STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells containing an organized (well define) nucleus. The nuclear
membrane surrounds the nucleus which well-defined chromosome (bodies containing the
hereditary materials) are located. Examples of eukaryotic cells are cells found in plants, animals,
protists and fungi.
Structures in the eukaryotic cell include:
Cytoplasmic Membrane
It is also called a plasma membrane or cell membrane. It is referred to as the gatekeeper of the
cell. It separates the cell interior from the environment. The plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable membrane that separates the inside of a cell from the outside. In eukaryotic cells, the
plasma membrane consists of proteins, sterol and phospholipids (i.e. lipid with a phosphate
group). These phospholipids are arranged as follows:
 The polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) heads face the outside and inside of the cell. These
heads interact with the aqueous environment outside and within a cell.
 The non-polar, hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails are sandwiched between the heads and
are protected from the aqueous environments.
Since the plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected substances to
pass through. It protects the cells from shock and injuries. The fluid nature of the membrane
allows the interaction of molecules within the membrane. It also allows transport of molecules
across the membrane. This transport can be of two types:
 Active transport – This transport occurs against the concentration gradient and therefore,
requires energy and also needs carrier proteins.
 Passive transport – This transport occurs along the concentration gradient and therefore,
does not require energy and carrier protein.
Cytoplasm
This is the rest of the material of the cell within the plasma membrane, excluding the nucleus,
that consists of a fluid portion called the cytosol and other particulates suspended in it. It is
responsible for holding the components of the cell and protects them from damage. It stores the
molecules required for cellular processes and it is also responsible for giving the cell it shape.
Cell Wall
The cell wall is a rigid structure outside the plasma membrane in plant cells, fungi and plant-like
protist. It is absent in eukaryotic cells of animals. It is made of different components in different
eukaryotes:
· Cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and pectin, lignin – in plants.
· Chitin, glucans, glycoprotein– in fungi.
· Cellulose- in protist.
The Cell wall:
 Provides shape to the cell,
 Helps in cell-cell interaction, in plant cell, cell walls in particular a specialized pectin-rich
region of the cell wall called middle lamella acts as a glue to hold adjacent cell wall
together.
 Protects the cell from injury, undesirable molecules and pathogens.
Cytoskeleton
It is a structure that helps cell maintain their shape and internal organization and it also provide
mechanical support that enable cell carry out essential functions like division and movement.
The microtubules and microfilaments are frequently assembled and disassembled according to
cellular needs for movement and maintaining cell shape.
The cytoskeleton consists of
 Microtubules; which is the largest type of filament with diameter of about 25 nanometers
and they are composed of protein called tubulin
 Intermediate filament/fibers; as the name suggest are mid-sized, with a diameter of about
10 nanometers. They are constructed from a number of different subunit protein
 Microfilaments; they are the smallest filament with diameter of about 6 nanometer and
they are made up of a protein called actin.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the main organelle of a cell. It is a double membrane structure with all the genetic
information. Therefore, it is also called the ‘brain’ of a cell. The nucleus is found in all
eukaryotic cells except mature human RBCs and mature sieve cells of plants. A nucleus has the
following parts:
· Nuclear envelope/membrane: It is a double membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. The
outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inner membrane has small
pores called ‘nuclear pores’.
· Nucleoplasm – It is the fluid material in the nucleus that contains the nucleolus and chromatin.
· Nucleolus – Nucleoli are not membrane-bound and are active sites for ribosomal RNA
synthesis.
· Chromatin – It consists of DNA and proteins called ‘histones’. The DNA is organized into
chromosomes. Chromosomes have certain constriction sites called ‘centromeres’. Based on the
position of the centromere, they can be divided as follows:
 Metacentric – With centromere in the centre and having equal chromosome arms.
 Sub-metacentric – Centromere is slightly off-centre creating one short and one long arm.
 Acrocentric – Centromere is extremely off-centre with one very long and one very short
chromosome arm.
 Telocentric – Centromere is placed at one end of the chromosome. Humans do not
possess telocentric chromosomes.
The nucleus:
· Stores genetic information (in the form of DNA) necessary for development and reproduction.
· Contains all information necessary for protein synthesis and cellular functions
Ribosome
This is the site for protein synthesis in a cell. Each ribosome consists of a large subunit and a
small subunit, each of which contains rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and ribosomal proteins.
Ribosomes exist free in the cytoplasm and bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Free
ribosomes synthesize the proteins that function in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes make
proteins that are distributed by the membrane systems, including those which are secreted from
the cell. Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes composed of 40S small subunit and 60S large subunit in
the endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm. They contain 70S ribosome in mitochondria and
chloroplasts. This is because mitochondria and chloroplasts were once thought to be prokaryotic
i.e. they share an evolutionary past with prokaryotes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is a phospholipid bilayer embedded
with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules that collectively modifies proteins and
synthesizes lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the ER: the
rough ER and the smooth ER.
Rough ER
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its
cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance. Ribosomes transfer their newly synthesized
proteins into the lumen of the RER where they undergo structural modifications, such as folding
or the acquisition of side chains. These modified proteins will be incorporated into cellular
membranes, membrane of the ER or those of other organelles. The RER also makes
phospholipids for cellular membranes. If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined
to stay in the RER, they will reach their destinations via transport vesicles that bud from the
RER’s membrane.
Smooth ER
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no
ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface. Functions of the SER include synthesis of carbohydrates,
lipids, and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; and storage of calcium
ions.
Golgi Apparatus
It is also called golgi body and golgi complex. It can be described as the post office of the cell.
Golgi is made of many flattened disc shaped membrane enclosed, fluid filled structures called
cisternae. It is present in all eukaryotic cells except human red blood cells and sieve cells of
plants. when proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications that
allow them to be sorted. The most frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar
molecules. These newly-modified proteins and lipids are then tagged with phosphate groups or
other small molecules so that they can be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into secretory vesicles that bud from the
trans face of the Golgi. While some of these vesicles deposit their contents into other parts of the
cell where they will be used, other secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release
their contents outside the cell.
The cisternae are arranged in parallel and concentrically near the nucleus as follows:
· Cis face (forming face) – It faces the plasma membrane and receives secreted material in
vesicles.
· Trans face (maturing face) – It faces the nucleus and releases the received material into the cell.
The Golgi Apparatus
 Sort and package material within the cell
 An important site for protein modification, as well as an important site for the formation
of glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrate) and glycoproteins (proteins with
carbohydrates) .
 delivers materials material intracellularly and extracellularly.
Mitochondria
They are membrane-bound organelles, also known as ‘powerhouses of the cell. It has two
membranes – outer and inner. The outer membrane forms a continuous boundary around the
mitochondria. The inner membrane is semi-permeable and divided into folds called ‘cristae’,
where the chemical reaction takes place. They produce energy (ATP) and therefore are called the
‘powerhouse of the cell’. Mitochondria contain the enzymes and other components needed for
the enzyme complexes that catalyze respiration. The primary function of mitochondria is to
synthesize ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and Pi (inorganic
phosphate). It also helps in regulating cell metabolism. In addition to producing energy,
mithochondria store calcium for cell signaling activities, generate heat, and mediate cell growth
and death.
Lysosomes
They are membrane-bound vesicles formed in the Golgi apparatus while the enzymes in
lysosome are synthesized by rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is absent in plant cell. The
lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Lysosomes are also called ‘suicidal bags’ since they
are rich in hydrolytic enzymes. It is responsible for ensuring digestion process in a cell. It is
mainly present in animals. The reactions taking place in the lysosome are degradative in nature
and therefore do not generate energy. Enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. These enzymes are
active at a much lower pH than that of the cytoplasm. These enzymes are optimally active at
acidic pH (less than 7). Therefore, the pH within lysosomes is more acidic than the pH of the
cytoplasm. Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, so the
advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are membrane-bounded vesicles which just like the lysosomes are chamber of
enzymes. It ensures oxidation of organic compounds and ensure the breaking down of metabolic
hydrogen peroxide. It is bigger in size than lysosome and present mainly in all eukaryotes. The
enzymes in peroxisomes are synthesized by free ribosomes and transported into a peroxisome
from the cytoplasm. The reaction taking place in peroxisome are oxidative in nature and
therefore generates energy. They are prevalent in cells that are synthesizing and breaking down
lipids. Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules that are
transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Peroxisomes in the liver
detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen from the poisons to
oxygen. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and
transfer them to oxygen (O2), producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product. The H2O2
formed by peroxisomes is itself toxic, but the organelle also contains an enzyme that converts
H2O2 to water
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast’s
inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs called
thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by
the inner membrane that surrounds the grana is called the stroma. The light harvesting reactions
take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the synthesis of sugar takes place in the fluid inside
the inner membrane, which is called the stroma. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own
DNA and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an entirely different function. Chloroplasts are plant
and photosynthetic protist cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Vacuoles
They are membranous sacs. They usually store substances. Plants have a central vacuole which
maintains hydrostatic pressure or turgor pressure in plant cells. It functions in storage of other
nutrients and waste products. It can have also lysosomal-like function. In plant cells, the
digestive processes take place in vacuoles. In general vacuoles performs funcions such as
storage, ingestion, digestion, excretion and expulsion of excess water.
STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL