MAT 061 Handout

Analytic Geometry in Three Dimensions

The three dimensional real number space, denoted

by  3 , is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers. That is,

 3 = (x, y, z ) : x, y, z   .

Any two intersecting lines in space determine a plane and a plane containing two of the
coordinate axes is called a coordinate plane(the xy-plane, the xz-plane and the yz-plane).

A point P(x, y, z) is plotted in such a way that three planes are to be constructed through P, each
is parallel to one of the coordinate planes as shown below.

Plot the ff. points on the x

3-dimensional space.

A(2, 3,4), B(-1, 2,3), C(1, -2, 3), D(2, 3, -2), E(-2, -3, 5), F(2, -1,-4), G(-3, 4,-1).

In  2 , (x, y ) : y = 3 represents a line parallel to the x-axis 3 units above it. However, in  3 , y =3

represents something different. It represents a plane parallel to the xz-plane 3 units from it.

Remark: Two nonparallel planes intersect in a straight line.

Theorem 7.1.2

The distance d between the points

P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) is

given by d = (x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 .
 P2

d Pf:

P1

The midpoint M( x, y, z ) of the line segment joining P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) has

x1 + x 2 y + y2 z + z2
coordinates x = , y= 1 , z= 1 .
2 2 2

Ex. Find the coordinates of the point Q which divides the line segment from P1 (1,4,−2) to
P2 (−3,6,7) in proportion 3 to 1.

Ex. One endpoint of a line segment P1 P2 has coordinates P1 (−1,2,5) . The midpoint P is known to
lie in the xz plane while the other endpoint is known to lie on the intersection of the planes
x = 5 and z = 8 . Find P and P2 .

Direction Cosines and Direction numbers:

Consider a line passing through the origin and place an arrow on it. We call this a directed line,
denoted by L . If no such arrow is drawn, we call it undirected. The angles  ,  ,  made by L
and the positive direction of x, y, x axes, resp. are called direction angles and
cos , cos  , cos  are called direction cosines of L .

Remark: If a line L is undirected, then there are two sets of direction angles of L, the  ,  ,  and
 −  ,  −  ,  −  . However, since cos( −  ) = − cos , if , , is a set of direction cosines of L
then so is −, − , − .

The direction cosines of any line L on space is found by considering a line L’ parallel to L that
passes through the origin and that L has the same direction cosines of as that of L’. Hence, all
parallel lines have the same direction cosines.

Theorem 7.2.2 Let cos , cos  , cos  be the direction cosines of any line L. Then
cos 2  + cos 2  + cos 2  = 1 .

Pf.:

Two sets of triples a, b, c and a’, b’, c’ are said to be proportional if there exists a k  0 such that
a=ka’, b=kb’, c=kc’.

Ex.

Direction numbers:

If L has direction cosines , , . Then a set of numbers a, b, c is called a set of direction
  
numbers for L if a, b, c and , , are proportional. That is, = = . Hence, a line L has
a b c
infinitely many sets of direction numbers.
Theorem 7.2.3 If P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are two points on L and d is the distance
x 2 − x1 y − y1 z −z
between P1 and P2 then  = , = 2 ,  = 2 1 is a set of direction cosines of L.
d d d

Pf.:

Corollary 7.2.4 If P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are two distinct points on L then

x 2 − x1 , y 2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 constitute a set of direction numbers for L.

Pf.:

Ex. Find the direction numbers and direction cosines for L passing through the points P1 (1,5,2)
and P2 (3,7,−4) .

Ex. Show that the three points A(3, -1, 4), B(1, 6, 8), and C(9, -22, -8) lie on the same line.
Corollary 7.2.5 A line L1 is parallel to a line L 2 if a set of direction numbers of L1

is proportional to a set of direction numbers of L 2 .

Lines in space that are neither parallel nor intersecting are said to be skew to each other.
However the angle between them can still be found.

Denote by L1' and L2 ' the lines passing through the origin and parallel to L1 and L 2 , resp. then
the angle between L1 and L 2 is defined to be the angle between L1' and L2 ' .

Theorem 7.2.6 If lines L1 and L 2 have direction cosines 1 , 1 , 1 and  2 ,  2 , 2 , resp. and if  is
the angle between them, the cos = 12 + 1 2 + 1 2 .

Pf.: P1 L1

P2

L2

Corollary 7.2.7 Two lines L1 and L 2 with direction cosines 1 , 1 , 1 and  2 ,  2 , 2 , resp. are
perpendicular if and only if 0 = 1 2 + 1  2 + 1 2

Corollary 7.2.8 Two lines L1 and L 2 with direction numbers a1 , b1 , c1 and a 2 , b2 , c 2 , resp. are
perpendicular if and only if a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0 .

Pf.:
Ex. Find the cosine of the angle between the lines L1 passing through the points P1 (1,4,2) and
P2 (3,−1,3) and L 2 passing through Q1 (3,1,2) and Q2 (2,1,3) .

Ex. Find the coordinates of another point on the line L passing through the point P1 (1,4,−2) with
direction numbers 2, 1, 4.

Ex. Determine whether or not the line passing through the points P1 (2,1,3) and P2 (4,0,5) is
perpendicular the line passing through the points Q1 (3,1,2) and Q2 (2,1,6) .

Equations of Lines and Planes

Two point form of a line (parametric equation):

Theorem 7.3.1 If Po ( x o , y o , z o ) and P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) are points on a line L then the set of parametric
equations of L is

x = xo + ( x1 − xo )t , y = y o + ( y1 − y o )t , z = z o + ( z1 − z o )t .

Ex. Find the set of parametric equations of a line L passing through P1 (3,2,−1) and P2 (4,4,6) .
Locate 3 additional points on L.

Point direction numbers form(Parametric equation):

Theorem 7.3.2 The set of parametric equations of a line L passing through Po ( x o , y o , z o ) with
direction numbers a, b, c is
 x = x o + at , y = y o + bt , z = z o + ct .

Ex. Find the set of parametric equations of a line through A(3,−2,5) with direction nos. 4, 0,-2.
What is the relation of the line to the coordinate planes?

If none of the direction numbers is 0, t maybe eliminated in Theorem 7.3.2 so that we get

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
t= t= t= ,
a b c

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
Hence, = = . If one of the direction numbers is 0, say c = 0 , then we may
a b c
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0 x − x0 y − y0
write = = and is understood to stand for = , z = z o . Hence, if L
a b 0 a b
passes through the points Po ( x o , y o , z o ) and P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , then we have

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
x1 − x 0 y1 − y 0 z1 − z 0

as the symmetric form for the equation of L.

Ex. Find the point of intersection of the line L = (x, y, z ) : x = 3 − t , y = 2 + 3t , z = −1 + 2t with the plane
S = (z, y, z ) : z = 5.

Ex. Find the equation of the line through the point P(2,−1,3) and parallel to the line through the
points Q(1,4,−6) and R(−2,−1.5) .

Planes:

Theorem 7.3.3 Let Po ( x o , y o , z o ) be a given point and suppose that a given L has direction
numbers A, B, C. Then the equation of the plane passing through Po and perpendicular to L is
given by A( x − x0 ) + B( y − y 0 ) + C ( z − z 0 ) = 0.

Pf.:
Ex. Find the equation of the plane through the point P0 (5,2,−3) which is perpendicular to the line
passing through P1 (5,4,3) and P2 (−6,1,7) .

A set of attitude numbers of a plane is any set of direction numbers of a line perpendicular to
the plane.

Ex. What are the sets of attitude numbers for planes parallel to the coordinate planes?

Theorem 7.3.4 Two planes are parallel iff there attitude numbers are proportional.

Theorem 7.3.5 If A, B, C are not all zero, then the graph of the equation of the form
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is a plane.

Pf.:

Ex. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2,1,3), (1,3,2) and (−1,2,4) .

Ex. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1,−2,1), (2,0,3) and (0,1,−1) .

Ex. Find the equation of the plane passing through (1,4,2) and has attitude numbers 3, 1, -4.
Ex. Find the equation of the line through (−2,3,1) and perpendicular to the plane 2x + 3y + z − 3 = 0 .

Ex. Find the equation of the plane passing through (1,−2,−1) and parallel to the plane
3x + 2 y − z + 4 = 0 .

Ex. Fine the equation of the line passing through (2,−1,3) and parallel to the line
x −1 y + 2 z − 2
= = .
3 −2 4

x +1 y − 2 z −1
Ex. Find the equation of the plane containing the lines L1 : = = and
2 3 1
x +1 y − 2 z −1
L2 : = = .
1 −1 2

x − 2 y +1 z
Ex. Find the equation of the plane containing two parallel lines L1 : = = and
2 −1 3
x +1 y z+2
L2 : = = .
2 −1 3

Ex. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1,−2,3) and contains the line
L = (x, y, z ) : x = −1 + t , y = y = 2 + 2t , z = 2 − 2t .
Vectors in Three Dimensions

The directed line segment from A to B in space is defined as the line segment AB, denoted by
AB which is ordered so that A precedes B. We call A its base and B its head.

The magnitude of the directed line segment AB is the length AB . Two directed line segments

AB and CD are said to have the same magnitude and direction iff either one of the following
two conditions hold:

1. AB and CD are both on the same line, their magnitude are equal and the heads B and D
are pointing in the same direction as shown below:

D
A B C
2. The points A,B, C, and D are vertices of a parallelogram as shown below:
B D

A C

AB and CD are said to be equivalent, written AB  CD , if they have the same magnitude and
direction.

Theorem 7.4.1 Suppose that A, B, C, and D are points in space located at points ( x A , y A , z A )
( x B , y B , z B ) ( xC , y C , z C ) and ( x D , y D , z D ) resp. Then AB  CD iff

x B − x A = x D − xC , y B − y A = y D − yC y B − y A = y D − yC .

Vector is a directed line segment. Whenever AB  CD , we treat them as a single vector.

Orthogonal vectors: Two vectors are said to be orthogonal(or perpendicular) if the lines on
which they lie are perpendicular. Unit vector is a vector of length 1 and the zero vector,
denoted by  , is a vector of length 0(that is, a point). We make a convention that the zero vector
is orthogonal to any vector.

Sum of vectors:
Let u = AB and v = BC be vectors. Then u + v is the vector AC .

The rule of adding vectors does not depend on their locations of bases. That is, if the head of u
is not the same as the base of v then we consider the same vector v whose base is the head of u .

+ =

Scalar multiplication of vectors:

We refer to the real number c as a scalar. Let c   + and v be a vector. Then cv is the vector
having the same direction as v but with magnitude c v .

v 2v

1 / 2v −2v

If c   − , cv is the vector having opposite direction as v . If c = 0, then cv = 0.

The unit vectors i, j and k :

Suppose that a rectangular coordinate system is given with points I(1, 0,0), J(0, 1,0) and K(0,0 1)
and let O be the origin. Then the unit vector i is a vector having the same direction and
magnitude as OI , the unit vector j is a vector having the same direction and magnitude as OJ
,the unit vector k is a vector having the same direction and magnitude as OK .

I J

Theorem 7.4.2
Suppose that a vector w has the same magnitude and direction as AB with A( x A , y A , z A ) and
B( x B , y B , z B ) . Then w may be expressed in the form

w = ( x B − x A )i + ( y B − y A ) j + ( z B − z A )k .

Pf.: Consider the following diagram with P( x B − x A , y B − y A , z B − z A ) , Q( x B − x A ,0,0) ,

R(0, y B − y A ,0) , S (0,0, z B − z A ) , and T ( x B − x A , y B − y A ,0) .

w P

Ex. Let v = AB with A(3,−2,4), B(2,1,5) . Express v in terms of i, j , and k .

Theorem 7.4.3 If v = ai + bj + ck then the length of v is given by v = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .

Pf.:
Ex. Find the length v of the vector v = i − 2 j + 3k .

Theorem 7.4.4(Addition of vectors) If v = a1i + b1 j + c1k and w = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k then

v + w = (a1 + a 2 )i + (b1 + b2 ) j + (c1 + c 2 )k .

Pf.:

Ex. Let v = 2i + 3 j + k , w = i − 2 j + k , find v + w .

Theorem 7.4.5(Scalar Multiplication)

If r   and v = ai + bj + ck then cv = rai + rbj + rck .

Theorem7.4.6 Let u, v, w be vectors and let c, d be scalars. Then the ff. relations hold:

(a). u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (e). c(u + v) = cu + cv

(b). c(dv) = (cd )v (f). 1(u ) = u

(c). u + v = v + u (g). −1(u ) = −u

(d). (c + d )v = cv + dv

Ex. Given the vectors u = 2i − 3 j + 5k and v = −4i + j − 3k , express 2u − 3v in terms of i, j, k .

v
Let v be any vector except  . The unit vector u in the direction of v is defined by u = .
v

Ex. Given v = 3i + 3 j + k , find the unit vector u in the direction of v .

The Dot Product(inner or scalar product)

Two vectors are said to be parallel or proportional when each is a scalar multiple of the
other(and neither is zero). That is, u v  u = kv .

The angle between two vectors v and w is the angle between two directed line segments having
a common base and equivalent to v and w .

v 

If  is the angle between the vectors v = a1i + b1 j + c1k and w = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k then

a a +b b +c c
cos  = 1 2 1 2 1 2 .
vw

Ex. v = 3i − 2 j + k and w = −2i + j − 3k , find cos where  is the angle between v and w.

The dot product of two nonzero vectors v and w , written v  w , is defined as v  w = v w cos
where  is the angle between v and w . If either v or w is zero then v  w = 0 . (Note: The zero vector
is orthogonal to any vector.)

Remark: v and w are orthogonal if and only if v  w = 0 .

Pf.:

Theorem 7.4.7 Let u, v, w be vectors. Then the ff. hold:

(a). v  u = u  v

2
(b). u  u = u

(c). If v = a1i + b1 j + c1k and w = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k then v  w = a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 .

Pf.:

Ex. Given u = 2i − 3 j + 5k and v = −4i + j − 3k , find u  v .

2 2 2
Ex. Express 3u + 5v in terms of u , v , and u  v .

Corollary 7.4.8

(a). If c and d are any scalars and u, v, w are vectors then u  (cv + dw) = c(u  v) + d (u  w) .

(b). i  i = j  j = k  k = 1, i  j = i  k = j  k = 0.

Let v, w be vectors which make an angle  . The quantity v cos is called the projection of v on
w , denote by proj w v .
 a1 a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
Theorem 7.4.9 If v = a1i + b1 j + c1k , w = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k then proj w v = .
w

Pf.:

Ex. Given the vectors v = −i + 2 j + 3k , w = 2i + − j − 4k find the projection of v on w .

Theorem 7.4.10 If v and w are nonzero vectors then there exists a unique scalar k such that
vw
v − kw is orthogonal to w . In fact, k is given by the formula k = .
2
w

Pf.

Graph:

Ex. Find k so that v − ku is orthogonal to u where v = i + 2 j + k , u = 2i + 3 j − k .

Vector or Cross Product:

The right-hand triple rule:

Twist clockwise to drive the screw.

(Take note of the direction of the screw.)

The left-hand triple rule:

Given the vectors u and v . The cross product u  v is defined as follows:

(1). If either u or v is zero then u v = 0 .

(2). If u is proportional to v then u v = 0 .

(3). Otherwise, u  v = w , where w has the ff. properties:

3.1. it is orthogonal to both u and v ,

3.2. it has magnitude w = u v sin  where  is the angle between u and v .

3.3. it is directed so that u, v, w is a right-hand triple.

Theorem 7.5.1 Suppose that u and v are any vectors, t is any number. Then:

(1). v  u = −(u  v)

(2). (tu)  v = t (u  v) = u  (tv)

(3). i  j = k = − j  i, j  k = i = −k  j , k  i = j = −i  k

(4). i  i = j  j = k  k = 0

Theorem 7.5.2 If u, v, w are any vectors then

(1). u  (v + w) = (u  v) + (u  w)

(2). (v + w)  u = (v  u) + (w  u)

Theorem 7.5.3 If v = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k , w = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then

 v  w = (a2b3 − a3b2 )i + (a3b1 − a1b3 ) j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k .

Pf.:

It is convenient to use determinant to find the cross product.

a b
Recall: = ad − bc .
c d

a b c
d e f = aei + bfg + chd − (gec + bdi + ahf ) .
g h i

Expansion of the determinant in terms of the first row:

a b c
e f d f d e
d e f = a(−1)1+1 + b(−1)1+ 2 + c(−1)1+3
h i g i g h
g h i

e f d f d e
= a − b + c.
h i g i g h

Consider
i j k
a a3 a a3 a a2
a1 a2 a3 = 2 i− 1 j+ 1 k = (a 2 b3 − a 3 b2 )i + (a 3 b1 − a1b3 ) j + (a1b2 − a 2 b1 )k = v  w
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

Ex. Find u  v where u = 2i + 3 j − 4k , v =i−2j +k .

Find u  v where u = 3i + 2 j − k , v = i − j + 2k
Application:

Area of a parallelogram: The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides AB and AC is given by
u  v , where u = AB, v = AC .

The area of triangle ABC is 1 / 2 u  v .

Ex. Find the area of triangle ABC with A(-2,1,3), B(1, -1,1), and C(3,-2,4).

Ex(Equation of a plane)

Find the equation of the plane through the points A(-1,12), B(1, -2, 1), and C(2,2,4).

x + 2 y −1 z +1
Ex. Find the perpendicular distance between skew lines L1 : = = and
2 3 −1
x −1 y + 1 z − 2
L2 : = = .
−1 2 4