SET THEORY

Introduction
 In daily life we often used the word set in various situations, but in mathematical
terminology it represents a group or a collection of books, toys or numbers etc., these
objects which are the part of the set are called as elements of the set.
 It was developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918) and Ernst Zermelo, Abraham Fraenkel
and John Von Neumann.

Definition of Set
A set is a well-defined collection of objects and these objects are termed as the
members or elements or vector of the set. The term “well-defined” means that each
element has certain characteristics with which it can be identified under a particular
head.
For example
(i) The set {a, e, i, o, u} belongs to family of vowels
(ii) The set {1, 2, 3, 4} belongs to natural numbers (N).

Set Notation
The two most common way of expressing a set are:
(i) Roster, Tabular or Enumeration Form: In this method all the elements are
listed within braces { } or brackets [ ] or parentheses ( ) separated by commas.
For example
All natural numbers less than six can be written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(ii) Set builder Form: In this method all the elements are listed according to
Characteristics or properties.
For example
(i) The Set A = {a, e, i, o, u} can be written as
A = {x | x is vowel in English alphabet} or
A = {x : x is vowel in English alphabet}
(ii) The Set B = {1, 3, 5, 7………..} can be written as
B = {x : x is a odd number integer}
A Colon (:), a vertical line (|) or a semi colon ( ; ) can be used after x and read as “such
that”

Types of Set
(i) Finite set:
A Set which is in countable form is a finite set. Each element of this kind of set can be
counted physically. In this element are limited.
For example
Set A = {x: x is the numbers on a dice} – finite set having 6 elements
Set B = (x: x is the days in a week} is a finite set with 7 elements.
(ii) Infinite set
A set which is in uncountable form is an infinite set. The elements in this set cannot be
counted. In this element are Unlimited.
For example
Set A = {x : x is a Natural Number}
Set B = {x : x is stars in Sky}
(iii) Null, empty or void set
A set which has no elements is called as null, empty or void set denoted by {Ø} and
read as phi in Greek and Latin.
For example
Set A = {Ø} is a null set.
Set B = {x: x is the eight days in a week} will be Null Set as a week has 7 days only.
(iv) Singleton set
A set containing only one element is called as singleton set.
For example Set A = {x : x is the Sundays in a week} only one Sunday in a week.
(v) Equality of sets
Two sets A and B are termed equal if every element of Set A is also an element of Set
B and also every element of Set B is an element of Set A i.e. A = B. it is also called as
Axiom of Extension or Axiom of Identity. In this order of elements in both set can be
differ. The elements of both sets should be equal in no. of element (count) as well
value of element.
For example
If Set A = {2, 3, 4} and Set B = {4, 3, 2}.
Here Set A = Set B because both sets have same values and equal numbers of
elements.
(vi) Equivalent set
If two sets have same number of elements (In Count) then the sets are called
equivalent set and denoted by the symbol ~. The values of the elements can be
differ.
For example
Set A = {a, b, c} and Set B = {x, y, z} ,
here A and B both have 3 elements so Set A ~ Set B (A~B).

(vii) Subset :
If A and B are two sets such that every element of Set A is also an element of Set B
then Set A is said to be a subset of Set B or read as “Set A is contained in Set B” or
“Set A is a subset of Set B”
It can write as A ⊆ B (x є A ) or B ⊇ A (x є B )
For example
Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then all elements of Set
A are also elements of Set B which means A ⊆ B
Properties of Subsets
(i) If Set A is subset of Set B then Set B is called the super set of Set A.
(ii) If Set A ⊆ Set B and Set B ⊆ Set A then Set A = Set B.
(iii) If Set A ⊆ Set B, Set B ⊆ Set C then Set A ⊆ Set C

(viii) Proper Subset

When each and every element of one set are the member of other set also and other
set contains at least one its own element then it is called Proper Subset. Symbolically
denoted as A ⊂ B
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4} here Set A is a proper subset of Set B (A
⊂ B).
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {2, 3, 4, 5} here Set A is not a proper subset of Set B
(A ⊄ B).
(ix) Comparable Sets
Two set A and B are said to be comparable if one of them is the subset of the other
i.e. A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A.
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4} Set A and Set B are comparable.

(x) Non Comparable Sets

 When two or more sets are not subset of other set i.e. one element in Set A which is
not in Set B and one element in Set B which is not in Set A or both sets having
different values of elements then it is called Non-comparable sets. Symbolically
denoted by A ⊄ B and B ⊄ A.
For example
Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {3, 4, 5} then both the sets are non-comparable ( A ⊄
B)
Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {a,b,c,d} then both the sets are non-comparable. (A ⊄
B)

(xi) Disjoint sets

Set A and Set B are said to be disjoint. If no element of set A is in B and no element of
set B is in A. When two sets don’t have common elements, are called disjoint sets. For
this Addition theorem for probability will be applied.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {4, 5, 6}, then there is no common elements
between Set A and Set B.
Set A = {x : x is an ODD Number} and Set B = {x : x is an Even Number} – they both
are disjoint sets.
Probability function = A ∪ B = P(A) + P(B) (Disjoint Set A or B)

(xii) Set of sets or family of sets

If the elements of a set are sets themselves then it is called set of sets or family of
sets.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2} then, The Set = {Ø, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}} is a family of sets whose
elements are subset of A.

(xiii) Power set

If for a given Set A, a set consisting of all the subsets of A is called the power of the
set. Set of all possible subsets of given one set it called power set. It is denoted by
P(A). When a set contains ‘n’ elements then 2n subsets can be formed. The set
consisting of these 2n subsets is called power set
For example
If Set A = {1, 2} then P (A) = {Ø}, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}.
P(A) = [B / B  A]
A = {a,b,c} then P(A) = [{a, {a} {b} {c} {a,b} {a,c} {b,c} {a,b,c}}] = 8 i.e 2 3
elements

(xiv) Universal Set

If each set is a subset of some other set. A set which is superset of all the sets under
consideration is called as Universal set and is denoted by U. Other sets can be formed
from Universal set. It is Always NOT NULL.

For example
U = {x: x is all English alphabets}
Further Subsets can be formed from this:
V = {x: x is vowels in English}
C = {x: x is consonants in English}
 SET OPERATIONS

1.Union of Set
If A and B are two sets then the union of Set A and Set B is the set consisting of either
all the elements of Set A or Set B or both and denoted by “A ∪ B” and read as A union
B or A cup B
Symbolically presents: A ∪ B = {x : x A or x B or x  both A and B}
Probability function: (Union A or B)
A ∪ B = P(A) + P(B)
Venn Diagram : Both set not having common elements so A disjoints B (A or B).
For example
A ∪ B = P(A) + P(B)
A ∪ B = (1,2,3) + (4,5,6)
A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
And hence the union of two Sets A and B is the logical sum of A and B where each
element is written only once.

Set A Set B
1,2,3 4,5,6

Properties of Union of Sets

(i) If Set A and Set B are two sets then A ∪ B is also a unique set
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {3, 4, 5}
Therefore, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is also a set.
(ii) Commutative Property
Union of set is commutative i.e. if Set A and Set B are two sets then A ∪ B = B ∪ A
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {3, 4, 5}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}.
Similarly B ∪ A = {3, 4, 5, 1, 2} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = A ∪ B
Clearly A ∪ B = B ∪ A
(iii) Union of sets is associative i.e. If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then A
∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} and Set C = {5, 6}, then
 (A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Therefore (A∪ B) ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {5, 6} = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6}
Similarly, (A ∪ C) = {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Therefore, A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and hence, A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
(iv) If Set A is a set, then A ∪ Ø = A where Ø is a null set
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3}, then A ∪ Ø = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {Ø}
= {1, 2, 3}
=A
(v) Union of sets is idempotent
If Set A is any set then A ∪ A = A.
For example
If A = {1, 2, 3} then A ∪ A = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3} = A

(vi) If Set A is a subset of universal Set ∪ then A ∪ ∪ = ∪

For example
If Set ∪ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and Set A = {1, 2, 3}
A ∪ ∪ = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} = ∪.
(vii) If Set A and Set B are two sets such that A ⊆ B then A ∪ B = B and if B ⊆ A
then A ∪ B = A
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Then A ⊆ B
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = B
Similarly If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3} In this case B ⊆ A
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {1, 2, 3} A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = A

2. Intersection of Sets
When two or more sets are not disjoint, are called intersection of sets. It means two or
more sets have some common elements. It is denoted by A ∩ B and read as “ A Cap B
” or “A intersection B”. Symbolically represented as
A ∩ B = {x : x  A and x  B}
Otherwise if x  A ∩ B: x A and x  B
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3. 4} and Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A ∩ B = {3, 4}

The Venn diagram representation is shown below as:

 A∩B S

A B

Properties of Intersection of Sets

(i) Communicative Property

Intersection of sets is communicative i.e. if Set A and Set B are two sets then A ∩ B = B ∩ A
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {3, 4, 5} then A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}.
Similarly, B ∩ A = {3, 4, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = {3}. Therefore A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

(ii) Associative Property

The intersection of sets are associative i.e. if Set A, Set B and Set C are three
sets then (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} and Set C = {4, 5, 6}
Then A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3, 4}.
Hence (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {3, 4} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = {4}.
Similarly, B ∩ C = {3, 4, 5} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = {4, 5}.
Hence, A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {4, 5} = {4}
Therefore (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
(iii) Idempotent Property
The intersection of sets is idempotent i.e. if Set A is any set, then A ∩ A = A
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then A ∩ A = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} =
A

(iv) If Set A is any set then A ∩ Ø = Ø, Ø is the null set

For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Ø = { } then, A ∩ Ø = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ { } = { } = Ø.

(v) If Set A is any set subset of an Universal Set U then A ∩ U = A

For example
If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
then A ∩ U = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} = A
(vi) If A and B are disjoint sets then A ∩ B = Ø
For example
if Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Set B = {5, 6, 7}
 then A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {5, 6, 7} = {Ø}
(vii) If Set A and Set B are two sets then A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B
As A ∩ B contains only those elements which are in common A as well as in B.
Therefore A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {3, 4} which is a subset of Set A and Set B

Distributive Laws of Unions and Intersections

Result 1
If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets, then
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} and Set C = {4, 5, 6}
Then (B ∪ C) = {3, 4, 5} ∪ {4, 5, 6} = {3, 4, 5, 6}.
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 4, 5, 6} = {3, 4}
Similarly, (A ∩ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3, 4} and
(A ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = {4}
Thus, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {3, 4} ∪ {4} = {3, 4}
Therefore A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Result 2
If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets, then
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} and Set C = {4, 5, 6}
Then (B ∩ C) = {3, 4, 5} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = {4, 5} and
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4 } ∪ {4, 5 } = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Similarly (A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Then (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Therefore A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Complement of a Set
The complement of a Set A is that set which contains all those elements of the
universal set U which are not in A. The complement of set A is the set U – A and is
denoted by Ac, A′, or ~ A. It can symbolically written as A′ = U – A = { x: x  U and x
A}
For example
If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and the Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then
A′ = U – A = {6, 7, 8}.
Properties of the Complement of Set
(i) The intersection of Set A and its complement A′ are disjoint sets
i.e. A ∩ A′ is a null set {Ø}
 For example
If the Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
then A′ = U – A = {6, 7, 8, 9}
Therefore A ∩ A′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {6, 7, 8, 9} = {Ø}

(iii) Complement of complement a Set A is the set itself i.e. (A′)′ = A

For example
If the Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then
A′ = U – A = {6, 7, 8, 9}
Therefore (A′)′ = U - A′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Set A

(iv) If the Set A is equal to the universal Set U then A′ = {Ø}.

(v) If Set A and Set B are two sets then A – B = A ∩ B′
For example
If the Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} , Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {4, 5, 6,
7}
then A – B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} - {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3}.
But B′ = U – B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} – {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3, 8, 9}
Thus A ∩ B′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 8, 9} = {1, 2, 3} = A – B

(vi) If A ⊆ B then A ∪ (B – A) = B
For example
If the Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B – A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} – {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {6, 7, 8, 9}.
Therefore A ∪ (B – A) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {6, 7, 8, 9}. = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} = B

Difference of Sets
Set A and Set B are two sets then the difference of Set A and B is the set which
consist of those elements which belongs to A but does not belong to B denoted by A
– B and read as “A difference B “or A minus B” and also denoted by A ~ B.
The symbolical representation is A – B = (x : x  A and x ∉ B)
similarly A – A = (x : x  B and x ∉ A).
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} then A – B = {1, 2, 3, 4} – {3, 4, 5} = {1,
2}.
Similarly A – A = {3, 4, 5} – {1, 2, 3, 4} = {5}
 Properties of Difference of Sets
(i) A – A = Ø.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) then A – A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} – {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = Ø
(ii) A – Ø = A.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Ø be a null set
then A – Ø = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} – {Ø} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} =A, hence A – Ø = A.
(iii) A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually disjoint.
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {4, 5, 6, 7}
then A – B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} – {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3}
A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {4, 5, 6, 7} = {4, 5} and B – A = {4, 5, 6, 7} – {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
= {6, 7} (iv) (A – B) ∪ A = A
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {4, 5, 6, 7} then
A – B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} – {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3}.
Therefore, (A – B) ∪ A = {1, 2, 3} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
(v) (A – B) ∩ B = Ø
For example
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {4, 5, 6, 7} then
A – B = {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} – {4, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 3}.
Therefore, (A – B) ∩ B = {1, 2, 3} ∩ {4, 5, 6, 7}. = Ø
 Illustration No. 1
If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, Set B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and Set
C = { 3, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then, find (i) A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪
(A – C)
(ii) A ∪ B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(iii) A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C)
Solution:
(B ∩ C) = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {3, 5, 6, 7, 9}
= {5, 6, 7}
Therefore
A – (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} – {5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4}
Similarly
(A – B) = {1, 2, 3}
and
(A – C) = {1, 2, 4}
Therefore (A – B) ∪ (A – C) = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Hence, A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)
(ii) (B ∩ C) = {4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {3, 5, 6, 7, 9}
= {5, 6, 7}
Therefore
A ∪ B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ {5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Similarly,
(A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ {4, 5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
And
(A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∪ {3, 5, 6, 7, 9},
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}
Therefore,
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9},
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
Hence A ∪ B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
(iii) (B – C) = {4}
Therefore
A ∩ (B – C) = {4}
But (A ∩ B) = {4, 5, 6}
And
(A ∩ C) = {3, 5, 6}
Therefore,
 (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C) = {4}
Hence A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C).
Illustration No. 2
If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Set B = {4,
5, 6, 7} and Set C = {5, 6, 7, 8} then find
(i) (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(ii) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
(iii) (A ∪ B ∪ C)′ (iv) (A ∪B′) ∩ (A′ ∪ B) Solution:
(i) (A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} U {4, 5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
And
(A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {5, 6, 7, 8}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.

Therefore,
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (ii)
(A ∩ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {4, 5, 6, 7}.
= {4, 5}
And
(A ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∩ {5, 6, 7, 8}
= {5}
Therefore,
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {4, 5} ∪ {5}.
= {4, 5}.
(iii) (A ∪ B ∪ C)′ = U – (A ∪ B ∪ C)
But,
(A ∪ B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Therefore,
(A ∪ B ∪ C)′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} – {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
= {9}.
(iv) (A ∪ B′) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 8, 9}, = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
8, 9}.
And
(A′ ∪ B) = {6, 7, 8, 9} ∪ {4, 5, 6, 7, 8},
= {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
Therefore,
(A ∪ B′) ∩ (A′ ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9} ∩ {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
= { 4, 5, 8, 9 }.
Illustration No. 3
If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, Set A = {2, 3, 4}, Set B = {1, 4, 5, 6} and Set C =
{1, 2, 4, 5, 7} then find (i) (A ∩ B) ′ = A′ ∪ B′.
(ii) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
Solution:
(i) (A ∩ B) = {2, 3, 4} ∩ {1, 4, 5, 6}.
= {4}
Therefore (A ∩ B)′ = U – (A ∩ B)
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} – {4}
= {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
Similarly
A′ = U – A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} – {2, 3, 4},
= {1, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
And
B′ = U – B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} – {1, 4, 5, 6},
= {2, 3, 7, 8}
Therefore,
A′ ∪ B′ = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8} ∪ {2, 3, 7, 8},
= {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
Hence (A ∩ B) ′ = A′ ∪ B′.

(ii) (B ∩ C) = {1, 4, 5, 6} ∩ {1, 2, 4, 5, 7}

= {1, 4, 5}.
Therefore,
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {2, 3, 4} ∪ {1, 4, 5}.
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Similarly,
A ∪ B) = {2, 3, 4} ∪ {1, 4, 5, 6}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
And
(A ∪ C) = {2, 3, 4} ∪ {1, 2, 4, 5, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}.
Therefore,
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}.
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Hence, A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Cardinal Number of a Set

The numbers of elements in a finite set say Set A is called as cardinal number of A
and symbolically represented as n (A).
For example
 If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} then n(A) = 7 as A contains only seven elements.
Some Important Results
(i) n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ∩ B).
Note: If Set A and Set B are disjoint sets then (A ∩ B) = {Ø}.
Therefore n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)
(ii) n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n (A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C)– n (A ∩ C) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C).
(iii) n (A′) = n(U) – n(A).
(iv) n(A) = n [ (A ∩ B′) ∪ (A ∩ B) ]
= n [ (A – B) ∪ (A ∩ B) ]= n(A – B) + n (A ∩ B).
(v) n(A ∪ B )= n(A – B) + n (A ∩ B) + n(B – A).
Illustration No. 1
In a class of 30 students, 14 has taken mathematics, 10 has taken mathematics but
not economics. Find the number of students who had taken mathematics and
economics also find the number of students who had taken economics but not
mathematics?
Solution:
Let
A = Set of students who have taken mathematics as subject.
B = Set of students who have taken economics as subject.
Then given are n(A ∪ B 30, n(A) = 14 and n(A ∩ B′) = 10.
Now we need to find the students who have taken both the subjects i.e. n(A ∩ B)
and the number of students who have taken economics as subject but not
mathematics i.e. n(B ∩ A′) But
n(A) = n(A ∩ B′) + n(A ∩ B)
14 = 10 + n(A ∩ B).
n(A ∩ B) = 14 – 10.
=4
But
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B ) – n(A ∩ B).
30 = 14 + n(B ) – 4.
n(B) = 30 – 10 = 20. Therefore,
n(B) = n(B ∩ A′) + n(A ∩ B)
20 = n(B ∩ A′) + 4.
n(B ∩ A′) = 20 – 4 = 16.
Illustration No. 2
Out of 200 students in a management school 120 students read Indian Economic
Review and 100 read Harvard Business Review if the number of students who read
neither of the journals is 40 then find the number of students who read both them?
Solution:
Let
A = Set of students who read Indian Economic Review.
 B = Set of students who read Harvard Business Review. Then given are n(U
200 , n(A) = 120, n(B) = 100 and n(A′ ∩ B′) = 40.
We need to find the number of students who read both the journals i.e. Indian
Economic Review and Harvard Business Review i.e. n (A ∩ B)
But,
A′ ∩ B′ = (A ∪ B)′ therefore n(A ∪ B)′ = 40.
Since n(A ∪ B)′ = n (U) – n(A ∪ B ) or n(A ∪ B ) = 200 – 40 = 160
But as we know, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) +
n(B ) – n(A ∩ B).
160 = 120 + 100 – n(A ∩ B).
n(A ∩ B) = 220 – 160 = 60.
Thus there are 60 students who read both the journals.
Illustration No. 3
In an examination 100 students secured 80% and more marks in Economics or
Accounts. Out of these 70 obtained 80% and more marks in Economics and 20 in both
Economics and Accounts. Then find how many of them have secured 80% and more
marks in Accounts only?
Solution:
Let
A = Set of students who scored over 80% in Economics.
B = Set of students who scored over 80% in Accounts.
Then given are n(A U B 100 , n(A) = 70 , and n(A ∩ B) = 20.
We need to find the number of students who scored over 80% in Accounts.
But we know, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) +
n(B) – n (A ∩ B) 100 = 70 + n(B ) –
20. n(B) = 100 – 50 = 50.
As we need to find the students who scored over 80% in Accounts are
N(A′ ∩ B) = n(B) – n (A ∩ B)
= 50 – 20 = 30.
Illustration No. 4
In a pollution study of 200 cities has revealed the following report,
70 were polluted by Sulphur compounds, 60 were polluted by Lead and 80 were
polluted by Fly Ash, 40 were polluted by Sulphur and Fly Ash, 30 were polluted by
Sulphur and Lead , 35 were polluted by Lead and Fly ash and 10 cities were polluted
by all three compounds. Then find (i) How many were polluted by one of three
impurities?
(ii) How many cities are only polluted by Sulphur, Lead and Fly Ash?
(iii) How many of the cities are not polluted at all?
Solution:
Let
S = City polluted by Sulphur compounds.
L = City polluted by Lead.
F = City polluted by Fly Ash.
(i) Since we need to find the number of cities polluted by at least one of the pollutants is
given by
n(S∪L∪ F) = n(S) + n(L ) + n(F) – n(S ∩ L) – n(L ∩ F)
– n (S ∩ F) + n (S ∩ L ∩ F)
= 70 + 60 + 80 – 40 – 30 – 35 + 10 =
115.
Thus 115 cities are polluted by atleast one of the pollutants.
(ii) Cities polluted by only one pollutant are
Case I: By Sulphur Compounds, n(S ∩ L′ ∩ F ′) = n
[ S ∩ (L∪ F ′
= n(S) – n (S ∩ L) – n (S ∩ F) + n(S ∩ L ∩ F)
= 70 – 30 – 40 + 10.
= 10
Case II By Lead, n(L ∩ S′ ∩ F ′) = n [ L ∩ (S ∪ F ′
n(L) – n (L ∩ S) – n (L ∩ F) + n (S ∩ L ∩ F)
= 60 – 30 – 35 + 10.
=5
Case III : By Fly Ash, n( F ∩ S′
∩ L ′) = n [ F ∩ (S∪ L ′
n(F) – n (F ∩ S) – n (F ∩ L) + n (S ∩ L ∩ F)
= 80 – 35 – 40 + 10
= 15
(iii) To find the number of cities which are not polluted were
= n(U) – n((S∪L∪ F)
= 200 – 115 = 85
Ordered Pairs
An ordered pair consists of two elements, say a and b represented within parenthesis
as (a, b) where a is the first member and b the second member.
For example: the odd numbers and their squares can be represented in the form of
ordered pairs as
(1, 1); (3, 9); (5, 25); (7, 49)…………………………
Note
Two ordered pair (a, b) and (c, d) are said to be equal if and only if a = c and
b = d. In other words (a, b) = (c, d)  a = c and b = d.
Cartesian Products
If Set A and Set B are two sets then the set of all ordered pairs whose first member
belongs to Set A and the second member belongs to Set B is the Cartesian product of
A and B in that order and read as A cross B and symbolically represented as
A × B = { (x , y) ; x  A and y  B}
Note
(i) If A × B and B × A have same number of elements then A × B ≠ B × A unless
and until A = B . Therefore the Cartesian product of two sets is commutative if the
two sets are equal.
(ii) If Set A has m elements and Set B has n elements then A × B has mn elements.
(iii) If Set A and Set B are disjoint then the Cartesian product A × B is also disjoint.
(iv) If either of Set A or Set B is a null set then the set A × B is also a null set.
(v) If either of Set A or Set B is a infinite set and the other is a non empty set then the set
A × B is also an infinite set.
(vi) If Set A or Set B are finite sets then n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B).
Some Important Properties
(i) If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets and A ⊆ B, then (A × C) ⊆ B × C)
(ii) If Set A and Set B are two sets and A ⊆ B , then (A × A) A × B) ∩ (B × A).
(iii) If Set A, Set B and Set C are three sets then A × (B – C) = A × B) – A × C)

Illustration No. 1
If Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2} then prove that A × B ≠ B × A
Solution:
The Cartesian product A × B = {(1, 1) , (1, 2) , (2, 1), (2, 2) ,(3, 1) (3, 2)}
Similarly B × A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), ( 1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), ( 2, 3)}
Thus (3, 1) and (3, 2) are elements of A × B are not elements B × A.
Similarly (2,3) is a element in B × A but not A × B, therefore A ×B ≠ B × A
Illustration No. 2
If Set A = {1, 2} , Set B = {2, 3} and Set C {3, 4} then find
(i) A × (B ∪ C
(ii) (A × B) ∩ (A × C).
(iii) A × (B ∩ C).
Solution:
(i) (B ∪ C {2, 3} ∪ {3, 4}
= {2, 3, 4}.
Therefore,
A × (B ∪ C {1, 2} × {2, 3, 4}.
= { ( 1, 2 ), ( 1, 3), ( 1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3) ,( 2, 4) }.
(ii) ( A × B ) = { 1, 2} × { 2, 3}
= { ( 1,2 ) , ( 1,3), (2,2), (2,3) }.
And ( A × C ) = { 1, 2} × { 3, 4}
= { ( 1, 3 ) , ( 1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4) }
Therefore
( A × B ) ∩ (A × C ) = { ( 1, 3 ), (2, 3) }.
(iii) ( B ∩ C ) = { 2, 3 } ∩ {3, 4}
= { 3 }.
Therefore A × ( B ∩ C ) = { 1, 2} × { 3 }.
= { (1, 3 ) , ( 2, 3) }.
 Illustration No. 3
If Set A = {1, 2} , Set B = {1, 2, 3} and Set C {1, 2, 3, 4} then verify whether A × (B
∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C) ?
Solution:
(B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 3} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4}
= {1, 2, 3}

Therefore
A × (B ∩ C) = {1, 2 } × {1, 2, 3}.
= { ( 1, 1 ), ( 1, 2 ), ( 1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), ( 2, 3) }
But,
(A × B) = {1, 2} × {1, 2, 3}
= { (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), ( 2, 3) }
And
(A × C ) = { (1, 1), (1, 2 ), (1, 3), (1, 4 ), (2, 1), (2, 2) ,( 2, 3), (2, 4) }.
Therefore,
(A × B) ∩ (A × C ) = { (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), ( 2, 3) }.
Hence A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)

Self Practice Exercises

1. If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then find
(i) A ∪ B (ii) A ∩ B
2. If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Set B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and
Set C = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7} then find
(i) A ∩ ( B ∪ C). (ii) A ∪ (B ∩ C).
3. If Set A ={ 1, 2, 3 } , Set B = { 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set C = {3, 5, 6} then find
(i) (A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ C) (ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∪ (B ∩ C )
4. If Set A ={1, 2, 3, 4} , Set B = {2, 3, 4, 5} and Set C = {3, 4, 5, 6} then find
(i) (A – B ) ∪ C (ii) A – ( B ∩ C)
(iii) (A – B ) ∪ (B – C) (iv) (A ∩ B ) – (B ∩ C)
5. If Set A ={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } and Set B = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } then find
(i) A – (A – B) (ii) (A – B) ∩ (B – A) (iii) (A – B) ∪ (B – A)
6. If Set U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , Set A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and
Set B = {2, 3, 4} then find,
(i) (A′ U B) ∩ (B′ U A) (ii) (A′ ∩ B) ∪ (B′ ∩ A).
7. If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and Set C = {5, 6, 7, 8} then find
(i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) (ii) A ∩ (B U C) (iii) A ∩ (B ∩ C)
8. If Set A = {1, 2, 3}, Set B = {2, 3, 4, 5} and Set C ={2, 4, 5, 6, 8} then prove that
(i) A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B ) – (A ∩ C)
(ii) (A ∩ B) – C = (A – C) ∩ (B – C)
9. If Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Set A = {4, 5, 7} , Set B = {1, 2,
3, 4} and Set C = {3, 4, 5, 7} then find
 (i) A′ ∪ B′ (ii) A′ ∩ B′. (iii) (A U B U C )′.
10. if Set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} , Set A = {1, 2, 3}, Set B = {3, 4, 5} and Set C = {4, 5,
7} then find
(i) A′ ∩ (B ∪ C) (ii) (A′ ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B′)
11. If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} then find
(i) (A – B) ∪ (B – A) (ii) (A – B) ∩ (B – A)
12. If Set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Set B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and Set C = {3, 5, 7, 8} then find
(i) (A ∩ B) ∪ (B – C) (ii) (A U B) ∩ (B – C)
13. In a survey conducted in a town of 2000 population to see the readership of
newspaper, it has revealed that 1000 read Hindustan Times, 800 read Times of India
and 700 read Indian Express. If there was 400 who read both Hindustan Times and
Times of India, 300 who read both Times of India and Indian Express, 500 read only
Hindustan times and 100 read all the three papers. Then find, (i) How many read
both Hindustan Times and Indian Express?
(ii) How of them read only one paper?
(iii) How many of them read none of the newspaper?
14. In a class of management course of 120 students appeared for their tri semester
examinations of Business Mathematics, Business Statistics and Business Economics.
After the results were declared it was found that 50 failed in Business Mathematics,
48 failed in Business Statistics and 64 failed in Business Economics. Moreover 18
failed in Business Mathematics alone, 12 failed Business Statistics alone and 10 in
Business Statistics and Business Economics then find
(i) How many failed in all the subjects?
(ii) How many passed in all the subjects?
(iii) How many passed in Business Economics alone?
15. In an examination 86 passed in marketing paper, 96 passed in managerial economics
paper and 104 has passed in quantitative techniques paper. Only 16 students could
manage to pass all the three, 28 passed in marketing and managerial economics
paper and 42 passed in marketing and quantitative techniques paper and 40 passed
in managerial economics paper and quantitative techniques paper then find,
(i) How many students passed in only marketing paper?
(ii) Find the ratio of students passing in managerial economics and quantitative
techniques paper?
(iii) If a student is declared pass in the examination provided he or she clears at least two
subjects. Find how many were declared pass?
16. In a picnic party it was found that 20 people like all three beverages tea, coffee and
cold drink. It was found that 40 people like coffee and tea, 50 like coffee and cold
drink and 50 like tea and cold drink. It was noticed that 110 liked coffee, 100 tea and
100 cold drink. From the above mentioned information find
(i) How many picnic goers preferred only coffee, only tea and only cold drink?
(ii) How many of the picnic goers liked both tea and cold drink but not coffee?
(iii) How many of the picnic goers liked at least two of the beverages?
17. The combined membership of Accounts Society and Mathematical society is 100. Find
the number of members in Mathematical society knowing that 60 members are the
members of accounts society and 25 are the members of both the institutions?
18. If Set A = { 1, 3 } , Set B = { 2, 4 } and Set C = { 3, 4} then find
(i) A × ( B ∪ C ) (ii) A × ( B ∩ C ) (iii) ( A × B ) ∩ A × C )
19. If Set A ={ a, b} , Set B = { c, d } and Set C = { e, f } show that A × B ≠ B × A
and also find ( A × B ) ∪ A × C )?
20. If Set A = { 1, 2, 3 } , Set B = { 1, 2 } and Set C = { 2, 4} then find
(i) A × ( B ∩ C ) (ii) ( A × B ) ∩ A × C )
 Answers
1. (i) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) {3, 4}
2. (i) {2, 3, 4, 5}
(ii) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
3. (i) {2, 3, 4, 5}
(ii) {2, 3, 5}
4. (i) {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) {1, 2} (iii) {1, 2}
(iv) { 2 }
5. (i) {3, 4, 5} , (ii) { Ø }, (iii) {1, 2, 6, 7, 8}
6. (i) {2, 3, 5} (ii) {0, 1, 4}
7. (i) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, (ii) {3, 4, 5} and (iii) { 5 }
9. (i) {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, (ii) {6, 8, 9} and (iii) {6, 8, 9}
10. (i) {4, 5, 7} and (ii) {1, 2, 4, 5}
11. (i) {1, 2, 6, 7} and (ii) { Ø }
12. (i) {3, 4, 5, 6} and (ii) {4, 6}
13. (i) 100, (ii) 1000 and (iii) 300 14 (i) 20, (ii) 20 and (iii) 28.
15. (i) 32, (ii) 22: 19 and (iii) 78
16. (i) 90, (ii) 30 and (iii) 100
17. 65.
18. (i) { (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 2), (3, 4) }
(ii) { (1, 4), (3, 4 )} (iii) { (3, 4) }.
19. { (a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (a, f), (b, c), (b, d), (b, e), (b, f )}.
20. (i) { (1, 2),(2, 2), (3, 2) }
(ii) { (1, 2 ),(2, 2), (3, 2) }