Descriptive analysis of data for variables in a study includes describing the results through means,

standard deviations, and range of scores.

Directional hypothesis, as used in quantitative research, is one in which the researcher makes a
prediction about the expected direction or outcomes of the study.

Effect size identifies the strength of the conclusions about group differences or the relationships
among variables in quantitative studies.

An experimental design in quantitative research tests the impact of a treatment (or an intervention) on
an outcome, controlling for all other factors that might influence that outcome.

Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome in a study.

Researchers assess this impact by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from
another group and then determining how both groups score on an outcome.

Interpretation in quantitative research means that the researcher draws conclusions from the results
for the research questions, hypotheses, and the larger meaning of the study.

Mediating variables are variables in quantitative research that “stand between” the independent and
dependent variables in the causal link. The logic is that the independent variable probably causes the
mediating variable, which, in turn, influences the dependent variable.

Moderating variables are variables in quantitative research that moderate the effect of independent
variables in a study. They are variables created by the researcher who takes one independent variable
times another (typically a demographic variable) to construct a new independent variable.

Nondirectional hypothesis in a quantitative study is one in which the researcher makes a prediction,
but the exact form of differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, or less) is not specified because the
researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature.

Null hypothesis in quantitative research represents the traditional approach to writing hypotheses: It
makes a prediction that, in the general population, no relationship or no significant difference exists
between groups on a variable.

Quantitative hypotheses are predictions the researcher makes about the expected relationships among
variables.
Quantitative purpose statements include the variables in the study and their relationship, the
participants in a study, and the site for the research. It also includes language associated with
quantitative research and the deductive testing of relationships or theories.

Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among
variables. These variables can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be
analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set structure consisting of
introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion.

Quantitative research questions are interrogative statements that raise questions about the
relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to answer.

Quasi-experiment is a form of experimental research in which individuals are not randomly

assigned to groups.

Random sampling is a procedure in quantitative research for selecting participants. It means that each
individual has an equal probability of being selected from the population, ensuring that the sample
will be representative of the population.

Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. It involves the intersection of
philosophical assumptions, designs, and specific methods.

Research designs are types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches that provide specific direction for procedures in a research study.

Research methods involve the forms of data collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers
propose for their studies.

A research problem is a problem or issue that leads to the need for a study.

Significance of the study in an introduction conveys the importance of the problem for different
audiences that may profit from reading and using the study.

Social constructivists hold the assumption that individuals seek understanding of the world in which
they live and work. Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences, meanings directed
toward certain objects or things.

Statistical significance testing reports an assessment as to whether the observed scores reflect a
pattern other than chance. A statistical test is considered to be of significance if the results are
unlikely by chance to have occurred, and the null hypothesis of “no effect” can be rejected.

A survey design provides a plan for a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a

population by studying a sample of that population.

Theory in quantitative research is the use of an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed
into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of
magnitude or direction) and predicts the outcomes of a study.

Validity in quantitative research refers to whether one can draw meaningful and useful inferences
from scores on particular instruments.

Variable refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be

measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied. A variable
typically will vary in two or more categories or on a continuum of scores, and it can be measured.

correlation coefficient
A statistic that provides a measure of the strength and direction of a relationship between two ratio
variables.
The result of the formula is a value between 1 and 1.
A result of 1 (minus 1) shows that there is a perfect negative relationship between the
two variables – in other words, that as one variable increases, the other decreases.
A result of 1 shows that there is a perfect positive relationship between the two vari-
ables – that as one variable increases, so the other increases.
A result of zero shows that there is no statistical relationship between the two variables –
in other words, there is no discernible pattern to the relation between the two variables.
Of course, the result of the calculation is rarely exactly 1, 0 or 1. The closeness of the
result to 1, 0 or 1 shows the strength of the relationship.

(A) The correlation coefficient (r) is 0.701. This shows: a positive relationship – as one variable increases so does the other; and that
there is quite a strong relationship – that many of the cases are close to the line that best fits the distribution.

(B) The correlation coefficient (r) is 0.074. This shows: a very weak positive relationship between the variables – there is no evidence that the
two variables are related.

A statistical test is considered to be significant if the results are unlikely by chance to have
occurred, and the null hypothesis of “no effect” can be rejected. The researcher sets a rejection
level of “no effect, ” such as p = 0.001, and then assesses whether the test statistic falls into this
level of rejection.
Typically results will be summarized as “the analysis of variance revealed a statistically
significant difference between men and women in terms of attitudes toward banning smoking in
restaurants F (2; 6) = 8.55, p = 0.001.”

Two forms of practical evidence of the results should also be reported: (a) the effect
size and (b) the confidence interval. A confidence interval is a range of values (an interval) that
describes a level of uncertainty around an estimated observed score.
A confidence interval shows how good an estimated score might be. A confidence interval of
95%, for example, indicates that 95 out of 100 times the observed score will fall in the range of
values.

mean A statistical average calculated by totalling all the values and dividing by the number of cases.

median A statistical average calculated by arranging all the values in a sample in numerical order,
then noting the middle value of the distribution.

mode A statistical average calculated by noting the most common value in the distribution.

epistemology The theory of knowledge and how we know things.

normal distribution Data that is distributed symmetrically around the mean point in a ‘bell shape’.

ontology The ‘science or study of being’; in social research, ontology refers to the way the social
world is seen to be and what can be assumed about the nature and reality of the social phenomena
that make up the social world.

quantitative research methods Methods that are primarily concerned with gathering and working with
data that is structured and can be represented numerically.

quasi-experiment Literally, ‘almost the same as an experiment’ but lacking some of the attributes of
an
experiment.

quasi-experimental research design A research design used in situations where two or more
‘naturally’
different groups of participants or data can be identified, and one used as the control and the other as
the experimental group.
research proposal A document that outlines what a research project is about, how it will be
undertaken, why it is worthwhile, how long it will take, and why it should be funded.

research question The initial enquiry from which a research project develops.

standard deviation A statistical measure of how values or cases are distributed around the mean value
or case.

statistical sampling The process of selecting a probability sample.

statistical significance A measure of the probability that the relationships found in a sample will also
be found in the wider population.

stratified sample A sample that is selected to ensure that certain categories and groups of people and
cases are included, proportionate to their presence in the population.