Indirect Costs in Maintenance

Classical Maintenance Thinking

Bath Tub Curve

Conditional probability of failure

Infant mortality Useful life period Phase out period

Design, Preventive and Condition based RLA

Reliability and maintenance
manufacturing

Age
 MAITENANCE SCHEDULES
A. TRANSFOEMERS AND REACTORS.

(i) Without Shutdown activities

1 Checking of Bushing Oil Level M

2 Checking of Oil Level In Conservator M
3 Checking of Oil Level In OLTC Conservator M
4 Manual actuation of cooler oil pumps and fans M
5 Checking of Oil leaks M
6 Checking condition of silica gel in breather M
7 Checking of Oil Level in oil seal of breather M
8 Testing of oil for DGA and other oil parameters HY
9 Vibration measurements (for shunt reactors only) 2Y
10 IR measurements of windings 2Y
11 Tan δ measurement of windings 2Y
12 Checking and cleaning of diverter contacts 2Y
13 measurements of windings resistance at all tap points 4Y
14 Filtration/de-gassing of main tank oil SOS
15 Testing of bushing CTs SOS
16 Filtration/replacement of oil of OLTC SOS
17 measurement of windings ratio SOS
18 Checking of earthling connections Y

M-monthly, QY-Quarterly, Y- yearly, 2Y-once in 2 years, SOS- as and when required

Note: Insulation resistance measurement, tan δ of bushings, winding resistance at all taps to
be carried out once before expiry of warranty and then to be continued as per schedule.
Vibration measurement for reactor to be carried out initially after 3 months and 6 months
after commissioning and then to be continued as per schedule.
FRA at factory and during pre-commissioning is preferable to serve as base signature.
 (ii) Shutdown activities
1 BDV, ppm of OLTC Diverter Switch compartment oil ( Less frequently if operations Y
are not more)
2 External cleaning of radiators Y
3 Cleaning of oil bushings Y
4 Checking of auto starting of cooler pumps and fans Y
5 Marshaling boxes of transformer/reactor
(i) Cleaning of Marshaling boxes of transformer/reactor and OLTC Y
(ii) Tightening of terminations Y
(iii) Checking of contacts , space heaters, illumination etc., Y
6 Maintenance of OLTC driving mechanism Y
7 Checking of all remote indications and top up oil in pockets, if required Y
8 Electrical checking/testing of pressure relief device, Buchholz relay, Y
OLTC surge relay/ checking of alarm/ trip and checking / replacement of the gaskets
of the terminal box
9 checking/testing of Buchholz relay by oil draining Y
10 Frequency response analysis SOS
11 Tan δ measurement of bushings Y
12 Recovery voltage measurement SOS
 Causes of failure of power transformer(CIGRE survey)

Cause % of failures
Design 36
Manufacturing Problem 28

Material Defects 13
Poor maintenance 5
Lightning surges 4
Short circuits 2

Component wise failures % failures

Winding 29
Terminal 29
Tank and di-electric fluid 13
Magnetic circuit 11
Other accessories 5
 Causes of failure of power transformer(Indian utilities)

Cause % of failures
Design defects 35.7
Manufacturing Problem 28.6

Material Defects 13.1

Transport or storage problems 1.2
Incorrect maintenance 4.8
Abnormal overload Less than 1
Over fluxing 1.2
Lightning 3.6
External short circuit 2.4
Loss of cooling 1.2
Unknown 7.1
 Failure due to manufacturing deficiencies

Cause Effect Remedial measures

Loose winding and Results in inter turn or inter disc Proper sizing for keeping winding
improper sizing short circuit under clamping condition
Burrs on lamination Results in local short circuit and Burr free condition to be ensured by
heating good manufacturing practices
Burrs on spacers and Results in damaging conductor Burr free condition to be ensured by
blocks insulation good manufacturing practices

Bad brazed joints Damage the conductor Adopt good brazing procedures
insulation and winding may fail
Metallic parts leftover May cause partial discharge Better house keeping to be ensured
during manufacture
Insulation surface Results in insulation failure Cleanliness to be ensured
contamination
All metal components not Partial discharge may start and All metal components are to be
earthed oil quality may get affected properly earthed and this is to be
added in check list
Bad and porous welding Results in oil leakage Surface cleanliness to be ensured and
of transformer tank adopt good welding procedures
Improper drying process Winding and insulation are not Extensive drying and oil impregnation
fully stabilized due to moisture process should be strictly followed as
leading to failure per voltage class
 Failure due to Defective materials

Cause Effect Remedial measure

Sharp edges in Produce partial discharge and The surface finish should be smooth
copper damage the conductor insulation
conductors

Improper Deteriorate under influence of Check the incoming conductor

conductor high voltage stress and damage insulation and also number of layers for
insulation insulation conductor covering

Poor quality Insulation failure, copper Maintain oil parameters as per relevant
sulphide formation standards (IS-1866)

Particles in oil Temporary breakdown Maintain oil cleanliness

held in
suspension

Bare copper for Formation of oxidation and Provide enamel coating or paper
connection sludges covering on bare copper
Failure of magnetic circuits
There have been failure of transformers due to overheating of core and
core burning, failure of core insulation and core assembly getting loose,
slipping of stampings and coming in contact with tank bottom. To
overcome the above problems separate provision for core earthing and
core fixing, earthing through bushings is being to. This facilitates
monitoring of core leakage current, if any, and in ascertaining that core is
not getting multiple earth and also healthiness of core board insulation.

Failure of on-load tap changers (OLTC)

On-load tap changers are the second largest reason for trouble in power
transformer after short circuit. The defects in OLTC are of the following
type:

Burning of transition resistance

Burning and damage of rollers and fixed contacts.

Misalignment of the tap changer assembly.

Error in time sequence operation

Defect in tap changing driving gear, i.e. mal-operation of limit switches
and step-by-step contactors, etc..
 Some of the failures due to defective design

Cause Effect Remedial measures

Failure of yoke bolt in insulation Causes local short circuit in the Insulated yoke bands preferred
lamination resulting in intense or yoke bolt insulation should
local eddy currents be class ‘B‘ insulation or higher
High flux density in core Causes large amount of force at Flux density should not exceed
the time of switching and 1.9 tesla at maximum operating
repeated switching damage voltage
winding insulation
Narrow oil duct in winding Results in improper cooling and Adequate duct from point of
damages insulation effective cooling
Improper transportation Results in more loss and more Adjust the transportations so
heating that all conductors have equal
reactance
Inadequate clearance between May result in short circuit Provide adequate clearance as
phases per voltage class
Clamping ring nor properly May fail during short circuit Thickness of clamping ring
designed condition should be designed such as to
withstand short circuit forces
Insufficient bracing of leads May fail during short circuit Proper calculation of radiators
condition is necessary

Radiators nor properly designed Results in improper cooling

causing higher temperature for
oil/windings
 Acceptable norms
(k) Kinematic Viscosity at 27o C 27 cSt Not essential IS 1866-2000
(Max)
(l) Pour point max -6o C Not essential IS 1866-2000
(m)Oxidation stability of un-inhibited oil

(i) Neutralization Value(MAX) 0.4 mg KOH / g Not essential IS 1866-2000

(n) Sludge (MAX) 0.1 % by mass Not essential IS 1866-2000
Additional requirement for inhibited oil

(n) Oxidation stability of inhibited oil Minimum 0.08 % by Not essential IS 1866-2000
mass and maximum
: Anti-Oxidant additive content 0.4% by mass
Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
Typical rates of gas increase for Power Values in Milliliters per
Transformers day
Hydrogen (H2 ) <5
Methane (CH4 ) <2
Ethane (C2 H6 ) <2 IEC 60599-1999
Ethylene (C2 H4 ) <2 See Note below
Acetylene (C2 H2 ) < 0.1
Carbon Monoxide (CO) < 50
Carbon di-oxide (CO2 ) < 200
Equations to calculate the rate of gas increase as per IEC 60599-1999
 ANNUAL MAINTENANCE PLAN
Scheduled Shutdown Maintenance Activities

REGION : FOR THE YEAR :

Sl NAME OF SCHEDULE MAINTENAN IF NO, REASON FOR APPROVED

NO LINE/ICT/BAY MONTH CE DONE RESCHEDULE RESCHEDULING BY
MONTH

YES NO
 ANNUAL MAINTENANCE PLAN
Scheduled Shutdown Maintenance Activities
(To be maintained at substation/TL-office)

REGION : SUBSTATION/TL-OFFICE: FOR THE YEAR :

Sl NAME OF SCHEDULE MAINTENA IF NO, REASON FOR APPROVED

NO LINE/ICT/BAY MONTH NCE DONE RESCHEDULE RESCHEDULING BY
MONTH

YES NO
 Types of Faults

Random Time Induced

Non-observable observable Non-observable

Maintenance Strategies for combating the Above Fault Types

• Accept breakdowns Condition Monitoring • Periodic overhauls
• Readiness to repair • Continuous monitoring • Periodic replacements
• Improve reliability • Periodic monitoring • Reconditioning
• Design out maintenance
MAINTENANCE TERMINOLOGIES

Swedish Standard SS-EN 13306, 2001

Figure-1: Impact of maintenance philosophy on failure rate
 CONDITION MONITORING

CONDITION MONITORING

SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE (30%)

(70%)

SIMPLE AIDS INSTRUMENTAL

TECHNIQUES
 CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF
POWER TRANSFORMER

DEGRADATION OF DIELECTRIC SYSTEM

Ageing of Oil and Solid insulation

Degradation of oil by oxidation

Oxidation - Acids, sludge and water
 CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF
POWER TRANSFORMER

DGA - method for detecting incipient

faults

Degree of Polymerization (DP) test is
another method for cellulose
insulation health

Advanced diagnostic tests - FRA and
Di-electric Loss Angle (Tan Delta)
measurement
 CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF
POWER TRANSFORMER

Ageing of winding conductor

insulation
 Dielectric, thermal,
electromechanical stresses
 DP of new insulation >1100
 DP of degraded insulation is <=200
 Knowledge about water content in
insulation and oil both important
 CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF
POWER TRANSFORMER

Decrease in DP - reduction in
mechanical strength

Drying of old insulation - brittleness
increases

Pressing of aged insulation - insulation
damage
 CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF
POWER TRANSFORMER

BUSHINGS
i. Typical defects and failure mode
ii. Test tap
iii. Danger due to tap connection not properly earthed
iv. Corrosion of threads on tap connection cap causes
high resistance arcing
v. Moisture absorption by test tap

vi. thermal overloads

 CBM and RCM concepts
1. Almost all utilities in India carry out Time Based
Maintenance (Preventive Maintenance)
2. Need for increased use of Condition Based
Maintenance
3. Implementation of Off line and Online diagnostic
techniques for assessing deteriorating performance
or condition of the Equipment for necessary
correction / rectifications before forced outage /
failure.
4. CBM and RCM emphasizes need to identify the
reasons of forced outages for initiating preventive
measures in advance
Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)

1. Preventive / Routine Maintenance may be over

doing Equipment maintenance.
2. But anything less than required maintenance
may lead to unplanned outages
3. Many utilities have stopped doing Time Based
Maintenance and introduced Focused
Maintenance
4. RCM and CBM – both rely on knowledge of
reliability & condition to indicate what to do and
when.
Benefits of Condition Monitoring

1. Economic

Adaptive Maintenance

Reduction of Maintenance personnel

Minimum period of outage

Minimum cost of outage
2. Safety

Reduction of risk by early warning

Timely technical input

Less stress on service personnel

3. Technical

Optimum use of operation

Optimum use of systems

Registration of system problems for future action

Better correlation of testing & symptoms

Up gradation of standards for tests

Life extension & planned replacement
• Tests on Oil
Physical
Chemical
Electrical
D.G.A
• Tests on Transformer
• Insulation resistance / Polarization index
• Winding resistance
• Magnetic balance test
•Tan delta and capacitance measurements on
transformer winding and bushings
• Recovery voltage measurement
• Frequency response analysis
• Partial Discharge Test-Electrical &
• Acoustic Methods
• Radio inter frerenceTest
RVM MEASUREMENT

• Humidity content

• Polarization- charging by D.C and

discharging processes
• Corresponding recovery voltage measured
• A plot of recovery voltage against charging time to recover
• The magnitude of the recovered voltage and the time taken to
recover, provide a Polarization spectrum, which quantify the
moisture content in the paper/pressboard of the insulation
system.
• test at least 1000 Sec. by polarization spectra of RVM
measuring kit..
 Polarization Spectrum Test connection for RVM test :

• Polarization Spectrum exhibits dominant peak.

2 kVDC
• Dominant time constant is a function of moisture
content in paper.
RVM
• Additional peaks may be related to non water Transformer
by products of paper deterioration.
POLARIZATION SPECTRUM
11 kV/220kV, 165 MVA, Generator
11 kV/220 kV, 115 MVA, Generator transformer (18 Years Old)
transformer (34 Years Old)

11 kV/220kV, 165 MVA, Generator

transformer (18 Years Old)
 RVM Principle:
POLARIZATION

Polarization and depolarization processes

¡ Recovery Voltage Measurement

Frequency Response Analysis
:

* Reliable tool for mechanical condition assessment of the

windings
* Transformers subjected to mechanical stresses during
⇒ transportation
⇒ short circuit faults near the transformer
⇒ Transient over voltages such as FRA capable of detecting
switching, lightening etc.
Core movement

Winding deformation and displacement
* Mechanical Stresses cause

Faulty core grounds
⇒ Winding displacement or deformation
Partial winding collapse
⇒ Winding collapse in extreme cases
Hoop buckling

Broken or loosened clamping structures
⇒ Such mechanical defects eventually lead to

Shorted turns and open windings
dielectric faults in the winding
 Principle:
* Each winding turn is linked to the other inductively or capacitively •Transformer is a complicated network of
•Each winding exhibits a characteristic frequency response which distributed inductance, capacitance &
resistance (LCR network)
•acts as the finger print
•Any winding movement results in substantial changes in the
•values of L & C at the local level
•Any winding movement causes changes in the characteristic
frequency response

Test method:

* Consists of application of a sinusoidal signal (2V) to one end

of the winding Typical Test Circuit

* Output voltage is measured at the other end of the winding

* Other windings are left open

* Transfer function (Vo/Vi) is measured for three frequency ranges

# Low frequency range 50 Hz to 2 kHz
# Medium frequency range 50Hz to 20 kHz
# High frequency range 5 kHz to 2 MHz
Deteriorating Factors

Bushing insulation integrity degrades due

to :
Internal Moisture
• Internal PD & tracking
• External corona, flashover and
tracking
• Ageing
• Physical damage
 Degrading factors

Voids conducting Moisture level, Local over stressing

particles
wet fibers
gas bubbles
sharp conductors Increased Dielectric Losses
Tracking
Oxidation of paper and oil

Chemical decomposition
Partial Discharges
of oil and paper
The gases generated inside the transformers are
hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases.

The causes are:

a. Thermal decomposition.
b. Electrical stress.
c. Electrolysis.
d. Vaporization.
e. Chemical reaction
 DGA FOR NEW TRANSFORMERS
• Useful quality control test for new transformers
• Gas analysis before & after factory tests (heat run test, H.V. Test,
temperature raise test) can reveal the internal condition
• For New Transformers Gas Concentration Are Very Low – 2 PPM
 Advantage of DGA technique
• Avoidance of unplanned outage as transformer defects
are detected at incipient stages itself so that timely
remedial measures can be undertaken to prevent
damage or total loss of equipment
• Status of health check for transformer periodically
• Is a quality test for new transformer / repaired transformer
before dispatch, installation & commissioning
• Several cases where transformers have been saved from
total destruction, the confidence in DGA technique is so
high that the transformers are sent to repairs by no other
evidence other than that of DGA
Standards applicable
•Sampling of oil - IEC 567-971
IS 9434-1992
• Extraction of gases - ASTM-831-41
•Analysis of gases - IS 9434-1992
By gas Chromograph
•Interpretation of - IS 10593-1992
Data
WINDING DISSIPATION FACTOR( Tan δ )
Insulation Properties Measured
- Dielectric Loss
- Power Factor
- Capacitance
WINDING RESISTANCE
Change in winding resistance indicate
- Short circuited turns,
- Poor / bad joints
Winding Resistances are measured using
low resistance ohm-meter
• PD detection based on Acoustic Emission (AE)
technique is gaining importance because of the
following reasons:
• It makes the detection of PD possible in online
transformers.
• It is immune to electromagnetic noise.
• The location can be identified in a simpler way
• Limitations in Electrical detection
Since PD signals are weak electromagnetic
interference limit the sensitivity
 Detection of local hot spots using Thermal imaging
Camera and Image Processing Software

Incipient faults caused by poor connections,

–corrosion,
–blockage of radiators,
–abnormal surface heating due to internal
faults,
– insulation failure and equipment defects
Distribution Transformer Failure
 Classification of failures
Failure due to
• Manufacturing defect
• Improper or poor maintenance
• Inadequate protection
• Outside meddling
• Ageing and other minor defects

All the failures can be broadly grouped into

one of the above broad classifications
Inter turn insulation failure - HV coils
Failure of steel coil clamping ring due to short
circuiting via the pressure adjusting screws
and yoke clamps
The effects of an external short circuit on a
400 kVA transformer