay spread is related to the coherence bandwidth
Bc = 1/ στ
• Thus the criterion for ISI above can be recast in terms of
the bandwidths , 1/Bc ≥ 1/Bs,  Bs ≥ Bc
• This says the condition for frequency selective.
They have different interpretation in time as well as frequency
domain.
In the time domain, if the delay spread is much larger compared
to the symbol time, it results in ISI.TS  σ τ
Correspondingly, in the frequency domain, this implies that the
bandwidth of the signal is much larger than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel. BS  BC
Thus, in effect, one is trying to push a signal of much higher
bandwidth through a channel filter, with a much smaller
bandwidth.This results in frequency-selective distortion.
To correct for the ISI at the receiver, one has to
inverse the channel response, to convert the
frequency selective channel into a system with a
net flat-fading response.
This process, termed equalization is the different
frequency components are being equalized to a common
flat-level.
Doppler Fading in Wireless
Systems
The Doppler shift is a fundamental principle related to the
electromagnetic.
Here, the Doppler shift associated with an electromagnetic wave is
defined as the perceived change in the frequency of the wave
due to relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
The perceived frequency is higher than the true frequency if the
transmitter is moving towards the receiver and lower
otherwise.
Doppler fading is inherent in wireless communication.
Doppler shift
Consider the scenario where the mobile station is moving
with a velocity v at an angle with the line joining the
mobile and base station.
Let the carrier frequency be fc. The Doppler shift for this
scenario is given as

As we can observe that a change in

or velocity results in frequency variation.
Doppler Impact on a Wireless
Channel
Consider the impulse response of the ith component of the
multipath channel given as ai (t - i). Let the vehicle be moving
with velocity v at an angle .
Due to the motion of the user, the delay of the ith signal
component is also changing.
Let the initial distance for the ith signal component be di.
The initial propagation delay, therefore, =
After a small interval of time t, this distance decreases by vt cos ,
in the direction of the base station.
 Coherence Time of the Wireless
Channel

Similar to the notion of a coherence bandwidth described for a

frequency-selective channel, we now define the concept of a
coherence time interval Tc for a time-varying/selective channel.
Consider the ith multipath component of the time-varying channel
coefficient
Coherence time Tc is a statistical measure of the time duration
over which the channel impulse response essentially remains
unchanged (i.e., highly correlated).
If the time interval between the signal transmissions is much
greater than the coherence time, the channel will likely
affect the two signal transmissions differently; otherwise,
they will be affected similarly.
The Doppler spread is inversely proportional to the
coherence time.
it can be readily seen that a larger Doppler spread Bd corresponds
to a smaller coherence time Tc leading to a faster rate of channel
variation.
Very popular Jake’s model gives the temporal correlation
function which is used to study the channel variation with
respect to time.
It provide the doppler spectrum related to maximum doppler
frequency as,
 A figure the Jakes spectrum, it can be seen that the spectrum is 'U' shaped and
restricted between and
Implications of Coherence Time
What is the implication of a large or small coherence time Tc on
the design of the wireless-communication system?
Answer to this query is like this:
one needs to estimate the channel coefficient h at the receiver to
decode the transmitted symbol x (k).
Since, the channel is changing significantly at every coherence
time duration, the channel estimation has to be carried out
at least once in every coherence time interval.
Fast fading may be caused when the channel impulse
response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. This
implies that the coherence time of the channel is smaller
than the symbol period. Signal distortion due to fast fading
increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to
the signal bandwidth. A signal thus undergoes fast fading, if
we have the following:
Correlation between Doppler spread and
coherence time (Time Variance)
Slow fading may be caused when the channel impulse response
changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted signal. A
signal thus undergoes slow fading, if we have the following:
Correlation between Doppler spread and
coherence time (Time Variance)
Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters that
describe the frequency dispersion nature of the
mobile channel, and their values with respect to the
transmitted signal bandwidth Bs and the symbol duration
(period) Ts can help determine if the channel is experiencing
fast fading or slow fading.
The coherence time Tc is fundamentally interpreted as the
order-of-magnitude duration of a fade at a given
frequency.
The Doppler shift and Doppler spread are both linear functions
of the signal frequency.
The variation of Doppler spread with frequency is important
when the operating frequency bands are different.
For instance, a system operating at 2 GHz has a Doppler spread
twice that of a 1 GHz system, and thus resulting in a
coherence time half as large. This gives rise to fading faster,
with shorter fade duration, and channel measurements that
become outdated twice as fast.
Doppler spread is defined as
maximum Doppler shift
(fm)

Note: In some literature

Doppler frequency is denoted
at fd instead of fm
 Fading classification: summary
as a fraction of symbol period
Ts
Symbol period of transmitting signal

Flat -slow fading (No ISI) Flat fast fading

-Increase the Tx power - Its bad situation
-to overcome fading
στ

Frequency selective
Frequency selective
slow fading
fast fading
-frequency diversity
-frequency diversity

Tc Ts
Transmitted symbol period
 Fading classification: summary
as a fraction of baseband signal bandwidth
Bs
Symbol period of transmitting signal

Frequency selective
Frequency selective
fast fading
slow fading

Bc

Flat slow fading

Flat fast fading

Bd Bs
Transmitted symbol period
 Example
From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

• These three parameters will inherently help us to

determine how fast we can push a data in the channel
without the need for an equalization.

Example of an Indoor Multi-Path Profile; rms delay spread, mean excess delay, maximum excess
delay (10 dB)
 Stationary Receiver
Tx signal = cos 2t S2
S1
Assume v = 0, phase difference of
two paths = 2.8 radians
Rx signal = cos 2t + cos (2t+2.8)
1
x=cos 2t
0.8 y=cos (2t+2.8)
z=x+y
0.6

0.4
θ
0.2 Ф
0
X d Y
-0.2

-0.4 v
-0.6

-0.8 Note: S1 and S2 represent two paths that

arrive at the receiver (example two ray
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 model)

94
 Slow Fading
Tx signal = cos 2t S2
S1
Assume slow fading, phase difference of
two paths = 2.8
Rx signal = cos 2.01t + cos (2.02t+2.8)
1
x=cos 2.01t
0.8 y=cos (2.02t+2.8)
z=x+y
0.6

0.4
θ
0.2 Ф
0
X d Y
-0.2

-0.4 v
-0.6

-0.8
Note: S1 and S2 represent two paths that
arrive at the receiver (example two ray
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 model)

95
 Fast Fading
Tx signal = cos 2t S2
S1
Assume fast fading, phase difference of
two paths = 2.8
Rx signal = cos 2.1t + cos (2.2t+2.8)
1.5
x=cos 2.1t
y=cos(2.2t+2.8)
1 z=x+y

0.5 θ
Ф
0
X d Y

-0.5 v

-1
Note: S1 and S2 represent two paths that
arrive at the receiver (example two ray
-1.5 model)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

96
Stationary Receiver Vs Slow Vs Fast Fading
2
Stationary Receiver
1.5 Slow Fading
Fast Fading

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 97
MATLAB demo
 Multipath Model
Consider the signal ej*2*π*f0*t transmitted from the transmitter and the
corresponding received signal after subjected to multi-path transmission
is represented as follows:

Where,
J is the total no. of multipath,
βj(t) is the attenuation in the jth path
τj (t) is the time delay in the jth path

Note: attenuation and time delay of the jth path are functions of
time.
The transfer function of the multipath channel at fo,

Similarly, it can be interpreted as the transfer function of the time-varying

channel for any value of f:

Thus the impulse response of the time-varying channel is obtained as follows:

Here, the response of time varying multipath channel to the input signal
is given by,
multipathmodel.m
Goal:
To see the effect of multipaths
What to observe:
To observe the transmitted signal
Received signal after multipath
Spectrum of the transmitted signal
Spectrum of the received signal after multipath
Transfer function of the time-varying channel for various time
instances
Impulse response of the time-varying channel for various time
instances
 Transmitted Signal
1

0
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
received signal after multipath
10
0

-10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
spectrum of the transmitted signal
100

50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
spectrum of the received signal after multipath
200
100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
 Transfer function of the time-varying channel for various
time instances
t=0.01 t=0.03 t=0.05 t=0.07 t=0.09
6 10 10 10 5

4 5 5 5

2 0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
t=0.11 t=0.13 t=0.15 t=0.17 t=0.19
10 5 10 5 10

5 5 5

0 0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
t=0.1 t=0.15 t=0.2 t=0.25 t=0.3
4 10 10 5 5

2 5 5

0 0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
t=0.35 t=0.4 t=0.45 t=0.5 t=0.55
10 10 10 10 5

5 5 5 5

0 0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
t=0.6 t=0.65 t=0.7 t=0.75 t=0.8
10 10 10 5 4

5 5 5 2

0 0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
 Zoomed version of the transfer function of the time-varying
channel for the time instances t = 0.01, t = 0.03, t= 0.05 and t
3.8 = 0.07 t=0.01 6
t=0.03

5
3.6

4
3.4
3
3.2
2

3
1

2.8 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t=0.05 t=0.07
7 5

6
4

5
3
4
2
3

1
2

1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
 Impulse response of the time-varying channel for
5
various time instances
t=0.01
5
t=0.03
5
t=0.05
2
t=0.07
5
t=0.09

0 0 0 0 0

-5 -5 -5 -2 -5
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
t=0.11 t=0.13 t=0.15 t=0.17 t=0.19
2 1 1 2 1

0 0 0 0 0

-2 -1 -1 -2 -1
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
t=0.1 t=0.15 t=0.2 t=0.25 t=0.3
5 1 1 1 2

0 0 0 0 0

-5 -1 -1 -1 -2
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
t=0.35 t=0.4 t=0.45 t=0.5 t=0.55
1 2 1 1 2

0 0 0 0 0

-1 -2 -1 -1 -2
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
t=0.6 t=0.65 t=0.7 t=0.75 t=0.8
1 1 2 2 1

0 0 0 0 0

-1 -1 -2 -2 -1
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
 Zoomed version of the impulse response of the time-varying channel
for the time instances t = 0.01, t = 0.03, t= 0.05 and t = 0.07
t=0.01 t=0.03
6 3

4 2

2 1

0 0

-2 -1
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

t=0.05 t=0.07
3 2

2
1
1
0
0

-1 -1
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
X-axis is in samples with sampling time (Ts=1/100 seconds)
 Doppler Spread & Coherence Time
Let the time-varying propagation delay and attenuation of the
particular path j be represented respectively as follows:
Hence the transfer function for transmitted signal ej*2*π*f0*t can be
written as

And the received signal with the shift in frequency in every path of
the transmission is

Where, Dj+fo is the Doppler shift.

The range of frequencies described as D = Dmax - Dmin is known as
Doppler spread.
The response of the channel to the signal cos(2*pi*f0*t) is given
as follows:
Ideally, we expect channel transfer function envelop to be the flat
response. But because of the presence of the Doppler spread,
channel transfer function varies with time.
We would like to have the rate at which channel transfer function is
changing with time should be minimal.
Thus the received signal is represented as
dopplerspread.m
Goal:
Effect of fast fading
What to observe:
Transmitted signal
Corresponding spectrum of the transmitted signal
Real part of the transmitted signal
Real part of the corresponding spectrum of the transmitted signal
Fast fading scenario
 Transmitted signal Real part of Transmitted Signal
2

0.5 1

0 0

-0.5 -1

-1 -2
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Samples in time domain with Ts=1/100 micro secs Samples in time domain with Ts=1/100 micro secs
corresponding spectrum of the transmitted signal 272 Real part of corresponding spectrum of the transmitted signal
x 10
1000 6

5.5
800
5
600
4.5

4
400
3.5
200
3

0 2.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency in MHz Frequency in MHz

 The envelope of the fast fading channel is also
seen
Time varying transfer functional value (magnitude) computed at frequency f=1 MHz
2

1.5
This is typically for the fast fading scenario.

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Time varying transfer functional value (phase) computed at frequency f=1 MHz
0

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
 Parameter for Slow Fading
TAUJ = [0.0042 0.0098 0.0030 0.0070]
fshift = [0.9958 0.9902 0.9970 0.9930]
BETA = [0.2691 0.4228 0.5479 0.9427]

Note:
In the case of Doppler spread, we studied how fast the transfer
function of the time varying channel changes with time for a fixed
frequency. Doppler spread and the coherence time are used for
the same.
 Coherence Frequency and Delay Spread
Coherence Frequency and Delay Spread are the study to understand
how fast the transfer function of the time-varying channel changes with
frequency at a particular time instant.

In this case, we would like to keep t as constant (t0) and analyze how fast H
(f, t) is changing with frequency.
Substituting, an
We get

The range of delay described as L = τmax – τmin, is known as delay

spread.
The coherence bandwidth is known as 1/2L
delayspread.m
Goal:
To find the coherence bandwidth

What to observe:
Behavior of Channel transfer function to find the coherence bandwidth
Fading distribution
Statistical characterization of the variation of the envelop of
the received signal over time leads us two fading
distributions.
the two most common distributions
Rayleigh fading
which happens when we have a lot of multipath components similar to
one another but no direct line of sight
Ricean fading
which is occurring when we have a clear line of sight as well as multipath
components.
Rayleigh fading
If all the multipath components have approximately the same
amplitude that is, when the mobile station is far from the base
stations and there are several reflectors, the envelop of the
received signal is approximately Rayleigh distributed.
No dominant signal component must exist even if there are no
line of sight.
This assumption is generally true for mobile scenarios when the
mobile station is far away from the base station.
The Rayleigh fading distribution is widely used to model a
small-scale fading and describes a statistical time varying
model for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
When the time variant channel impulse response in a flat fading
channel is given by

Where, X and Y are the real and imaginary components of the

fading coefficient aejϕ derived from the large number of
random multipath components xi and yi.
Assuming they are gaussian and un-correlated.
The above assumption is valid as L  ∞. i.e., the number of
multipaths are fairly large.
Hence, X,Y are distributed as N (O,1/2) (assuming zero-mean and
variance 1/2).
Further, since X,Y are Gaussian in nature and un-correlated, it
directly follows that they are independent.
The joint distribution of X,Y is given by the standard multivariate
Gaussian
Now derive the statistics of the fading coefficient aejϕ in terms
of amplitude and phase factors. It can be seen through
elementary trigonometric properties that

The joint distribution f A, Φ (a,ϕ ) can be derived from f X,Y (x, y)

using the relation for multivariate PDF transformation as
f A, Φ (a,ϕ )= ,
Where, x2 +y2 = a2, is considered in the above equation.
The quantity JX,Y is termed the Jacobian of X, Y and is given by the
expression

Where, denotes the determinant of the matrix A.

Substituting the Jacobian in the expression for multivariate
PDF transformation above, the joint PDF with respect to the
random variables A, Φ can be derived as,
The marginal distributions fA, fΦ with respect to the amplitude and
phase factor random variables A, Φ can be readily derived from the
above joint distribution as

It is one of the most popular and frequently employed models

for the wireless channel, termed a Rayleigh fading wireless
channel.
This nomenclature arises from the distribution fA of the amplitude
factor a, which is the well known Rayleigh density, shown in next
slide.
Observe that the average power in the amplitude a of the
Rayleigh fading channel coefficient h is given as

it is important to note that although, the term Rayleigh refer to the

distribution of the amplitude factor, the Rayleigh fading
wireless channel characterize, both the amplitude factor as a
Rayleigh fading random variable and the phase factor as
uniformly distributed in (-π, π).
This suggests that the random varying nature of the phase factor
of the arriving signal is independent of that of the amplitude.
i.e., for a given amplitude a, all the phase factors in (-π, π)
are equiprobable.
the probability density function of the Rayleigh distribution is
represented by

where σ2 denotes the time average power of the received

signal.
Observe the PDF with different value of σ. the spread increases as you increase the σ.
It’s a typical Rayleigh PDF. Based on the PDF we have to find out what is the σ for our
case and then based on that σ, we have to carry out calculations and find the average
durations of fade and the level crossing rates.
Both will depend upon the actual value of σ. if the number of scatters increase, then our
σ will tend to increase.
When there is one strong multipath signal such as a line-of-
sight signal, we can use the Rice distribution. It is expressed
as follows:

where a0 and I0 denote the peak magnitude of one strong

multipath and the modified Bessel function of the first kind.
The
On Typical
the x Rayleigh
y axisaxis we distribution
in this graph
have plotted
plots the
theenvelop
elapsedgiven.
time in
if you
milliseconds
plot the histogram
for a car which
of the
is Various
values
travelling
here,atyou
deep about
will
fades and120
comekm/hr.
nullsup the distribution which is resembling the Rayleigh
distribution
It is measured at 900MHz. the scenario will change at a higher frequency.
These fades will become much more frequent if we go and do the measurement
at 2.4 GHz.

How many times per second do

we get into the fade?

For that we must define what is the acceptable signal

strength below which we say that the signal is not usable.
So we need a threshold and then we need to come up
with a parameter which tells me number of crossings per
second.
If we have such distribution, then statistically if we can draw a
horizontal line and define a threshold, then we can calculate the
number of crossings per second. That will be the level crossing
rate.
what the average duration of fade ?
For that we need to know again a threshold.
How much time do we stay below that line that will give me the
average duration of fade.
Clearly if we give the PDF- probability density function of the
Rayleigh distribution, then we can statistically calculate the
average duration of fade.
MATLAB DEMO: Rayleigh Channel
To design the Rayleigh fading channel and observe the
behavior
 Rayleigh Channel Model
In Rayleigh channel model, the real and imaginary parts of the complex coefficients are
modelled as independent and identically distributed Gaussian random variables with
mean zero and variance σ2n .
It is noted that variance of the random variable varies with tap n (no. of paths) and not with
time.
Thus the probability density function of the random variable R is
Rayleigh distributed and is given as follows:

Consider
 the discrete flat fading channel with single tap time-varying impulse
 Let the two consecutive samples [a 0] represent the binary level 0, and [0
a] represents binary 1 . (Tx data in code)
The real and imaginary parts of the time-varying impulse response are
modelled as independent and identically Gaussian distributed random
variables with mean zero and variance σ2 . The magnitude of which is
Rayleigh distributed. (r in code)
Noise is also modelled as complex random variable with real and imaginary
parts as independent and identically distributed random variables with mean
zero and variance as WNo/2. (g in code)
Received signal Rx = r. Tx + g
Assuming the binary data transmitted are equiprobable, the detection rule to
decide whether the transmitted binary data are 1 or 0 based on the
observation of two consecutive complex random variables.
rayleigh_demo
 Typical transmitted samples histogram of the rayleigh distributed noise
1 600

400
0.5
200

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 0.5 1 1.5

Real part of the received samples Imaginary part of the received samples
2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
 Transmitted data
1

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Corresponding detected data

1

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
End of the Chapter