2.11 Determinants (Edwards & Penney Ch 3.

6)

One of the ways in which we can determine if a square matrix A is invertible or not, is via a
number associated with A called the determinant of A, written as det A or |A|.

• For the case where A is of size 1×1, A is equal to a scalar say a, i.e., A = [a] = a. Then
A−1 exists if a−1 exists i.e., when a 6= 0. In this case define

det A = det [a] = a.

 
a b
• For the case where A is of size 2×2, say A = , define
c d
 
a b a b
det A = det = = ad − bc.
c d c d

Then  
−1 1 d −b
A = ,
ad − bc −c a
from which we can see that A−1 exists if ad − bc 6= 0. Please note that this shorthand
inverse formula works for 2 × 2 matrices only.
 
a b c
• For the case where A is of size 3×3, say A = d e f  , define
g h i
 
a b c a b c
det A = det d e f = d e f = aei + bf g + cdh − ceg − af h − bdi.
 
g h i g h i

One way to get the determinant of a 3×3 matrix is that we duplicate the first two columns

a b c a b
d e f d e
g h i g h

and then multiply down and to the right with a ’+’ and down and to the left with a ’-’

+ + + − − −
a b c a b
.
d e f d e
g h i g h

This works for 3×3 matrices only. We will see a different way (general way) to calculate
a determinant later.
 
cos θ sin θ
Example 2.11.1. Calculate the determinant of .
− sin θ cos θ

Answer:
 
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ
= cos2 θ − − sin2 θ = 1.


det =
− sin θ cos θ − sin θ cos θ

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3 4
Example 2.11.2. Calculate the determinant of .
−5 2

Answer:  
3 4 3 4
det = = 3(2) − 4(−5) = 6 + 20 = 26.
−5 2 −5 2
 
a b
Example 2.11.3. Calculate the determinant of .
c d

Answer:  
a b a b
det = = ad − bc.
c d c d

2.12 General formula for a determinant

The general formula for calculating the determinant of an n×n matrix A = [aij ] is given by
n
X n
X
i+j
det A = aij (−1) cij = aij (−1)i+j cij ,
j=1 i=1

where the number (−1)i+j cij is known as the cofactor of aij and is obtained as follows: the
sign (−1)i+j is given by the sign in the ij th position of the checkerboard (or sign) matrix
 
+ − + ...
− + − . . .
 
 + − + . . .
 
.. .. .. . .
. . . .
with a plus sign in the upper left corner and signs that alternate horizontally and vertically,
and cij , known as the minor of aij , is the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix that
remains after deleting the ith row and the j th column of A. Note you can use any row or any
column to calculate the determinant with.

For example recall that

a b c
d e f = aei + bf g + cdh − ceg − af h − bdi.
g h i
By making use of the above formula along the first row, it follows that
a b c
e f d f d e
d e f =a −b +c = aei + bf g + cdh − ceg − af h − bdi.
h i g i g h
g h i
Hence we define 3 × 3 determinants in terms of 2 × 2 determinants, 4 × 4 determinants in terms
of 3 × 3 determinants, and so on.
Example 2.12.1. Calculate the determinant of the matrix
 
−1 0 1 −1
 2 −3 0 0
 
1 2 1 1
0 1 0 4

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along row 2. (Remember to use the sign matrix.)

Answer:
 
−1 0 1 −1
 2 −3 0 0  0 1 −1 −1 1 −1
det 
  = −(2) 2 1 1 + (−3) 1 1 1
1 2 1 1
1 0 4 0 0 4
0 1 0 4
   
2 1 2 1 −1 1
= −2 −(1) + (−1) −3 4
1 4 1 0 1 1
= 2(8 − 1) + 2(−1) − 12(−1 − 1) = 14 − 2 + 24 = 36.

Take note that for the determinant of an n×n matrix you calculate

• n (n − 1)×(n − 1) determinants and for each (n − 1)×(n − 1) determinant you have

• n − 1 (n − 2)×(n − 2) determinants and for each (n − 2)×(n − 2) determinant you have

• n − 2 (n − 3)×(n − 3) determinants and for each (n − 3)×(n − 3) determinant you have ...

thus getting n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . 3.2.1 = n! terms in the expansion.

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