Social Research

UNIT 1 SOCIAL RESEARCH

Structure NOTES
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Social Research
1.2.1 Scope and Importance of Social Research
1.2.2 Types of Social Research
1.3 Basic Steps of Scientific Research
1.4 Importance of the Scientific Method
1.4.1 The Nature of Science
1.4.2 Steps and Process
1.4.3 Objectives of Scientific Research
1.4.4 Characteristics of Good Research
1.4.5 Objectivity-Subjectivity Debate
1.5 Formulation of Hypothesis
1.5.1 Formulating a Hypothesis
1.5.2 Importance of Hypothesis in Social Research
1.5.3 Sources of Hypothesis
1.6 Research Design
1.6.1 Need for a Research Design
1.6.2 Features of a Good Research Design
1.6.3 Steps in Research Designing
1.6.4 Important Concepts Related to a Research Design
1.6.5 Basic Principles of Research Design
1.6.6 Types of Research Design
1.7 Social Survey: Meaning, Definition, Characteristics, Objectives and Types
1.7.1 Process
1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Terms
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.12 Further Reading

1 .0 INTRODUCTION
Simply defined, research is a search for knowledge. One can also define research
as a scientific and systematic pursuit of information on a specific topic. Scientifically,
research can also be termed as scientific investigation. Thus, research and scientific
enquiry can be considered synonymous. The only difference between the two is
that while it is possible to employ scientific method without research, it is not
possible to conduct any research without employing scientific methods. Thus,
research is a more specialized form of scientific enquiry which in turn is the result
of gathering data, information and facts for the specific purpose.

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Social Research Social research pertains to research carried out by social scientists on various
facets of society. Research plays a very significant role in the field of social science.
In order to study the importance and relationship between social science and
research, social research is conducted or undertaken. The research that attempts
NOTES to measure, describe, explain and predict the social and economic phenomena or
social behaviour of human beings is known as ‘social research’. In this unit, you
will get acquainted with the meaning, characteristics and objective of scientific
research. You will also study about the aims and types of social research and the
steps in social research.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 List the characteristics of social research
 Examine the scope and importance of social research
 List the basic steps of scientific research
 Analyse the importance of scientific method of research
 Explain the process of formulation of hypothesis
 Describe the types of research designs
 Identify the main types of social survey

1.2 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

SOCIAL RESEARCH
Society is an amalgamation of individuals with different needs, aspirations and
goals in life. However, social individuals are also associated with each other through
shared interests, familial bonds and common objectives. Social research is basically
research conducted by social scientists in order to analyse a vast breadth of social
phenomena. The methods used in social research find their roots in classical
sociology and statistics. Social research methods may be divided into two broad
divisions. These are: Qualitative and Quantitative methods. While the former
approaches social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, the latter approaches
social phenomena through observation, communication with partners and analysis
of text. However, the choice of method depends largely on what the scientist
wishes to investigate. Prof. Bent Flyvbjerg of Oxford University maintains that the
divide between the quality and quantity oriented camps in social research is clearly
unfortunate as good research methods require a combination of both.
Definitions
While C.A. Moser defines social research as: ‘A systematized investigation to
gain new knowledge about social phenomenon and problems’, P.V. Young
maintains: ‘Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical

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methods, aim to discover new facts or old facts and to analyse their sequences, Social Research

interrelationships, casual explanations and natural laws which govern them.’

Objectivity in Social Research
Social scientists are often influenced by their biases, passions, likes and dislikes NOTES
and preconceived notions. These are seen to interfere with the scientific objectivity
that they would need while researching on social sciences. Objectivity is the capacity
to represent truthfully and without prejudice, the results of one’s research. A social
researcher needs to be aware of his personal biases and prejudices and take
adequate care that these do not affect the objectivity of the research. Max Weber,
an exponent in social research argued, that actually, the thoughts and beliefs of the
researchers should affect their topics of study. However, the social scientist needs
to be value-neutral once the research question has been framed. Objectivity can
be attained by sharing the results of research with experts who then may be asked
to critically examine them. In his Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), Karl
Popper maintained that confirmation and refutation are the essence of scientific
discovery. Social researchers publish their work so that their work can be
scrutinized by others. Journals have dedicated teams to decide whether the research
material lives up to the standard of the journal and should, therefore, be published.
Once a research material is published, other scholars look at it critically, especially
when they do not agree with the findings.
Some others may wish to replicate the study by changing the strategies and
settings to check if the conclusion would remain the same.
Characteristics of Social Research
Social research possesses certain unique characteristics. These are as follows:
 Social research is directed towards finding solutions for social problems.
 It emphasizes the development of generalizations, theories and principles
that help in predicting future occurrences.
 It is primarily based on empirical/observable experience.
 It requires meticulous observation.
 Though it may appear to be unsystematic, social research most often involves
carefully designed procedure.
 It requires an expert researcher who is already acquainted with the previous
nuances of the problem.
 It is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
1.2.1 Scope and Importance of Social Research
The subject matter of sociology is society. Sociologists study man’s social behaviour
in a variety of contexts. They use a number of methods in social research including
‘comparative method’, ‘participant observer method’, ‘community studies’, etc.
Descriptive and explanatory research aims only at describing, in detail, a situation
or set of circumstances. On the other hand, action research refers to ‘that is done

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Social Research when some reform or change has been introduced. Its purpose is to monitor the
effect of the change and to decide whether it has achieved what it was supposed
to achieve.’

NOTES Most disciplines undertake research. Research is more of a way of thinking

than a set of skills. Research entails critically examining aspects of the study; making
guiding principles for testing particular procedure; developing testing theories, etc.
For any study undertaken to be called a ‘research’, it should adhere to the
following three criteria:
 A set of philosophies guide the research
 Methods, techniques and procedures which have proven reliability and
validity are used
 Research has to be objective as well as unbiased
The philosophical orientation of research may stem from one of the two
paradigms in research—positivism and interpretivism. Validity ensures that in a
research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question.
Reliability refers to quality of a measurement procedure. ‘Unbiased and objective’
means that researchers take each step and draws each conclusion to the best of
their ability without introducing their own biases and prejudices. (Ranjit Kumar,
1999).
Research plays a very significant role in the field of social science. In order
to study the importance and relationship between social science and research,
social research is conducted or undertaken. Research that attempts to measure,
describe, explain and predict the social and economic phenomena or social
behaviour of human beings is known as ‘social research’.
One of the main objectives of conducting social research is to find information
about the behaviour of an individual and solutions to the problems related to human
relations. The outcome of social research provides the following benefits:
 It helps professionals in earning their livelihood.
 It helps students in knowing how to write a report for various findings.
 It helps philosophers to think on wider new perspectives.
 It helps in developing new styles for creative work.
In order to conduct social research and examine the social life of human
beings, social scientists use different methods. Quantitative and qualitative research
are the two methods of research that are generally used by social scientists to
conduct a research. In quantitative method, numerical data is collected and then
analysed in order to measure the social phenomena. Qualitative method is basically
the study of data, such as words, pictures and objects. However, the data collected
with the help of this method is not very effective and cannot be generalized very
easily.

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 Social research is very helpful for a country as it helps the government to Social Research

explore the following things:

 Social and economic structures
 Social attitudes NOTES
 Social values and behaviours
 Factors motivating individuals and groups of a society
Researchers share a close relationship with government analysts, such as
economists, statisticians and operational researchers. The relationship between
researchers and government analysts is essential in order to find out high quality
research data. Social research also informs about development, implementation
and evaluation of a wide range of government policies.
Social research also helps to examine the consequences of government
policies and economic changes in an organization, and the effects of globalization
and its impact on small-scale and cottage industries.
1.2.2 Types of Social Research
Sociologists employ a variety of methods to learn about the social world. These
methods are not mutually exclusive. Since each research method has strengths
and weaknesses, a good research strategy may use several of them. Appelbaum
and Chambliss (1997:40) hold that the principal methods of social research include
survey and fieldwork.
Survey
A survey entails administering a precisely worded questionnaire to a group of
people in order to determine their characteristics, opinions and behaviours. First,
the researcher has to define a population universe to which the study applies: this
is the group of people about whom generalization is to be made. Once the population
universe is identified, a sample—a subset of cases selected to represent the larger
population—must be selected, since it is seldom economically feasible or desirable
to interview everyone in a chosen population universe.
Two principal type of sampling are used: probability and non-probability
sampling. In the most common type of probability sampling, termed random
sampling, everyone in the population universe has an equal chance of being in the
sample. In non-probability sampling, subjects are deliberately chosen because
of their specific characteristics. Once the sample is constructed or drawn, the
questionnaire is administered. Questionnaires may contain open- or close-ended
questions. In close-ended questions, the respondents are required to choose
only from predetermined alternative responses. In open-ended questions, there
are no fixed responses to choose from. The respondents are provided with a wide
range of opportunities to express a wide range of feelings and opinions.
One of the strengths of survey method is that it permits the researcher to
draw conclusions about a large number of people on the basis of a much smaller
number of interviews. This is a major advantage in terms of time and money.

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Social Research Surveys also have some weaknesses. Sometimes, surveys can be superficial since
in order to be feasible economically, they usually call for brief responses to close-
ended questions. Many-a-times, responses are self-serving, just intended to make
the interviewee look good in the eyes of the researcher.
NOTES
Fieldwork
Fieldwork consists of many methods. The most common fieldwork is that of
participant observation. The researchers become a part of the community under
study; immerse themselves completely in the daily life of the community and
participate in the activities of the members of the community but with a sense of
detachment. They then attempt to report all their findings on every aspect of their
lives with a sense of impartiality and disinterestedness. Classic examples of
fieldworks are William Whyte’s (1915) Street Corner Society (1943), A Study
of Italian-American Working-Class Men and B. Malinowski’s Study of the Tribes
of Trobriand Island.
Sometimes the research strategy requires that the researchers stay away
from the people they are studying, and simply observe what is going on. A sociologist
studying crowd behaviour at a rally or student participation in a seminar would be
an example. The researcher in such a study tries to be a ‘fly on the wall’, invisible
and unobtrusive, yet constantly records what is going on. This technique is called
detached observation.
Interview is another method of fieldwork. It is a detailed conversation
designed to obtain in-depth information about a person. In a structured interview,
researchers have a detailed list of specific questions to ask. In the semi-structured
interview, the researchers have a list of topics to cover depending on the interview
situation, to determine the course of questioning and the details of the question.
Participatory research is another method under fieldwork. It is designed
to involve the subjects of the research in the research process itself, with an eye to
empowering them to overcome some difficulty or problem. This research is usually
tied with community action. It is conducted when a group or community wants to
engage in some form of social change but lacks the expertise to do so. The
researcher is invited to become a fully engaged member of the social change process,
helping the members of the group to conduct the necessary research and training
them in the techniques for doing so.
Another method is experiment. In it, two groups are chosen—the
experimental group and the control group. An experimental group is one which
is exposed to the independent variable. The control group is kept constant—no
experiment is carried out on it. In the end, both the groups are compared to find
out the resultant effects of the experiment.
Working with available information is another strategy. This involves
working with data collected by other people. Often such data are the only
information available. Examples include statistical data, documentary analysis or
comparative-historical research (study of several different countries as well as
examination of changing historical patterns in a single country).

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 Social Research
APPROACH WHENAPPRORIATE
Survey Basic information about a large population is required
and sampling is a feasible strategy.
Interview In-depth information is desired and direct access to NOTES
informants is possible.
Detached observation Information should be gathered but the data gathering
should be as unobtrusive as possible.
Participant observation First hand knowledge of the direct experience of
subjects is required.
Participatory research Primary goal is empowerment: training people to
acquire the necessary skill to do research themselves.
Experiments To determine specific causal relationships.
Using the available information Direct acquisition of data is either not feasible or not
desirable.
On the basis of intent, research can be classified as follows:
 Pure research: It is done only for the sake of knowledge. The intention is
not to apply it in regular practice. Pure research is also called basic or
fundamental research. It is not focussed on specific problems, but instead it
focusses on the extension of knowledge. New theory or refinements of an
existing theory are developed with the help of pure research. It lays the
foundation for applied research. It helps in finding the critical factors in a
problem. It helps in generating alternative solutions and choosing the best
one amongst them.
 Applied research: When real-life problems require some solution and
decision-making, applied research is carried out. This means that applied
research is problem oriented and action directed. It brings immediate and
practical results; for example, marketing research carried on for identifying
customer habits to purchase something. Though it is problem oriented and
action directed it can contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge
by leading to the discovery of new facts.
 Action oriented research: It refers to research that combines research
and practical work in a process that aims to improve strategies, practices
and knowledge.
 Exploratory research: It is also called formulative research. When a
researcher has no knowledge or little knowledge about an unfamiliar
problem, they do a preliminary study. The objective of this research is to
generate new ideas, gather new facts, precise formulation of problem and
increasing familiarity of the researcher to the unfamiliar problem. Katz
conceptualizes two levels of exploratory research. At the first level is the
discovery of significant variables in particular situations; at the second, the
discovery of relationship between variables.
 Descriptive research: In this research, facts are analysed in detail for
clear understanding. This research is simple in nature and in its application.
It is more specific than exploratory research. It focusses on the problem

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Social Research under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements
comprising the subject matter of study. Empirical observations are used to
conceptualize the problems and facts. It highlights methods of data collection
and interpretation.
NOTES
 Diagnostic research: It is just like descriptive research but with a different
focus. It is aimed towards in depth approaches to reach the basic casual
relations of a problem and possible solutions for it. Prior knowledge of the
problem is required for this type of research. Problem formulation, defining
the population correctly for study purposes, proper methods for collecting
accurate information, correct measurement of variables, statistical analysis
and tests of significance are essential in diagnostic research.
The classification of research can be done as per methods of study in the following
manner:
 Fundamental: This type of research is mainly concerned with identifying
certain important principles in a specific field. It intends to find out information
that has a broad base of application. Examples of fundamental research are
John Robinson’s imperfect competition theory in Economics and Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs theory in motivation, etc.
 Applied: This type of research aims at finding a solution to an immediate
problem, faced by a society or an industrial organization. It is supposed to
discover a solution to some basic practical problems. Applied research
suggests corrective methods to minimize a social or business problem.
 Historical: Historical research studies the social effects of the past that
may have given rise to current situations, i.e., past incidents are used to
analyse the present as well as the future conditions. The study of the current
state of Indian labour based on past labour union movements in the Indian
economy to formulate the Indian Labour Policy is an example of this type
of research.
 Formulative or exploratory: It helps examine a problem with suitable
hypothesis. This research, on social science, is mainly significant for clarifying
concepts and innovations for further researches. The researchers are mainly
concerned with the principles of developing hypothesis and testing with
statistical tools.
 Experimental: The experimental type of research enables a person to
calculate the findings, employ the statistical and mathematical devices and
measure the results thus quantified.
 Ex post facto: This type of research is the same as experimental research,
which is conducted to deal with the situations that occur in or around an
organization. Examples of such a research are market failure of an
organization’s product being researched later and research into the causes
for a landslide in the country.
 Case study: This method undertakes intensive research that requires a
thorough study of a particular chapter.
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 Social Research

Check Your Progress

1. Name the two prominent social research methods.
2. Mention the two characteristics of social research. NOTES

1.3 BASIC STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Research process includes steps or a series of actions and logical sequence of
those steps to carry out research effectively. The various steps in a research process
are not mutually separate, exclusive or discrete, but they at the same time need not
always follow each other. The researcher, at each step, anticipates subsequent
steps and requirements. The tentative order of the steps and the procedural
guidelines of the research process are as given below:
(i) Formulating the research problem: At the very beginning of research,
the researcher must clearly define the research problem, i.e., the area of
interest, the matter to be inquired into, etc. The problem, before being solved,
is initially stated in a broader perspective and then the researcher arrives at
the specific question by gradually reducing the ambiguities, if any. Then,
immediately after formulating the problem, the feasibility of different solutions
is studied before choosing the right solution.
(ii) Extensive literature survey: After formulating the research problem, a
brief summary of it should be prepared—this is an essential step. While
writing a Ph.D. thesis a researcher has to prepare a synopsis of the topic
and submit it to the appropriate committee or research board for approval.
Synopsis preparation needs extensive survey of the literature connected
with the problem.
(iii) Development of a working hypothesis: After surveying the literature,
the researcher should clearly state the working hypothesis, which is a tentative
assumption made before testing it in logical or empirical sequences.
Hypothesis must be as specific as possible and should be limited to the
intended research. This helps to choose the right process.
(iv) Preparing the research design: The next step, after clearly defining the
research problem, is preparing the suitable research design. The research
design includes the conceptual framework within which the research would
be carried out. A good and planned research design helps to carry out the
study in an efficient manner saving time and resources. It helps to gather the
most useful information and assists in arriving at the accurate results. Simply
put, a good research design facilitates the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of money, effort, time and other resources.
(v) Determining sample design: A universe or population includes all the
items under inquiry. If all the items in the population are inquired then such
an inquiry is called census inquiry. In a census survey, all the items are covered
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Social Research and so the highest accuracy is obtained. But this may not be practicable in
surveys involving a big population. Census surveys need huge amounts of
time, money and energy. Hence, quite often it is wise to select only a few
items from the universe for the purpose of study. Technically, such a small
NOTES and convenient number of items selected, is called a sample. Specified plan
of the size and method of collecting the sample is technically known as
sample design.
(vi) Collecting the data: In most cases, the data in hand is insufficient and
there is always a need of fresh data. There are different ways of collecting
the appropriate data which differ considerably in terms of relevance,
expenditure, time and other resources. Therefore, the researcher must select
the most appropriate method of collecting the data after considering the
objective of the research, the nature of investigation, time and financial
resources available, scope of the inquiry, and the desired degree of accuracy.
(vii) Execution of the project: This is an important step in the research process
because if the execution proceeds on the correct lines, the collected data
would be dependable, adequate and accurate. Therefore, systematic and
timely execution of a project plays a crucial role in ensuring right results at
the end.
(viii) Analysis of data: After collecting the data, the next step is analysing the
data. The data analysis includes a number of closely-related operations like
specifying different categories of data, differentiating and tabulating the data
into different categories, applying the statistical techniques and formulae to
the data, doing the right calculations and then drawing statistical inferences.
Various tests, such as chi-square test, t-test, F-test, etc., help in data
analysis.
(ix) Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data, the researcher should test
the working hypothesis against the statistical inferences obtained after
analysing the data. The question that should be answered now is: Do the
findings support the working hypothesis or do they contradict it?
(x) Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld
sufficient number of times, the researcher can arrive at a generalization. The
degree of success of a research is calculated on the basis of how close the
arrived generalizations are to the acceptability. If the researcher starts with
no hypothesis, the researcher will interpret his findings on the basis of some
existing theory and this is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation often triggers new questions which lead to further researches.
(xi) Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to
prepare the report of what has been studied. Report must be written with
great care keeping the following layout in mind:
 Preliminary pages: These pages of the report should contain the
title, the date, acknowledgments, foreword, table of contents, list of
tables, list of graphs and charts (if any).

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  Main text: The main text of the report should have introduction, Social Research
summary of findings, main report, conclusion and suggestions for future
research.
 Closure: At the end of the report, appendices should be listed in
respect of all technical data, followed by bibliography. Index terms NOTES
should also be given specially in a published research report. All
references should be cited as per the research writing formats.
Flow Chart: Research Process
RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

FF
FF
I
Review concepts
Define and theories Design research Analyse data
Formulate (including Collect data Interpret
research (Test hypotheses
problem Review previous hypotheses sample design) (Execution) F if any) F and report
research finding
II V VII
IV VI
II
F
Where F = feed back (Helps in controlling the sub-system
to which it is transmitted)
F = feed forward (Serves the vital function of
providing criteria for evaluation)

Fig. 1.1 Research Process

In Figure 1.1, the flow chart indicates the sequential steps to be followed in
the research process, as studied in this section. We can recollect that the research
process starts with defining the research problem along with reviewing the relevant
literature in the field to become familiar with the concepts and theories relevant to
the issue to be investigated. The next step is the formulation of the hypothesis,
which is followed by the research design and sample selection. Then the collection
of data and its analysis is to be attempted. After that the interpretation and the
report writing stages complete the research report. These have to be written step
by step and then edited and refined several times before preparing the final report.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever be the type of research one undertakes, certain common criteria of
good scientific methods have to be followed. A good research follows logical
methods, is systematic, and structured in accordance with well-defined sets of
rules and practices to enable the researcher in arriving at dependable conclusions.
Both, deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, should be followed for
meaningful research.
Good research also implies obtaining reliable data which provides sound
validity to the research findings.
The following principles underlie a good research criteria:
 The aim and objective of the research being conducted should be
clearly specified.
 The research procedure should be replicable so that if the research
needs to be continued or repeated, it can be done easily.

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Social Research  The research design should be so chosen that the results are as objective
as possible.
 Interpretation of any research should be done keeping in mind the
flaws in the procedural design and the extent to which it has an
NOTES effect on the results.
 Research should be carried out systematically. It should progress in
pre-defined stages, and researchers should avoid using their intuition
or guesswork to arrive at conclusions.
 Research should be logical so that it is meaningful, and help in decision-
making.
 Research should be empirical as far as possible.
 The results of the research should only be used and generalized for
the population for which the data provides an adequate basis.
 The validity and reliability of the data used in research should be double
checked.
A good research produces results that are examinable by peers,
methodologies that can be replicated, and knowledge that can be applied to real-
world situations.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
There are some common problems faced by researchers in developing countries
and India is no exception. Essentially, there is a dearth of tools required for good
research. Many of the universities and research institutions are now providing
computers with Internet connection to researchers but the facilities provided are
not adequate. Luckily, the costs of both hardware and Internet bandwidth have
reduced over a period of time. While Indian researchers now have easy access to
these tools, there is still the problem of low visibility of papers published by them.
Indian researchers often become demotivated to continue further research. Other
factors like lack of scientific training in the methodology of research and a non-
existent code of conduct also serve as challenges for the Indian researcher. There
is also insufficient interaction between the researchers and the end-users. End-
users of research are the ones who stand to benefit from the research and if they
are not made aware of the benefit they can derive, getting sponsors to provide
funds for research would be difficult.
There is also a lack of safeguards against any violation of confidentiality in
data collection. Research studies that overlap lead to unnecessary repetition. There
is an absence of research culture in our country.
Other problems that Indian researchers face that are common to developing
countries are:
 Limited or no access to international research journals
 Lack of infrastructure except in a few metropolitan cities
 Low investment in research due to financial constraints

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  Inadequate library facilities and where such facilities exist, they are not easily Social Research

accessible
 Poor encouragement to do research
These problems need to be surmounted effectively in order to promote NOTES
research as a professional activity.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the criteria of good research?
4. List few of the problems encountered by researchers in India.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE SCIENTIFIC

METHOD
A knowledge which is organized in its nature is known as science. The scientific
method involves facts and knowledge which by nature are not conclusive. Latest
findings often add to and update the previous research done.
Social science is not very different. Research in social science also makes
use of scientific method.
1.4.1 The Nature of Science
Scientific method as a method of research is a combination of the significant features
of both inductive and deductive research. Charles Darwin is known to have
propounded this method of research.
In simpler terms, scientific method requires the researcher to first apply
inductive reasoning to a loosely organized, half-baked and confused information
collected through observation, previous knowledge, reflective thinking, etc. to arrive
at a hypothesis or a chunk of meaningful information. After arriving at this hypothesis,
the researcher then uses the deductive method to the previous general hypothesis
to reach at the more specialized knowledge or parts which are then connected
with other specialized information which have valid meaning and true relationships.
Dewey (1933, p. 87) explains this as: ‘While induction moves from
fragmentary details (or particulars) to a connected view of situation (universal),
deduction begins with the latter and works back again to particulars, connecting
them and binding them together.’
Even though in practice, it seems that the scientific method is a method of
double reasoning involving a movement from induction to deduction. It involves
the process of moving from observations to hypothesis and then hypothesis to
logical implications and thereby undertaking inductive and then deductive reasoning.
Scientific method differs from intuition, trail-and-error and chance. But, what
makes scientific method different from other methods of research? It differs because
the method of acquiring knowledge in scientific method is based on the generalizations
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Social Research which come down from experience, syllogism, authority, and traditions. Reflective
thinking forms a significant element of scientific method. Dewey (1911) has provided
the stages of reflective thinking (Van Dalen 1973, p. 13; Whitney 1964, p. 3):
1. The occurrence of a felt difficulty: There are three things that happen
NOTES
when a person faces a problem, a roadblock or an obstacle that is not
known to him:
 He does not possess the need to reach the end he desires.
 He faces trouble in recognizing the true character of the object.
 He lacks the knowledge to describe the unexpected event.
2. Identification and definition of the difficulty in terms of a problem
statement: The person gather the facts that he observes so that he can
arrive at a more appropriate definition of his problem.
3. Suggested solutions of the problem—hypotheses: The preliminary
understanding of the information and facts are then used to form primary
but logical list of guesses or solutions that would help solve the problem.
These possible solutions which are used to explain the cause of the
problem are called hypothesis.
4. Deriving consequences of the suggested solutions with the help
of deductive reasoning: The person then uses deductive reasoning to
check what consequences would follow in situations where each
hypothesis is true.
5. Experimental verification of the hypotheses: The person then
checks individually all the hypothesis with observable evidence that will
confirm whether the consequences that follow actually occur. This helps
the researcher understand which hypothesis is valid in relation to
observable facts.
The stages of reflective thinking highlight the pattern which is generally present
in the scientific method of research. It will be evident that the pattern which is used
in scientific method will run parallel to the processes that are a part of reflective
thinking.
From the earlier times, humans have been very much interested in knowing
about things that puzzle them. Gradually, over time, this ignited in man the need to
come up with the scientific method to find solutions to his problems which today is
producing incredible results. More closely, scientific method is an orderly method
of searching the truth, by basing conclusions from factual evidence, and forming
relationships between ideas through the means of reasoning. This has given man
improved and accurate answers to several of his problems not only from the domain
of physical and biological sciences, but also from behavioural and social sciences.
Scientific method of inquiry in behavioural and social sciences has made research
and study in the fields of psychology, economics, political science, sociology,
anthropology, and education also be identified as science. Therefore, science is
not only a field of subject matter, it is referred to as an attitude or method. This
method allows man to inquire and understand the phenomena that gauges his
attention.
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 Certain assumptions and beliefs are crucial to science as a method of inquiry: Social Research

1. All the occurrences in nature fall in the broad domain of being regular,
predictable, and ordered varying in degrees. This order, predictability
and regularity of nature is discovered through the activities of the scientific
NOTES
method.
2. Empirical observation is crucial to scientific method. Authority plays no
role in gauging the truth in science. Therefore, only those phenomena
which can be observed are considered under the purview of scientific
method.
3. Verification is the benchmark tool for the scientist. Unless, evidence is
available for any finding, the scientist must consider data tentative. The
observations must such which can repeated by other scientists arriving
at same results.
4. The scientist must be an objective person. While collecting or interpreting
data and making observations, it is important that impartially and logic is
followed. Personal bias must not affect facts and truth. This must be
strictly followed even in situations where opinions are in contradiction.
5. The scientist must be elusive to moral implications that might follow his
observations. He must only deal with facts devoid of any moral factors
of whether it is negative or positive.
6. The scientist must collect and organize his observations into a meaningful
theory. But this theory is not the ultimate truth. It can and may be altered
upon new discoveries and understanding.
The statement which present specific relationships among variables explaining
certain parts of a phenomena are known as theories. Kerlinger has defined theory
as (1978, p9): ‘A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions,
and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.’
Three things are highlighted in the above definition:
 Firstly, a unified set of definition, propositions and constructs explained
in a set of statements is defined as a theory.
 Secondly, the purpose of a theory in defining the unity between the
constructs, propositions and definition is to highlight an organized view
of a phenomena.
 Thirdly, a theory explains a phenomenon by specifying what variables
are related to what variables and how they are related, thus, enabling
the scientist to predict from certain variables to certain other variables.
Let us take an example of a teacher who has a theory of low academic
achievement. The intelligence, home environment, economic factors, achievement
motivation, anxiety along with verbal and numerical aptitudes then become his
variables. The phenomenon is assessed through the specific relationship between
the variables. This could be in the form of each of the seven variables working in
tandem with low academic achievement or different combinations of the seven
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Social Research variables to the low academic achievement. These constructs then allow the teacher
to understand the relationship between different variable and the low academic
achievement which will help him/her to ‘explain’ or to a degree ‘predict’ the result
of different variables. Further, it can be said that the teacher can extend a kind of
NOTES ‘control’ over the low academic achievement by altering or manipulating certain
variables.
Scientific theories serve as means and ends in the development of science.
As means, the theories provide a framework for discoveries and observations for
the scientist. Theories summarizes and organizes the knowledge within a specific
field. The independent empirical findings are made comprehensible through the
theories. As ends, the theories allow the scientists to employ objectivity in finding
the observed relationships and events as descriptions of certain phenomenon.
Theories show what variables are related and how they are related. The scientists
make deductions and predict the outcome in specific conditions solely based on
such relationships. Scientific theories, in this way help in the growth of new
knowledge.
The following criterion makes a theory sound for the development of science:
1. The Law of Parsimony prioritizes simple theories over complex ones.
Therefore, theories must ideally be stated in its simple and clear terms.
2. The theory must stay true to not only the facts that are observed while
researching but also previously established and validated theories.
3. The means for the interpretation and verification of the theory must be
provided the theory itself. The deductions which can be empirically
tested, must be provided.
4. A sound theory should ideally guide about new areas of discoveries and
areas which require further investigation. This is mostly true for theories
based on empirical facts and relationships.
Theories provide a general and primary explanation of phenomena. These
become improved and specialized knowledge only when there is an accumulation
of facts. The acceptance, rejection or improvement of a theory lies on the crucial
discovery of important facts. For example, in case a scientist finds that the theory
they are working on is not substantiated by the fact, he/she must reject and
reformulate the theory to integrate the new facts.
1.4.2 Steps and Process
In this section, we will study, in detail, the steps, process, objectives and
characteristics of the scientific method.
Steps in Scientific Method
The steps involved in the scientific method are as follows:
 Collection of data as per the problem in hand, according to some adequate
plan and their systematic observation.
 Observations are made with a well-defined purpose and they are recorded
in definite terms.
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  Classification and organization of data on the basis of similarities, variations, Social Research

activities, causes and results.

 Generalization of data for the purpose of formulating principles and theories.
The principles and theories must be specifically defined so that it can solve
NOTES
the problems in the related field.
 Verification of generalizations through controlled experiments by tested
prediction of results and by repetition of experiments. Correlation coefficient
of original as well as verification of results is also calculated and probable
errors are estimated. It is also determined whether the error lies in procedure
or apparatus.
 Assumptions and limitations are noted down on the basis of verification of
results.
 Reporting the research in detail.
 Announcement of the results before the general public for practical use.
1.4.3 Objectives of Scientific Research
The terms research and scientific method are sometimes used inter changeably.
Research is a systematic process for developing a theory by applying scientific
methods. It is an impartial, objective, empirical and logical analysis and recording
of controlled observation that finally leads to the development of a theory, principles,
laws, etc., and helps us to predict about the phenomenon in future.
A research is said to begin with a question or a problem. The purpose of a research
is to find out solutions through the application of systematic and scientific methods.
Thus, research is a systematic approach to a purposeful investigation.
The main aim of research is to uncover answers to questions by applying
scientific procedures. Research aims to discover hidden truths. While each research
initiative has a particular purpose, the objectives of research can be broadly
characterized as follows:
 Exploratory/formulative research: It attempts to get familiar with a
concept or to develop new insights into it.
 Descriptive research: It seeks to accurately portray the key
characteristics of an individual, a situation or a group.
 Diagnostic research: It establishes the frequency with which an event
occurs, or the frequency with which it is associated with something else.
 Hypothesis-testing research: This type of research tests the
hypotheses of a causal relationship between variables.
1.4.4 Characteristics of Good Research
The process of research helps to increase the creative ability of a decision-maker.
The various characteristics of research are as follows:
 Interdisciplinary team approach: This approach is based on the principle
of using expertise and experience of different personnel working in different
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Social Research disciplines within an organization. An individual cannot be an expert in all
the areas of operation. So, researchers take help from other experts, who
are specialists in their respective fields. Under interdisciplinary team
approach, an expert may use old solutions, which were used in the past as
NOTES research material for finding the most appropriate solution to a problem.
 Methodological process: The researcher uses scientific methods and
techniques to provide optimum solution to problems. The scientific methods
include observing and defining a problem and formulating hypothesis related
to the results of the scientific methods and techniques. If the hypothesis is
accepted, its results should be executed in an organization; but if the
hypothesis is not accepted, another hypothesis is formulated.
 Objectivistic approach: The aim of an organization is to have optimal
solutions to various problems. It is essential to measure the desirability of a
solution for achieving the organizational objective. This measured desirability
helps in comparing the alternative courses of action with respect to their
outcomes.
 Economical in nature: In an uncertain and complex situation, research
helps in reducing the costs of inventory, thereby improving profits. For
example, in inventory control, research can provide scientific rules for
reducing acquisition costs and inventory-carrying costs.
The qualities of good research are as follows:
 Good research is systematic: This means that the research lays out clear
steps in a specified sequence in compliance with well-defined rules. Being
systematic does not mean that the research cannot be based on creative
thinking. On the other hand, it dramatically reduces guesswork-based and
intuitive conclusions.
 Good research is logical: This implies that the use of sound logic provides
a foundation for reasoning, induction and deduction, which are of great
significance for carrying out high quality research. Induction entails reasoning
from a part to the whole, while deduction is the process of reasoning, wherein
a premise is driven to a conclusion which is based on that very premise. In
fact, logical reasoning leads to more meaningful research and better eventual
decision-making.
 Good research is empirical: This means that research is related to one or
several aspects of a real situation and uses concrete data which provides a
basis for external validity to the research results.
 Good research is replicable: Good research allows for research results
to be verified by replicating the study, thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.
Further, Best and Kahn (1992) have summarized the main characteristics of
research as follows:
 Research seeks to find a solution to a problem. In this objective, it could
answer a question or even determine the relationship between several
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20 Material
 Research creates generalizations, principles and theories that enable the Social Research

prediction or anticipation of future occurrences. Research studies specific

objects, groups or situations and then applies these characteristics observed
to a larger population than the sample observed. Research goes beyond
just simply retrieving or gathering information. There are many schools where NOTES
the research teams gather and tabulate statistical information. This information
can be used for decision-making, but it is not necessary to do so.
 Research is based on observations or empirical evidence. There are many
questions which are interesting or relevant but, since they cannot be observed,
they do not become research procedures. Research does not accept
revelation or dogma as a basis for establishing knowledge. Research only
accepts that which can be verified by observation.
 Research requires accuracy of observation and description. Researchers
rely on quantitative or numerical measuring devices which are accepted as
precise means of description. They identify or create appropriate data
gathering instruments or procedures and employ effective mechanical,
electronic, or psychometric techniques to improve human observation,
recording, computation and analysis of data.
 Research entails obtaining new data from first-hand sources, or uses existing
data towards a new purpose. Teachers often guide their students to undertake
a project which requires them to write a paper detailing the life of a prominent
person. The students consult encyclopaedias, books, or periodicals and
summarize the information in writing. This is not research, the information is
not new. Simply rewriting or representing what is already known may be a
valuable learning experience, but it is not research. It does not provide any
new information.
 Research may sometimes appear to be random or unsystematic. However,
it is actually always based on carefully designed procedures and rigorous
analysis. Although researchers may sometimes employ trial and error
methodologies, research is not a blind, random investigation, where the
researcher is just experimenting to see what happens.
 A good researcher requires significant expertise. He/She is already aware
of what is known about the problem including the investigations carried out
by others. The researcher familiar with the related literature and also
understands the terminology, concepts and technical skills necessary to
thoroughly assess the data that he/she has gathered.
 Researchers must apply objectivity and logic and must also remove all their
personal biases. They must employ all possible tests in order to
comprehensively validate the procedure followed, the data sourced, and
the results or conclusions that have been arrived at. Researchers should not
make any effort to be additionally persuasive in order to prove an emotionally
held conviction by them. Their focus must be on testing, and not on proving
the hypothesis. Total objectivity is just as rare as absolute righteousness,
and therefore, researchers must not allow bias or emotion to affect their
analysis. Self - Learning
Material 21
Social Research  Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Pushing
back the frontiers of ignorance is its goal, and originality is frequently the
quality of a good research project. However, previous important studies
are deliberately repeated, using identical or similar procedures, with different
NOTES subjects, different settings, and at different times. This process is a replication,
a fusion of the words, repetition and duplication. Replication is always
desirable to confirm or to raise questions about the conclusions of a previous
study.
 Research must be carried out patiently and not in a rushed manner. It’s
outcome and result are mundane rather than spectacular, and the research
team must be prepared to face disappointment in the pursuit of answers to
their unanswered questions.
 The process and outcomes of research are meticulously recorded. Every
key term is defined, restrictive factors are acknowledged, procedures are
carefully described, all references are recorded, results are objectively
documented, and the final outcomes are presented with caution and restraint.
The final research reports and supporting data are made available for
associates and other scholars to study, analyse, evaluate and even replicate.
1.4.5 Objectivity-Subjectivity Debate
It is important for a study to be objective in nature, no matter which discipline it
represents. Whether it is natural or social science research, a study which is
subjective in nature does not produce results which can be depended upon. That
is because being objective in social science means being able to check and examine
the evidences which the study has produced. An objective study is free from personal
biases and beliefs of the researcher. Objective studies are not speculative in nature
but are dominated by actual observations.
When compared with natural sciences, it is much more difficult to obtain
objectivity in social sciences. This is largely because social sciences deals with
humans who live in a society and pursue their own interests. Both of these are
highly dynamic and their attitudes and approaches to life can change at any given
time and also evolve with time. Therefore, while objectivity is important, it is difficult
to obtain the same in social sciences as personal views and biases often enter the
researcher’s work. There are hindrances like emotional values, complex subjects,
uniformity problems, self-interest, lack of time for research, and bias and prejudices.
Among all these, the most severe in terms of research are prejudices and biases
which can greatly affect the nature of the study. These biases can enter different
stages of research, like during the collection of the sample, in the choice of the
participants, during data collection, analysis and finally in the findings.
Value Neutrality
Value neutrality is the duty of sociologists to strive to be impartial and overcome
their biases as they conduct their research. A researcher can easily mix his past
experiences and present them as part of the present study. This leads to inclusion
of subjectivity in the study. Biases can also enter during the supply of information
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because many times information is collected by those who may carry their own Social Research

prejudices. They may present information which is suited to their needs, thus keeping
the wholesome information out of reach of the researcher. All these can increasingly
influence the findings of the study and mar the objectives with which it was
undertaken in the first place. There are several ways by which subjectivity can be NOTES
removed from research. These are, first, depending less on the investigation. This
means that while data is critical to social science research, the researcher can
avoid hiring other investigators and have first-hand information of the field to avoid
subjectivity. Second, use of statistical measurements and methods can be made
wherein data can be correlated and checked to remove subjectivity. Third,
concepts and terms could be standardized to avoid multiple usage and inculcate
clear and precise use to suit the views of the researcher. Fourth, the introduction
of a questionnaire through which information is collected can lead to clarification
and also provision of matter which can be cross-checked any time. Fifth, at various
stages, the researcher can employ counter-checks and compare findings at several
stages to avoid biases and prejudices from entering the study. Another method is
that of random sampling with which the researcher can select participants from
different shades to avoid his own prejudice that might enter the study during the
collection of the sample.
Problems of Subjectivity and Objectivity
Qualitative methodology is familiar with the fact that the subjectivity of the researcher
is a deep ingredient of his scientific research. Everything is guided by subjectivity,
beginning from the choice of topic that one studies, to devising hypotheses, to
selection of methodology and interpretation of data. Qualitative methodology
motivates researchers to mirror the values and objectives brought by them into
their research and the manner in which they influence the research project. It also
motivates other researchers to replicate the values used by a particular investigator.
The most important issue that comes up when subjectivity is recognized, is
its impact on objectivity. Two types of arrangements have been expressed. Many
qualitative researchers make subjectivity and objectivity counterbalance each other.
It is believed that objectivity negates subjectivity. The reason for this is because it
makes the observer an inert recipient of external information, without an agency.
The subjectivity of the researcher is said to negate the possibility of objectivity,
knowing a social psychological world. The investigator’s values are said to define
the world that is studied. It never happens that one really sees or talks about the
world, per se. However, one only sees and talks about what one’s values dictate.
Subjectivity is usually considered as the most essential and initiating part of
qualitative methodology. Nevertheless, this is not true. Qualitative methodology
also has traces of objectivity. Objectivity indicates that the subjectivity of a researcher
can empower him to precisely understand the world in its true state. Beyond doubt,
subjectivity can cause prejudice to affect the researcher and rule out objective
understanding of a subject’s psychological reality. However, this is not unavoidable.
In the true sense, one of the benefits of getting to recognize subjectivity is to reflect
on whether it makes objective comprehension easy or obstructs it. Distorting values
can then be replaced by values that improve objectivity.
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1. Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Within the context of phase I and phase II rapid needs assessments during the initial days of
an emergency response, both qualitative and quantitative information is needed to develop a
shared understanding of how people are affected by emergencies1. Quantitative data guides
in understanding the magnitude and scale of a humanitarian crisis by providing a numeric
picture of its impact upon affected communities. It addresses the questions: how many and
how much. Qualitative data, on the other hand, focuses on determining the nature of the
impact of a disaster upon affected populations. Qualitative data answers questions of how
and why coping strategies have adapted, or failed to adapt, to the changed circumstance.

Collection, collation, analysis, and synthesis of qualitative and quantitative information,

gathered and analysed using appropriate sources, tools, and methods is the cornerstone of
rapid needs assessments that allows decision makers to plan a timely, appropriate, and
coordinated emergency response.

When undertaking a needs assessment, a combination of different types and sources

of data is required to build a holistic picture of the affected population. Sources for
information include both primary and secondary data. Types of information include
qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Data Sources

Primary data is most generally understood as data gathered from the information source and
which has not undergone analysis before being included in the needs assessment. Primary
data is collected directly from the affected population by the assessment team through field
work2. Primary data is most often collected through face to face interviews or discussions
with members of the affected community, but can also be gathered through phone
interviews, radio communication, email exchange, and direct observation.

Secondary data is information which has typically been collected by researchers not involved
in the current assessment and has undergone at least one layer of analysis prior to inclusion
in the needs assessment. Secondary data can comprise published research, internet
materials, media reports, and data which has been cleaned, analysed and collected for a
purpose other than the needs assessment, such as academic research or an agency or
sector specific monitoring reports.

During phase I of an emergency assessment, the majority of data used to build a shared
picture of the disaster affected area and populations comes from secondary sources. This is
largely because time constraints during the first few days following a sudden onset disaster
prohibit a large scale field data collection exercise. As the emergency evolves and
humanitarian stakeholders, and the assessment team, have greater direct access to the

1
The OCHA NATF framework indicates that phase I is the initial 72 hours following a sudden onset disasters, during this time
the initial emergency assessment is carried out. Phase II is the first two weeks during which time a rapid assessment is carried
out. Due to the extended time frame in protracted emergencies, these phases are less applicable. See IASC, Operational
Guidance for Coordinated Assessments in Humanitarian Crises, February 1, 2011.
2
Certain published information, such as census data, can also be considered primary data.

3
affected population, the proportion of primary data will increase and the consolidated
analysis of both types of data is necessary. This is increasingly true as phase II segues into
phase III.

Clearly understanding the information gleaned from secondary sources frees the primary
data collection from a joint or coordinated needs assessment to focus on key information
gaps (issues that are presently unknown) and on ensuring that the voice, needs and
priorities of an affected population are captured and shared.

All field and desk information gathering activities for needs assessments will:

 Collect evidence on the impact of the disaster across sectors

 Produce findings about the disaster which are not already known.
 Triangulate information collected to confirm, or dispute, findings.
 Investigate the effect of a change of circumstance (directly or indirectly due to the
disaster) on a population.
 Use a pre-defined set of research techniques to ensure consistency in data
collection, analysis and presentation of findings.

3. Types of Data

The different types of data required for a needs assessment are most easily understood
using the descriptive terms: qualitative and quantitative. Both primary and secondary data
can be either qualitative or quantitative. The difference is in the type of information collected,
the questions and information requirements that the data is meant to address, and the
methods used to analyse it.

3.1 Quantitative Information

Quantitative research methods are characterised by the collection of information which can
be analysed numerically, the results of which are typically presented using statistics, tables
and graphs. For phase I of assessments, the majority of quantitative data collected is
secondary data (e.g. affected population figures provided by the government). During phase
II, field level questionnaires complement the continued collection of secondary data through
the collection of quantitative information using close ended questions, typically in
questionnaire format.

During phase I and II of an assessment, there will be limited primary quantitative data
collected from a joint field assessment process (i.e. a multi sector assessment with the buy-
in and support of multiple agencies) because of time and access constraints. Quantitative
information collected through primary data collection will be relevant only to the visited sites
and cannot be generalized for all affected areas and groups. It will tell little about the big
picture due to the limited sample size and sampling methodology. For example, if in 30 sites
visited for primary data collection it is found that the number of newly arrived IDPs is twice
the total number of pre-disaster inhabitants, this does not mean that in all affected

4
communities IDPs now comprise twice the pre-disaster population. However, quantitative
information will enhance a better understanding of the situation at the site level and help
stakeholders recognise trends resulting from the disaster’s impact.

Nevertheless, being able to quantify the magnitude and scope of the crisis is critical to the
decisions made in these phases of a disaster. Quantitative information required to feed into
this information gap will usually come from government or other official sources, based on
pre-crisis census information and population projections for areas known to be affected by
the disaster rather than from extrapolation from a small number of surveyed sites. At the
early stage of a disaster, demographic information including estimates of numbers of
children under 5, pregnant women, older persons, persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups should also be based on pre-crisis secondary information.

3.1.1. Quantitative Research Methods

The aim of the quantitative research method is to test pre-determined hypotheses and
produce generalizable results3. Using statistical methods, the results of quantitative analysis
can confirm or refute hypotheses about the impact of a disaster and ensuing needs of the
affected population. They can also measure impact according to humanitarian indicators.
Conclusions made from the analysis of quantitative data indicate how many are affected,
where the greatest area of impact is, and what are the key sector needs.

Scientific measurement is key to quantitative research. Because quantitative data is

numeric, the collection and analysis of data from representative samples is more commonly
used. In its simplest terms, the more representative the sample is, the more likely it is that a
quantitative analysis will accurately and precisely reflect a picture of the impact of the
disaster when generalized to the whole affected population. However, even a representative
sample is meaningless unless the data collection instruments used to collect quantitative
data are appropriate, well designed and clearly explained to end users of the data4. All too
often, designers of data collection tools frame qualitative questions quantitatively and vice
versa. Data collected using poorly designed questionnaires may solicit an enormous
amount of data, but result in much of it being unusable as a result of being too difficult to
measure and impossible to generalize for the total affected areas.

Larger sample sizes tend to be used for collecting quantitative information, so as to gather
as representative a picture as possible. However, in any assessment process, there is a
trade-off between the representativeness and diversity of a sample and the efficiency and
timeliness with which data can be collected5. Assessments in phase I and II do not need to
be as representative as they need to be rapid6. Use of large represenative sample sizes
does not typically happen until phase III of an assessment when their is sufficient time and
access to enable sampling of households and individuals.

3
Marshall, MN 1996, Sampling for Qualitative Research, Oxford University Press, p 522.
4
See ACAPS TB on purposive sampling and site selection for phase 2 assessment.
5
For more information on sampling, see ACAPS, Technical Brief on Sampling and Site Selection, 2011.
6
A comprehensive sampling of affected households or individuals won’t be carried out until phase III when full diversity strata
and representation of all affected groups can be included in the sample.

5
Previous experience in assessments highlights the fact that measurable amounts of
quantitative information is often collected during assessments, but not used. This type of
redundant information falls into two main question categories7:

 Questions with integrity, but asked by members of an assessment team who lack the
capacity and/or time to analyse the responses. For example, the question how much
did you spend last week for your food? is a useful question, but with up to a dozen
potential answers, no baseline reference to compare to, and limited resources for
data analysis is too detailed to be used critically.

 Questions that are valid, but technically difficult to obtain valid answers to, given the
capacities of the enumerators. For example, asking questions pertaining to MUAC
measurements are likely to lead to invalid and inaccurate entries, and an eventual
discounting of the data, given the expertise, experience and capacity of enumerators.

Box 1: Lesson Learned - Haiti8

In previous multi cluster needs assessments, pressure from agencies to include a
multitude of sector specific questions in quantitatively framed questionnaire tools resulted
in assessment teams collecting quantitative data that was neither reliable nor analysable
and thus unusable. In the Haiti RINAH, for example, 190 questions were included in the
questionnaire, but out of the 76 that were usable and reliable for inclusion in the final
RINAH report, none were quantitative.

3.1.2. Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

The advantage of legitimate quantitative data, that is data which is collected rigorously, using
the appropriate methods and analysed critically, is in its reliability. However, the shortcoming
of quantitative data is that it fails to provide an in depth description of the experience of the
disaster upon the affected population. Knowing how many people are affected and their
locations does not provide sufficient information to guide agencies and sectors on what they
should plan for in terms of response. Knowing why there is a problem and how people are
affected will combine with the numbers and locations to provide insight on how best to tailor
the humanitarian response.

For example, quantitative data collection may indicate categorically that 200,000 people
were affected by a flood in four districts. This information would answer the questions:
 How many people have been affected by the flood?
 In how many districts?

However, this data does not tell you what priority needs are for affected persons in light of
the flood or how the flood has impacted traditional coping strategies. Additional quantitative
data could be collected to determine specific needs by asking community members to rank a
list of priority needs. But this would still fall short of explaining why these are the priority
needs and how that impacts upon and is affected by local cultural and values. It would also
7
Examples taken from the Pakistan McRam 2010.
8

Data from ACAPS’ own field work, 2010.

6
fail to provide information about priority needs for humanitarian intervention. To gather this
information, an investigator would need to ask an open ended question, such as how has
the disaster affected traditional coping strategies used by members of the community? or
why are these the priority needs for your community?

The main strengths of quantitative data collection are that it provides9:

 numeric estimates
 opportunity for relatively uncomplicated data analysis
 data which are verifiable
 data which are comparable between different communities within different locations
 data which do not require analytical judgement beyond consideration of how
information will be presented in the dissemination process.

Weaknesses inherent in quantitative data include10:

 gaps in information - issues which are not included in the questionnaire, or secondary
data checklist, will not be included in the analysis
 a labour intensive data collection process
 limited participation by affected persons in the content of the questions or direction of
the information collection process.

Box 2: Lesson Learned - Pakistan11

In Pakistan in 2008 during large scale conflict related displacement, the child protection cluster
wanted to know numbers of separated children in each site visited. The sites comprised a small,
purposive sample of all of sites in the area and varied significantly in population size and
composition.

Questions were asked to community groups about numbers of separated children. Asking for this
information was taxing for the community groups to answer, and field teams found that male and
female groups gave vastly different numeric answers to the question making it both impossible to
resolve for each site and resulting in un-analysable information.

While it would have been useful to know whether a trend of unaccompanied children resulted from
the initial displacement, reliable data on numbers of unaccompanied children could not be
generalised from the data, rendering the exercise of collecting this specific piece of data
meaningless and wasteful of both time and resources.

3.2 Qualitative Information

Qualitative research is by definition exploratory. It is used when we don’t know what to

expect, how to define the issues, or lack an understanding of why and how affected
populations are impacted by an emergency. Qualitative data like quantitative data is based
on empiric investigation and evidence. However, qualitative research explores information
from the perspective of both groups and individuals and generates case studies and
summaries rather than lists of numeric data.

9
Adapted from the PARK companion, JIPS/ACAPS 2012.
10
Adapted from the PARK companion, JIPS/ACAPS 2012.
11
Data from ACAPS’ own field work, 2010.

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Qualitative data are often textual observations that portray attitudes, perceptions or
intentions12. Conclusions made from collected qualitative data take the form of informed
assertions about the meaning and experience of certain (sub) groups of affected
populations. The key contribution of qualitative data is that it provides information about the
human aspect of the emergency by acknowledging context to the priority needs of affected
populations and with it respecting the core principle of needs based assistance and
ownership by affected populations.
One major challenge for phase I and phase II assessments is finding the right balance in
collecting and analysing qualitative information to identify trends and overarching issues for
people affected by a crisis and to present this information appropriately.

3.2.1. Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative methods of research and analysis provide added value in identifying and
exploring intangible factors such as cultural expectations, gender roles, ethnic and religious
implications and individual feelings. Qualitative research explores relationships and
perceptions held by affected persons and communities. As a result, smaller sample sizes
chosen purposefully can be used for the following reasons13:
 The larger the sample size for qualitative data collection is, the more complex, time
consuming and multi-layered the analysis will be.
 For a true random sample to be selected, the characteristics under study of the
whole population should be known, which is rarely possible at the early stage of an
emergency.
 Random sampling of a population is likely to produce a representative sample only if
the research characteristics are evenly distributed within the population. There is no
evidence that the values, beliefs, attitude and perceptions that form the core of
qualitative research are normally distributed, making the probability approach
inappropriate.
 Some informants are more likely to provide greater insight and understanding of a
disaster’s impact to the assessment team, due to a variety of factors including their
social, economic, educational, and cultural position in the commuity. Choosing
someone at random to answer a qualitative question would be analogous to
randomly asking a passer by how to repair a broken car, rather than asking a garage
mechanic.

The qualitative sample must be big enough to assure inclusion of most or all of the
perceptions that might be important. The smaller the sample size is, the narrower the range
of perceptions that may be heard. The larger the sample size, the less likely it is that
assessment team would fail to discover a perception that they would have wanted to know.
In other words, the objective in designing qualitative research is to reduce the chances of
discovery failure as opposed to reducing (quantitative) estimation error. In practice, the
number of sample sites or groups becomes obvious as the assessment progresses, as new
categories, themes and explanations stop emerging from the data (theoretical saturation).
Clearly this requires a flexible assessment design and an iterative, cyclical approach to
sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation.
12
World Food Programme, Emergency Food Security Assessments, Technical Guidance Sheet #8, Introduction to qualitative
data and methods for collection and analysis in food security assessments, February 2009, p2.
13
Adapted from 1996, Sampling for qualitative research.

8
Data originally obtained as qualitative information about individual items may give rise to
quantitative data if they are recoded or categorised numerically. Conversely, data that are
originally quantitative are sometimes grouped into categories to become qualitative data (for
example, income below $5/day, income between $6 and $20, and income above $20).

Data gathered through qualitative methods is often presented in the form of a case study.
However, as with all data, results can also be presented in graphs, tables and using other
(traditionally) quantitative methods. It is important, though, to realise that just because
qualitative information is presented in a graph, it does not suddenly become quantitative.

Table 1 illustrates a graph of qualitative information which has been presented quantitatively.
The issues presented are clear examples of qualitative information and indicate how affected
people feel about the impact of a conflict on their security. The responses from the focus
group discussion (FGD) can be quantified according to numbers of FGD participants, and
indicate trends, but they cannot be extrapolated to apply to all persons affected by the crisis.

Table 1: Perceptions of security for disaster affected persons

Perceptions of Security (data from 10 FGDs)

4% 1%

30%
Very Insecure
Insecure
Somewhat insecure
Safe
65%

3.2.2. Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

The main strengths of qualitative data collection are that it provides14:

 rich and detailed information about affected populations
 perspectives of specific social and cultural contexts (i.e. the human voice of the
disaster)
 inclusion of a diverse and representative cross section of affected persons
 in depth analysis of the impact of an emergency
 a data collection process which requires limited numbers of respondents
 a data collection process which can be carried out with limited resources.

14
Adapted from the PARK companion, JIPS/ACAPS 2012.

9
Weaknesses inherent in qualitative data are that it15:
 results in data which is not objectively verifiable
 requires a labour intensive analysis process (categorization, recoding, etc.)
 needs skilled interviewers to successfully carry out the primary data collection
activities.

4. Data Collection Techniques

Both quantitative and qualitative data are empiric, but collect different kinds of information
using different methods. Neither type of data is intrinsically superior to the other. Rather,
the key in developing an accurate and holistic picture of the impact of a disaster on an
affected population is in ensuring that the type of data collected matches with the method of
collection to ensure the best possible data. Asking the right questions in the right ways at
the right time and of the right audiences is vital to achieving reliable 16, valid, and usable
assessment information.

During the immediate days following a sudden onset emergency, assessment teams will be
dependent primarily on secondary data. As access to affected populations and areas
increases, assessment teams will be able to increase their use of primary data. There are
four main ways to collect primary information in the field during phases I and II of an
assessment. These include:
 Direct observation.
 Key informant interviews (KIs) provide key information on individual perspectives and
experiences.
 Focus group discussions can be effective in identifying the cultural norms and
understanding the issues of concern within groups or sub groups in an affected
population17, but demand a highly skilled facilitator.
 Community group discussions are a more general group discussion with disaster
affected persons located at a specific site impacted by the crisis. A community group
has less homogeneity than an FGD.

Direct observation, also known as participant observation, is a process by which an

assessment team collects data on naturally occurring behaviour within their usual context.
This is achieved by observing conditions and specific features of an affected site from a
range of viewpoints and locations to provide an overall view of the affected area and by
noting these observations in a checklist. Observation can put into context information
provided by affected persons through key informant interviews of community/focus group
discussions18. For example, latrines may still exist within the community, but the effects of
the earthquake may have made them accessible only for able bodied persons. Direct
observation by assessment teams also help them compare conditions between sites,

15
Ibid.
16
Reliable information being defined by the degree to which the instrument consistently measures what it purports to measure,
and validity referring to the accuracy with which it measures this information.
17
ACAPS, 2011, Direct Observation and Key Informant Interview Techniques. http://www.acaps.org/img/documents/direct-
observation-and-key-informant-interview-techniques-direct-observation-and-key-informant-interview-techniques.pdf
18
UNHCR, May 2006, Participatory Assessment in Operations; see also ACAPS, 2011 TB KIDO Techniques.

10
something that analysis of information from the affected population at one single site is not
able to do.

Key informant interviews 19 , or semi structured interviews, provide vital information on

individual perspectives and experiences through direct discussion. KI interviews involve a
set of key questions which explore the impact of the disaster on the community as a whole.
A KI is a primary data source with prior knowledge of the affected community who can
provide information on behalf of the community on the impact of the disaster and on the
priority community needs. Data from KIs can be combined and analysed to develop an
understanding of how an emergency has affected different (sub) groups of a population, why
it has so affected them, and what their ensuing priority needs and concerns are and are
likely to be over time.

As with KI interviews, FGDs are effective in identifying the cultural norms and understanding
the issues of concern within groups or sub groups in an affected population which affect
community response to a disaster and use of coping mechanisms by those community
members. A FGD is a group discussion with persons of similar ages and backgrounds (and
usually gender) whose experience of the disaster will likely be similar. Information gathered
from an FGD enables analysis and understanding of a selected topic on the basis of
common characteristics of the groups20. For example, an FGD of rice farmers could be used
to understand the impact of a flood on their crop; an FGD of mothers of young children could
be used to understand post disaster child feeding concerns.

Sometimes in the initial days after a crisis it may not be possible to form discrete FGDs that
meet specific FGD criteria. In addition, it may not be possible to include someone with FGD
facilitation skills in the assessment team. When constraints including time, human resources,
and access to people affected by a disaster make it difficult to organise FGDs, a community
group can be a useful way to capture some of the views and priorities of the affected
population and to see which issues there is consensus on. A community group is comprised
of members of the affected community, but is often larger in number and crosses gender,
age, ethnicity and other standard FGD diversity parameters in composition. The nature and
composition of the group and how it was formed should always be included in the reporting
notes.

In considering Table 2, it is seen that a qualitative question might ask:

 What risks do affected women face collecting firewood?
or
 how has the disaster increased risks in water collection?

A quantitative question, on the other hand, might ask:

 how many functional water points were there in the community before the disaster?
and
 how many functional water points are in the community now?

19
ACAPS, 2011 TB KIDO Techniques.
20
UNHCR, May 2006, Participatory Assessment in Operations.

11
 Table 2: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods21

Qualitative Research Method Quantitative Research Method

 When in-depth understanding of a specific issue is  To get a broad comprehensive understanding of the
required situation
 To understand behaviour, perception and priorities of  To get socio-demographic characteristics of the population
affected community  To compare relations and correlations between different
When to  To explain information provided through quantitative data issues
 To emphasize a holistic approach (processes and  When accurate and precise data is required
use it
outcomes)  To produce evidence about the type and size of problems
 When the assessor only know roughly in advance what  When the assessor knows clearly in advance what he/she
he/she is looking for is looking for

Recommended during earlier phases of assessments Recommended during latter phases of assessment

 To explore, understand phenomena  To seek precise measurement, quantify, confirm

 Provides in depth understanding of specific issues hypotheses
 Detailed and complete information, contextualization,  Provides a general overview
Objectives and interpretation and description  Provides demographic characteristics
main features  Perspectives, opinions and explanations of affected  Objective and reliable
populations toward events, beliefs or practices  Apt for generalization
 Objectively verifiable
 Prediction, causal explanation

 Data can be observed but not measured  Data which can be counted or measured. Involves amount,
Data format  Mainly textual (words, pictures, audio, video), but also measurement or anything of quantity
categorical  Mainly numerical and categorical values

Answers questions arising during the discussion Answers a controlled sequence of questions with
 How? predetermined possible answers
Answers the  Why?  What?
questions  What do I need to look for in more detail?  How many?

Questions are generally open ended Questions are closed

 Looks at the whole context from within  Looks at specific aspects from the outside
 Searches for patterns
Perspective
 Lends itself to community participation. Seeks depth of
perspective though ongoing analysis (e.g. Waves of data)

 Individual interviews  Quick counting estimates

 Key informant interviews  Sampling surveys
Methods  Semi-structured interviews  Population movement tracking
 Focus group discussions  Registration
 Observation  Structured interviews

Sampling  Non random (purposive)  Random

Study design  Flexible, the assessor is the primary instrument for data
and instruments collection and analysis.  Fixed, standards control the assessor’s bias.

Questionnaire
Checklist with open questions and flexible sequence Predetermined questionnaire with sequence and structure
tool types

 Use inductive reasoning  Uses deductive methods

 Involves a systematic and iterative process of searching,  Descriptive statistics
categorizing and integrating data  Inferential statistics
Analysis  Describes the meaning of research findings from the
perspective of the research participants
 Involves developing generalizations from a limited number
of specific observations or experiences
 Analysis is descriptive

21
WFP, 2009, p5, see also PARK companion, JIPS/ACAPS 2012..

12
Quantitative data is often described as objective while qualitative data is characterised as
subjective. This distinction is both misleading and unhelpful since the subjectivity or
objectivity of data depends not upon its intrinsic identity but upon the bias of the investigator,
the methods used to collect it, and the ensuing analytical process. This can be true for both
qualitative and quantitative data.

The key to gathering a shared picture of the impact of a disaster affected population is
through combining both types of data types; when used along with quantitative methods,
qualitative research can help us to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a
given situation and the implications of quantitative data22.

5. Conclusion

Quantitative and qualitative information falls upon a continuum and varies according to type
of data, collection tool and method of data analysis. The main distinction between the two is
that qualitative methods do not seek statistical significance and thus, cannot be extrapolated
without relying on judgment. Any extrapolation of qualitative data to larger areas will
inevitably be general and not statistically rigorous. Qualitative research methods make up for
lack of statistical rigour by providing explanations and understanding23.

Four elements regarding qualitative and quantitative information are key to ensuring use of
the right types and right sources of information during the initial days of a rapid needs
assessment to improve decision making :

1. Qualitative and quantitative information are both important to understanding the

impact of a disaster upon an affected population. However, given time and access
constraints, primary qualitative information will most often combine with secondary
quantitative information to address knowledge gaps.

2. Collection of both qualitative and quantitative data calls for specific and agreed upon
technical methods and requires specific skills sets for accurate collation, collection
and analysis.

3. In qualitative research, the data collection instrument is the researcher. Thus, the
assessment team is the core element in both the observation of the problem and in
the analysis.

4. Qualitative and quantitative data interpretation are inter-changeable; the crucial

consideration is in how data is presented and what questions it is being used to
answer.

With all data collection methods, be they quantitative or qualitative, there is a responsibility
by the assessment teams to be accountable to the persons from whom they solicit

22
Family Health International, 2005, Qualitative Research Methods: a data collector’s field guide.
23
WFP, 2009, p3.

13
information. Awareness of, and adherence to, key humanitarian principles should be the first
step of all needs assessment teams when carrying out field research. Affected persons
should be invited to participate in the data collection process rather than feel cajoled or
pressured. Information on how, when, where, and with whom the data will be used must
also be shared with community research participants. Expectations regarding potential
advantages, or disadvantages, of participating in the research process must be managed
carefully to ensure that community members do not develop false expectations about
humanitarian support or intervention. Failure to communicate clearly with affected
populations participating in research cannot only compromise research results but, in some
cases, can compromise the safety and security of the affected populations themselves.

6. Key Resources

ACAPS, 2011, Direct Observation and Key Informant Interview Techniques.

http://www.acaps.org/img/documents/direct-observation-and-key-informant-interview-
techniques-direct-observation-and-key-informant-interview-techniques.pdf

ACAPS Secondary Data Review Technical Brief, June 2011.

http://www.acaps.org/img/documents/secondary-data-review---summary-secondary-data-
review---summary.pdf

Family Health InternationaI, Qualitative Research Methods: a data collector’s field guide,
2005.

UNHCR, Participatory Assessment in Operations, May 2006.

World Food Programme, Emergency Food Security Assessments, Technical Guidance

Sheet #8, Introduction to qualitative data and methods for collection and analysis in food
security assessments, February 2009.

14
Social Research Objectivism puts subjectivity and objectivity together since it reasons that
objective knowledge needs active, sophisticated and subjective processes like:
perception, analytical reasoning, synthetic reasoning, logical deduction and the
ability to differentiate essences from appearances. On the other hand, subjective
NOTES processes can augment objective conception of the world.
Objectivism is the highest form of the subjects being studied as part of
research methodology. It considers psychological reality as something meaningful
and important which must be accurately comprehended. Subjectivism either denies
a psychological reality to subjects, or else makes it unknowable. The psychology
of other people is clouded by the subjectivity of the observer and is not recognized
for what it (truly) is.

Check Your Progress

5. Who is known as the propounder of the scientific method of research?
6. What are the qualities of a good research?

1.5 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an approximate assumption that a researcher wants to test for its
logical or empirical consequences. It can contain either a suggested explanation
for a phenomenon or a proposal having deductive reasoning to suggest a possible
interrelation between multiple phenomena. A deductive reasoning can be defined
as a type of reasoning that can be derived from previously known facts.
Some definitions of hypothesis are:
 According to Townsend, ‘Hypothesis is defined as suggested answer
to a problem.’
 According to McGuigan, ‘A hypothesis is a testable statement of a
potential relationship between two or more variables.’
 According to Uma Sekaran, ‘A hypothesis is defined as a logically
conjectured relationship between two or more variables in the form of
testable statement. These relationships are based on theoretical
framework formulated for the research problem. The hypotheses are
often statements about population parameters like expected value and
variance, for example a hypothesis might be that the expected value of
the height of 10-year-old boys in the Scottish population is not different
from that of 10-year-old girls.’
 According to Kerlinger, ‘A good hypothesis is one which satisfies the
following criteria:
(i) Hypothesis should state the relationship between variables.
(ii) They must carry clear implications for testing the stated relations.’

Self - Learning
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