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Computer Organisation and Architecture An
Introduction 2nd Edition B.S. Chalk Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): B.S. Chalk, A.T. Carter, R.W. Hind
ISBN(s): 9780230000605, 0230000606
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 1.28 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
Computer
Organisation and
Architecture
An Introduction
Second Edition
Palgrave
Macmillan
© B.S. Chalk, A.T. Carter and R.W. Hind 2004
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
A great deal has happened in the world of computing since the publication of
the first edition of this book. Processors have become faster and the number
of transistors contained in the processor chip has greatly increased. The
amount of memory, both primary and secondary, in the standard personal
computer has increased and become faster. New peripheral devices have
come onto the scene and some of the old ones have almost disappeared.
Networked computers are the norm, as is connection to the Internet for
almost all home computers. Having said all the above, the basic von
Neumann architecture has not been superseded yet.
This second edition of Computer Organisation and Architecture, An
Introduction, builds on the first edition, bringing the material up to date and
adding new chapters on ‘Networking and what’s next’. After considerable
thought, we have decided to use the Intel family of processors rather than the
Motorola 68000 for our examples. This is because the availability of Intel
based personal computers (PCs) tends to be greater than machines based on
the Motorola 68000, taking into account that many people, especially
students, have a PC at home. Our change must not be seen as a criticism of
the Motorola processors, but simply a matter of expedience for experiential
learning.
Many of our examples make reference to PCs, but all the basic principles
apply to all sizes and shapes of computers. There are still a large number of
powerful high-end computers being used in big organisations and it must be
remembered that the world of computing is not just PCs.
The target audience for this edition has not changed and with the addition
of the networking chapter, we hope that the area of appeal will have widened.
We have included Chapter 12 in order to look briefly at some
developments. Some are a few weeks away while others are experimental or
just proposals. With the rate of development we are seeing, it is difficult to
imagine where computing will be in say five years time. We live in exciting
times.
Suggested answers to a number of the end of chapter exercises are
available on the WEB site associated with this book.
1
Not all that many years ago, the only places where one would be able to see
a computer would have been the central offices of large organisations. The
computer, costing at least £500000, would have been housed in a large,
temperature controlled room. The computer would have been run by a team
of people, called operators, working on a shift system which provided
24-hour operation. Users of the computer would have a terminal, consisting
of a TV screen and a keyboard, on their desk and they would use the facilities
of the computer by means of on-screen forms and menus. These computers
were called main frame computers and in fact there are still many of these in
operation today. Today, almost every home has a computer either in the
form of a Personal Computer (PC) or games console and the cost is well
under £1000.
There is a vast array of different types of computers between the two
types mentioned above, varying in size, cost and performance. However,
the majority of these computers are based on a model proposed by John
von Neumann and others in 1946. In Chapter 1, we describe the von
Neumann model and relate its logical units to the physical components
found in a typical PC. This will provide a foundation for a more detailed
discussion of computer organisation in subsequent chapters. There are two
approaches to investigating a complex system. One, known as the top-
down approach, looks at the system as a whole with particular attention
being applied to what it does, in other words, the functions the system
performs. Then each function is investigated in more detail with the
intention of gaining an understanding of how the system performs the
function. The level of detail considered increases until the individual
component level is reached, at which point the operation of the whole
system should be understood in minute detail. The alternative approach,
known as the bottom-up approach, considers individual components and
then looks at ways in which these can be connected together to provide the
functions required of a system.
In this book, we will start by using the top-down approach to get an
understanding of what basic functions a computer can perform, then we will
use the bottom-up approach to show how basic components can be
interconnected to provide the required functionality.
Computer organisation and architecture
30 ⫹ (⫺20) ⫽ 10
25 ⫹ 25 ⫹ 25 ⫽ 75
TQ 1.1 How would you use the above system to check if two numbers were equal?
2
Introduction
ALU
Control Unit
Input Output
Device Memory Device
control lines
instructions and
data flow
houses CPU
and Memory
printer
processor unit
keyboard
mouse
3
Computer organisation and architecture
Figure 1.3 A typical motherboard (reproduced with permission from EPOX Electronics)
Keyboard 5
JP13 J4
(Top)
CPU SYS1
1
JP18
JP17
Mouse KBPO FAN FAN1 JP16
(Bottom) 1
CPU Vio
Voltage Select
SOCKET462
USB 1
COM1
JP14
Parallel 1
Port CPU Host Clock
1 2 34 5
Ratio LED (DIP Type
ON
Select Red) LED1
SW1 CPU VIA
Speaker Vcore Select
1 2 34 5 VT8363 FDD1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Line-in Game Port ON
MIC
Battery
CD1 4X AGP Slat DIMM3~1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
PCI Slot # 1
1
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1
IDE1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
PCI Slot # 2
1
IDE2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
BIOS
CHASSIS
FAN SPK
1 1
1 RESET
ISA Slot USB2
1
switches called transistors organised in the form of logic gates, the basic
building blocks of digital circuits. These logic gates are used to implement
the control unit, the ALU and other components of the CPU such as its
register set. Logic gates are discussed in Chapter 3.
There are two basic types of semiconductor memory on the motherboard,
Random Access Memory (RAM) which is a read–write memory and Read
Only Memory (ROM). These form the fast primary or main memory of the
system and both store information in binary form (1s and 0s). RAM is often
provided in the form of memory modules, each module containing a number
of memory chips. The modules are plugged into sockets on the motherboard.
Because RAM can be read from and written to, it is suitable for storing
programs and data. Unfortunately RAM chips are normally volatile and
therefore lose their content when the computer’s power is switched off.
ROMs on the other hand, are non-volatile and are used for storing various
system programs and data that needs to be available when the computer is
switched on. Non-volatile means that the ROM does not lose its content even
when the power is removed.
4
Introduction
In addition to a fast main memory, the PC also has a large but slower
secondary memory, usually in the form of a hard disk and one or two
floppy disk units and a CD or DVD read/write unit. Programs are stored
on disk as files and must be loaded into main memory before they can
be executed by the processor. Computer memory is discussed in
Chapters 6 and 7.
The processor is connected to memory and the other parts of the system
by a group of conducting tracks called a system bus, which provides a
pathway for the exchange of data and control information. Logically, a
system bus is divided into an address bus, a data bus and a control bus.
To co-ordinate activities taking place inside the processor with those taking
place on the system bus, some form of timing is required. This is provided
by a crystal controlled clock.
Input/Output (I/O) cards are plugged into the sockets shown in
Figure 1.3. The sockets are connected to the system bus. The cards are used
for connecting peripheral devices to the system. In general, peripheral
devices operate at much slower speeds than the CPU and so the I/O cards
will have special interface chips mounted on them for connecting the
peripheral devices to the system bus. Interfacing is discussed in Chapter 8.
It is worth mentioning that although PCs are very common and
there are many millions in use today, two other types of small computer
are becoming very popular, namely the small laptop or portable computer
and the even smaller, palmtop or personal data assistant (PDA) computer.
Both laptop and PDA computers are single unit devices with the monitor,
keyboard and mouse built into the single unit. Other than size and a
slightly higher price, there is little difference between a laptop and a PC.
PDAs have a restricted keyboard and sometimes a stylus is used to actuate
the keys rather than fingers. They also tend to have somewhat limited
capability.
5
Computer organisation and architecture
2 store 6
3 stop
4 1
5 2
6
Introduction
Figure 1.5 Different user interfaces (a) graphical (b) command driven
Microsoft(R) Windows 95
(C)Copyright Microsoft Corp
1981–1996.
C:\WINDOWS>
(a) (b)
7
Computer organisation and architecture
TQ 1.2 Because they can only be read from and not written to, they cannot be
loaded with user programs.
EXERCISES
1 Explain what the letters CPU, RAM, ROM and LAN stand for.
2 Write down the main features of a von Neumann style computer.
3 Explain why ROM is needed in a PC system.
4 Explain what is meant by the terms machine instruction and
instruction set.
5 State the parts of the CPU that are used for (a) fetching and
interpreting instructions (b) performing arithmetic operations
such as ‘add’.
6 Briefly explain the benefits of programming in a HLL.
7 Software can be classified as either application software or systems
software. Give an example of each type.
8 When it is required to run a piece of software designed to run on
one type of machine on another type of machine, the software needs
to be recompiled. Explain why this is so.
8
Introduction
9 From the time you ‘double click’ on an icon for a text document in a
GUI, to the time it appears on the screen and you are able to edit it,
the operating system must perform a number of tasks. Outline what
you think these might be.
10 Networks allow users to share peripherals and file stores. Explain the
security risks that this might involve.
11 Explain why a laptop computer may cost more than a PC with a
similar specification.
12 There is a growing trend for desktop PC users to want LCD displays
rather than TV type monitors. Explain why you think this is.
13 In a peer-to-peer network it is possible to send a message from one
PC to another PC directly but this is not possible in a server-based
network. Does this mean that server-based networks can not be
used for e-mail? Explain.
14 What is the effect if one PC in a peer-to-peer network fails or is
switched off?
15 What is the effect if the server machine in a server-based network
fails?
9
Data representation
and computer
arithmetic
2
Data is represented and stored in a computer using groups of binary digits
called words. This chapter begins by describing binary codes and how words
are used to represent characters. It then concentrates on the representation of
positive and negative integers and how binary arithmetic is performed
within the ALU. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the
representation of real numbers and floating point arithmetic.
11
Computer organisation and architecture
Table 2.1 ASCII codes for, ‘A’, ‘z’, ‘2’ and ‘%’
TQ 2.2 By referring to the ASCII table in Appendix 3, write down the ASCII codes
for the characters – ‘a’, ‘Z’ and ‘*’.
12
Data representation and computer arithmetic
The weighting applied to these digits is 10 raised to the power of the position
of the digit, as shown in Figure 2.2.
The position of a digit is found by counting from right to left starting at
position 0.
Fractional or real numbers use a decimal point to separate negative powers
of 10 from positive powers of ten. For example 52.6 represents:
The reason for using 10 is that there are ten different digits in this
representation, which we call the base or radix of the system. Other
positional number systems use different sets of digits and therefore have
different bases. To distinguish one number system from another, we often
subscript the number by its base, such as 12610.
1 ⫻ 23 ⫹ 0 ⫻ 22 ⫹ 1 ⫻ 21 ⫹ 1 ⫻ 20 ⫽ 8 ⫹ 0 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 1 ⫽ 1110
This system of weighting is called pure binary, the binary digit furthest to the
right being the least significant bit (lsb) and the one furthest to the left being
the most significant bit (msb).
In this system the weighting is 16 raised to the power of the position of the
digit. For example A1F16 has a decimal value of:
A ⫻ 162 ⫹ 1 ⫻ 161 ⫹ F ⫻ 160 ⫽ 10 ⫻ 256 ⫹ 1 ⫻ 16 ⫹ 15 ⫻ 1 ⫽ 259110
13
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